Nonviolence in Violence: Approaches to International Conflict Resolution in Costa Rica

By Paul Hubers
(Washington, DC: American University, PhD Diss, 1991)

PartI

Theory

1 PowerinViolentandNonviolentContexts 2 ConceptsofViolenceandNonviolence 3 PrincipalApproachestoConflictResolution

PartII Method
4 DisarmamentandDevelopment 5 Power,Needs,andRightsCriteria 6 ViolenceandNonviolence WarorPeace

PartIII Outcome
7 Barriers toSecurity:DrugsandMilitarization 8 DebtandCredit 9 ResolvingFutureConflict

Sources AAnEtymologyoftheThreeApproaches BResearchSources CSerialViolenceData DMaps SelectBibliography

PartI

Theory

Chapter1 PowerinViolentandNonviolentContexts
Overview ThisdissertationwillinvestigatethethesisthatCostaRica,duetoitsanomalousclaims tohaveabolisheditsmilitarypower,providesasignificantexampleofconflictresolutionby negotiationandtherelativelynonviolentuseofpowerdespiteproblemsstemmingfrom violentconflictresolutionimposedonthatnationinoneofthemostviolentareasontheplanet. Underthiscontextualthesis,theprimaryhypothesisforthisresearchwillbethatnonviolent conflictresolutionpromotespeace,security,anddevelopment,whileviolentconflictresolution converselypromoteswar,insecurity,andunderdevelopment.Thishypothesis,whileeasily stated,isdifficulttoprovesincenonviolencedespitesuchobviousandrecenteventsasthe nonviolentdemiseoftheBerlinWall hasbeeninterpretedby internationalrelationsand developmenttheoristsatbestasanenigmaratherthanastheresultsofanonviolentapproach. Thefirstchapterdefinesthetermsbasictothehypothesisusingintroductoryexamples fromthecontextofCostaRicaasmuchaspossible.Theseterms,takendirectlyfromthecontext forthehypothesis,arewar,peace,power,violence,development,neutrality,nonalignment, nonviolence,security,insecurity,underdevelopment,andconflictresolution.Contrasting definitionsofpower,thefoundationstoneofthischapter,whethercharacterizedbyviolenceor
1 nonviolence,leadtoadefinitionofarmedandunarmeddiplomacy. Thesedefinitionsprepare

thewayfordefiningneutralityandnonalignmentinpeacekeepingandconflictresolution.The definitionsarethenusedtoelaborateuponwarandpeaceforastateorstatessurroundedby intense,prolonged,andintermittentwar. Theresearchmethodologyfortheseapproacheswillrelyonarchivalandhistorical sources,amplifiedby primarysourceinterviewsonsuchinternationalrelations,particularlyin

1 CostaRicansuseunarmeddiplomacy,asopposedtoarmeddiplomacy,astermstodistinguishwhattheycall

diplomacyfromthatpracticedbyotherstates(thatmayrelymoreuponcomplementarymilitaryanddiplomatic options).

2 Washington,D.C.,SanJos,Managua,andHavana. Thisdescriptiveandnarrative 3 methodology,sometimestechnicallycalledhermeneuticsininternationalrelationsdiscourse,

will beappliedtotheprimaryhypothesisthatnonviolentinternationalconflictresolutionhas promotedpeace,security,anddevelopmentinCostaRica.Thisprimaryhypothesisconcerns especiallytheyearsbetween1914and1984.Exploringthishypothesisshouldhelpaswellto analyzeitsconverse,thesecondaryhypothesis,thatviolentinternationalconflictresolution, specificallytheremilitarizationofCostaRicabytheUnitedStates,promotedwar,insecurity,and underdevelopmentinCostaRicainthe1980s. Totestthishypothesisanditsconverse,theargumentthatfollowswilladdressthetheory, method,andoutcomeofinternationalconflictresolutioninthecontextofCostaRica.Thusthe firstthreechapters(PartOne)willanalyzethetheoreticalpremisesforconflictresolution,the nextthreechapters(PartTwo),themethodsforresolvingconflict,andthelastthreechapters (PartThree),theoutcomesofconflictresolution.Thisanalysisoftheory,method,andoutcome isintendedtounderscoretheemergingdifferentiationofconflictresolutionininternational relations.Theoretically,therearethreemajorapproaches,aworldorderapproach,ananti
4 dependencyapproach,andanonviolentapproach,towardinternationalconflictresolution. The

firstchapterintroducesCostaRicaandthetermsmentionedabove,namely,war,peace,power, violence,development,neutrality,nonalignment,nonviolence,security,insecurity, underdevelopment,andconflictresolution.Theworldorder,antidependency,andnonviolent

2 Conflictresolutionwithininternationalrelationswillbedefinedasthestudyandthepracticeofthepowerneeded

topreventorresolvewarbetweenstates.ThisdefinitionderivesfromBertrandRussell, RoadstoFreedom, Socialism,Anarchism,andSyndicalism(London:GeorgeAllen&Unwin,1966),98and104108.Russellwasa founderofantinuclearpacifism.ReactionsagainstRussellbyoneofhisstudents,LudwigWittgenstein in Tractatus (1922)and PhilosophicalInvestigations (1953) havehelpedshapetherealismandneorealism currently dominatinginternationalrelationstheory(tobedescribedastheworldorderapproach).Fortreatmentof theresearchdataandsourcesusedtofocusthisdissertation,seeAppendicesBandC. 3 Asfoundin,forexample,thehermeneuticsofArneNaess,NoamChomsky,MohandasGandhi,DenisGoulet, FlorenceKelley,MahendraKumar,SydneyBailey,HelenaTuomi,RaimoVyrynen,JanTinbergen,AnnetteBaker Fox,WilliamT.R.Fox,FrancesMooreLapp,RuthLegerSivard,andJosNstorMoureloAguilar.Theauthors useoftheterm hermeneutics isderivedfromthecognitivemappingterminologyusedbyMatthewBonham, professorofInternationalRelationsinTheAmericanUniversity.Contextualorhermeneuticalthinkingcanbe definedastheattempt...to`walkaroundthetotalityofasituationandarriveatastrategythatisappropriaterather thanuniversal....SeeUrsulaM.Franklin,TheSecondScientist, CanadianForum65(Dec.1985):S3ff. 4 Theapproachesasdescribedweredevelopedbytheauthorand AbdulAzizSaidfrom1985to1991,incocreating afoundationaltheorycourseforpeaceandconflictresolutionstudies complementedbyacapstone,graduate, integrativeresearchcourse foracurriculummatrixininternationalrelationstheory,method,andpractice.The descriptivetermsfortheseapproachesmayvarywithvariousviewpointsforsuchapproaches,outlooks,or paradigmsthatmaponesviewofreality.

approachesarebuiltuponfourcoreconceptsembodiedinthethreeapproachespower(aterm andaconcept),force,conflict,andcoercion tobediscussedinchaptertwo.

5 Thefirstoftheapproachesdiscussedinchapterthree,theworldorderapproach,

resolvesconflictthroughviolenceorthethreatofviolenceunderthecontrolofahierarchical powersystem.Thesecond,orantidependencyapproach,alsoreliesuponahierarchicalsystem, butpreferslessviolenceandmoredemocraticinputinitsuseofpower.Inthiscontextpoweris usedtoopposedependencyupontheindustrializedworldsmanufacturedgoods,includingarms, paidforbyrawmaterialsfromtheThirdWorld.Thethird,thenonviolentapproach,restsonthe consensualpoliticaluseofpowertoresolveconflict.Insuchahierarchyofviolenceand nonviolence,theUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionoftenrepresentaworldorderapproach, whereasSwedenorTanzaniamightrepresentanantidependencyapproachandVanuatuor CostaRicathenonviolentapproach.Thesethreeoverlappingapproachesoperateonaspectrum orcontinuumofviolencetononviolence. Howweresolvewhatweseeasconflictisaquestionofmethod.Explorationofconflict resolutionmethodsin PartTwo,thethreemiddlechapters,willbeginwiththeUnitedNations GeneralAssemblydebateonsecurity,disarmament,anddevelopment.Thistriangularconflict resolutiondebateconcernshowsecurity,disarmament,anddevelopmentareessentialtoeach
6 otherformakingpeace. Thedebatereflectsacompromiseforallthreeoftheapproaches,

blendingsecurityandecologicalconcernswiththeruleoflaw,butdoesnoteffectivelymeasure
7 conflictintensityorconflictresolutionpotential. Tomeasureinternationalconflictintensityand

conflictresolutionpotential,chapterfivewillintroduceaquantitativeindicatorofsocialviolence derivedfromastatesnumbersofwardeadovertwentyyeartimespans,from19451985,
5 PleaserefertoAppendixA,AnEtymologyoftheThreeApproaches,aswellastospecificreferencesabout

GrenvilleClarkinchapter3forthechoiceofthephrase worldorder.Unfortunatelythisphrasehasalsobeen uncriticallyusedbywritersunawareofClarksproU.S.,culturalbiasesforautarchicmilitarysecurityand intelligence policymaking.Futuretheoristsmorecognizantofplanetarylimitsmaywellbemorecriticalof worldcentrictheories. 6 Seechapter4fordiscussionofthisdebate.Theimportantdocumentforthisdebateiscommonlycalledthe ThorssonReportseeU.N.,SecretaryGeneral, StudyontheRelationshipBetweenDisarmamentandDevelopment (5Oct.1981),A/36/356.Thethreeapproaches,relativelyviolentornonviolent,measuredinchapter5,arewhat mightbealsocalledindependentvariablesfortheoutcomesinPart3. 7 Unlessnotedotherwise,allofthedefinitionsoftermswhichfollowwillbetheauthorsown.Sincetheterm CentralAmerica doesnotalwaysincludePanama,theterms isthmus and isthmian willbeusedforthestates betweenMexicoandColombia.Thephrase WesternCaribbeanwilldenotetheisthmianstatesandthestatessouth andwestofCubaandtheDominicanRepublic,includingCuba,Haiti,Jamaica,Colombia,Venezuela,andthe DominicanRepublic(nottheBahamas).Theterms Americanand Americaswillrefertothewholewestern hemisphere,includingCanadaandLatinAmerica,notmerelytheU.S.

dividedbythatstatespopulation.Methodswhicharenowbeingemployedtoresolveconflictin CostaRicawillbediscussedinChapterSix. PartThree,thelastthreechapters,ontheoutcomesofviolentandnonviolentconflict resolution,beginswithananalysisofthebarrierstosecurityresultingfromdrugsand militarization,highlightedbytheanalysisoftheoryandmethodinthefirsttwoparts.Poverty andviolencestemmingfromanisthmianarmsanddrugbusiness(ChapterSeven)andan internationaldebt(ChapterEight)havecharacterizedmuchisthmianconflictresolutionthusfar. However,duringthelate1980s,isthmiannationsbeganlayingfoundationsfordemocratic UnitedNationsconflictresolution.ChapterNinewillconcludewiththepossibilitiesforconflict resolutioninthefuture.AllthreepartswillfocusonillustrativeissuesspecifictoCostaRica.

