1. Ancient Britain: the Celtic tribes Many thousands of years ago Britain was part of the continent of Europe.

Large areas were covered by vast white sheets of ice (Ice Age). Land was first covered in ice, then freed, vegetation and animals appeared, landscape and the coastline changed dramatically. The first people in Britain Must have walked across what is now the English Channel and the North Sea about 500,000 years ago It was a warm period,but Britain was not completely cut off from Europe The people were not our modern human species ( homo sapiens) but an early form of people called homo erectus(a little shorter, had heavier jaws and eyebrow ridges) Homo erectuslived by hunting animals and gathering wild fruits, nuts, plants Later, a different type of people arrived in Britain. Similar to us and called homo sapiens neanderthalensis( the Neanderthal people). Homo sapiens sapiensappeared in Europe around 40,000 years ago. Living in the wildwood About 17,000 years ago the climate in Britain gradually began to change. The ice retreated from the south of the country and the glaciers began to melt. Slowly more people and animals moved to Britain from Europe. Landscape changed: wildwoods of pine and birch covered large areas.(none today) The hunters needed to adapt to these changes: no longer could they hunt large animals on open grassland plains New weapons were spears,bows, arrows, axes The tips of the hunting weapons were made from flint, they started to cut down trees, build shelters, make tools People caught cod, salmon, sea trout An island people By 6000 BC, Britain and Ireland had become islands, cut off from the mainland of Europe Some archaeologists estimate 20,000 hunting, fishing and food-gathering people. They made and used their tools from flint and wood, had proper burials and hunting ceremonies This was a pre-historic period there are no written records to help us guess at what they thought ( interpretations from the surviving evidence) The first farmers The idea of farming developed around 10,000 BC, at the end of Ice Ages People began to cultivate wild grasses as crops, they tamed wild animals for breeding( goats, sheep, pigs were all domesticated) Many hunting peoples became farmers By about 4000 BC farming peoples were looking for new lands in which to settle, building villages and cultivating land By 3500 BC some European farming groups had crossed the sea and begun to settle in southern England and in Ireland. New crops (wheat and barley) were introduced The land was covered with forests (oak, hazel, pine,birch), the climate was warmer and wetter The hunters started to clear the forests for their settlements By 3000 BC the farmers had spread all over Britain and Ireland In the winter of 1850 there was a great storm on the island of Orkney, when it was over the sight of a complete farming village at Skara Brae was revealed. Making new tools Farmers made tools and weapons from flint, stone, objects out of wood, bone,leather Pottery was new (they dug the clay, made pots for cooking and storage) Started to use volcanic rock to make axes They stopped using flint mines around 1600 BC-people had learned how to make tools from metal. A ritual landscape It is almost impossible to guess what may have been the beliefs of people who have left no written record of what they thought Did they believe in an after-life? Did they believe that performing particular rituals would bring good hunting or better weather? We must look for evidence(investigating buildings or structures which were not used for living in)

Monuments for the dead The most common form was a mound (barrow) Buried beside the dead were objects such as pottery, beads ,flint arrowheads Was this part of a ritual too We do not know. People discovered how to use metal (copper, bronze and gold) Stonehenge Celtic Britain Soon after 1000 BC the climate became colder, some farming people had to move to other places Low-lying coastal regions were covered by the sea ( decrease in the amount of the farming land) Settlements were built on the tops of hills (hillforts) (defence againstenemy tribes and wild animals) Written evidence of the people the Celts-comes from Greek and Roman writers From about the 5thc BC the Greek writers began to describe the attacks by the Keltoi. The Romans called them Celtae. They emphasisethe warlike character of the Celts. Tall, fair-haired, fierce,living in tribes Ruled by nobles: kings, princes or clans Women, storytellers or bards,craftworkerswere honoured Priests and Gods The Celtic people were very religious( gods, spirits were important), water was sacred: metal objects were thrown into the wells as offerings to the gods. Celtic priests ( Druids) were an educated class in the society Oak was a sacred tree They also sacrificed animals and people to their gods Lindow Man ( Pete Marsh) 2. Stonehenge Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument located in the English county of Wiltshire. Stonehenge is composed of a circular setting of large standing stones set within earthworks. It is at the centre of the most dense complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in England, including several hundred burial mounds. It appears to function as a kind of astrological clock and it is known that it was used by the Druids for ceremonies marking the passing of the seasons. Archaeologists believe the iconic stone monument was constructed anywhere from 3000 BC to 2000 BC. The surrounding circular earth bank and ditch, which constitute the earliest phase of the monument, have been dated to about 3100 BC. The site and its surroundings were added to the UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites in 1986 in a co-listing with Avebury Henge monument. It is a national legally protected Scheduled Ancient Monument. Stonehenge is owned by the Crown and managed by English Heritage, while the surrounding land is owned by the National Trust. Archaeological evidence found by the Stonehenge Riverside Project in 2008 indicates that Stonehenge could possibly have served as a burial ground from its earliest beginnings.The dating of cremated remains found on the site indicate that deposits contain human bone material from as early as 3000 BC, when the initial ditch and bank were first dug. Such deposits continued at Stonehenge for at least another 500 years. The name Stonehenge came from the Old English words stn meaning "stone", and either hencg meaning "hinge" (because the stone lintels hinge on the upright stones) or hen(c)en meaning "hang" or "gallows" or "instrument of torture". Like Stonehenge's trilithons, medieval gallows consisted of two uprights with a lintel joining them, rather than the inverted L-shape more familiar today. Stonehenge was produced by a culture that left no written records. Many aspects of Stonehenge remain subject to debate. This multiplicity of theories, some of them very colourful, are often called the "mystery of Stonehenge". There is little or no direct evidence for the construction techniques used by the Stonehenge builders. Over the years, various authors have suggested that supernatural or anachronistic methods were used, usually asserting that the stones were impossible to move otherwise. However, conventional techniques using Neolithic technology have been demonstrably effective at moving and placing stones of a similar size. Proposed functions for the site include usage as an astronomical observatory, or as a religious site. More recently two major new theories have been proposed. It is suggested that Stonehenge was a place of healing the primeval equivalent of Lourdes.

3. The Roman conquest In the 1st c. BC the Roman Empire began to make contact with Britain (wine, pottery, small bronze statues) Julius Caesars first raid was in 55 BC (the troops were afraid of the sea crossing- channel storms) In the following year he invaded again, this time he marched inland (better military technology and discipline than the Celtic defenders) In AD 43 the Emperor Claudius decided the full-scale invasion (army of 40,000 men) Barbarians beyond the sea The army established Roman rule in the south and SW of the country (Britain as a province of Roman Empire) Permanent military forts were established in Wales, but the tribes remained difficult to subdue. When Hadrian visited Britain -in AD 121 or 122- he ordered to build a stone wall to protect from attacks from Scotland Hadrians Wall: 117 km from Walsend on the River Tyne to Bowness on the Solway Firth Romanization of life London was made port and lively trade was concentrated there (export of grain), good roads and forts were built Latin words enriched the Celtic vocabulary (castra military camp: Lancaster, Winchester, Chester), vallum wall, via strata street Celtic tribal chiefs recognized Romans, people were against (taxation, plunders) Uprisings The revolt in AD 60 led by the Celtic queen Boadicea The Britons were defeated and Boadicea poisoned herself and her daughters did the same The Romans started to introduce their laws to a new province of the Roman Empire Officials were appointed (governors, procurators to collect taxes, look after the estates and mines and see that the gold, silver, iron and lead were exported back to Rome) Living as Romans The Romans developed a number of towns Coloniae: the colonies of ex-soldiers, Roman citizens ( Colchester) Municipia: the local people ran their own affairs (St.Albans (Verulamium)) Civitas : the main centre for a tribal area (Wroxeter) Introduced schools, a new language Latin, large farms (villas), baths In AD 410 they had to leave (Gauls) Hadrian's wall Built by the Romans in the second century across the northern border of their province of Britannia, which is nearly the same as the present English-Scottish boarder, in order to protect it from attacks by the Scotts and the Picts. 4. The Latin influence on the language The influence of Latin is noticeable also in the names of European cities: the Latin noun colonia (settlement, colony) may be found in numerous place-names: Lincoln, Colchester, Cologne ; from Latin word castrum (military camp) were derived English affixes -chester and -castle: Manchester, Lancaster, Newcastle; Latin word portus (seaport) in Portsmouth Deverbatives -tor - person, doer, masculine form. The suffix is attached to the stem: victor (winner, from the verb vincere to win), spectator (spectare). -orium - place, where the activity marked with the verb occurs: dormitorium (dormire to sleep). In English the suffix is -ory: dormitory. Denominatives tas - it denotes an abstract notion, derives from the adjective: celebritas (celeber), libertas (liber), universitas (universus). In English the suffix is -ty: celebrity, liberty, university. -tudo - characteristic or condition, derives from the adjective: longitudo (longus), fortitudo (fortis). In English tude: longitude, fortitude. 5. The Angles, Saxons and Jutes The Angles, Saxons and Jutes came from Northern Germany and the present-day Denmark in 449. 6. The Anglo-Saxon invasion. The new settlers drove the British west, where they used some Celtic hillforts to defend themselves. The A-S were not always victorious. The British war leader Arthur (was born on the rocky Cornish coast at Tintagel Castle).

King Arthur - A great English hero (Romanized Celt). His knights of the round table. Tried to hold back the Anglo-Saxons. Perfect example of medieval nobility and chivalry. Kingdoms - By the 7th c. the A-S were ruling most of Britain (7 kingdoms). Settled in small groups. The cynn (the kin or tribe) was a community of the lord and his followers. The lord, the cyning (king) was the guardian of the kin. The hub of the settlement was the hall. Everyday life - Families lived in villages in buildings made of wood with thatched roofs. People were farmers, who kept cattle, sheep, pigs, geese, chicken. They grew wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas. Hunted deer, wild fowl, caught fish. They made iron objects (knives), pins, combs of bone, pottery. Life - People were buried with valuable things and everyday objects (swords, weapons, bone combs, rings, necklaces, pins, bracelets). By 750 trade was becoming an important part of daily life. Trading with people from Europe. Days of the week - Named after Germanic Gods: Tig - God of war and the sky (Tuesday) Wodin - God of wisdom, war and poetry (Wednesday) Thor God of thunder, sky and weather (Thursday) Frei Goddess of love and growing things (Friday) New words: have, be,do, go,and, but. New place-names: -ing (folk,family) Reading is a place of the family Rada, Hastings of the family Hasta. Ham farm (Birmingham, Nottingham), ton settlement (Southhamton) Christian missionaries - In 597 Pope Gregory I in Rome decided to send a group of 50 Christian missionaries to persuade the A-S kings to give up their heathen beliefs and become Christian. Monk Augustine arrived in 597. Built a monastery on the island of Lindisfarne.The Lindisfarne Gospels decorated in the 7th c. Bede - In Northumbria the greatest A-S scholar BEDE (the father of English History) wrote his ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE (731) How English became Christian, described the Romans in Britain, arrival of A-S, the wars in which they won territories from the Britons and Picts. A new wave of invaders appeared from across the sea. 7. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the Chronicle was created late in the 9th century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of Alfred the Great. Multiple copies were made of that original which were distributed to monasteries across England, where they were independently updated. In one case, the chronicle was still being actively updated in 1154. Nine manuscripts survive in whole or in part, though not all are of equal historical value and none of them is the original version. The oldest seems to have been started towards the end of Alfred's reign, while the most recent was written at Peterborough Abbey after a fire at that monastery in 1116. Almost all of the material in the chronicle is in the form of annals, by year; the earliest are dated at 60 BC (the annals' date for Caesar's invasions of Britain), and historical material follows up to the year in which the chronicle was written, at which point contemporary records begin. These manuscripts collectively are known as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The Chronicle is not unbiased: there are occasions when comparison with other medieval sources makes it clear that the scribes who wrote it omitted events or told one-sided versions of stories; there are also places where the different versions contradict each other. Taken as a whole, however, the Chronicle is the single most important historical source for the period in England between the departure of the Romans and the decades following the Norman Conquest. Much of the information given in the Chronicle is not recorded elsewhere. In addition, the manuscripts are important sources for the history of the English language; in particular, the later Peterborough text is one of the earliest examples of Middle English in existence. Seven of the nine surviving manuscripts and fragments now reside in the British Library. The remaining two are in the Bodleian Library at Oxford and the Parker Library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. 8. Beowulf. An Anglo-Saxon hero - Poems and stories were first spoken aloud, written down later. The poets tell us of heroes and their deeds. The most famous heroic poem is BEOWULF (written down 8-9cc). Beowulf a warleader from Scandinavia. He rescued the land of the Danes from a man-like monster Grendel. The monster kills the hero. The poet describes the funeral, how warriors mourned their king. 9. The Vikings, their way of life.Sutton Hoo. Sutton Hoo - In 1939 a remarkable discovery was made in England. A grave of an A-S leader was discovered. It was part of a ship burial, no human remains were found, but many objects: leather shoes, weapons-spears, sword,axehammer, gold coins, dishes, spoons. The Vikings In 789 three ships carrying Northmen (Vikings vikingr = pirate, raider in the old Norwegian) landed on the coast of the kingdom of the West Saxon Many were sailors who sailed looking for plunder, trade and land for new settlements

Their craftworkers made beautiful objects Viking settlement Most of the written evidence about the Vikings in England comes from ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE (892) Vikings lived in country settlements, grew crops, vegetables, kept animals, hunted animals, birds, fish V. were great traders in town markets JORVIK typical Viking town 9th c. V. moved to the islands of Shetland, Orkneys, the Hebrides, Ireland Alfred the Great Was King of Wessex ( 871-899) Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was started in Alfreds reign A. had a love of learning, books (unusual at that time), he invited scholars to the court, learned Latin, translated Latin books He wrote down laws, his will (he rewarded faithful servants and left money for the poor) His kingdom survived the Vikings, on this foundation the kingdom of England was built 10. The Norman conquest. The Norman conquest of England began on 28 September 1066 with the invasion of England by William, Duke of Normandy. William became known as William the Conqueror after his victory at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066, defeating King Harold II of England. Harold's army had been badly depleted in the English victory at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in Northern England on 25 September 1066 over the army of King Harald III of Norway. By early 1071, William had secured control of most of England, although rebellions and resistance continued until approximately 1088. The Norman conquest was a pivotal event in English history. It largely removed the native ruling class, replacing it with a foreign, French-speaking monarchy, aristocracy, and clerical hierarchy. This, in turn, brought about a transformation of the English language and the culture of England in a new era often referred to as Norman England. By bringing England under the control of rulers originating in France, the Norman conquest linked the country more closely with continental Europe, lessened Scandinavian influence, and also set the stage for a rivalry with France that would continue intermittently for many centuries. It also had important consequences for the rest of the British Isles, paving the way for further Norman conquests in Wales and Ireland, and the extensive penetration of the aristocracy of Scotland by Norman and other French-speaking families, with the accompanying spread of continental institutions and cultural influences. 11. The battle of Hastings. Bayeux Tapestry. The Battle of Hastings occurred on 14 October 1066 during the Norman conquest of England, between the Norman-French army of Duke William II of Normandy and the English army under King Harold II. It took place at Senlac Hill, approximately 10 km northwest of Hastings, close to the present-day town of Battle, East Sussex, and was a decisive Norman victory. Harold II was killed in the battlelegend has it that he was shot through the eye with an arrow. He was the last English king to die in battle on English soil until Richard III was killed at the Battle of Bosworth Field. The battle marked the last successful foreign invasion of the British Isles. Although there was further English resistance, this battle is seen as the point at which William gained control of England, becoming its first Norman ruler as King William I. The battle also established the superiority of the combined arms attack over an army predominately composed of infantry, demonstrating the effectiveness of archers, cavalry and infantry working cooperatively together. The dominance of cavalry forces over infantry would continue until the emergence of the longbow, and battles such as Crecy, Poitiers and Agincourt in the Hundred Years War. William took Harold's crowning as a declaration of war. He planned to invade England and take the crown. The Norman army was not powerful enough, so nobles as far as Southern Italy were called to convene at Caen, in Normandy. There, William promised land and titles to his followers and claimed that the voyage was secured by the Pope. The English King Harold II, who had been waiting for a Norman invasion, had rushed his army northward to attack an invading Norwegian Viking army. The famous Bayeux Tapestry depicts the events before and during the battle. Battle Abbey marks the site where it is believed that the battle was fought. Founded by King William 'the Conqueror' (as he became known), it serves as a memorial to the dead and may have been an act of pennance for the bloodshed. The site is open to the public and is the location of annual re-enactments of the battle.

12. French influence on the English language. When William the Conqueror became king of England, French took over as the language of the court, administration, and culture - and stayed there for 300 years. Meanwhile, English was "demoted" to everyday, unprestigious uses. These two languages existed side by side in England with no noticeable difficulties; in fact, since English was essentially ignored by grammarians during this time, it took advantage of its lowly status to become a grammatically simpler language and, after only 70 or 80 years existing side-by-side with French, Old English segued into Middle English. Vocabulary During the Norman occupation, about 10,000 French words were adopted into English, some three-fourths of which are still in use today. This French vocabulary is found in every domain, from government and law to art and literature - learn some. More than a third of all English words are derived directly or indirectly from French, and it's estimated that English speakers who have never studied French already know 15,000 French words. (2) You can see 1,700 words that are identical in the two languages right here: True cognates. Pronunciation English pronunciation owes a lot to French as well. Whereas Old English had the unvoiced fricative sounds [f], *s+, *+ (as in thin), and *+ (shin), French influence helped to distinguish their voiced counterparts *v+, *z+, *+ (the), and [] (mirage), and also contributed the diphthong [y] (boy). (3) (What is voiced/unvoiced/fricative?) Grammar Another rare but interesting remnant of French influence is in the word order of expressions like secretary general and surgeon general, where English has retained the noun + adjective word order typical in French, rather than the usual adjective + noun used in English. 13. Magna Carta. Magna Carta is an English charter, originally issued in the year 1215 which included the most direct challenges to the monarch's authority to date. The charter first passed into law in 1225. The 1297 version, with the long title (originally in Latin) The Great Charter of the Liberties of England, and of the Liberties of the Forest, still remains on the statute books of England and Wales. The 1215 Charter required King John of England to proclaim certain liberties, and accept that his will was not arbitrary, for example by explicitly accepting that no "freeman" (in the sense of non-serf) could be punished except through the law of the land, a right which is still in existence today. Magna Carta was the first document forced onto an English King by a group of his subjects, the feudal barons, in an attempt to limit his powers by law and protect their privileges. It was preceded and directly influenced by the Charter of Liberties in 1100, in which King Henry I had specified particular areas wherein his powers would be limited. Despite its recognised importance, by the second half of the 19th century nearly all of its clauses had been repealed in their original form. Three clauses remain part of the law of England and Wales, however, and it is generally considered part of the uncodified constitution. The greatest constitutional document of all times the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot. The charter was an important part of the extensive historical process that led to the rule of constitutional law in the English speaking world, and it was this particular granting of liberties which survived to become a "sacred text". In practice, Magna Carta in the medieval period did not in general limit the power of kings, but by the time of the English Civil War it had become an important symbol for those who wished to show that the King was bound by the law. It influenced the early settlers in New England and inspired later constitutional documents, including the United States Constitution. 14 .The Hundred Years War. The specific events leading up to the war took place in France, where the unbroken line of the Direct Capetian firstborn sons had succeeded each other for centuries. In 1314, the Direct Capetian, King Philip IV, died, leaving three male heirs: Louis X, Philip V, and Charles IV. A fourth child of Phillip IV, Isabella, was married to Edward II of England, and in 1312 had produced a son, Edward of Windsor(III), who was a potential heir to the thrones of both England (through his father) and France (through his grandfather). He became the king of England and was the legitimate heir to the throne of France. Philip VI (also his grandson, crowned king of France) demanded Edward's recognition as sovereign; Edward wanted the return of further lands lost by his father. Edward accepted Philip as King of France and gave up his claims to the French throne. In effect, England kept Gascony, in return for Edward giving up his claims to be the rightful heir to the French throne. In 1333, Edward III went to war against David II of Scotland, a French ally under the Auld Alliance, and began the Second War of Scottish Independence. Philip saw the opportunity to reclaim Gascony while England's attention was concentrated northwards. However, the war was, initially at least, a quick success for England, and David was forced to flee

to France after being defeated by King Edward and Edward Balliol at the Battle of Halidon Hill in July. In 1336, Philip made plans for an expedition to restore David to the Scottish throne, and to also seize Gascony. The Hundred Years' War was a series of separate wars waged from 1337 to 1453 by the House of Valois and the House of Plantagenet, also known as the House of Anjou, for the French throne, which had become vacant upon the extinction of the senior Capetian line of French kings. The House of Valois claimed the title of King of France, while the Plantagenets claimed the thrones of both France and England. The Plantagenet kings were the 12th-century rulers of the kingdom of England, and had their roots in the French regions of Anjou and Normandy. The conflict was punctuated by several periods of peace, before it finally ended in the expulsion of the Plantagenets from France (except from the Pale of Calais). The final outcome was a victory for the house of Valois, which succeeded in recovering early gains made by the Plantagenets and expelling them from the majority of France by the 1450s. However, the war nearly ruined the Valois, while the Plantagenets enriched themselves with plunder. France suffered greatly from the war, since most of the conflict occurred in that country. The "war" was in fact a series of conflicts and is commonly divided into three or four phases: the Edwardian War (13371360), the Caroline War (13691389), the Lancastrian War (14151429), and the slow decline of Plantagenet fortunes after the appearance of Joan of Arc (14121431). Several other contemporary European conflicts were directly related to this conflict: the Breton War of Succession, the Castilian Civil War, the War of the Two Peters, and the 1383-1385 Crisis. The term "Hundred Years' War" was a later term invented by historians to describe the series of events. 15. Wat Tylers Rebellion. The Peasants' Revolt, Wat Tyler's Rebellion, or the Great Rising of 1381 was one of a number of popular revolts in late medieval Europe and is a major event in the history of England. Tyler's Rebellion was not only the most extreme and widespread insurrection in English history but also the best-documented popular rebellion to have occurred during medieval times. The names of some of its leaders, John Ball, Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, are still familiar in popular culture, although little is known of them. The revolt later came to be seen as a mark of the beginning of the end of serfdom in medieval England, although the revolt itself was a failure. It increased awareness in the upper classes of the need for the reform of feudalism in England and the appalling misery felt by the lower classes as a result of their enforced nearslavery. The revolt was precipitated by King Richard II's heavy-handed attempts to enforce the third medieval poll tax, supposedly to finance military campaigns overseas. It allowed some of the poor to pay a reduced rate, while others who were equally poor had to pay the full tax, prompting calls of injustice. The youth of King Richard II (aged only 14) was another reason for the uprising: a group of unpopular men dominated his government. Many saw them as corrupt officials, trying to exploit the weakness of the king. The Black Death that ravaged England in 1348 to 1350 had greatly reduced the labour force, and, consequently, the surviving labourers could demand higher wages and fewer hours of work. Some asked for their freedom. They often got what they asked for: the lords of the manors were desperate for people to farm their land and tend their animals. King Edward III summoned parliament to pass the Statute of Labourers. The enforcement of the new law angered the peasants greatly and formed another reason for the revolt. Despite its modern name, participation in the Peasants' Revolt was not confined to serfs or even to the lower classes. The peasants received help from members of the noble classes. Although the revolt did not succeed in its stated aims, it did succeed in showing the nobles that the peasants were dissatisfied and that they were capable of wreaking havoc. In the longer term, the revolt helped to form a radical tradition in British politics. 16. The Wars of the Roses. The Wars of the Roses were a series of dynastic civil wars for the throne of England fought between supporters of two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the houses of Lancaster and York (the "red" and the "white" rose, respectively). They were fought in several sporadic episodes between 1455 and 1485, although there was related fighting both before and after this period. The final victory went to a relatively remote Lancastrian claimant, Henry Tudor, who defeated the last Yorkist king Richard III and married Edward IV's daughter Elizabeth of York to unite the two houses. The House of Tudor subsequently ruled England and Wales for 117 years. The name "Wars of the Roses" refers to the badges associated with the two royal houses, the White Rose of York and the Red Rose of Lancaster. It is not thought to have been used during the time of the wars. The antagonism between the two houses started with the overthrow of King Richard II by his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Lancaster.