Power:ForConquestorforMutualBenefit Historically,CostaRicahastendedtowardthenonviolentsideofacontinuumfrom nonviolencetoviolence,preferringneutralityoveralignmentornonalignment,andunarmed, nonviolentdiplomacyoverantidependencyorworldorderapproachestointernationalconflict resolution.Asoneofahandfulofanomalousstatesclaimingnottohavemilitaryforces,Costa RicahasthustriedtoemphasizewhatKennethBouldingcallsintegrativeorbeneficial power. Bouldingdescribessuchintegrativepowerasmorepowerfulandlonglastingthantheothertwo kindsofpower orientedtowardproductiveexchange(theantidependencyapproach)or towarddeterrentanddestructivethreats(theworldorderapproach).Heproposesthatthetrue mainstreamininternationalrelationsistheunarmed,neutralapproach,nottheothertwo
8 approacheswiththedisruptionanddestructionthattheycause.

CostaRicashistoricalisolationandpeacefulculturalvalueshavebeenprimaryfactorsin itsanomalous,neutralstancetowardpowerandconflict.Thisneutralstancefavorspower definedastheabilitytoeffectmutualchangeformutualbenefitthroughcooperationand

8 KennethBoulding,

ThreeFacesofPower(Newbury,CA:SAGE,1989),1011,2431,61,109123,17187,and 234.JohnKennethGalbraithalsodefinedpowerinthreeways.HaroldDavistriedtoequatethisthreefoldidentity ofpowerwiththethreemajorconceptsofknowledge,scientific,relativistorexistential,andreligious. SeeHaroldDavis,HistoryandPower,TheSocialRelevanceofHistory (Lanham,MD:UniversityPressofAmerica, 1983),27.Forasimilarcontrastbetweentherealistormaterialiststressonstateforeignpolicyandidealistor normativeviewsofinternationalresponsibility,asexpressedbyorganizationsoftheUnitedNations,seeLynn Miller, GlobalOrder,ValuesandPowerinInternationalPolitics,2ded.(Boulder,Co:WestviewPress,1990),73 97.TheauthorisgratefultoAbdulAzizSaidforinsightshereandthroughoutthischapterontheconceptofpower.

nonviolence,overpowerdefinedastheabilitytoeffectconquestorcontrolthroughviolence. NonviolentconflictresolutionhasworkedwellinCostaRica,despitetheongoingwarsthathave clusteredintheisthmus. Costa RicaoccupiesanareaonethirdthesizeofNicaraguaandonetenththesizeofthe

9 wholeisthmianregion. ThepivotalSanJuanRiversystemfedbyLakeNicaragualinks

northernCostaRicatoNicaragua.Whetherornotthissharedriversystemwillbedeveloped intoaconservationpark,anotherinteroceaniccanal,orsomethirdoption,itsfuture developmentwilldemandfullinternationalcooperationlikethatwhichmakestheCanadianand UnitedStatesSt.LawrenceSeawaypossible. AmajorityofCostaRicasthreemillionpeople,descendedfromSpanishBasque, Catalan,andGalicianimmigrants,liveonacentralinteriorplateaubetween4,000to5,000feet

10 abovesealevel.Thisplateaucontainsthemajorurbancenterssuchasthecapital,SanJos.

Historically,though,lifehasbeenlesscomfortablebelowthisplateau,alongthedamp,humid, andmalariaproneCaribbeancoastortheSanJuanRiverfurthernorth. AccordingtoJohnGerassi,CostaRicaandNicaraguahavesharedoneofthemostoften

11 invadedriverroutesinAmericanhistory. Intheearly1600s,theFranciscansestablishedsmall

communitiesinCartago,buttheIndianscontinuedtorepulsesettlersandgoldseekersalongthe AtlanticCoast.Bythenineteenthcentury,EnglishpiratesfinallytraveleduptheSanJuanRiver, portagingthedifficultlastfewmilesbeforeLakeNicaragua,tolootaroundthatlake.Butthey

12 couldcolonizeonlytheeasternpartofNicaraguaandCostaRicavergingontheSanJuan. 13 Withtheneardisappearanceof itsaboriginalpeople, CostaRicabegantoresemble

thoseAmericanstateslargelydominatedbypeopleofethnicEuropeanbackground,suchas Chile,Canada,Uruguay,Argentina,andtheUnitedStates.Duelargelytothefactthatitwasnot
9 SocialIndicatorsofDevelopment,1985

(Baltimore:WorldBank[WBK]/JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1988). ComparewithRodrigoCamachoElisondo, AtlasGeogrficoDidctico (Heredia:Ed.R.Camacho,1980).Costa Ricacovers20,000squaremiles,dividedinto7provincesand81cantons.CostaRicahasapproximately3million peopleandNicaraguaapproximately4millionpeople. 10 ElenadelaSouchre,CostaRica:CitadelofDemocracy,MonthlyReview [MRW]7(May1955):5962.This centralplateauiscalledlagranmeseta. 11 JohnGerassi,Nicaragua,Shmate13(Fall1985):18. 12 TroyS.Floyd,TheAngloSpanishStruggleforMosquitia (Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexico,1967),712 and2930. 13 CarolynHall, CostaRica,UnaInterpretacinGeogrficaconPerspectiveHistorical (SanJos:EditorialCosta Rica,1984),5965and72.After200yearsofSpanishinfluence,thesurvivingCostaRicaIndiansnumberedunder 1%oftheiroriginalpopulation.ThesurvivorsretreatedintotheSanJuanRiverareaandthehighfoothillsofthe TilaranandTalamancaMountains,amountainrangereachingover12,000ft.abovesealevel.

asinternallydividedalongraciallinesasnationslikeIsraelandtheRepublicofSouthAfrica, CostaRicagainedprestigeasaLatinSwitzerland.Indeed,fromtheearly1940sto1985, CostaRicadevotedconsiderablymoreofitspercapitagrossnationalproduct(GNP)to

14 educationandotherhumanneedsthananyofitsneighboringisthmianstates.

Withintheisthmus,CostaRicaisalsounusualinitsaccesstocleanwater.Inanera whenpoorwatersuppliescorrelatehighlywithThirdWorlddiseaseandmalnutrition,Costa RicaandNicaraguahavesharedthelargestfreshwaterriversystemintheisthmus,leadingfrom

15 thelargestinlandlake. Moreimportantly,CostaRicangroundwaterisnotyetcontaminated

bythesalineinfiltrationandsurfacewatercontaminationthatadverselyaffectshealthinthe otheristhmianstates.Consequently,ThirdWorldwaterbornediseasesaggravatedbydrought
16 arealsolessprevalenthere. CostaRicahasuseditswatersurpluspredominantlytoproduce

hydroelectricpowerandtoraisecashcrops,especiallycoffee,arawresourcecommodityoften
17 ratedsecondonlytooilinworldmarketvalue.

PowerforJustWarThroughViolence SinceCostaRicasconflictresolutionviewsdevelopedwithinaEuropeannationstate system,thetraditionalEuropeanconceptofpowerisfundamentalforunderstandingCostaRican conflictresolution.InthisEuropeanview,powerisconceivedpoliticallyasanabilitytoconquer andcontrolbyviolence(injustwar).Europeanscalledtheresultaninternational balanceof power,underwhichconquerornationscouldarrangetreatiesagainstwaramongthemselves. ThisviewofpowerhasbeenusedtojustifytheviolentconquestofAsians,Africans,orNative Americans,peoplesoutsidetheEuropeanculturalboundaries.

14 JozefGoldblatandVictorMilln,TheCentralAmericanCrisisandtheContadoraSearchforRegionalSecurity,

inStockholmInternationalPeace ResearchInstitute [SIPRI]Yearbook,1986,WorldArmamentsandDisarmament (NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1986),52728. 15 H.JeffreyLeonard, NaturalResourcesandEconomicDevelopmentinCentralAmerica (NewBrunswick,NJ: InternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment,1987),12and117.Acanalalongthisborderwould comparewiththeSuez,WhiteSea,or(German)MittlelandCanals,allmorethan100nauticalmileslong.The PanamaCanalisabout50nauticalmileslong,andtheSaultSte.Mariesystemoflocks(U.S.andCanada)under3 nauticalmileslongseeTheGreatShipCanalsoftheWorld,inJohnBartholomew,ed., TheHandyReference AtlasoftheWorld,14thed.,EdinburghandLondon:JohnBartholomew&Son,Ltd.,1940),13.See alsoAlistair Couper, TheTimesAtlasoftheOceans(NewYork:VanNostrandReinholdCo.,1983),15253. 16 CharlesCunningham,etal.,EarthandWaterResourcesandHazardsinCentralAmerica(Washington,D.C.: UnitedStatesDepartmentoftheInterior,GeologicalSurveyCircular925,n.d.[1980s?]),1112. 17 TomBarry,BethWood,andDebPreusch,Dollars&Dictators,AGuidetoCentralAmerica (Albuquerque,New Mexico:ResourceCenter,1982),23.

Asconceivedinthenationstatesystem,thisviolentuseofpowerderivedinlargepart fromthetheoreticalwritingsofFranciscoSurezinthelate1500s.Surezdefinedpowerfor justwartorationalizeSpainsAmericanconquest,focusedinPeru,Mexico,andtheisthmus. Others,likeHugoGrotius,usedSurezviewofpowertodefendEuropeancolonialismandto

18 suppressinternalnonviolentoppositiontothiscolonialisminEurope. Grotiusjustifiedthis

theorybyappealingtotheprecedentsofcapitalpunishmentandmaledominanceininternational
19 law. ThetheoriesofSurezandGrotiuswouldanchorinternationallawtojustwars.

Fromthe1500stothe1900s,stateslikeCostaRicaupgradedstateauthorityby institutionalizingviolencethroughmilitaryconscription.Standingarmies,onceestablished,
20 impelledthenationstatesystemtowardviolentconflictresolution. DuringtheRevolutionary

Warinthe1770s,forinstance,theUnitedStatesAlienandSeditionLawsbegan torequire
21 punishmentandimprisonmentforpeoplewhoavoidedparticipationinmilitaryviolence.

AdamSmith,arepresentativetheoristofstateauthorityforwar,praisedstandingarmiesasthe bestshieldforcivilization,thoughFranoisVoltaire,athinkerclosertothe19141984Costa
22 Ricanposition,cursedthemas...hiredmurderersandthescumofthenation.