17. Tudor Absolutism. The Tudors extended their power beyond modern England, achieving the full union of England and the Principality of Wales in 1542, and successfully asserting English authority over the Kingdom of Ireland. They also maintained the traditional claims to the Kingdom of France, but none of them tried to make substance of it, though Henry VIII fought wars with France to try to reclaim that title. After him, his daughter Mary I lost the claim on France forever. In total, five Tudor monarchs ruled their domains for just over a century. Henry VIII of England was the only male-line male heir of Henry VII to live to the age of majority. Issues around the Royal succession (including marriage, divorce, and the succession rights of women) became major political themes during the Tudor era. The Tudor line failed in 1603 with the death of Elizabeth I of England. The century of Tudor rule (1485- 1603) is often thought of as a most glorious period in English hlstory. Henry VII built the foundations of a wealthy nation state and a powerful monarchy. Hisson, Henry VIII, kept a magnificent court, and made the Church in England truly English by breaking away from the Roman Catholic Church. Finally, his daughter Elizabeth brought glory to the new state by defeating the powerful navy of Spain, the greatest European power of the time. During the tudor age England experienced one of the greatest artistic periods in its history. During the Tudor period the changes in government, society and the economy of England were more farreaching than they had been for centuries. But most far-reaching of all were the changes in ideas, partly as a result of the rebirth of intellectual attitudes known as the Renaissance, whlch had spread slowly northwards from its beginnings in Italy. In England the nature of the Renaissance was also affected by the Protestant Reformation and the economic changes that followed from it. The Tudor monarchs did not like governing through Parliament. Parliament strengthened its position again during Edward VI's reign by ordering the new prayer book to be used in all churches, and forbidding the Catholic mass. In the early sixteenth century Parliament only met when the monarch ordered it. Sometimes it met twice in one year, but then it might not meet again for six years. In the {irst forty-four years of Tudor rule Parliament met only twenty times. During the century power moved from the House of Lords to the House of Commons. Tudor times was to make sure that Parliament discussed what the monarch wanted Parliament to discuss, and that it made the decision which he or she wanted. Elizabeth had found ways to raise money that were extremely unwise. She sold "monopolies", whlch gave a particular person or company total control over a trade. She also sold official positions in government and allowed the tax system to become less effective, and failed to keep information on how much money people should be paying. Parliament naturally began to think it had a nght to discuss these questions. By the end of the sixteenth century it was beginning to show new conlidence, and in the seventeenth century, when the gentry and merchant classes were far more aware of their own strength, it was obvious that Parliament would challenge the Crown. Eventually this resulted in war. From Tudor times onwards the way people spoke began to show the difference between them. Educated people began to speak "correct" English, and uneducated people continued to speak the local dialect. 18. Henry VIII and founding of the Church of England. Henry VIII wasted the wealth saved by his father. Elizabeth weakened the quality of government by selling official posts. She.did this to avoid asking Parliament for money. And although the, government tried to deal with the problem of poor and homeless people at a time when prices rose much faster than wages, its laws and actions were often cruel in effect. Henry VIII forbade anyone, except himself, to keep armed men. Henry encouraged the use of heavy fines as punishment because this gave the Crown money. Henry also raised taxes for wars which he then did not fight. He never spent money unless he had to. One might expect Henry to have been unpopular, but he was careful to keep the friendship of the merchant and lesser gentry classes. Henry understood earlier than most people that England's future wealth would depend on intemational trade. And in order to trade, Henry realised that England must have its own fleet of merchant ships. Henry VIII was quite unlike his father. He was cruel, wasteful with money, and interested in pleasing himself. He spent so much on maintaining a magni{rcent court, and on wars from whlch England had httle ro gain, that his father's carefully saved money was soon gone. English coinage was reduced to a seventh of its value within twenty-five years. Henry disliked the power of the Church in England because, since it was an international organisation, he could not completely control it. The power of the Catholic Church in England could work against his own authority, and the taxes paid to the Church reduced his own income. In 1531 Henry persuaded the bishops to make him head of the Church in England and was now free to divorce Catherine and marry his new love, Anne Boleyn. He hoped Anne would give him a son to follow him on the throne. Henry had earlier writen a book criticising Luther's teaching and the pope had rewarded him with the title Fidei Defensor, Defender of the Faith. England became politically a Protestant country, even though the popular religion was still Catholic. Meanwhile the monks and nuns were thrown out.

Some were given small sums of money, but many were unable to find work and became wandering beggars. The dissolution of the monasteries was probably the greatest act of official destruction in the history of Britain. He remained loyal to Catholic religious teaching, and executed Protestants who refused to accept it. He made an alliance with Charles V of Spain against France. Henry died ln 1547, leaving behind his sixth wife, Catherine Parr, and his three children. Mary, the eldest, was the daughter of Catherine of Aragon. Elizabeth was the daughter of his second wife, Anne Boleyn, whom he had executed because she was unfaithful. Nineyear-old Edward was the son of Jane Seymour, the only wife whom Henry had really loved, but who had dled giving blrth to his only son. Edward VI, Henry VIII's son, was only a child when he became king, so the country was ruled by a council. All the new landowners knew that they could only be sure of keeping their new lands if they made England truly Protestant. Mary, the Catholic daughter of Catherine of Aragon, became queen when Edward, aged sixteen, died. She was supported by the ordinary people, who were angered by the greed of the Protestant nobles. However, Mary was unwise and unbending in her policy and her beliefs. Mary, for political, religious and family reasons, chose to marry King Philip of Spain. It was an unfortunate choice. The ordinary people dishked the marriage. Popular feeling was so strong that a rebellion in Kent actually reached London before ending in failure. Mary dealt cruelly with the rebel leader. Philip was the king of England for Mary's lifetime. She then began burning Protestants. Three hundred people died ln this way during her live-year reign. 19. The Elizabethan Age and Shakespeare. Elizabeth, Mary's half sister, was lucky to become queen when Mary died. Elizabeth had been wise enough to say nothing, do nothing, and to expressneither Catholic nor Protestant views while Mary lived. And Philip persuaded Mary to leave Elizabeth unharmed. Elizabeth I wanted to find a peaceful answer to the problems of the English Refoimation. She wanted to bring together again those parts of English society which were in religious disagreement. And she wanted to make England prosperous. Elizabeth also arranged for a book of sermons to be used in church. Although most of the sermons consisted of Bible teaching, this book also taught the people that rebellion against the Crown was a sin against God. Mary, the Scottish queen' usually called "Queen of Scots", was the heir to the English throne because she was Elizabeth's closest living relative, and because Elizabeth had not married. Mary's mother had been French, and Mary had spent her childhood in France, and was a strong Catholic. When she returned to rule Scotland as queen, Mary soon made enemies of some of her nobles, and to avoid them she finally escaped to the safety of England. Elizabeth, however, kept Mary as a prisoner for almost twenty years. During that rime Elizabeth discovered several secret Catholic pkrts, some of which clearly aimed at making Mary queen of England. When Elizabeth finally agreed to Mary's execution in 1587, it was partly because Mary had named Philip as her heir to the throne of England, and because with this claim Philip of Spain had decided to invade England. Elizabeth no longer had a reason to keep Mary alive. In England Mary's execution was popular. The Catholic plots and the dangers of a foreign Catholic invasion had changed people's feelings. By 1585 most Engiish people believed that to be a Catholic was to be an enemy of England. This hatred of everything Catholic became an important political force. Literature was England's greatest art form. Playwrights like Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, and William Shakespeare filled the theatres with their exciting new plays. Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon.Avon, and went to the local grammar school. His education was typical of the Tudor age, because at this time the "grammar" schools, which tried to teach "correct" English, became the commonest form of education. His plays were popular with both educated and uneducated people. Many of his plays were about English history, but he changed fact to suir public opinion. 20. The Civil War 1642-1649. The English Civil War (16421651) was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians (Roundheads) and Royalists (Cavaliers). Parliament defending the traditional rights of Englishmen, while the Stuart monarchy continually attempted to expand its right to arbitrarily dictate law. The first (164246) and second (164849) civil wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third war (164951) saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651. The Civil War led to the trial and execution of Charles I, the exile of his son, Charles II, and replacement of English monarchy with first, the Commonwealth of England (164953), and then with a Protectorate (165359), under Oliver Cromwell's personal rule. The monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without Parliament's consent, although this concept was legally established only with the Glorious Revolution later in the century.

War broke out less than forty years after the death of Elizabeth I in 1603. At the accession of Charles I in 1625, England and Scotland had both experienced relative peace, both internally and in their relations with each other, for as long as anyone could remember. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, fulfilling the dream of his father, James VI of Scotland and I of England.[2] Many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move, because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his father's position on the power of the crown (James had described kings as "little Gods on Earth", chosen by God to rule in accordance with the doctrine of the "Divine Right of Kings"), the suspicions of the Parliamentarians had some justification. Royal Navy and most English cities favoured Parliament, while the King found considerable support in rural communities. On one side, the King and his supporters thought that they fought for traditional government in Church and state. On the other, most supporters of the Parliamentary cause initially took up arms to defend what they thought of as the traditional balance of government in Church and state. Charles was eventually handed over to the English Parliament by the Scots and was imprisoned. Charles I took advantage of the deflection of attention away from himself to negotiate a secret treaty with the Scots, again promising church reform. Under the agreement, called the "Engagement", the Scots undertook to invade England on Charles' behalf and restore him to the throne on condition of the establishment of Presbyterianism for three years. A series of Royalist uprisings throughout England and a Scottish invasion occurred. The betrayal by Charles caused Parliament to debate whether to return the King to power at all. The betrayal by Charles caused Parliament to debate whether to return the King to power at all. At the end of the trial the 59 Commissioners (judges) found Charles I guilty of high treason, as a "tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy". He was beheaded. Charles II executed the surviving regicides not living in exile or sentenced them to life imprisonment. Increasingly threatened by the armies of the English Parliament after Charles I's arrest in 1648, the Irish Confederates signed a treaty of alliance with the English Royalists. Oliver Cromwell could land at Dublin on 15 August 1649 with an army to quell the Royalist alliance in Ireland. Cromwell's suppression of the Royalists in Ireland during 1649 still has a strong resonance for many Irish people. After the siege of Drogheda,[96] the massacre of nearly 3,500 peoplecomprising around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and 700 others, including civilians, prisoners, and Catholic priests (Cromwell claimed all the men carrying arms)became one of the historical memories that has driven Irish-English and Catholic-Protestant strife during the last three centuries. The Parliamentarian conquest of Ireland ground on for another four years until 1653, when the last Irish Confederate and Royalist troops surrendered. The execution of Charles I altered the dynamics of the Civil War in Scotland, which had raged between Royalists and Covenanters. the struggle had left the Royalists there in disarray and their erstwhile leader, the Marquess of Montrose, had gone into exile. At first, Charles II encouraged Montrose to raise a Highland army to fight on the Royalist side. However, when the Scottish Covenanters (who did not agree with the execution of Charles I and who feared for the future of Presbyterianism and Scottish independence under the new Commonwealth) offered him the crown of Scotland, Charles abandoned Montrose to his enemies. However, Montrose, who had raised a mercenary force in Norway, had already landed and could not abandon the fight, he was hanged. King Charles II became the greatest threat facing the new English republic. In response to the threat, Cromwell left some of his lieutenants in Ireland to continue the suppression of the Irish Royalists and returned to England. Cromwell's army took Edinburgh, and by the end of the year his army had occupied much of southern Scotland. The year 1652 saw the mopping up of the remnants of Royalist resistance, and under the terms of the "Tender of Union", the Scots received 30 seats in a united Parliament in London. Cromwell could not prevent Charles II from marching from Scotland deep into England at the head of another Royalist army.[108] The Royalists marched to the west of England because English Royalist sympathies were strongest in that area, but although some English Royalists joined the army, they came in far fewer numbers than Charles and his Scottish supporters had hoped. Cromwell finally engaged and defeated the new king at Worcester on 3 September 1651. Charles II escaped, via safe houses and a famous oak tree, to France, ending the civil wars. Estimates indicate that England suffered a 3.7% loss of population, Scotland a loss of 6%, while Ireland suffered a loss of 41% of its population. 21. Oliver Cromwell.The Restoration. Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 3 September 1658) was an English military and political leader who overthrew the English monarchy and temporarily turned England into a republican Commonwealth, and served as Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland. Cromwell was one of the commanders of the New Model Army which defeated the royalists in the English Civil War. After the execution of King Charles I in 1649, Cromwell dominated the short-lived Commonwealth of England, conquered Ireland and Scotland, and ruled as Lord

Protector from 1653 until his death in 1658. As a ruler he executed an aggressive and effective foreign policy and did as much as any English leader to shape the future of the land he governed. But his Commonwealth collapsed after his death and the royal family was restored in 1660. The term Restoration in reference to the year 1660 refers to the restoration of Charles II to his realms across the British Empire at that time. On 4 April 1660, Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda, in which he made several promises in relation to the reclamation of the crown of England. Monck organized the Convention Parliament, which met for the first time on 25 April. On 8 May it proclaimed that King Charles II had been the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles . Charles returned from exile, leaving The Hague on 23 May and landing at Dover on 25 May. He entered London on 29 May, his birthday. To celebrate "his Majesty's Return to his Parliament", 29 May was made a public holiday, popularly known as Oak Apple Day. He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661. As in England the republic was deemed constitutionally never to have occurred. The Convention Parliament was dissolved by Charles II. 22. Queen Victoria and her time. Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 22 January 1901) was the monarch of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she used the additional title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son of King George III. Both the Duke of Kent and the King died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne at the age of 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without surviving legitimate issue. The United Kingdom was already an established constitutional monarchy, in which the Sovereign held relatively few direct political powers. Privately, she attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments. Publicly, she became a national icon, and was identified with strict standards of personal morality. She married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children and 26 of their 34 grandchildren who survived childhood married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together and earning her the nickname "the grandmother of Europe". After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and 7 months, which is longer than that of any other British monarch and the longest of any female monarch in history, is known as the Victorian era. It was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover; her son and successor Edward VII belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. It was a long period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities and national self-confidence. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities and political concerns to the passage of the Reform Act 1832. In international relations the era was a long period of peace, known as the Pax Britannica, and economic, colonial, and industrial consolidation. The population of England almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901.[3] Scotland's population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. Ireland's population decreased rapidly, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901.[4] At the same time, around 15 million emigrants left the United Kingdom in the Victorian era and settled mostly in the United States, Canada, and Australia. 1840 - New Zealand becomes a British colony, through the Treaty of Waitangi. 1851 - The Great Exhibition (the first World's Fair) is held at the Crystal Palace,[6] with great success and international attention. The Victorian gold rush. In ten years the Australian population nearly tripled. 1854 Crimean War: The United Kingdom declares war on Russia. 1857 - The Indian Mutiny, a widespread revolt in India against the rule of the British East India Company, is sparked by sepoys (native Indian soldiers) in the Company's army. The rebellion, involving not just sepoys but many sectors of the Indian population as well, is largely quashed within a year. In response to the mutiny, the East India Company is abolished in August 1858 and India comes under the direct rule of the British crown, beginning the period of the British Raj. Prince Albert is given the title The Prince Consort. Popular forms of entertainment varied by social class. Victorian Britain, like the periods before it, was interested in literature (see Charles Dickens, Arthur Conan Doyle and William Makepeace Thackeray), theatre and the arts (see Aesthetic movement and Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood), and music, drama, and opera were widely attended. Michael Balfe was the most popular British grand opera composer of the period, while the most popular musical theatre was a series of fourteen comic operas by Gilbert and Sullivan, although there was also musical burlesque and the beginning of Edwardian musical comedy in the 1890s. Drama ranged from low comedy to Shakespeare (see Henry Irving). There were, however, other forms of entertainment. Gentlemen went to dining clubs, like the Beefsteak club or the Savage club. Gambling at cards in establishments popularly

called casinos was wildly popular during the period: so much so that evangelical and reform movements specifically targeted such establishments in their efforts to stop gambling, drinking, and prostitution. 23. National emblems, patron saints, holidays. National animal - lion (England), unicorn (Scotland), Irish Wolfhound, Irish Setter, Irish Elk, United Kingdom Lion and Unicorn, Bulldog, Lion National tree - Ireland Sessile Oak, United Kingdom Royal Oak Inanimate object - Ireland Celtic harp called a clairseach (official), harp on coat of arms etc. (official), Celtic Cross, Newgrange, United Kingdom The Crown (currently St Edward's Crown) Nationalized patriotic symbols - Ireland - harp, shamrock, United Kingdom Union Flag - England Tudor Rose, Lion, The Crown, Royal Crest, Saint George's Flag and cross. Scotland Saltire (St. Andrew's Cross} Patron Saints - England - Saint George, Ireland Saint Patrick, Saint Brigid of Kildare, Saint Colmcille, Scotland Saint Andrew.

England Northern Ireland Wales Scotland 1 January - New Year's Day - from 1974, by Royal proclamation annually 17 March - St. Patrick's Day - Northern Ireland only (this was not an officially recognised public holiday in Northern Ireland until the peace process was signed and from thereon was recognised) Good Friday - Traditional Common law holiday Easter Monday - Statutory bank holiday, defined by name. 1st Monday in May - May Day Bank Holiday - from 1978, by Royal proclamation annually Last Monday in May - Spring Bank Holiday - Statutory bank holiday from 1971,[11] following a trial period from 1965 to 1970. Replaced Whit Monday, which was formerly a public holiday whose date varied according to the date of Easter. The legislation does not specify a name for the holiday, merely when it occurs. 12 July - Orangeman's Holiday - Northern Ireland only Last Monday in August - Late Summer Bank Holiday - Statutory bank holiday from 1971, following a trial period from 1965 to 1970. Replaced the first Monday in August (formerly commonly known as "August Bank Holiday". The legislation does not specify a name for the holiday, merely when it occurs. 25 December - Christmas Day - Traditional Common law holiday. 26 or 27 December - Boxing Day - Statutory bank holiday. Legislation does not name the holiday, but states that is falls on "26th December, if it be not a Sunday. 27th December in a year in which 25th or 26th December is a Sunday." The British Year January New Year (Trafalgar Square to see in the New Year) In scotland and north of E. People go first footing : a piece of coal and a glass of water(bottle of whisky) February 14th Feb St Valentines Day March 1st March: St Davids Day (leeks or daffodils) 17th March: St Patricks Day Pancake Day: on Shrove Tuesday, the day before Lent The Boat Race (OU&CU) in London on the River Thames (7.2 km) April 1st April: April Fools Day Easter: on Good Friday people eat hot cross buns, toasted with butter, chocolate eggs, some paint eggs The London Marathon (from Greenwich to Westminster, via Dockland and the Tower of London) May May Day (Maypole, a May Queen) Chelsea Flower Show (Chelsea Royal Hospital in London) Footbaal Assosiation Cup Final June Trooping the Colour: 2nd Saturday in June is the Queens official birthday (21 Aprol)

Wimbledon Tennis Championships Yorks Arts Festival (York Mystery Plays) The Derby/Royal Ascot (race held at a racecourse on Epsom Downs, later at Ascot) July Royal Eisteddfod of Wales (singing, dancing, poetry-reading competition) August The Proms: classical music concerts performed at the Royal Albert Hall (BBC Promenade Concerts) The Edinburgh Festival September Harvest Festivals (churches decorated with fruit, vegetables, flowers) October Halloween 31 October (the souls of the dead revisit the places where they once lived; trick or treat November Guy Fawkes Night (Bonfire Night) on 5th November 1605 GF planned to kill the king and blow up th Houses of Parliament The Lord Mayors Show LM rides in a golden carriage through the streets of London 30 November: St Andrews Day December Christmas Cards 6th December: Christmas tree from Norway in Trafalgar Square 25th December: Christmas Day Sovereign: Queen Elizabeth II (1952) Prime Minister: David Cameron (2010) Land area: 241,590 sq km; total area: 244,820 sq km) Population (2010 est.): 61,284,806 Capital and largest city (2003 est.): London, 7,615,000 (metro. area), 7,429,200 (city proper) Other large cities: Glasgow, 1,099,400; Birmingham, 971,800; Liverpool, 461,900; Edinburgh, 460,000; Leeds, 417,000; Bristol, 406,500; Manchester, 390,700; Bradford, 288,400 Monetary unit: Pound sterling () 24. The Union Jack. The flag of Wales. 'Union Jack' was officially acknowledged as an alternative name for the Union Flag by the Admiralty and Parliament in the early 20th century. The exact origin of the name is unclear. One explanation is that it gets its name from the "jack staff" of naval vessels from which the original Union Flag was flown. The Welsh dragon does not appear on the flag because when the first Union Flag was created in 1606, Wales was already united with England from the 13th century. This meant that Wales a Principality instead of a Kingdom and as such could not be included. It was created in 1801. as the UK of GB and Ireland flag, in 1992 it became the flag of the UK of GB and Northern Ireland. 25. The bodies of water around Britain, rivers and lakes in Britain. The longest rivers in the UK by country are: England: River Thames (215 mi, 346 km) Scotland: River Tay (117 mi, 188 km) N. Ireland: River Bann (76 mi, 122 km) Wales: River Tywi (64 mi, 103 km) The largest lakes in the UK by country are: N. Ireland: Lough Neagh (147.39 sq mi, 381.74 km) Scotland: Loch Lomond (27.46 sq mi, 71.12 km) England: Windermere (5.69 sq mi, 14.74 km) Wales: Llyn Tegid (Bala Lake) (1.87 sq mi, 4.84 km) The UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel, and the Irish Sea.

26. Islands around the Britush Isles.

27. Albion. Britannia. Caledonia. Albion is a word used by poets and songwriters to refer, in different contexts, to England or to Scotland or to GB as a whole. It comes from a Celtic word and was an early Greek and Roman name for Great Britan. The romans associated Great Britain with the Latin word "albus", meaning white. The white chalk cliffs around Dover on the English south coast are the first land formations one sights when crossing the sea from the European mainland. Britannia is the same name that the Romans gave to their southern British province (which covered, approximately, the area of present- day England and Wales). It is also the name given to the female embodiment of Britain, always shown wearing a helmet and holding a trident (the symbol of power over the sea), hence the patriotic son which begins, "Rule, Britannia, Britannia rule the waves". The figure of Britannia has been on the reverse side of many British coins for more than 300 years. Caledonia, Cambria, Hibernia were the Roman names for Scotland, Wales and Ireland respectively. The words are commonly used today in scholarly classifications (for example, the type of English used in Ireland is sometimes called "Hiberno-English" and there is a divison of geological time known as "the Cambrian period") and for the names of organisations, for example, "Glasgow Caledonian University", 28. The crown dependencies. The Crown Dependencies are British possessions of the Crown, as opposed to overseas territories of the United Kingdom. They comprise the Channel Island Bailiwicks of Jersey and Guernsey in the English Channel, and the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea. Being independently administered jurisdictions, none forms part of the United Kingdom or of the European Union. Although the dependencies are British possessions of the Crown, and are not sovereign nations in their own right, the power to pass legislation affecting the islands ultimately rests with their own respective legislative assemblies, with the assent of the Crown. All three Crown dependencies are members of the BritishIrish Council.