Antirevolutionaryviolenceinthenationstatebecamegroundedinmilitaryconscription,
23 asthepaidsoldiercametopersonifyviolentmeansforcivicends. Afterthe1860s,writerslike

FrancisLieberandElihuRoot,followingtheviolenttrendsoriginatingwithSurezandGrotius,
24 constructedinternationalrulesforwarfromtheviolentEuropeanconceptofpower. Bythe

18 LeroyWalters,FiveClassicJustWarTheories:AStudyintheThoughtofThomasAquinas,Surez,Gentili,and

Grotius(Ph.D.diss.,YaleUniversity,1971),23355.Surezestablishedajustwarethicforthenationstatesystem fromprecedentsthatAugustineandThomasAquinashadestablishedforthechurch. 19 JonathanDymond, EssaysonthePrinciplesofMoralityandonthePrivateandPoliticalRightsandObligations ofMankind (London:Hodder&Stoughton,1880),27071and399403.Thepracticeofmaledominanceiscalled patriarchy. 20 MahendraKumar,ViolenceandNonviolenceinInternationalRelations(NewDelhi:ThomsonPress[India]Ltd., 1975),7688and170202.Incontrast,ancientHebraicviewsreflectedaninner,nonviolentlawcalledrach halayvay,defendingtherighttorefusetokill,whichbarredsoldiersormilitaryleadersfromreligioustasksthat definedtheJewsasapeople.SeeRolandGittelsohn,JudaismonWar,Peace,andConscientiousObjection, JewishDigest (April1970):5155.Overtime,stateauthoritywastobecomecloselyidentifiedwiththepowerto makewar,whileindividualauthoritywascompartmentalizedindomesticandreligiousspheres. 21 LeonWhipple, TheStoryofCivilLibertyintheUnitedStates(NewYork:VanguardPress,1927),7and2134. 22 AlfredVagts, AHistoryofMilitarism,RomanceandRealitiesofaProfession (NewYork:W.W.Norton&Co., 1937),78and80.Reasonsforhighlighting1914to1984willbecomeapparentinthediscussionofeconomicforce inchapter2. 23 PaulDeatsandGlendaYoder,ProtestantSocial EthicsandPacifism,inThomasA.Shannon,ed.,Waror Peace?TheSearchforNewAnswers(Maryknoll,NY:OrbisBooks,1982),76.Confusionoverendsandmeans withinindustrializedEuropeancolonialismhasbeenassociatedwithKarlMarxandMaxWeber. 24 RichardShellyHartigan,LiebersCodeandtheLawofWar (Chicago:Precedent,1983),1.

1930s,theoristslikeHansMorgenthauwouldcharacterizethekindofstateneutralityfavoredby
25 CostaRicaasimmoral,anddefendnationstateviolenceasanevolutionarynecessity.

PowerforMutualBenefitThroughNonviolence Recognitionofthepotentialforultimateviolencewhichdawnedin1945withtheadvent oftheatomicage,began,paradoxically,totransformviolentapproachestowar,notonlyin Europebutalsoinwarzonessuchastheisthmus.Thisawarenessbegantoachievecriticalmass withscientificdiscoveriesin1982,asscientistsbegantorejectwarbecauseoftheunacceptable

26 risksthatbecameknowncollectivelyasnuclearwinterratherthanwar. Underthisnew

consciousness,worldordercouldnotbeimposedbynuclearweaponswithoutconsideringthe possibilityofanomnicidalbacklashwhichmightalsoobliteratethestatethathadstartedthe conflict. Thisconsciousnessledtoanalyticalstalematesinplaceswherenuclearwarhadbeen consideredaviableoptionforconflictmanagement,suchasEasternEurope,theMiddleEast, andtheWesternCaribbean.VeilednuclearthreatsintheCaribbeanhaveechoedfromthe

27 UnitedStatesthroughCuba,Panama,andPuertoRicosincethelate1940s. Butthisdoubt

25 NielsAmstrup,The`EarlyMorgenthau,ACommentontheIntellectualOrigins,

CooperationandConflict 13 (1978):16572.SeealsoHaroldLasswell,Politics,WhoGetsWhat,When,How (NewYork:PeterSmith,1950),3 and104107. 26 JohnBirksandPaulCrutzen,TheAtmosphereAfteraNuclearWar:TwilightatNoon, Ambio 11(1982):114 125.Thisawarenesscamefromvariouscomputersimulatedscenariosofnuclearwinter.SeealsoOwenToon, JamesPollack,CarlSagan,RobertTurco,andThomasAckerman,NuclearWinter:GlobalConsequencesof MultipleNuclearExplosions, Science,1983,128392[U.S.DepartmentofDefense],TheEffectsonthe AtmosphereofaMajorNuclearExchange (Washington,D.C.:NationalAcademyofSciences,1985)andOwen Greene,IreneRidge,andIanPercival,NuclearWinter,TheEvidenceandtheRisks(Cambridge,England:Polityand Blackwells,1985).Forthepossibilityofhumanextinction,resultingfromacombinationofnuclearwinter, radioactivecontamination,andburningpesticidesandpollutants,asaftereffectsofnuclearwar,seeYuriSvirezhev, etal., EcologicalandDemographicConsequencesofaNuclearWar(Berlin:AkademieVerlag,1987),910and 108.Seealsochapter8,includingdiscussionoftheNeptunePapersusedinGreenpeacescampaignforNuclear FreeSeas. 27 U.S.forceswithnuclearcapabilitywerestationedinaPuertoRicanStrategicAirCommand(SAC)base beginningin the1940s.PuertoRicoalsofunctionedasthecenterfortheU.S.dominatedCaribbeanNaval Commandafter1939.MeanwhiletheU.S.AirForceusedPanama,withitscrucialCanalZone(openedin1914),as thecenterfortheU.S.dominatedCaribbeanAirForce atonetimetryingtoforceanagreementforrentingone particularPanamanianbaseatRoHatofor999years.TheGibraltaroftheU.S.,itsairandnavalbasein Guantnamo,Cuba(theoldestU.S.baseoverseas,openedin1903)haslinkedthese twoairandnavycommands apparentlyallfurnishedwithnuclearcapability.SeeJorgeRodrguezBeruff,PolticaMilitaryDominacin,Puerto RicoenelContextoLatinoamricano (RoPiedras,PR:EdicionesHuracn,1988),4143,16164,17072,209210, and228.SeealsoHumbertoGarcaMuiz,LaEstrategiadeEstadoUnidosylaMilitarizacindelCaribe (Ro Piedras,PR:UniversityofPuertoRico,1988),4850,57,66,and82orMartinScheina,TheU.S.Presencein Guantanamo, StrategicReview (Spring1976):4andGilbertoTosteBallarte, Guantnamo:U.S.A.alDesnudo (Havana:Ed.deCienciasSociales,1983),87.Pleaseseealsochapters5and8.

10

aboutthedeterrentvalueofnuclearweaponshasledotherstoquestionmassiveuseoflethal forceintheThirdWorld.TheongoingpopulationshiftsthatincreasinglycrowdThirdWorld statesandexacerbateconflict(andawideningpovertygap)havealsocontributedtothe

28 rethinkingofoldpremises.

Dissentingfromtheworldorderviewpopularduringtheinventionofnuclearweapons (aswillbeshowninchapterthree),CostaRicahastriedsinceitsformationasastatein1821to
29 usepowerastheabilitytoeffectmutualchangeformutualbenefitbynonviolentcooperation.

Toillustratethispoint,itmaybehelpfultorememberIndia,wellknowninbothancienttimes (forexample,duringthereignofAshoka)andagaininrecenthistory(forexample,duringthe Samarajor1920s1940sindependencestruggle)foritsinnovativeexplorationsofsuch nonviolentpowerasatoolforchange.Theseexplorationsprimarilytriedtodemythologizewar

30 byexposingthebloodyrealitybeneaththemasksofviolentglory,honor,andpatriotism. They

beganwithpeoplelikePatanjali,whose2,000yearoldworksinspiredMohandasandKasturbai GandhiinIndia.Suchexplorationsofthefoundationalnatureofpoweroffereddemocratic
31 strategiesforresolvingconflictsinSoutheastAsia,theMiddleEast,andSouthernAfrica.

Furtherdiplomaticallypatternedexplorationsofthisphilosophicalnonviolencehaveranged fromIndiasattemptsatnonalignedmilitarypowertoCostaRicasneutralityandtheabolitionof
32 itsmilitarypower.

28 Populationshiftswhichreflectedhigherthanusualfertilityratesinzonesofconflict,complicated

bymassive desertification,representednonmilitarythreatstosecurityonascalepreviouslythoughtinconceivable.Inspiteof suchillunderstoodnonmilitarythreatstosecurity,about90%ofallspaceresearchinthe1980swenttoarmfuture warsdefendingthenationstatesystemsee EconomicandSocialConsequencesoftheArmsRaceandofMilitary Expenditures (NewYork:U.N.DepartmentforDisarmamentAffairs,1983),19,2425,36,and59. 29 UnarmeddiplomacywasapparentinCostaRicaespeciallyfrom19141984,the70yeartimeperiodwhichwillbe exploredthroughoutthisdissertation ahighpointbeingthe1948abolitionofitsmilitarypower. 30 JohnM.Swomley,Jr., AmericanEmpire,PoliticalEthicsofTwentiethCenturyConquest (NewYork:Macmillan, 1970),1721.SeealsoJohnSwomley,LiberationEthics(NewYork:Macmillan,1972),183202ortheworksof FrantzFanon.TheseexamplesofAshokaandSamarajwillbediscussedinchapter2. 31 Asynthesisofthisphilosophicaltraditioncanbefound inArab,Jewish,orFarsiauthorslikeThecla,IsaacLuria, alHallaj,IbnalArabi,andRabiaalAdawiyyah,philosophicallyindebtedtoIndianwriterslikePatanjaliin particularseeAnielaJaffe,TheMythofMeaning(NewYork:Putnams,1971),12227orPitirimA.Sorokin, The WaysandPowerofLove (Montclair,NJ:PeltonPublishingCorp.,1976),769,24461,and35657.ForIndian interventioninKorea,theCongo,SoutheastAsia(LaosandVietnam),andEgypt(theSuezCanal),seeRikhiJaipal, BalanceofPowerintheNuclearAge(NewDelhi:Allied,1989),7477and165201andRikhiJaipal, Nonalignment,Origins,GrowthandPotential(NewDelhi:Allied,1983). 32 Foraconciseoverview,seePaulHubers,AGlobalMethodologyofNonviolence,Gandhi Marg (NewDelhi, India)97(April1987):1719.OneofthefirstThirdWorldstatestogainindependencefromEuropeancolonialism, Indiaisprojecteddemographicallytobecomethe21stcenturyslargeststate,surpassingChina.See World PopulationattheTurnoftheCentury(NewYork:U.N.,PopulationStudiesNo.111,1989),8and5253.Other states,likeJapan,despiteitsconstitutionallaw(sections3and7),haveoptedtorebuildonpastmilitarystructures.

11

ArmedorUnarmedDiplomacy StateslikeIceland,Barbados,Vanuatu,CostaRica,andIndiaattimes,inajudicious balancingoftheirnationalinterests,haveappliedrelatively unarmeddiplomacy,conflict resolutionthataccentuatesbargainingandconsensus.Thesestatesregardedarmeddiplomacyas violenceandathreattomutualsecurity.Pioneersoftheconceptofbeneficialandintegrative powerinunarmeddiplomacyflourishedduringthesixthtothefifthcenturyB.C.E.,from Buddha,Pyrrho,Ezekiel,Jeremiah,Pythagoras,MoTi,andMahaviraJinatoincludeYeshua

33 ofNazarethandTheclaofKonyalaterintheMiddleEast.

OneoftheclearestexpressionsofsuchunarmeddiplomacycamefromMoTi,duringthe fifthcenturyB.C.E.ChouDynastyinChina,inthetimeoftheBuddha,Confucius,LaoTse,and SunTse.MoTirejectedtheworldorderapproachofConfuciusinChinaandKautilyain

34 India. Heoptedinsteadforunarmeddiplomacy,reinforcedbyneutrality,nonviolentmartial

arts(likejiujitsu,abbreviatedasjudo), anemphasisonfactualanalysisofhistory,andadeep
35 concernforthewellbeingofpeopleandthestate. Optionssuchashis,however,werelargely 36 ignoredinthedevelopmentoftheEuropeannationstatesystem.