The Bailiwicks of Jersey and Guernsey each have their own legal and healthcare systems, and their own separate immigration policies, with "local status" in one Bailiwick having no jurisdiction in the other. The two Bailiwicks exercise bilateral double taxation treaties. Since 1961, the Bailiwicks have had separate courts of appeal, but generally the Bailiff of each Bailiwick has been appointed to serve on the panel of appellate judges for the other Bailiwick. The Bailiwick of Guernsey comprises three separate jurisdictions: Guernsey, which includes also the islands of Herm and Jethou, Sark, which also claims jurisdiction over the island of Brecqhou, and the island of Alderney; each jurisdiction also contains various other smaller islands. The Bailiwick of Jersey consists of the Island of Jersey and its uninhabited dependencies. The Isle of Man's Tynwald claims to be the world's oldest parliament in continuous existence, dating back to 979. (However, it does not claim to be the oldest parliament, as Iceland's Althing dates back to 930.) It consists of a popularly elected House of Keys and an indirectly elected Legislative Council, which may sit separately or jointly to consider pieces of legislation, which, when passed into law, are known as "Acts of Tynwald". Candidates often stand for election as independents, rather than being selected by political parties. There is a Council of Ministers headed by a Chief Minister. The Isle of Man, unlike the other Crown Dependencies, has a Common Purse Agreement with the United Kingdom. The British Government is solely responsible for defence[citation needed] and international representation[citation needed] (although, in accordance with 2007 framework agreements, the UK has undertaken not to act internationally on behalf of the Crown dependencies without prior consultation). Each Crown dependency has responsibility for its own customs and immigration services. 29. The educational system in Britain. Education in the United Kingdom is a devolved matter with each of the countries of the United Kingdom having separate systems under separate governments: the UK Government is responsible for England, and the Scottish Government, the Welsh Government and the Northern Ireland Executive are responsible for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, respectively. Education in England is overseen by the Department for Education and the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. Local authorities (LAs) take responsibility for implementing policy for public education and state schools at a regional level. Full-time education is compulsory for all children aged between 5 and 16. Students may then continue their secondary studies for a further two years (sixth form), leading most typically to A-level qualifications, although other qualifications and courses exist, including Business and Technology Education Council (BTEC) qualifications, the International Baccalaureate (IB) and the Cambridge Pre-U. The leaving age for compulsory education was raised to 18 by the Education and Skills Act 2008. The change will take effect in 2013 for 16year-olds and 2015 for 17-year-olds.[8] State-provided schooling and sixth form education is free of charge to students. England also has a tradition of independent schooling, but parents may choose to educate their children by any suitable means. Higher education typically begins with a 3-year bachelor's degree. Postgraduate degrees include master's degrees, either taught or by research, and the doctorate, a research degree that usually takes at least three years. Universities require a Royal Charter in order to issue degrees, and all but one are financed by the state via tuition fees, which are increasing in size for both home and European Union students. The school year begins on 1 September (or 1 August if a term starts in August). Education is compulsory for all children from their fifth birthday to the last Friday in June of the school year in which they turn 16. This will be raised in 2013 to the year in which they turn 17 and in 2015 to the year in which they turn 18. State-run schools and colleges are financed through national taxation, and take pupils free of charge between the ages of 3 and 18. The schools may levy charges for activities such as swimming, theatre visits and field trips, provided the charges are voluntary, thus ensuring that those who cannot afford to pay are allowed to participate in such events. Approximately 93% of English schoolchildren attend such schools. A significant minority of state-funded schools are faith schools, which are attached to religious groups, most often the Church of England or the Roman Catholic Church. There is also a small number of state-funded boarding schools, which typically charge for board but not tuition. However, the charges are often substantial. For example, Wymondham College charged 8,100 per annum in 2010. Nearly 90% of state-funded secondary schools are specialist schools, receiving extra funding to develop one or more subjects in which the school specialises. The table below describes the most common patterns for schooling in the state sector in England. In most cases progression from one year group to another is based purely on chronological age, although it is possible in some circumstances for a student to repeat or skip a year. Repetition may be due to a lack of attendance, for

example from a long illness, and especially in Years requiring standard tests. A child significantly more advanced than their classmates may be forwarded one or more years.

In the vast majority of cases, pupils progress from primary to secondary levels at age 11; in some areas either or both of the primary and secondary levels are further subdivided. A few areas have three-tier education systems with an intermediate middle level from age 9 to 13. State-funded nursery education is available from the age of 3, and may be full-time or part-time. If registered with a state school, attendance is compulsory beginning with the term following the child's fifth birthday. Children can be enrolled in the reception year in September of that school year, thus beginning school at age 4 or 4.5. Unless the student chooses to stay within the education system, compulsory school attendance ends on the last Friday in June during the academic year in which a student attains the age of 16. Under the National Curriculum, all pupils undergo National Curriculum Tests (NCTs, commonly still referred to by their previous name of Standard Attainment Tests, or SATs) towards the ends of Key Stage 2 in the core subjects of Literacy, Numeracy and Science, but not in the foundation subjects such as Geography, History and Information & Communication Technology where individual teacher assessment is used instead. Pupils normally take GCSE exams in the last two years of Key Stage 4, but may also choose to work towards the attainment of alternative qualifications, such as the GNVQ. Former tests at the end of Key Stage 3 were abandoned after the 2008 tests, where severe problems emerged concerning the marking procedures. Now at the end of Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 3, progress is examined via individual teacher assessment against the National Curriculum Attainment Targets for all subjects. Test results for schools are published, and are an important measure of their performance. Shrewsbury Sixth Form College in Shropshire Years 12 and 13 are often referred to as "lower sixth form" and "upper sixth form" respectively, reflecting their distinct, voluntary nature as the A-level years. While most secondary schools enter their pupils for A-levels, some state schools have joined the independent sector in offering the International Baccalaureate or Cambridge Pre-U qualifications instead. Some independent schools still refer to Years 7 to 11 as "first form" to "fifth form", reflecting earlier usage. Historically, this arose from the system in public schools, where all forms were divided into Lower, Upper, and sometimes Middle sections. Year 7 is equivalent to "Upper Third Form", Year 8 would have been known as "Lower Fourth", and so on. Some independent schools still employ this method of labelling Year groups. All maintained schools in England are required to follow the National Curriculum, which is made up of twelve subjects.[14] The core subjectsEnglish, Mathematics and Scienceare compulsory for all students aged 5 to 16. A range of other subjects, known as foundation subjects, are compulsory at one or more Key Stages: Art & Design Citizenship Design & Technology Geography History Information & Communication Technology Modern Foreign Languages

Music Physical Education In addition, other subjects with a non-statutory programme of study in the National Curriculum are also taught, including Religious education in all Key Stages, Sex education from Key Stage 2, and Career education and Work-related learning in Key Stages 3 and 4.[14] Religious education within community schools may be withdrawn for individual pupils with parental consent. Similarly, parents of children in community schools may choose to opt their child out of some or all sex education lessons. Approximately 7% of schoolchildren in England attend privately run independent schools, commonly called "private schools", whilst private sixth forms are attended by around 18% of students. Independent schools do not have to follow the National Curriculum, and their teachers are not required or regulated by law to have official teaching qualifications. Some of the earliest established independent schools are known for historical reasons as "public schools". Education at independent schools is usually chargeable. Such schools, some of which are boarding schools, cover primary and/or secondary education and charge between 2,500 and 30,000 per year.[23] Some schools offer scholarships for those with particular skills or aptitudes, or bursaries to allow students from less financially well-off families to attend. Traditionally, many private schools have been single-sex, but a growing number are now co-educational (mixed-sex). Traditional public schools such as Radley, Winchester, Eton and Harrow take boys at 13 years of age. Many students must pass the Common Entrance Exam at 11 or 13 to gain entry into highly selective schools. As in the state sector, there is a hierarchy of independent schools with schools towards the top of the hierarchy attracting applications from the strongest 11- or 13-year-olds. The net effect is one of 'distillation of talent', which may explain their academic success. Students at both state schools and independent schools typically take GCSE examinations, which mark the end of compulsory education. Above school-leaving age, the independent and state sectors are similarly structured. In the 1618 age group, sixth form education is not compulsory at present, although mandatory education until the age of 18 is to be phased in under the Education and Skills Act 2008. This will take effect for 16-year-olds in 2013, and for 17-year-olds in 2015. Students will typically study in the sixth form of a school, in a separate sixth form college, or in a further education college. These courses can also be studied by adults over 18. This sector is referred to as Further Education. Some 16-18 students will be encouraged to study Key Skills in Communication, Application of Number, and Information Technology at this time. Students normally enter university from age 18 onwards, and study for an academic degree. Historically, all undergraduate education outside the private University of Buckingham was largely state-financed, with a small contribution from top-up fees, however fees of up to 9,000 per annum will be charged from October 2012. There is a distinct hierarchy among universities, with the Russell Group containing most of the country's more prestigious, research-led and research-focused universities. The state does not control university syllabuses, but it does influence admission procedures through the Office For Fair Access (Offa), which approves and monitors access agreements to safeguard and promote fair access to higher education. Unlike most degrees, the state still has control over teacher training courses, and uses its Ofsted inspectors to maintain standards. 30. Academic degrees in British universities. The typical first degree offered at English universities is the bachelor's degree, and usually lasts for three years. Many institutions now offer an undergraduate master's degree as a first degree, which typically lasts for four years. During a first degree students are known as undergraduates. The difference in fees between undergraduate and traditional postgraduate master's degrees (and the possibility of securing LEA funding for the former) makes taking an undergraduate master's degree as a first degree a more attractive option, although the novelty of undergraduate master's degrees means that the relative educational merit of the two is currently unclear. Some universities offer a vocationally based foundation degree, typically two years in length for those students who hope to continue on to a first degree but wish to remain in employment. Students who have completed a first degree are eligible to undertake a postgraduate degree, which might be a: Master's degree (typically taken in one year, though research-based master's degrees may last for two) Doctorate (typically taken in three years) Postgraduate education is not automatically financed by the state, and so admissions are highly competitive. 31. The media. Media of the United Kingdom consist of several different types of communications media: television, radio, newspapers, magazines, and Internet-based Web sites. The UK also has a strong music industry. The UK has a diverse range of providers, the most prominent being principle public service broadcaster, the British

Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). The BBC's competitors include ITV plc, which operates 11 of the 15 regional television broadcasters that make up the ITV Network. News Corporation, who operate a number of leader national newspapers through News International such as The Sun and The Times as well as holding a large stake in satellite broadcaster British Sky Broadcasting and various other media holdings. Regional media is covered by local radio, television and print newspapers. Trinity Mirror operate 240 local and regional newspapers in the UK, as well as national newspapers such as the Daily Mirror and the Sunday Mirror. London dominates the media sector in the UK: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although Manchester is also a significant national media centre. Edinburgh and Glasgow, and Cardiff, are important centres of newspaper and broadcasting production in Scotland and Wales respectively. The BBC, founded in 1922, is the UK's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world. It operates numerous television and radio stations in the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by the television licence.Other major players in the UK media include ITV plc, which operates 11 of the 15 regional television broadcasters that make up the ITV Network, and News Corporation, which owns a number of national newspapers through News International such as the most popular tabloid The Sun and the longest-established daily "broadsheet" The Times,[8] as well as holding a large stake in satellite broadcaster British Sky Broadcasting. Traditionally British newspapers have been divided into "quality", serious-minded newspapers (usually referred to as "broadsheets" because of their large size) and the more populist, "tabloid" varieties. For convenience of reading many traditional broadsheets have switched to a more compact-sized format, traditionally used by tabloids. In 2008 The Sun had the highest circulation of any daily newspaper in the UK at 3.1 million, approximately a quarter of the market. Its sister paper, the News of the World, had the highest circulation in the Sunday newspaper market, and traditionally focused on celebrity-led stories until its closure in 2011. The Daily Telegraph, a centre-right broadsheet paper, is the highest-selling of the "quality" newspapers. The Guardian is a more liberal "quality" broadsheet and the Financial Times is the main business newspaper, printed on distinctive salmon-pink broadsheet paper. Trinity Mirror operate 240 local and regional newspapers in the UK, as well as national newspapers such as the Daily Mirror and the Sunday Mirror. Scotland has a distinct tradition of newspaper readership (see list of newspapers in Scotland). The tabloid Daily Record has the highest circulation of any daily newspaper outselling The Scottish Sun by four to one while its sister paper, the Sunday Mail similarly leads the Sunday newspaper market. The leading "quality" daily newspaper in Scotland is The Herald, though it is the sister paper of The Scotsman, and the Scotland on Sunday that leads in the Sunday newspaper market. A large range of magazines are sold in the UK covering most interests and potential topics. British magazines and journals that have achieved worldwide circulation include The Economist, Nature, and New Scientist, Private Eye, Hello!, The Spectator, the Radio Times and NME. Radio in the United Kingdom is dominated by the BBC, which operates radio stations both in the UK and abroad. The BBC World Service radio network is broadcast in 33 languages globally. Domestically the BBC also operates ten national networks and over 40 local radio stations including services in Welsh on BBC Radio Cymru, Gaelic on BBC Radio nan Gidheal in Scotland and Irish in Northern Ireland. The domestic services of the BBC are funded by the television licence. The internationally targeted BBC World Service Radio is funded by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, though from 2014 it will be funded by the television licence. The most popular radio station by number of listeners is BBC Radio 2, closely followed by BBC Radio 1. Advances in digital radio technology have enabled the launch of several new stations by the Corporation. Rather than operating as independent entities, many commercial local radio stations are owned by large radio groups which broadcast a similar format to many areas. The largest operator of radio stations is Global Radio, owner of the major Heart and Galaxy radio brands. It also owns Classic FM and London's most popular commercial radio station, 95.8 CapitalFM. Other owners are UTV Radio, with stations broadcasting in large city areas and Bauer Radio, holding radio in the North of England. There are also regional stations, like Real Radio and the Century Network, broadcasting in some main parts of England, Wales and Scotland, and a number of licensed community radio stations which broadcast to local audiences. Analogue terrestrial television in the United Kingdom is made up of two chartered public broadcasting companies, the BBC and Channel 4 and two franchised commercial television companies, (ITV and Channel 5). There are five major nationwide television channels in the UK: BBC One, BBC Two, ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5currently transmitted by analogue and digital terrestrial, free-to-air signals with the latter three channels funded by commercial advertising. The UK now has a large number of digital terrestrial channels including a further six from the BBC, five from ITV and three from Channel 4, and one from S4C which is solely in Welsh, among a variety of others. The vast majority of digital cable television services are provided by Virgin Media

with satellite television available from Freesat or British Sky Broadcasting and free-to-air digital terrestrial television by Freeview. The entire UK will switch to digital by 2012. The BBC operates several television channels both in the UK and abroad. The BBC's international television news service, BBC World News, is broadcast throughout the world. The domestic services of the BBC are funded by the television licence. The international television broadcast services are operated by BBC Worldwide on a commercial subscription basis over cable and satellite services. This commercial arm of the BBC also forms half of UKTV along with Virgin Media. Channel 4 is similarly chartered to the BBC, with a remit to provide public service broadcasting and schools programs, however it runs commercial advertisements to provide a revenue stream. It produces a single analogue channel, currently branded as Channel 4. The commercial operators rely on advertising for their revenue, and are run as commercial ventures, in contrast to the public service operators. The ITV franchise transmits the analogue channel known as ITV1 (in England, Wales, Scottish Borders, Isle of Man and Channel Islands), STV (In Central and Northern Scotland), and UTV in Northern Ireland. Channel 5 transmits one analogue channel. All the major analogue broadcasters provide additional channels on the free-to-air Freeview digital television service, and all of these channels can be accessed via a cable or satellite provider, such as Virgin Media or BSkyB. The entire UK will switch to digital by 2012. 32. The places of interest in London: the Houses of Parliament, Westminster Abbey, the Tower of London, Buckingham Palace, St Pauls Cathedral The Palace of Westminster, also known as the Houses of Parliament or Westminster Palace, is the meeting place of the two houses of the Parliament of the United Kingdomthe House of Lords and the House of Commons. It lies on the north bank of the River Thames[note 1] in the heart of the London borough of the City of Westminster, close to the historic Westminster Abbey and the government buildings of Whitehall and Downing Street. The name may refer to either of two structures: the Old Palace, a medieval building complex, most of which was destroyed in 1834, and its replacement New Palace that stands today. The palace retains its original style and status as a royal residence for ceremonial purposes. The Palace is one of the centres of political life in the United Kingdom; "Westminster" has become a metonym for the UK Parliament, and the Westminster system of government has taken its name after it. Its Clock Tower, in particular, which has become known as "Big Ben" after its main bell, is an iconic landmark of London and the United Kingdom in general, one of the most popular tourist attractions in the city and an emblem of parliamentary democracy. The Palace of Westminster has been a Grade I listed building since 1970 and part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1987. The Collegiate Church of St Peter at Westminster, popularly known as Westminster Abbey, is a large, mainly Gothic church, in the City of Westminster, London, United Kingdom, located just to the west of the Palace of Westminster. It is the traditional place of coronation and burial site for English, later British and later still (and currently) monarchs of the Commonwealth realms. The abbey is a Royal Peculiar and briefly held the status of a cathedral from 1540 to 1550. Westminster Abbey is a collegiate church governed by the Dean and Chapter of Westminster, as established by Royal charter of Queen Elizabeth I in 1560, which created it as the Collegiate Church of St Peter Westminster and a Royal Peculiar under the personal jurisdiction of the Sovereign. The members of the Chapter are the Dean and four residentiary Canons, assisted by the Receiver General and Chapter Clerk. One of the Canons is also Rector of St Margaret's Church, Westminster, and often holds also the post of Chaplain to the Speaker of the House of Commons. In addition to the Dean and Canons, there are at present two full-time minor canons, one precentor, the other succentor. The office of Priest Vicar was created in the 1970s for those who assist the minor canons. Together with the Clergy and Receiver General and Chapter Clerk, various Lay Officers constitute the College, including the Organist and Master of the Choristers, the Registrar, the Auditor, the Legal Secretary, the Surveyor of the Fabric, the Head Master of the Choir School, the Keeper of the Muniments and the Clerk of the Works, as well as twelve Lay Vicars and ten of the choristers and the High Steward and High Bailiff. There are also forty Queen's Scholars who are pupils at Westminster School (the School has its own Governing Body). Those who are most directly concerned with liturgical and ceremonial matters are the two Minor Canons and the Organist and Master of the Choristers. Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress, more commonly known as the Tower of London, is a historic castle on the north bank of the River Thames in central London, England. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the eastern edge of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England. The White Tower, which gives the entire castle its name, was built by William the Conqueror in 1078, and was a resented symbol of oppression, inflicted upon London by the new ruling elite. The castle was used as a prison since at least 1100, although that was not its primary purpose. A grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As

a whole, the Tower is a complex of several buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under Kings Richard the Lionheart, Henry III, and Edward I in the 12th and 13th centuries. The general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site. The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history. It was besieged several times and controlling it has been important to controlling the country. The Tower has served variously as an armoury, a treasury, a menagerie, the home of the Royal Mint, a public records office, and the home of the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom. From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II, a procession would be led from the Tower to Westminster Abbey on the coronation of a monarch. In the absence of the monarch, the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle. This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period. In the late 15th century the castle was the prison of the Princes in the Tower. Under the Tudors, the Tower became used less as a royal residence, and despite attempts to refortify and repair the castle its defences lagged behind developments to deal with artillery. The peak period of the castle's use as a prison was the 16th and 17th centuries, when many figures who had fallen into disgrace, such as Elizabeth I before she became queen, were held within its walls. This use has led to the phrase "sent to the Tower". Despite its enduring reputation as a place of torture and death, popularised by 16th-century religious propagandists and 19th-century writers, only seven people were executed within the Tower before the World Wars of the 20th century. Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle, with 112 occurring there over a 400-year period. In the latter half of the 19th century, institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations, leaving many buildings empty. Anthony Salvin and John Taylor took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance, clearing out many of the vacant post-medieval structures. In the First and Second World Wars, the Tower was again used as a prison, and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage. After the Second World War, damage caused during the Blitz was repaired and the castle reopened to the public. Today the Tower of London is one of the country's most popular tourist attractions. It is cared for by the charity Historic Royal Palaces and is protected as a World Heritage Site. Buckingham Palace, in London, is the principal residence and office of the British monarch.[1] Located in the City of Westminster, the palace is a setting for state occasions and royal hospitality. It has been a focus for the British people at times of national rejoicing and crisis. Originally known as Buckingham House, the building which forms the core of today's palace was a large townhouse built for the Duke of Buckingham in 1705 on a site which had been in private ownership for at least 150 years. It was subsequently acquired by George III in 1761[2] as a private residence for Queen Charlotte, and known as "The Queen's House". During the 19th century it was enlarged, principally by architects John Nash and Edward Blore, forming three wings around a central courtyard. Buckingham Palace finally became the official royal palace of the British monarch on the accession of Queen Victoria in 1837. The last major structural additions were made in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including the East front which contains the wellknown balcony on which the Royal Family traditionally congregate to greet crowds outside. However, the palace chapel was destroyed by a German bomb in World War II; the Queen's Gallery was built on the site and opened to the public in 1962 to exhibit works of art from the Royal Collection. The original early 19th-century interior designs, many of which still survive, included widespread use of brightly coloured scagliola and blue and pink lapis, on the advice of Sir Charles Long. King Edward VII oversaw a partial redecoration in a Belle poque cream and gold colour scheme. Many smaller reception rooms are furnished in the Chinese regency style with furniture and fittings brought from the Royal Pavilion at Brighton and from Carlton House. The Buckingham Palace Garden is the largest private garden in London. The state rooms, used for official and state entertaining, are open to the public each year for most of August and September, as part of the Palace's Summer Opening. St Paul's Cathedral, London, is a Church of England cathedral and seat of the Bishop of London. Its dedication to Paul the Apostle dates back to the original church on this site, founded in AD 604. St Paul's sits at the top of Ludgate Hill, the highest point in the City of London, and is the mother church of the Diocese of London. The present church dating from the late 17th century was built to an English Baroque design of Sir Christopher Wren, as part of a major rebuilding program which took place in the city after the Great Fire of London, and was completed within his lifetime. The cathedral is one of the most famous and most recognisable sights of London, with its dome, framed by the spires of Wren's City churches, dominating the skyline for 300 years. At 365 feet (111 m) high, it was the tallest building in London from 1710 to 1962, and its dome is also among the highest in the world. In terms of area, St Paul's is the second largest church building in the United Kingdom after Liverpool Cathedral. St Paul's Cathedral occupies a significant place in the national identity of the English population. It is the central subject of much promotional material, as well as postcard images of the dome standing tall, surrounded by the smoke and fire