CostaRicastraditionofunarmeddiplomacydrewfromEuropeanculturewhatmight bestbeidentifiedaspreAthenianscepticism,modifiedbyEuropeanpoliticalphilosophy. Definingthemselvesassearchersforunknownpeaceortruth,Scepticswereconvincedthat impressionsmaybeeitherrightorwrongdependingoncontext,butnottrueorfalseinisolation. EarlyScepticsopposedtheStoicsandEpicureans,whoseisolatedempiricalfactswere fundamentaltoEuropeannationalistsintherealismofthe1800sandtheneorealismofthe

33 KennethBoulding,

ThreeFaces,234.

34 In1904,anAsianreminderofaworldorderapproachdatingfromtheeraofMoTiwasaccidentallyrediscovered

inMysore,India.Thisrelic,anArthaShastrabyKautilya,describedupeksha,anotioncontrastingneutrality definedasnonparticipationby aneutralstateinforeignwar withnonalignment,definedasminimalstate participationinforeignwar.SeeGirijaMookerjee,Diplomacy,TheoryandHistory (NewDelhi:Trimurti Publications,Ltd.,1973),58. 35 YiPaoMei,ed.andtrans.,MoTse[Ti], TheNeglectedRivalofConfucius (London:ArthurProbstain,1934),17, 23,4647,57,64,109144,and18395. 36 TheAmericanequivalentheremayhavebeenthenativethinkerswhousedtheXochicalcoValleyinsouthern Mexico,betweenMexicoCityandAcapulco,forneutralnegotiationtoresolveorpreventwarthroughoutthe isthmusoveramilleniumago.ThisvalleylaterbecamethehomeoftheDiegoRiverafamily,renownedforits placeintherenaissanceofindigenousthemesinLatinAmericanart.Visitedbytheauthor(Spring1974).Costa RicahasfunctionedasanotherXochicalco.ForfurtherdiscussionofEuropeannonviolence,pleaseseechapter2for adiscussionoftheHistoricPeaceChurchesinthecontextoftheU.N.workofAndrewCordier.

12

37 1900s. TheScepticsalsosoughttounderminetheculturalorlinguisticbiasthatcategorizedall

availabledatatofittheconceptsandmetaphorsofviolentpower.CostaRicascommitmentto resolveeach conflictinitsowncontext,seekingpeacethroughnegotiationinsteadofviolentconflict,has

38 beencharacterizedprofoundlybyitsrootsinsuchscepticism.

Afterthe1850s,CostaRicanuseofunarmeddiplomacyincreasedandbroughtwithita decreaseddependenceonconscription.CostaRicatwicemobilizedaboutthreepercentofits populationasamilitiatodeflectaggressionfromUnitedStatesprivateers,firstinthe1850sto stopWilliamWalker,andagaininthelate1940storesolvemorecomplicatedviolencetobe describedinchapterthree.Buteachtime,incontrasttodominanttrendstowardapermanentwar economyfollowingsuchmilitarizationandmobilizationforwar,CostaRicadisbandedits

39 volunteerarmyafterward. ThusCostaRicaavoidedthedictatorshipsresponsibleformany

isthmianwars,exemplifiedbytheUbico,Somoza,andHernndezMartnezfamiliesrespectively inGuatemala,Nicaragua,andElSalvador.Similarnonviolentviewpointshaveemergedinthe UnitedStatesfromleaderscriticalofviolentnationalism,withitsimplicitallegiancetoaviolent conceptofpower.MartinLutherKing,Jr.,forexample,contestedpowergroundedinviolence

40 andcampaignedforpowerastheabilitytoeffectmutualchangeformutualbenefit. Searching

forcooperativewaystoconvertnationstatepowerconceptstowardnonviolence,kindred politicaltheoristshavethusadvancedthetraditionsofunarmeddiplomacy,suchasthatofIndia duringthe1930sandCostaRicabeforethe1980s.

37 FonsElders,

ReflexiveWater,TheBasicConcernsofMankind(London:Condor/SouvenirPress,1974),2831and 27475andArthurEddington, ThePhilosophyofScience(NewYork:MacMillan,1939),208223.Thethreemain GreekphilosophieswhichinfluencedEuropeanpoliticalphilosophywereScepticism,Epicureanism,andStoicism. Stoicismbecamethephilosophicalfoundationoftheworldorderapproachtoreality,muchasEpicureanismhas becometherootphilosophyoftheantidependencyoutlook.Fromaphilosophicalviewpoint,scepticismwould becomethehermeneuticrootofnonviolence not,however,tobeconfusedwiththepopularuseoftheword scepticismtomeananticlericalorantireligiouscynicism,originallyderivedfromcynicalstoicorepicureanforms ofdiscourse. 38 ArneNaess,IdeologyandRationality,inMauriceCranstonandPeterMair,ed., IdeologyandPolitics,Idologie etPolitique (Sijtoff,Netherlands:AlphenaandenRijn,1980),13436.NaesswasamajorinfluenceuponJohan Galtung. 39 JacoboSchifter,LaFaseOcultadelaGuerraCivilenCostaRica(SanJos:EDUCA,1968),114and127.See also WorldPopulationProjects,EstimatesandProjectionsasAssessedin1984(NewYork:UnitedNations,1986), 238 andchapter5also.TheoneLatinAmericanstatewithahistoryremotelylikeCostaRicas,Chile, experiencedviolentchangesinthe1920s,1930s,and1970sseeClarenceHaring,ChileMovesLeft,Foreign Affairs[FAS]17(1939):618621.

13

Neutrality,Nonalignment,andNonviolentConflictResolution Theoptionsofneutralityandnonalignmentwithinlessviolentconflictresolutionwere firstappliedtoEuropeanpoliticalphilosophybyJohnBellers.Synthesizingtheseoptions,he examinedtheirinternationalpotentialinDutch,English,Scottish,andTurkishtreaties.Then, remindinghisreadersthattheFrenchEnglishwarshadkilledover600,000people,he

41 recommendedaneutralEuropeanconfederation. Hisphilosophicalsynthesislaidthe

foundationsforWilliamPennsPennsylvaniaexperimentandtheLeagueofNations,governed bypowerdefinedastheabilitytoeffectchangeformutualbenefitandresponsibility. Bellersphilosophicalinsightssurvivedasthefoundationalconceptsforneutralityin stateslikeCostaRicaandinorganizationsliketheUnitedNations.IntheUnitedNations,for example,conflictresolutionwasdefinedasbuildingmultiplestrategiesforpeacefulinstitutions,

42 toovercomeviolentweaponssystemsthatpromoteanxietyasaformofdeterrence. Within

thisoveralldefinitionofconflictresolution,disarmamentwasunderstoodasreducingthe quantitiesofmilitaryarmsinstorage,theirlevelsofproduction,theirdegreesoflethality,andthe
43 expenditurestoprocurethem. Inlikemanner,peacekeepingactionswereseenasmeasures

and techniquesbasedinconflictresolutiontheoryaimedatpreventing,containing,moderating,and
44 terminatinghostilities.

40 MartinLutherKing,Jr.,AComparisonofthe

ConceptionsofGodintheThinkingofPaulTillichandHenry NelsonWieman(Ph.D.diss.,BostonUniversity,1955),286and296.SeealsoCorettaScottKing, MyLifewith MartinLutherKing,Jr. (NewYork:Avon,1969),185and300301,onthesignificanceofIndia. 41 JohnBellers, SomeReasonsforAnEuropeanState,inTaroTerasaki, WilliamPennetlaPaix(Paris:A.Pedone, 1925),13955.BellerslivedintheoldesturbanizedareaofEngland(TheWash),northandeastofCambridge, influencedbytheDutchandtheHanseaticLeague.BooksandarticlesdealingwithBellersandhisinfluenceinthe nearbyvillagesoftheByrons,Godwins,andShelleyswereexploredinfieldtripsbytheauthortoTheWashand thesevillages(Spring1979). 42 SydneyD.Bailey,TheSecretariatoftheUnitedNations (NewYork:UnitedNations,StudyNo.11,Carnegie Endowment,1962),1617and2122.SeealsoWilliamPenn,EssaysTowardsthePresentandFuturePeaceof Europe,inThePeaceofEurope:TheFruitsofSolitudeandOtherWritings(NewYork:E.P.DuttonandCo., 1942). 43 U.N.,SecretaryGeneral, StudyontheRelationshipBetweenDisarmamentandDevelopment (5October1981), A/36/356,15. 44 JackChild,AnalysisandConclusion,inJackChild,ed., ConflictinCentralAmerica:ApproachestoPeaceand Security(London:C.Hurst&Co.,1986),153.SeealsoGeorgeSherry,TheU.N.,InternationalConflictand AmericanSecurity,PoliticalScienceQuarterly [PSQ]101(1986):75864.

14

NeutralityorNonalignment,TheirOriginsandDifferentiation Bydefinition,aneutralstatelikeCostaRicadeclinestoparticipatemilitarilyor economicallyinanyforeignwar. Nonalignedstates,incomparison,maychangetheirpositions onaparticularwarorpartiallyrenounceneutrality.Nonalignedstatesmayalsoseektolessen theirmilitaryandpoliticalorsocioeconomicandculturaldependencyuponnuclearpower blocksorothercombinationsofaggressivestrategies. SuchdefinitionsfirstcamefromaDutchcontemporaryofJohnBellersinthe1600s, CorneliusBijnkershoek,whodefinedneutralitywithininternationallawforthenationstate system.Bijnkershoekdefinedaneutralstateasonethatlimitsitselftodefensivewar.He classifiedneutralityaseitherperfect,thatiscompleteexceptfordefensivewar,orqualified,that is,notperfect. Evensuppliessenttoalleviateaforeignfaminecausedbyasiegenegatedperfect
45 neutrality. TheDaneMartinHbnerremovedtheinconsistenciesofthistermleftoverfrom 46 naturallawtheory, beforethe1815TreatyofViennadefinedSwitzerlandasneutraland 47 establishedneutralrivernavigationrightsontheRhineandtheDanube. CostaRicafirstused

BijnkershoeksdefinitionofqualifiedneutralitytorepelatakeoverattemptbyGuatemalaafter theirmutualindependencefromSpainin1821.InMay 1863,JosMaraMontealegre,president ofCostaRica,alsoinvokedthisneutralitytomediateanendtofortyoddyearsofwarbetween

48 Guatemala,Nicaragua,andElSalvador. Subsequently,thedefinitionofqualifiedneutrality

adoptedbyCostaRicabecameusefulasadefinitionforneutralconflictresolutioninthe
49 OrganizationofAmericanStates.

45 CorneliusvanBijnkershoek,

ATreatiseOntheLawofWar,inTheFirstBook,QuaestionesJurisPublici,trans. anded.byPeterStephenDuPonceau(Philadelphia:Farrand&Nicholas,1810),6668.SeealsoH.Lauterpacht, ed.,LassaFrancisOppenheim, InternationalLaw,Vol.2, Disputes,WarandNeutrality,7thed.(NewYork:David McKayCo.,1961),626.Bijnkershoekalsopioneeredthethreemilelimitonterritorialsovereigntyintheoceans. 46 MartinHbner,DeSaisedesBatimensNeutresouDuDroitQontLesNationsBelligerantesdarreter les NaviresdesPeuplesAmis(TheHague:DanishGovernmentandAcademiedesInscriptionsetBellesLettresde Paris,1759),3049and226311.Seealso,MartinHbner, DelSecuestrodBastimentiNeutraliovverodelDirito cheHannolenazioniBelligerantidarrestareiBastimentidPopoliAmici (Geneva:FeliceRepettoCannetoPress, 1758). 47 ArthurNussbaum, AConciseHistoryoftheLawofNations (NewYork:Macmillan,1947),137and17980. 48 ManuelE.ArayaIncera,HistoricalFoundationsofCostaRicanNeutrality,Mimeo,trans.byAdolfJonker,from LaNeutralidaddeCostaRicayLasNeutralidadesdeEuropa,SemejanzasyDiferencias,Conferenceatthe NationalTheater,SanJos(November1984),28. 49 SydneyBailey,TheGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNations,AStudyofProcedureandPractice(NewYork: Praeger,1964),2435andDanielWood,ArmedForcesinCentralandSouthAmerica(London:Institutefor StrategicStudies,No.34,1967),2.OtherorganizationsparalleledtheOAS:theLeagueofArabStates(1945)and theOrganizationofAfricanUnity(1963).ForapioneerOASpeacekeepingmissionin19481949,involvingCosta RicaandNicaragua,seeJackChild,ed., RegionalCooperationforDevelopmentandthePeacefulSettlementof

15

InEuropeduringthe1800sthisconceptofneutralitywasbadlybruisedbyNapoleon Bonaparte,inamannersimilartolaterCostaRicanexperienceswiththeUnitedStates.But neutralitysurvivedintheGenevaConventionsforthetreatmentofprisoners,civilians,medical

50 personnel,andcasualtiesintimeofwar. ThroughtheadvocacyofManuelMaradePeraltain

thelate1800s,moreover,theUnitedStatesrecognizedCostaRicanneutralityinatreaty regardingthepotentialforaneutralinteroceaniccanalalongthesharedborderbetweenCosta
51 RicaandNicaragua.

AconfluenceofanalogousinterestsstrengthenedtheHaguePeaceConferences,which begantoincludeThirdWorldstateslikeCostaRicabytheearly1900s.However,isthmianand ThirdWorldneutralityornonalignmentcontinuedtobeconstrainedbystatessuchastheUnited States.In19321934,theLeagueofNationssentseventyfiveColombian soldierstoresolvea PeruColombiadispute.ButUnitedStatesactionsinGuatemala(1954),Cuba(19611962),the

52 DominicanRepublic(19641965),andNicaragua(the1980s)reliedmainlyonviolentforce.

Inthelate1980stheUnitedNationsbegantoplanforisthmianpeacekeeping.United Nationsinvolvementwasplannedon15March1989inNewYorkCity,andduringa
53 preliminary2930March1989isthmianforeignministersmeetinginSanJos. TheUnited

NationsplannedtodeployobserversandlogisticalpersonnelalongthebordersofNicaragua
54 withCostaRicaandHonduras,andontheGulfofFonsecatouchingElSalvador. Negotiations

forthisinterventionwerehandledinsidetheUnitedNationsbyMarrackGoulding,whoalong withJeanClaudeAimehadsucceededBrianUrquhartincoordinatingUnitedNationsconflict resolution.MiguelDEscoto(Nicaragua),CarlosJosGutirrezGutirrez(CostaRica),and

DisputesinLatinAmerica (NewYork:InternationalPeaceAcademyandBoston,Dordrecht,andLancaster: MartinusNijhoffPublishers,1987),140. 50 ArthurNussbaum, ConciseHistory,18485,219220,24647,and279. 51 ManuelMaradePeralta,LaNacin [NCN],7Sept.1983,B 3.TheauthorisgratefultoJosNstorMourelo AguilarforsuggestingthisarticleandforidentifyingvariousideasundergirdingCostaRicanneutralityandhuman rightstheory. 52 JackChild,TheApplicabilityofPeacekeepingTechniquestoCentralAmericanConflicts,inJackChild,ed., MaintenanceofPeaceandSecurityintheCaribbeanandCentralAmerica (NewYork:InternationalPeace Academy,1984),6364.Inthe1940s,neutralitybecameamurkyissueforDenmark,Finland,Norway,Sweden, Belgium,andtheNetherlands,asforLebanon40yearslaterseeAnnetteBakerFox,ThePowerofSmallStates, DiplomacyinWorldWarII(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1959),18287.Forrelatedconflictresolution attemptsintheLeagueofNationsandthe UnitedNations,seeLinusPauling,etal.,eds.,(U.N.) WorldEncyclopedia ofPeace,4Vols.(NewYorkandOxford,England:Pergamon,1986),s.v.SalvadordeMadariagaandInga ThorssonbyAbdulAzizSaidandPaulHubers. 53 Tinoco:TriunfodeCentroamrica,ApruebanFormacindeONUCA, ElNuevoDiario(Managua),16March 1989,12. 54 ApruebanenlaONUErradicaraContras, Barricada,16March1989,1.

16

RobertoFloresBermdez(Honduras)organizedsupportforthisUnitedNationsintervention.
55 JamesBakerandVernonWaltersledtheUnitedStatesopposition. ThisunprecedentedUnited

Nationsplanningforisthmianpeacekeepingintervention,someofwhichwascarriedout,willbe discussedfurtherbelow. ConflictResolutionviaNeutralityandNonalignedPeacekeeping ThirdWorldneutralityandnonalignmentinconflictresolution,asfavoredbyCostaRica, werebroughttolifebyRalphBunche.HeworkedwithAndrewCordierpersonalsecretaryto thefirstfourUnitedNationsSecretaryGeneralsandlaterBrianUrquhart,tocreate

56 peacekeepingmechanismsforinternationalconflictresolution. From1948to1985,over

seventypercentofthetotalcostoftheUnitedNationspeacekeepingandconflictresolutionwent toeffortsinEgypt,Lebanon,ortheJordanRiverheadwatersandtheGolanHeights(inSyrianor
57 Lebaneseterritory). Fromtheseorganizationaldevelopmentsemergedthefirstinternationally

acceptedadoptionforpeacekeepingoftermssuchasceasefire(intheSecurityCouncil),truce (in theGeneralAssembly),andarmistice(amongthebelligerentmembersoftheGeneral

58 Assembly).

NeutralitywassometimescontravenedbytheUnitedStates,aswhenitsoldCostaRica
59 armsforits1948war. NegotiationsonAustrianneutralitybytheUnitedStatesandtheSoviet

UnionbeganinEuropeaboutthistime,andledtothe1955neutralizationofAustria,undera
60 neutralitymodelperceivedbyEuropeanstobeclosetothatofCostaRica. UnlikeAustria,

though,whichbelongedtoneithertheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO)northe
55 ConsensoenlaONUporFuerzasdePazaC.A., Barricada,16March1989,4.Insightintotheissuesof

conflictresolutionhereandbelowwasprovidedbyBrianUrquhart(fromEngland)andJeanClaudeAime(from Haiti),intheirrespectiveNewYorkCityFordFoundationandU.N.UnderSecretaryGeneraloffices,interviewsby theauthor(Sept.1987).JamesBakerandVernonWaltersledtheU.S.oppositionastheU.S.SecretaryofStateand theU.S.RepresentativetotheU.N.,respectively.MarrackGoulding(fromEngland),ledtheU.N.peacekeeping attempts.GouldingwasassistedbyJeanClaudeAime(alsoplanningLebanesepeacekeeping).BrianUrquhart, althoughretiredfromtheU.N.asascholarinresidenceattheFordFoundationinNewYorkCity,continuedto carryoninthetraditionofhisU.N.mentor,RalphBunche.MiguelDEscotorepresentedNicaraguaasitsSecretary ofState.CarlosJosGutirrezGutirrezrepresentedCostaRicaintheU.N.Finally,RobertoFloresBermdez representedHondurasasitsSecretaryofState. 56 BrianUrquhart,RememberingRalphBunche,YaleReview 76(June1987):44851andNewYorkTimes [NYT] BiographicalService 6(July1975):83334. 57 TheBlueHelmets,AReviewofUnitedNationsPeacekeeping (NewYork:UnitedNations,1985),32941. 58 SydneyBailey,HowWarsEnd,Vol.1, TheUnitedNationsandtheTerminationofArmedConflict (Oxford: ClarendonPress,1982),3840. 59 OscarAguilarBulgarelli, CostaRicaySusHechosPolticosde1948 (SanJos:EDUCA,1974),24650. 60 TheBirthoftheStateTreaty, AustriaToday 6(Spring1980):79.

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WarsawPact,CostaRicastayedwithintheInterAmericanTreatyofReciprocalAssistance,or
61 theRioTreaty.

Meanwhile,startinginthemid1950s,thefirstUnitedNationsconflictresolution experimentemployingneutralornonalignedactorsdevelopedinLebanon.TheArabstates wouldsendthelargestcontingenttothefirstnonalignedplenaryconference,inBelgrade, Yugoslavia,in1961.CubaandafewotherLatinAmericanstatesrepresentedtheAmericasat

62 63 thesemeetings. AsanArabculturalandpoliticalhaven,beforeits19751976catastrophe,

Lebanonwouldleadinforgingaredefinitionofneutralityastheintellectualcoreof
64 nonalignment.ThisnonalignmentwascalledinArabicHiyadIjabi,orpositiveneutralism.

ChallengingUnitedStatesandWestGermaninterventionin1958,thisredefinitionofaneutral andnonalignedcoalitionwithintheUnitedNationscoalescedintosignificantThirdWorld
65 oppositiontothearmsracegeneratedbythenucleararmedsuperpowers.

The1958crisisoverneutralityinLebanon,aselfproclaimedneutralThirdWorldstate likeCostaRica,ledtothefirstUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilpeacekeepingintervention.The SecurityCouncilobserverssenttoLebanoneventuallyrequestedthattheUnitedStateswithdraw itstroops.Despitesetbacks,subsequentUnitedNationsBlueHelmetinterventionsinLaos

66 (1959),theCongo(1960),andotherhotspotsutilizedtheLebaneseexample. In1975,neutral

ornonalignedstateslikeFinland,Lebanon,andCostaRicahelpedtoorganizeaHelsinki ConferenceonSecurityandCooperationinEurope.Thisconferenceemphasizedconfidence buildingmeasuresforEuropeanconflictresolution,andincludedinformationsharing,pre

61 HanspeterNeuhold,ed.,

NeueInternationalWirtschaftsordnungundsterreich,Vol.3(Vienna:sterreichische GesellschaftfrAussenpolitikundInternationalBeziehungen,1978),13132.The1947treatysignedinRiode Janeiro,Brazil hencetheterm RioTreaty didnotestablishamilitaryalliancelikeNATO. 62 RikhiJaipal, NonAlignment,Origins,GrowthandPotentialforWorldPeace(NewDelhi:AlliedPublishers, 1983),5156and193ff.Seealso DocumentsoftheGatheringsofNonAlignedCountries,19611979 (NewDelhi: ThomsonPress,GovernmentofIndia,1981),1,17,43,89,185,and359. 63 MiriamCooke,WarsOtherVoices,WomenWritersOntheLebaneseCivilWar(NewYork:Cambridge UniversityPress,1988),7073,82,and181. 64 M.S.Agwani,TheArabWorldandNonAlignment,inRasheeduddinKhan,ed.,PerspectivesonNon Alignment(NewDelhi:KalamkarPrakashan,Ltd.,1981),198204. 65 GnterWerth, TagebuchEinerAggression (Berlin:MinisteriumsfrNationaleVerteidigung,1958),89,15,18 19,and4041.SeealsoAbdulAzizalSaid,ContemporaryArabDiplomacyandItsPlaceintheInternational Field(MAThesis,TheAmericanUniversity,1955),6785. 66 BrianUrquhart,InternationalPeaceandSecurity:ThoughtsontheTwentiethAnniversaryofDag HammarskjoldsDeath,FAS 59(Fall1981):412.SeealsoBrianUrquhart, ALifeinPeaceandWar(NewYork: Harper&Row,1987),14243.Pleasenotethattheword interventiondenotesoutsideinfluence,influencewhich canrangefromdevelopmentaidtopeacekeeping actionsandmilitaryinvasions.