of the Blitz. Important services held at St Paul's include the funerals of Lord Nelson, the Duke of Wellington and Sir Winston Churchill; Jubilee celebrations for Queen Victoria; peace services marking the end of the First and Second World Wars; the marriage of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer, the launch of the Festival of Britain and the thanksgiving services for both the Golden Jubilee and 80th Birthday of Queen Elizabeth II. St Paul's Cathedral is a busy working church, with hourly prayer and daily services. 33. The House of Commons and the House of Lords. The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords (the upper house). Both Commons and Lords meet in the Palace of Westminster. The Commons is a democratically elected body, consisting of 650 members (since 2010 General Election), who are known as Members of Parliament (MPs). Members are elected through the first-past-thepost system by electoral districts known as constituencies. They hold their seats until Parliament is dissolved (a maximum of five years after the preceding election). A House of Commons of England evolved at some point in England during the 14th century and, in practice, has been in continuous existence since, becoming the House of Commons of Great Britain after the political union with Scotland, and also, during the nineteenth century, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland after the political union with Ireland, finally reaching its current title after independence was given to the Irish Free State in 1922. The House of Commons was originally far less powerful than the House of Lords, but today its legislative powers greatly exceed those of the Lords. Under the Parliament Act 1911, the Lords' power to reject most legislative bills was reduced to a delaying power. Moreover, the Government is primarily responsible to the House of Commons; the prime minister stays in office only as long as he or she retains its support. Almost all government ministers are drawn from the House of Commons and, with one brief exception, all prime ministers since 1902. The full, formal style and title of the House of Commons is The Honourable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. The House of Lords is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster. The House of Lords has the primary purpose of scrutinizing legislation proposed by the House of Commons and proposing amendments. Bills can be introduced into either House and peers of the House of Lords may also be in Cabinet. The Speech from the throne is delivered from the House of Lords. The House also has a minor Church of England role in that through the Lords Spiritual Church Measures must be tabled within the House. Unlike the House of Commons, members of the House of Lords are not democratically elected. Lords Spiritual, members by virtue of their ecclesiastical role in the established Church of England, are 26 senior bishops. The Lords Temporal make up the rest of the membership; of these, the majority are life peers who are appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, or on the advice of the House of Lords Appointments Commission. Membership was once a right of birth to hereditary peers but, following a series of reforms, as of 1 July 2011 only 90, elected by the House from the hereditary peers, members sitting by virtue of a hereditary peerage remain. The number of members is not fixed; as of 6 June 2011 the House of Lords has 789 members (plus 38 who are on leave of absence or otherwise disqualified from sitting), as against the fixed 650-seat membership of the House of Commons. The formal title of the House of Lords is The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. 34. The daily schedule in the House of Commons. Question Time. 1) Prayers - 1 min 2) Question time - 1h 3) Miscellaneous business, such as a statement from a minister (up to 45 mins). 4) Main business (up to six and a half hours). On more than half of the days, this is a debate ona proposal of a new law, know as a 'bill'. Most of these bills are introduced by the government, but some days in each year are reserved for 'private members' bills'; that is, bills introduced by individual MPs. Not many of these become law, because there is not enough interest among other MPs and not enough time for proper discussion of them. 5) Adjournment debate (half an hour). The main business stops and MPs are allowed to bring up a different matter for general discussion. The parliamentary day used to run from 2:30 pm to 10:30 pm. But in 2003, the hours were changed, with sessions starting ing the morning and finishing by early evening. The intention was to allow MPs more time with their families and to present a more normal, sober, nine-to-five image to the public. Now a compromise has been reached, the old hours are used for mondays and tuesdays and the new ones (11:30 am - 7:30 pm) for wednesday and thursday.

Question time - the best attended and usually he noisiest part of the parliamentary day. For about an hour, there is no subject for debate. Instead, MPs are allowed to ask questions of government ministers. In this way they can, in theory at least, force the government to make certain facts public and to make its intentions clear. Opposition MPs in particular have an opportunity to make government ministers look incompetent or dishonest. The questions and answers, however, are not spontaneous. Questions to ministers have to be 'tabled' (written down and placed on the table below the speaker's chair) two days in advance, so that ministers have time to prepare their answers. This way, the government can usually avoid major embarassment. The trick, however, is to ask an unecpected 'supplementary' question. After the minister has answered the tabled question, the MP who originally tabled it is allowed to ask a further question relating to the minister's answer. In this way, it is sometimes possible for MPs to catch a minister unprepared. 35. The opening of the Parliament, Black Rod. King John had signed Magna Carta unwillingly, and it quickly became clear that he was not going to keep to the agreement. The nobles rebelled and soon pushed John out of the southeast' But civil war was avoided because John died. John's son, Henry III, was only nine years old. During the first sixteen years as klng he was under the control of powerful nobles, and tied by Magna Carta. Henry was finally able to rule for himself at the age of twenty-five. It was understandable thar he wanted to be completely independent of the people who had controlled his life for so long. He spent his time with foreign friends, and became involved in expensive wars supporting the pope in Sicily and also in France. Henry's heavy spending and his foreign advisers upset the nobles. In 1258 they took over the government and elected a concil of nobles under the leaderhip of Simon de Montfort. They called it a parliament/parlement - french word for discussion meeting. The parliament took control of the treasury and forced Henry to get rid of his foreign advisers. The nobles were supported by the towns, which wished to be free of Henry's heavy taxes. But some of the nobles did not support the revolutionary new council, and remained loyal to Henry. With their help Henry was frnally able to defeat and kill Simon de Montfort in 1265. Once again he had full royal authority, although he was careful to accept the balance which de Montfort had created between king and nobles. When Henry died in 1272his son Edward I took the throne without question. Edward I brought together the first real parliament. Simon de Montfort's council had been crilled a parliament, but it included only nobles' lt had been able to make statutes, or written laws, and it had been able to make political decisions' However, the lords were less able to provide the king with money except what they had agreed to pay him for the land, they held under feudal arrangement. Several kings had made arrangements for taxation before, but Edward I was the first to create a "representative institution" which could provide the money he needed. This institution became the House of Commons. Unlike the House of Lords it contained a mixture of "gentry" (knights and other wealthy freemen from the shires) and merchants from the towns. These were the two broad classes of people who produced and controlled England's wealth. The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod, generally shortened to just Black Rod, is an official in the parliaments of several Commonwealth countries. The position originates in the House of Lords of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. His equivalent in the House of Commons is the Serjeant at Arms. Black Rod is formally appointed by the Crown based on a recruitment search performed by the Clerk of the Parliaments, to whom he reports. Prior to 2002 the office rotated among retired senior officers from the British Army, the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force. It is now advertised openly. Black Rod is an officer of the English Order of the Garter, and takes the rank of knight bachelor. His deputy is the Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod. Black Rod has several official duties: he is the personal attendant of the Sovereign in the Lords; as secretary to the Lord Great Chamberlain he is responsible as the usher and doorkeeper at meetings of the Order of the Garter (stemming from the Garter Statute 1522); and, as the Sergeant-at-Arms and Keeper of the Doors of the House he is concerned in the admission of strangers to the House of Lords. Black Rod further has the task of arresting any Lord guilty of breach of privilege or other Parliamentary offence, such as contempt or disorder, or the disturbance of the House's proceedings. He is also responsible, as the representative of the Administration and Works Committee, for more important services; the black rod is used to tap the governor's shoulder as a blessing from the Queen and security of the Palace of Westminster. Either Black Rod or his deputy, the Yeoman Usher, is required to be present when the House of Lords, upper house of Parliament, is in session, and plays a role in the induction of all new Lords Temporal into the House (but not of bishops as new Lords Spiritual). Black Rod is best known for his part in the ceremonies surrounding the State Opening of Parliament and the Throne speech. He summons the Commons to attend the speech and leads them to the Lords. As part of the ritual, as Black Rod approaches the doors to the chamber of the House of Commons to make his summons, they are slammed in his face. This is to symbolise the Commons' independence of the Sovereign. Black Rod then strikes the door three times with his staff, and is then admitted and issues the summons of the monarch to attend.

36. The procedure of how a bill becomes a law. When a senator or a representative introduces a bill, he or she sends it to the clerk of his house, who gives it a number and title. This is the first reading, and the bill is referred to the proper committee. The committee may decide the bill is unwise or unnecessary and table it, thus killing it at once. Or it may decide the bill is worthwhile and hold hearings to listen to facts and opinions presented by experts and other interested persons. After members of the committee have debated the bill and perhaps offered amendments, a vote is taken; and if the vote is favorable, the bill is sent back to the floor of the house. The clerk reads the bill sentence by sentence to the house, and this is known as the second reading. Members may then debate the bill and offer amendments. In the House of Representatives, the time for debate is limited by a cloture rule, but there is no such restriction in the Senate for cloture, where 60 votes are required. This makes possible a filibuster, in which one or more opponents hold the floor to defeat the bill. The third reading is by title only, and the bill is put to a vote, which may be by voice or roll call, depending on the circumstances and parliamentary rules. A member who must be absent at the time of a vote may contract (or pair) with a member of the opposition to abstain, balancing each other out. The bill then goes to the other house of Congress, where it may be defeated, or passed with or without amendments. If the bill is defeated, it dies. If it is passed with amendments, a joint congressional committee must be appointed by both houses to iron out the differences. After its final passage by both houses, the bill is sent to the president. If he approves, he signs it, and the bill becomes a law. However, if he disapproves, he vetoes the bill by refusing to sign it and sending it back to the house of origin with his reasons for the veto. The objections are read and debated, and a roll-call vote is taken. If the bill receives less than a two-thirds vote, it is defeated and goes no further. But if it receives a two-thirds vote or greater, it is sent to the other house for a vote. If that house also passes it by a two-thirds vote, the president's veto is overridden, and the bill becomes a law. Should the president desire neither to sign nor to veto the bill, he may retain it for ten days, Sundays excepted, after which time it automatically becomes a law without signature. However, if Congress has adjourned within those ten days, the bill is automatically killed, that process of indirect rejection being known as a pocket veto. 37. The Government of UK. The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a queen and a parliament that has two houses: the House of Lords, with 574 life peers, 92 hereditary peers, and 26 bishops; and the House of Commons, which has 651 popularly elected members. Supreme legislative power is vested in parliament, which sits for five years unless dissolved sooner. The House of Lords was stripped of most of its power in 1911, and now its main function is to revise legislation. In Nov. 1999, hundreds of hereditary peers were expelled in an effort to make the body more democratic. The executive power of the Crown is exercised by the cabinet, headed by the prime minister. England has existed as a unified entity since the 10th century; the union between England and Wales, begun in 1284 with the Statute of Rhuddlan, was not formalized until 1536 with an Act of Union; in another Act of Union in 1707, England and Scotland agreed to permanently join as Great Britain ; the legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland was implemented in 1801, with the adoption of the name the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland; the Anglo-Irish treaty of 1921 formalized a partition of Ireland; six northern Irish counties remained part of the United Kingdom as Northern Ireland and the current name of the country, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, was adopted in 1927. 38. Elections and parties in Britain. MP is first and foremost a represantative of a particular locality. The country is divided into a number of areas of roughly equal population known as constituencies. Anybody who wants to be an MP must declare him/herself as a candidate in one of these constintuencies. On polling (election) day, voters go to polling stations and are each given a single piece of paper (the ballot paper) with the names of the candidates for that consituency on it. Each voter then puts a cross next to the name of the candidate. After the polls have closed, the ballot papers are counted. The candidate with the largest number of crosses next to his or her name is the winner and becomes the MP for the consituency. There is no counting of the proportion of votes for each party. All votes cast for losing candidates are simply ignored. You don't have to belong to a party to be a candidate at an election. You don't even have to live in the consituency. The Conservative Party, Centre-right party which can be loosely divided into three categories, though with considerable overlap: The Thatcherites or Conservative Way Forward, who strongly support a free market and tend to be Eurosceptic, the economically moderate, oft more europhile but socially conservative One Nation Conservatives, and the socially conservative, deeply eurosceptic Cornerstone Group. Liberal Democrats - Radical centrist, and socially progressive; strongly support greater European integration. Promote social liberalism; opposing what they call the 'nanny state', while supporting the welfare state for the