18

67 notificationofmilitaryexercises,andnoninterferenceinweaponsverification. Aswillbe

shown,suchmeasureswereincorporatedintoanArabWhiteHelmetpeacekeepingmission whichattemptedtoresolvetheLebanesewarin1976,awarsoonreflectedintheisthmusby armsshipmentsandcounterinsurgencytechniquesimportedfromIsraelbywayofLebanon

68 toCostaRica.

GlobaleventsaffectingthenonalignedstatessooncametobearonCostaRica.Basedin CostaRica,Nicaraguanrefugeespromotinga1979revolutionandpost1979counterrevolution soughtlogisticalsupportfromCuba,Israel,andLebanon.Atthesametime,intensefighting overwhelmedLebanon,tobedescribedinChaptersSixandSevenasamajorsourceofarmsfor antiSomozaContrasarmscapturedbyIsrael.ItselffacinginterventionbyContraproxy forces,CostaRicadecidedtoredesignitsneutralitypositiononcemore.Inpreparationfora pioneerworldconferenceonhumanrightsheldinDecember1982,asmallgroupoflegal professionalsthusbeganmeetingtomakeneutralitytheofficialpositionofCostaRica. ConvenedbyJosNstorMoureloAguilar,ahumanrightslawprofessorinthe internationalrelationsdepartmentofCostaRicasNationalUniversityatHeredia,nearSanJos, thissmallgroupdrewonvariousprecedentsforadeclarationofneutrality.Thegroupincluded ArmandoArauzAguilar,BernardoBaruch,EnriquevanBrowne,HugoAlfonsoMuoz,Manuel FreerJimnez(aNATOandRioTreatyexpert),CarlosJosGutirrezGutirrez(aninternational
69 relationsexpert),andLuisAlbertoMonge(futurepresidentofCostaRica). Theyandother

membersofthegroupcontinuedtomeetinAlajuela,Heredia,andSanJos,untilMonge officiallyproclaimedneutralityon17November1983,intheSanJosNationalTheater. MoureloAguilarframedhisformativetreatiseforthisproclamationwithhelpfromthe classicsofbothErasmusandVegetius,ashecontrastednonviolentandworldorderapproaches forconflictresolution.Fromthisvantagepoint,hearguedthatwarissweetonlytotheignorant, andrecalledthefeministantiwarstrikesintheancientGreekplayLysistrata.Thenhequoted

67 JackChild,AConfidenceBuildingApproachtoResolvingCentralAmericanConflicts,inJackChild,ed.,

CentralAmerica (London:C.Hurst&Co.,1986),114116and123. 68 NinePointsoftheRiadAgreement, LebaneseWar,HistoricalandSocialBackground (Bonn:Progress Drittewelt,ThirdWorldMagazine,1977),79.Pleaseseechapter6formoreoncounterinsurgencywagedfrom CostaRicaandonIsraeliLebanese(Kataeb)armsshipmentstoCostaRica.Chapters3and6containinformation onthesearmsshipmentsandontheformationoftheArabDefenseForceorWhiteHelmetpeacekeepingmission (1976). 69 FaridAyalesEsna,UnEstatutodeNeutralidadPermanenteparaCostaRicayPropuestasdePazpara Centroamrica, RelacionesInternacionales [RIS]6(1983):23andHugoAlfonsoMuozQ.,LaProclamade NeutralidadylaPropuestadePaz,inCostaRica,CrisisyDesafos (SanJos:ImprentaNacional,1984),14748.

19

successivelyaGrecoRoman,EuripidesanIndian,JawaharlalNehruandtheChineseauthors LaoTseandSunTseonneutralityandpacifism.Finally,hereviewedthehistoricalCostaRican questforneutralityintreatyaftertreaty,beginninginan1822treatywithColombia,Mexico,and Spain,followedbyan1823treatywithNicaragua,an1848treatywiththeHanseaticLeaguein Europe,andan18551856treatywithbothNicaraguaandtheUnitedStates tounderlinewhat

70 hecalledCostaRicaspacifistpast.

MoureloAguilarattractedtheoreticalsupportandcriticismfromhiscolleagues.Muoz, forexample,substantiatedthisargumentofMoureloAguilar,citingCorneliusBijnkershoekand
71 Austrianneutrality. Incontrast,fromaminorityviewpoint,LuisGuillermoSolsRivera,the

futureinternationalrelationstheoristforOscarAriasSnchez,assailedMoureloAguilar.Sols RiveraarguedthatCostaRicawasnotneutralorisolationistbutinterventionist,implyingthatit wasdisposedtointerveneagainstwhattheUnitedStatesperceivedtobecommunismin

72 Nicaragua. Atanyrate,CostaRicanleaderslikeLuisMongeandlaterOscarAriastriedto

followthreecommonneutralityprinciples.Thesethreeprincipleswere:(1)neutralitytoward internationalconflict,(2)neutralitypredisposedtowardtheUnitedStatesanditsallies,and(3) neutralitywithoutastandingarmy.Inpractice,thesethreeprinciplessummarizedCostaRicas intendedpositionofneutrality. Severeoppositionsurfacedimmediately.Thedayaftertheproclamation,18November 1983,1300UnitedStatesfinancedContrasattackedNicaraguafromCostaRica.Official NicaraguanjournalistslikeWilliamRobinsonclaimedthisattackwasanattempttoprovoke

73 NicaraguaintoattackingCostaRica. FernandoVolio,aprominentconservativeandtheCosta

RicanSecretaryofState,resignedafewdayslater,asNicaragualedotherstatesinsupporting CostaRicanneutrality.JaimeDaremblum,aninternationalrelationsprofessorandleading ContrasupporterinCostaRica,denouncedtheneutralityproclamationasapacifistfraud

70 JosNstorMoureloAguilar,DulceBellumInexpertis,in

MemoriadelPrimerCongresoMundialdeDerechos Humanos,Vol.1,LaNeutralidadPerpetuadeCostaRica (SanJos:ImprentaNacional,1984),1316orNCN,3 Nov.1983,A16.TheLysistratastrikewasthecreationofanancientGreekplaywright,Aristophanes. 71 HugoAlfonsoMuozQ.,LaNeutralidadPermanenteCostarricense,inPrimerCongreso,Vol.1, Neutralidad Perpetua (SanJos:ImprentaNacional,1984),1723. 72 LuisGuillermoSolsRivera,NeutralidadyNoIntervencinenlaHistoriadeCostaRica, RIS 4(1983):7475. 73 WilliamRobinsonandKentNorsworthy,DavidandGoliath,WashingtonsWarAgainstNicaragua (London:Zed Books,1984),107and18082.RobinsonworkedfortheNicaraguanNewsAgencyintheEmbassyofNicaraguain Washington,D.C.

20

74 allegedlyimitatingCuba,Libya,andthePalestinians. Meanwhile,theSocialistInternational,

whichincludedsocialdemocratpoliticalpartiesandneutralstates,officiallyrecognizedCosta
75 Ricanneutrality. Austrianscholarsofinternationallaw,wedgedmuchaswereCostaRican

scholarsbetweencapitalistandsocialistforces,carefullycomparedCostaRicasRioTreaty relationshipwiththeUnitedStatestoFinlandsmilitarydependencyontheSovietUnion.In bothcases,asuperpowervowedtofightmilitaryinterventioninasmallstatewhichlackedthe desireorthemilitarypowertoreciprocateincaseofattack. VariousconcernswerevoicedbytheEuropeanneutralstatesoverthisCostaRican neutrality.InEurope,afterall,toguaranteetheirneutrality,neutralshadhadtocreatea EuropeanFreeTradeAssociationinordertotradeintheEuropeanEconomicCommunity. However,themajorEuropeanconcerninvolvedCostaRicasthirdneutralityprincipleof

76 unarmeddiplomacy,whichwentbeyondevenSwedenssecuritypositiontowardneutrality.

Unarmeddiplomacymeantasteptowardthefullabolitionofmilitarypowerandanonviolent challengetoviolentpower.Tothenorthintheisthmus,themilitarygovernmentinGuatemala assumedanotherbrandofneutralityin1984.Itspositionwasconfirmedin1986byapseudo civiliangovernment.Thoughitsdeclarationarosefromasocialdemocratpartylikethatruling CostaRica,Guatemalasneutralitydeclarationdidnotstateitsdependenceformilitarysecurity

77 onIsraelandtheUnitedStates. TheUnitedStatesresponsetoGuatemalanneutralityduring

thistimewasprofesseddisinterest,butitopposedtheneutraluseofEsquipulasinGuatemalato hostisthmianpeacenegotiations.Bythelate1980s,DanielOrtegawouldcallforNicaraguan
74 JaimeDaremblum,CostaRicaNoPuedeSerNeutral,inJaimeDaremblumandEduardoUlibarri,eds.,Centro

Amrica,ConflictoyDemocracia(SanJos:LibroLibre,1985),19092.Voliorefusedtosigntheproclamation, claimingthatitwasannulledbyhisrefusalandresignationfromofficeaccordingtoArticle140(12)oftheCosta RicanConstitution.ButVoliooverlookedArticle46ofthe1969ViennaConventiononTreatyLaw,on internationalneutrality,whichstatesthatsuchaninternaldefecttoapresidentialdeclarationofinternational neutralitydoesnotinvalidatethetreatyorproclamation,unlessthisdefectisobvioustoanythirdpartystate.In otherwords,Voliolackedtheconstitutionalandinternationallegalpowertovalidatehisclaimsorthoseof Daremblum.TheauthorisgratefulforthisinsighttoAdolfJonker,aretiredDutchdiplomatresidingnearSanJos, CostaRica(correspondence,Feb.1990). 75 CarlosJosGutirrezGutirrez, NeutralidadyDemocraciaCombativa (Heredia,CostaRica:CentrodeEstudios DemocrticosdeAmrica,1987),15and199202. 76 HanspeterNeuhold,The`Permanent,ActiveandUnarmedNeutralityofCostaRica:SomePuzzlingQuestions, inAndreasMaislinger,ed., CostaRica,Politik,GesellschaftundKultureines StatesmitStandiger,Aktiverun UnbewaffneterNeutralitt (Innsbruck,Austria:UniversityofInnsbruck,1986),78,8789,and95.Theauthoris gratefulforinsightherefromAndreasMaislinger,aprofessorofinternationalrelations(conversationsand correspondence,19861990).