basic necessities of life. The party's two dominant factions are the centre-left social democratic grouping, and the economic liberal, 'Orange Book' one. Labour party - Centre-left; historically allied to Trade unions; mixed market (Third Way) policies have replaced its earlier more socialist platform in recent years, has still socialist MPs and Left-wing factions within the party such as the Socialist Campaign Group; supports greater Pro-Europeanism. Democratic Unionist party - More hardline Unionist party in Northern Ireland, has a socially right-wing political agenda, with historical ties to Protestant working classes, thus a centre-left economic history until recently. Scottish National Party - Centre-left party in favour of Scottish independence. Sinn Fin - Left-wing Irish republican party that supports the unification of the island of Ireland as a 32-county Irish republic. Plaid Cymru - Party of Wales - Centre-left party in favour of Welsh independence. Social Democratic and Labour Party - Centre-left, irish nationalist party. Alliance Party of Northern Ireland - Liberal party in Northern Ireland that aims to break down sectarian divisions between Catholics and Protestants. Has a neutral stance on the Constitutional issue of Northern Ireland's status and is linked with the Liberal Democrats. Green Party of England and Wales - Generally Social Democratic, environmentalist party. Favours British republicanism Ulster Unionist Party - Unionist party in Northern Ireland which is traditionally an amalgam of the political spectrum, considered more moderate than the Democratic Unionist Party. Scottish Green Party - Generally Social Democratic, environmentalist party in favour of Scottish independence. Green Party in Northern Ireland - Social Democratic, environmentalist party in Northern Ireland. Traditional Unionist Voice - Conservative unionist party in Northern Ireland, opposed to the St Andrews Agreement. UK Independence Party - Eurosceptic, Libertarian conservative and populist party which favours withdrawal from the European Union, small government and economic liberalism. British National Party - Nationalist, far right, party who support withdrawal from the European Union, halting immigration and Third position economics. Party Seats Conservative 305 Labour 255 Liberal Democrat 57 Democratic Unionist 8 Scottish National 6 Sinn Fein 5 Plaid Cymru 3 Social Democratic & Labour 3 Alliance 1 Green 1 Independent 1 Vacant seats 1 Speaker & 3 Deputies* 4 Total number of seats 650 *Speaker: John Bercow. Deputy Speakers: Mr Lindsay Hoyle, Mr Nigel Evans and Dawn Primarolo 39. The Monarchy (the Royal Family, Queens official title). From the evidence of written law, the Queen has almost absolue power. There is no legal concept of 'the people' at all. The government is hers. She can choose anybody she likes to run the government for her. Nothing that the parliament has decided can become a law until she has given it the royal assent. It is the queen who embodies the law in the courts. In reality, she has to choose someone who will command majority support in the House of Commons. If she did not choose such a person, the government would stop functioning. In practice, she chooses the leader of the strongest party in the commons. The royal assent is so automatic that the Queen doesn't even bother to give it in person. Someone else signs the documents for her. In reality, the queen has almost no power at all. She can actually not stop the government going ahead with any of its policies. The monarch is the personal embodiment of the governemnt of the country. By being the figurehead and representative of the country, QE II can perform the ceremonial duties which heads of state often have to spend their time on.

The monarchy gives British people a symbol of continuity, and a harmless outlet for expressions of natural pride. The royal Family Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother. She died at the age of 101 in 2002. Her tours of bombed areas of London during the Second World War with her husband, George VI, made her popular with the British people and she remained popular until her death. Queen Elizabeth II. Born in 1926 and became Queen in 1952. At the moment, she is the second longest-reigning monarch in British history. She is widely respected for the way in which she performs her duties and is generally popular. Prince Philip Mountbatten. Married QE II in 1947. His outspoken opinions on certain matters have sometimes been embarassing to the Royal Family. Prince Charles, the Prince of Wales. Born in 1948. As the eldest son of QE II and Prince Philip, he is heir to the throne. He is concert about the environment and living conditions in Britain's cities. He sometimes makes speeches which are critical of aspects of modern life. Princess Diana. The couple separated in 1992 and later divorced. Diana died in a car accident in 1997. During her lifetime, she as a glamorous figure and the public loved her. They felt able to identify with her in a way that they could not with other 'royals'. She was the first Englishwoman ever to marry an heir to the throne. Camilla, Dutchess of Cornwall. Married Prince Charles in 2005. Her long relationship with Charles is widely believed to have been a major cause of his separation from Diana. For this reason, she is not very popular with the public. On the other hand, people are generally symapthetic to those involved with long-lasting love affairs, so it is likely that she will become more popular as time passes. Princess Anne - the Queen's daughter. Born in 1950. She separated from her husband after they had a son and one daughter. She married again in 1992. She is widely respected for her charity work. Prince Andrew, the Duke of York. Born in 1960 and is the Queen's second son. He is separated from his wife. They have two daughters. Prince Edward - the queen's youngest son, born in 1964. He married Sophie Rhys Jones in 1999. He and his wife are the Earl and Countess of Wessex. Prince William. The eldest son of Charles and Diana and therefore the next in line to the throne after his father. He and his brother Prince Henry have embarked on military careers. 40. British holidays ( New Year, Burns Night, Valentines, Pancake Day, Easter, Halloween, Guy Fawkes, Christmas) New Year in United Kingdom is celebrated on January 1, the first day of the first month as per the Gregorian Calendar. This day was officially declared as New Year's Day in 1752. It is the time to ring out the old year and bring the new one by merry making. New Year is the much awaited celebration for the people of UK. They love to enjoy each and every minute of the going year. Theme parties, salsa dance and live performances are the some of the rocking events of New Year in UK. Another enthralling part of the New Year festivities are the New Year cruises in England. These are the most unique and memorable part of New Year in England. So, if you are planning to have an exciting New Year blast, England is all set for one. New Year Traditions in Britain A very old custom of 'first footing' is still followed in Britain with sincerity. It is said that the first male visitor to the house on the New Year's day brings good luck. A blonde, a red-haired or a woman is not allowed to enter the house first as they are supposed to bring bad luck. The male visitor usually brings money, bread or coal as these are considered auspicious gifts. At some places, there is a tradition of gifting the holy mistletoe. It is believed to bring prosperity for the recipient. Another tradition which is popularly celebrated is the "burning of the bush". It symbolizes burning of all past events. New Year Celebrations in Britain New Year celebrations in Britain is a colorful affair. New Year is celebrated as the most important festival in United Kingdom. Midnight parties, lavish meals, champagnes, music, dance and fireworks are the important parts of New Year in England. It is the biggest night-out of the year. Apart from parties and meals, another important part of New Year celebrations in UK is the biggest New Year parade. The parade starts at noon walking down the streets via Whitehall, Pall Mall and finishing in Berkley square. Musicians, dancers, acrobats, march, drums and other entertainers do a splendid job to make the event most distinguished one. Everyone present at the Berkley is openly invited to join the carnival and enjoy the festive occasion. Burns Night is annually celebrated in Scotland on or around January 25. It commemorates the life of the bard (poet) Robert Burns, who was born on January 25, 1759. The day also celebrates Burns' contribution to Scottish

culture. Burns' best known work is "Auld Lang Syne". Many people and organizations hold a Burns' supper on or around Burns' Night. These may be informal or formal, only for men, only for women, or for both genders. Formal events include toasts and readings of pieces written by Robert Burns. Ceremonies during a Burns' Night supper vary according to the group organizing the event and the location. The evening centers on the entrance of the haggis (a type of sausage prepared in a sheep's stomach) on a large platter to the sound of a piper playing bagpipes. When the haggis is on the table, the host reads the "Address to a Haggis". This is an ode that Robert Burns wrote to the Scottish dish. At the end of the reading, the haggis is ceremonially sliced into two pieces and the meal begins. There are varying opinions as to the origin of Valentine's Day. Some experts state that it originated from St. Valentine, a Roman who was martyred for refusing to give up Christianity. He died on February 14, 269 A.D., the same day that had been devoted to love lotteries. Legend also says that St. Valentine left a farewell note for the jailer's daughter, who had become his friend, and signed it "From Your Valentine". Other aspects of the story say that Saint Valentine served as a priest at the temple during the reign of Emperor Claudius. Claudius then had Valentine jailed for defying him. In 496 A.D. Pope Gelasius set aside February 14 to honour St. Valentine. Over time, February 14 has become the date for exchanging love messages and a celebration of St. Valentine, the patron saint of lovers. The date is marked by sending poems and simple gifts, such as flowers, to loved ones and secret loves. By far, Valentine's Day Flowers are the most popular gift today. In Canada, the United Kingdom, Ireland, New Zealand, and Australia, pancakes are traditionally eaten on Shrove Tuesday, which is also known as "Pancake Day" and, particularly in Ireland, as "Pancake Tuesday". (Shrove Tuesday is better known in the United States, France and other countries as Mardi Gras or Fat Tuesday.) Historically, pancakes were made on Shrove Tuesday so that the last of the fatty and rich foods could be used up before Lent. Charity and school events are organized on Pancake Day: in a "pancake race" each participant carries a pancake in a frying pan. All runners must toss their pancakes as they run and catch them in the frying pan. This event is said to have originated in Olney, England in 1444 when a housewife was still busy frying pancakes to eat before the Lenten fast when she heard the bells of St Peter and St Paul's Church calling her to the Shriving Service. Eager to get to church, she ran out of her house still holding the frying pan complete with pancake, and still wearing her apron and headscarf.[citation needed] Pancake Day is widely celebrated in Australia. Easter Sunday in the United Kingdom is traditionally about Jesus Christ's resurrection from death, according to Christian belief. However, many people use the day to decorate Easter eggs, share chocolate eggs and participate in Easter egg competitions. Easter Sunday's date is determined from calculations of a lunar calendar. It is the first Sunday after the first full moon on or after the March equinox. People who regularly attend church often attend special services on Easter Sunday. These may be longer or more elaborate than on other Sundays. In churches, it is generally a festive occasion with an emphasis on the dawn of a new life. In Battersea Park in London, there is a large Easter parade. Easter is an important time for the confectionery industry. In the United Kingdom, Easter eggs are often large hollow chocolate eggs filled with bonbons or other candy. The eggs are covered in decorative foil and packaged in elaborate boxes. Many people celebrate Easter Sunday by decorating, exchanging or searching for eggs. The eggs may be fresh or boiled eggs laid by chickens or other birds, chocolate eggs or eggs made of other materials. Many children believe that the Easter bunny or rabbit comes to their house or garden to hide eggs. They may search for these eggs or find that the Easter bunny has left them in an obvious place. Some businesses and attractions hold Easter egg hunts. These can be competitions to see who can collect the most eggs. In some parts of the United Kingdom, people roll hard boiled down slopes. In other places, there is a game in which people roll hard boiled eggs against other peoples' eggs. The winner is the person whose egg remains whole. After the game, the eggs are eaten. In some parts of Scotland, fondant filled chocolate eggs about the size of a hen's egg are covered in batter and deep fried. Guy Fawkes Night, also known as Guy Fawkes Day, Bonfire Night and Firework Night, is an annual commemoration observed on 5 November, primarily in England. Its history begins with the events of 5 November 1605, when Guy Fawkes, a member of the Gunpowder Plot, was arrested while guarding explosives the plotters had placed beneath the House of Lords. Celebrating the fact that King James I had survived the attempt on his life, people lit bonfires around London, and months later the introduction of the Observance of 5th November Act enforced an annual public day of thanksgiving for the plot's failure. William's birthday fell on 4 November, and for orthodox Whigs the two days therefore became an important double anniversary. He ordered that the thanksgiving service for 5 November be amended to include thanks for

his "happy arrival" and "the Deliverance of our Church and Nation".In the 1690s he re-established Protestant rule in Ireland, and the Fifth, occasionally marked by the ringing of church bells and civic dinners, was consequently eclipsed by his birthday commemorations. From the 19th century, 5 November celebrations there became sectarian in nature, and to this day its celebration in Northern Ireland remains controversial. In England though, as one of 49 official holidays, for the ruling class 5 November became overshadowed by events such as the birthdays of Admiral Edward Vernon, or John Wilkes, and under George II and George III, with the exception of the Jacobite Rising of 1745, it was largely "a polite entertainment rather than an occasion for vitriolic thanksgiving". For the lower classes, however, the anniversary was a chance to pit disorder against order, a pretext for violence and uncontrolled revelry. At some point, for reasons that are unclear, it became customary to burn Guy Fawkes in effigy, rather than the pope. Gradually, Gunpowder Treason Day became Guy Fawkes Day.