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adaptationtotheSwedishneutralitymodelandforSwedishverificationoftheAriasor
78 Esquipulaspeaceplans.

Security,Insecurity,Development,andUnderdevelopment Onthebasisofthetermsdefinedsofar,itisnowpossibletoproceedtothemore complextermsofsecurity,insecurity,development,andunderdevelopment.Inanationlike CostaRica,securityanddevelopmentaremoredifficulttodefinethan neutrality,nonalignment, andconflictresolution,becausesecurityasimposedfromtheoutsideappearstohavebecome contradictorytodevelopmentintheisthmus.Theeconomicconditionofisthmianwomen,one possiblyusefulindicatorofdevelopment,ishardtoascertainbecausethegapbetween richand poor asmeasuredbyhumanneedsindicatorsevaluatingaccesstohousing,employment, healthcare,andeducation islargerintheisthmusthaninotherThirdWorldareas.Costa Ricanwomennotonlyaccountforunderafifthofthepaidlaborforce,butalsoearnundera tenthofthesmall,informalbusinesssectorincome.Theyalsoheadatleasthalfthesingleparent
79 families,alivingarrangementwhichculturallyreinforcespoverty.

SecurityinastatelikeCostaRicaincludespubliccoordinationofaccesstohousing, healthcare,education,andemployment,andprotectionfrommilitarizationorviolent intervention.Conversely,insecuritymeansviolentconditions,whetherproducedbyarmsorby socioeconomicdisparity.Inthiscontext, militarizationistheuseofkillingpower which generallyproducesinsecurityandeconomicinflation,insteadofsecurity forconquestor

80 control.

Thoughtroubledbyinsecurityandunderdevelopment,CostaRicahasbeenusedby organizationsliketheWorldBankandtheInternationalMonetaryFundasamodelforcreating sustainabledevelopmentandalternativeenergysources.Thissearchforalternativesourcesis

77 FernandoGonzlesDavison,ElProcesodelaNeutralidadGuatemalteca,19821987(GuatemalaCity:Instituto

deInvestigacionesPolticosySociales,1987),12and2425.Seealso Inforpeace (UnitedNationsUniversityof Peace),Mimeo,(3May1987).Pleaserefertochapterthreeformoreonthethreeoutlooks. 78 PrensaLatina(Cuba)CablePL030,Stockholm(24Feb.1988),aswellasNicaraguannewspapers(Barricada, La Prensa,and NuevoDiario inFeb.March1989). 79 VeraRamrez,UnTrabajoTeolgicoconMujeresdelaBase,inTeologadesdelaMujerenCentroamrica (SanJos:SEBILA,1989),15455.TheauthorisgratefultoJanetMayforinsighthere. 80 Asnotedpreviously,allunciteddefinitionsliketheabovearenewand aretheauthorsown.Forsecurity definitions,seealsoCarlosAlzugarayTreto, LaSeguridadNacionaldeCubayelDiferendoconEstadosUnidos (Havana:InstitutoSuperiordeRelacionesInternacionales[ISRI]RaulRoaGarca,1989),67. Remilitarization,

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madeurgentbyongoingdeforestation,sincewoodistheprimaryThirdWorldenergysource. DuringtheContrawar,CostaRicamayhavelostitsnortherntropicalrainforestsevenmore quickly,throughherbicides,pesticides,andclearcutting,thandidVietnamduringaerial

81 bombingandherbicidaldeforestationintheUnitedStatesIndoChinaWar.

Datalinkingmilitarization,insecurity,andunderdevelopmentishardtofind,evenina highlyliteratestatelikeCostaRica.Causallinksbetweenmilitarizationandunderdevelopment arehardtodemonstratebecausedataisinsufficientformuchThirdWorldconflict.Somestates atwar,likeLaosandLebanon,forinstance,tooktheirlastnationalcensusesinthe1930s.Yet anaccuratepopulationcountisthemostbasicrequirementforevenpreliminarystepstoward relevantanalysis.Inconditionsofwar,usablehealth,housing,education,andemploymentdata arequicklyoutdated.Forallthesereasons,thedataisnotalwayssufficientforanchoring researchonquantitativeanalysisalone.Thisdissertationwillthuscombinequantitativeand qualitativeassessment,thelatterbasedonthetestimonyofcompetentobserversandparticipants. AccordingtoJorgeRodrguezBeruff,aUniversityofPuertoRicointernationalrelations professoractiveinpeaceresearch,Caribbeanmilitarizationafterthe1940smayhavedeformed
82 development,especiallyinPanama,Nicaragua,andPuertoRico. Underdevelopmentinthese

isthmiancountriesgrewworseafterthe1940sunderviolentinterventionofatypenotfoundin CostaRica,whichresistedsuchmilitarizationafterthe1850sRivasWalkerwar.Atleastone LatinAmericanresearcheroneofthefewtostudylongtermhealthdata,thatis,JosCarlos EscuderohasobservedthatfromonetothreeofeveryfiveLatinAmericaninfantmortalities, from1900to1975,mayhaveoccurredbecausemilitarizationreceivedbudgetarypriorityover

83 basicnecessities. Aswillbediscussed,suchanobservationmaybepossibletocorroborateat

leasttosomedegreewithintheisthmus.
thereverseofdisarmamentasdefinedabove,andasdiscussedparticularlyinchapters7and8,referstotherearming ofadisarmedstatesuchasCostaRica. 81 Thisistheopinionexpressedbymanydevelopmentexpertsengagedinmeasuringsuchconditions,includingthe GlobalTomorrowCoalitionand,inparticular,BarrieFlamm,attheWildernessSociety,duringaseriesoftelephone interviewswiththeauthor(Fall1988Spring1989).FlammwasthechiefU.S.AIDforestryofficerinVietnamuntil 1975,andlaterworkedinCostaRica. 82 JorgeRodrguezBeruff,PolticaMilitar,2223,29,33,36,3839,41,and43.SeealsoCongress,House, CommitteeonForeignAffairs, InterAmericanMilitaryCooperationAct,80thCong.,1stsess.,1947,Vol.68,HR 3836. 83 JosCarlosEscudero,TheMagnitudeofMalnutritioninLatinAmerica, InternationalJournalofHealth Services [IJHS]8(1978):465,467,471,and484.Seealso EconomicandSocialConsequencesofDisarmament (NewYork:U.N.DepartmentofEconomic andSocialAffairs,1962),56andHelenaTuomiandRaimoVy rynen,TransnationalCorporations,ArmamentsandDevelopment (NewYork:St.MartinsPress,1982),52,6263,

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Development,ontheotherhand,canbedefinedasthecoordinationofchangefor culturallyandecologicallysustainableaccesstothenecessitiesofhousing,health,education,and employment.Developmentcanbemeasuredbyselfsufficientlivelihood,participatory decisionmaking,andguaranteesofhumannecessities.TheUnitedNationscharacterizes developmentasthatwhich,...byovercomingnonmilitarythreatstosecurityandcontributing toamorestableandsustainableinternationalsystem,canenhancesecurityandtherebypromote

84 armsreductionanddisarmament. Underdevelopmentcanbedefinedasadenialorrestriction

ofaccesstobasicnecessitiesexacerbatedbywarandexportledcapitalflight,aswellasby thestructuralviolenceofdisease,hunger,joblessness,illiteracy,exileordisplacement,and
85 ecologicalpollution. ThesedefinitionsstemfromauthorssuchasArthurDunhamandCoralie 86 Bryantondevelopmentpotential, andfromRolandWarren,EliseBoulding,andAndrGunder 87 Frankonconsensusstrategies.

Atthefarendofeachsideofthecontinuumofviolenceandnonviolencearethe conditionsofwarandpeace,whicharedifficulttodefineforplacesliketheisthmus,ifone

and82.Militarizationfocusesfundsonthemostprofitableelementofanyarmssystem,itspropulsionunit,whether forpoweringamotorcycleoranaircraftcarrier,insteadofpinpointingavailablefundsonhealth,housing, employment,andeducation. 84 InternationalConferenceontheRelationshipBetweenDisarmamentandDevelopment,NewYork,24August 11 September1987,FinalDocument (NewYork:UnitedNations,1987),3.SeealsoU.N.,Disarmamentand Development(A/36/356),6,15,20,32,35,and77.Suchdevelopmentunderliestheemphasisonlongterm programs,insteadofbriefprojects,withacontextualmanagementfocusonbasicneeds.Thisemphasison necessitiesanddevelopmentcooperationhasbeenpioneered,e.g.,bySwedenandtheNetherlands,intheiroverseas developmentefforts.SeeStevenH.Arnold,ImplementingDevelopmentAssistance:EuropeanApproachestoBasic Needs (Boulder,CO:Westview,1982),19,69141,and178. 85 ByronJohnson,LetsStopCallingItAid, War/PeaceReport6(Nov.1966):8.Evenbeforethe underdevelopmentopenlyassociatedwiththeContra armsanddrugbusiness,conditionssuchasthesehadbeen describedasanexchangeofbribesforarms.SeeHansMorgenthau,APoliticalTheoryofForeignAid, American PoliticalScienceReview [APSR]56(June1962):302309.SeealsoFrankChurch,WhyIVotedNo, New Republic [NRC]165(13November1971):1416. 86 ArthurDunham,CommunityWelfareOrganization:PrinciplesandPractice (NewYork:ThomasY.Crowell, 1958),246.SeealsoCoralieBryantandLouiseWhite, ManagingDevelopmentintheThirdWorld (Boulder,CO: WestviewPress,1982),iv,3,67,and1415. Necessities includehousing,health,education,andemployment. 87 RolandWarren,Truth,LoveandSocialChangeandOtherEssaysonCommunityChange (Chicago:Rand McNally,1971),2629. SeealsoEliseBoulding,Development,ConflictResolutionandTheRoleofthe Volunteer,inDavidNewell, ed.,VolunteerServiceforPeace(Feldafing,WestGermany:InternationalSecretariatforVolunteerService Conference,Mimeo,2729May1970),1920andAidanFosterCarter,FromRostowtoGunderFrank: ConflictingParadigmsintheAnalysisofUnderdevelopment,WorldDevelopment[WDV]4(March1976):17273. Pleasenotethatstructuralviolence,tobecomparedwithserialviolenceinchapterfive,isapopularphrasethat describestheimpoverishedconditionsofunderdevelopment.

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88 thinksinstinctivelyaboutwarfromaviewpointinsidetheUnitedStates. Asmightbe

expected,warandpeacearemoreimmediateissuesinsideareasliketheconflictproneisthmus than insidetheUnitedStates,wherewarsdeclinedinfrequencyafterthe1860s(despitemany foreignwars).Inordertoincludecontextswherewarhasbeenincessantsince1945,waris definedasaconditionmarkedbyfrequentepisodesofarmed,intense,prolonged,and hierarchicalviolence,characterizedbycontentionandarmedaggression. Peace,incontrast,isthenthewholesomeconditionofcooperative,irresistible nonviolencecharacterizedbywellbeingandconsensus(ratherthantheabsenceofwar).This foregoingdefinitionoftermsshouldprovideatransitiontothenextstep,thatofdescribingthe conceptswhichcomprisethethreeapproachestointernationalconflictresolution.Further discussionofwarandpeacewillrequiretheflexibleuseofconceptslikepowerusedasthe foundationaltermandconcept aswellasforce, conflict,andcoercion,tobedescribedinthe nextchapter.

88 Thesedefinitionsaretheauthorsown.Forotherdefinitionsof

peace andwar,see RandomHouseDictionary,2d ed.,Unabridged(NewYork:RandomHouse,1987),1425 and2141.

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Chapter2 ConceptsofViolenceandNonviolence
Thefourconceptsofpower,force,conflict,andcoercionwillbeillustratedinthischapter andappliedthroughouttherestofthedissertation,alongwiththetermsofwar,peace,power, violence,development,neutrality,nonalignment,nonviolence,security,insecurity, underdevelopment,andconflictresolutionidentifiedinChapterOne.Consideringthese conceptsonacontinuumfromviolencetononviolenceshouldpreparethewayfordiscussingthe worldorder,antidependent,andnonviolentapproachestowardinternationalconflictresolution thatwillbediscussedinChapterThree.Thewarlikecharacteroftheisthmusrequiresthatsuch conceptsbesetinthecontextofgeopoliticalpowerandviolence,despitetheanomalousexample ofCostaRica.SinceanothermajoranomalousexampleisthatofIndia,alsosurroundedby zonesofconflicthistorically(tobedescribedinChapterThree),thebetterpublicizedexampleof GandhiannonviolenceinIndiaalsoservesasareferencepointforintroducingCostaRicanstyle nonviolence. Theoptionsofviolenceandnonviolenceineachoftheseconceptscanbeillustratedby
89 contrastingthetwoperspectiveswithineachofsixgeneraldictionarydefinitions. Firstofall,

violenceisdefinedascausingorthreateningdeath,injury,orimpoverishmentintheexerciseof
90 forceandpower. Nonviolence,bycomparison,istheuseofforceandpower tocreate

89 ThedictionarydefinitionswhichfollowarederivedfromC.T.Carr,etal.,

TheOxfordIllustratedDictionary,2d ed.(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1975),164,178,325,and662.TheauthorisgratefultoTheodoreRoschandMary Liepoldforinsightinthischapter.Forthedefinitionofviolenceandnonviolence,seealsoMahendraKumar, ViolenceandNonviolenceinInternationalRelations (NewDelhi:ThomsonPress[India]Ltd.,1975),4247.Once again,andfortheremainderofthedissertation, pleasenotethatthedefinitionswhichfollowaretheauthorsown bydintofnecessity ifnototherwiseindicated. 90 Pleasenotethatthenonviolentuseofsuchconceptsofpower,force,conflict,andcoercion,asfoundhereinthe dissertation,stems fromsuchlegalandpoliticaltheoristsasMohandasGandhi.Gandhicoinedthewordsatyagraha, literallymeaningtruthpowerortruthforce,todenotetheconceptualizationofaprocessendinginwhatis sometimescalledcivildisobedienceintheEnglishlanguage. Sat,theHindirootword,istheoppositeof asat,which literallymeanbeingandnonbeing,respectively.Satyagrahadescribesthepower,force,conflict,andcoercion appliedtochangeanopponentsbeing.SeeMohandasGandhi, Nonviolence inPeaceandWar,Vol.2 (Ahmedabad:NavijanPress,1942/1969),300301and315316orPaulHubers,AGlobalMethodologyfor Nonviolence,GandhiMarg 97(April1987):89.U.S.writershave,incomparisontotheThirdWorldviewofa theoristlikeGandhi,eitherdescribedsatyagrahaasphilosophicallyholdingtotruth seeRichardGregg, The PowerofNonviolence(NewYork:SchockenBooks,1966),62 oraspragmaticallysound,interpersonalmethods andresultsseechapter4ofthedissertationandGeneSharp, ThePoliticsofNonviolentAction,Part2,TheMethods

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cooperationandresponsibilityandtohealandovercomethedamagefrom violence. Poweris theabilitytodooractinsuchawayastoinfluence,whetherbyviolenceornonviolence. Force istheeffortandstrengthwhichprompts,restricts,ordeterminescoursesofactionandevents. Conflictistheclashorstrugglethatoccurswhenforceorpowerareopposed. Coercionisthe applicationofforceandpowerinthecontextofwarlikeconflict. Powerhasalreadybeendefinedinchapteroneasdifferinginviolentandnonviolent contexts.Ontheviolentsideofthecontinuum,wherepeaceisconsideredavacuumbetween wars,poweristheabilitytoeffectconquestandcontrolthroughtheuseofforcefordeath,injury, andimpoverishment. Forceisthatwhichpromptsorrestrictsbehavior,orthwartsshortterm groupandindividualattemptstobreakorprotectthestatusquo. Conflict isthestruggleand contentionbetweenopposingactors. Coercionisthecompulsionofthedefeatedactorsbythe forceandpowergainedthroughconflict. Inthenonviolentcontext, poweristheabilitytoeffectmutualchangeformutualbenefit throughnonviolentactionandcooperation. Force,regardingsuchissuesasgenderand economicdiscriminationinthischapter,isthepromptingandfacilitatingofpeopleandevents towardselfreliantor sustainablesecurityanddevelopment. Conflictisthestrugglefor reconciliation,orahigherbalance,sometimescalledastruggleforpeaceandjustice. Historically,suchconflicthasincludedpicketing,marching,fasting,thebloodyingofdraftfiles, imprisonment,exile,andevendeath,(forinstance,selfimmolation),bythosepeopleseekingto overcomeviolentcoercion. Coercionistheuseofforceandpowerinconflictresolution for example,tostopwarordiscriminationbyimprovingaccesstohousing,health,education,and employmentopportunitiesthroughlegalnonviolentstruggleandcivildisobediencemeans
91 beingconsonantwithendsformutuallybeneficialchange.

Onewaytounderstandthedifferencebetweenthetwocontextsmightbetocompare ordinaryhandtohandcombat(eitherarmedorunarmed)tojudoorjiujitsu(unarmedby definition).Althoughbotharepowerful,forceful,conflictive,andcoercive,ordinaryhandto

ofNonviolentAction (Boston,MA:PorterSargent,1973),117435.Gandhiusedthesetermstodenoteastate struggleforindependence,againsttheEnglishEmpire. 91 ArneNaess,GandhiandGroupConflict,AnExplorationofSatyagraha,TheoreticalBackground (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget,1974),3344.Naess,thementorofJohanGaltung,emphasizeszeteticismorPyrrhonian scepticismattheheartofnonviolence,Gandhianorotherwise.Nonviolentcoercioncanbemeasuredbyboth

27

handcombatoftensucceedsbecausetheopponentisintimidatedbyfearofpainordeath.But thefirstskilllearnedinjudo,byincessantpractice,ishowtostrikethegroundcorrectlyfrom anyheightorangle,thuslearninghowtopreventpainoranyotherdamagetooneselfandones opponentasmuchaspossible. Inpracticethisalsomeansusingthemostpowerfulforce available,thatis,gravity,toaugmentonesownpowertorespondtoonesopponent.For example,ajudopractitionerbrisklygraspsandthenguidesthelimbaimedbytheopponentina blow,deflectingtheblowinsuchawayastofliportriptheopponent,withoutreturningablow

92 inviolence.Thusthepowerofviolenceisturnedonitselfbythepowerofnonviolence.

Power,ConceptuallyViolentorNonviolent Powerintheisthmiancontextcanbeunderstoodaseitherconquestandcontrolachieved throughwarproneviolenceormutualchangeformutualbenefitachievedthroughcooperation. Forthemostpart,theUnitedStateshastakenandheldcontroloftheisthmusthroughviolence justifiedby theoriesliketheMonroeDoctrine.Thispoliticaldoctrinefirstgainedinternational statusthroughan1850BulwerClaytonTreatywithEngland,overisthmianpassagealongthe NicaraguaCostaRicaborder.ThetreatysupercededEnglishandSpanishclaimsandmaximized

93 UnitedStatescontrol. Behindthis1850treatywasalsothepressureofUnitedStatessettlers

thenheadingforCalifornia,whopreferredthisisthmian(NicaraguaCostaRica)borderroute
94 overcrossingthroughPanama.

AccordingtotheSpaniardSalvadordeMadariaga,aleadinghistorianofLatinAmerica andthepreeminentdisarmamentstaffpersonintheLeagueofNations,geopoliticaltheoriesof theearly1800sliketheMonroeDoctrineblindedandisolatedboththeSovietUnionandthe UnitedStatesintheirrelationswithstateslikeCostaRica.Onmorethanoneoccasion,the UnitedStateshasinvokedsuchdoctrinestoimpedecriticallyneededinternationalorga

greaterpreservationoflifeovertime forexample,fewerwoundsandcorpses orbetteraccesstohuman necessitiesandhumanrights,aswillbediscussedinchapterfive. 92 Formoreonthisanalogyofjudo,seealsoRichardGregg,ThePowerofNonviolence (NewYork:Schocken Books),4451and96orGeneSharp, ThePoliticsofNonviolentAction,Part2,TheMethodsofNonviolentAction (Boston,MA:PorterSargent,1973),657703. 93 AndrsBello,DerechoInternacional(Caracas,Venezuela:MinisteriodeEducacin,1954),25and194.Seealso DonaldOConnorFagon,TheGeopoliticsoftheCaribbeanSeaandItsAdjacentLands(Ph.D.diss.,Catholic UniversityofAmerica,1973),120,135,and14344. 94 DavidIzattFolkman,WestwardViaNicaragua:TheUnitedStatesandtheNicaraguaRoute,18261869(Ph.D. diss.,UniversityofUtah,1966),5152and382.ShiftingunderwatersandbarsclosedthisSanJuanRiverroutein

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95 nizations. TheMonroeDoctrinealsojustifiedattemptstoevictEngland,Germany,andthe 96 SovietUnionfromtheAmericas. Thereafter,theWesternCaribbeanevolvedintowhatmight 97 beironicallycalledanInterAmericanlakeforprivateenterprise. ExceptforchangesinCuba,

withaUnitedStatesmilitarybaseinitsGuantnamoBay,theMonroeDoctrinewasnotchal lengedtoasignificantextentuntilthe1980sEsquipulasAgreements,whenunifiedisthmian leadershipsupportedmutuallybeneficialpeaceplansforchange. GeopoliticalPowerandViolenceintheIsthmus GeopoliticalcreedssupportingviolentUnitedStatesinterventionhavederivedessentially fromthenationalistwritingsofAlfredThayerMahan.AvisionaryarchitectofUnitedStates geopoliticsforstateslikeCostaRica,MahanbasedhistheoriesonhisbeliefthattheBritish

98 Empirehadbeenbuiltuponmilitaryseapower. Accordingly,hearguedthatthe1850s

BulwerClaytonTreaty,concludingEnglishandUnitedStatesconflictoverMiskitiaandtheSan JuanRiver,couldbeaspringboardtoworldpowerfortheUnitedStates.Mahanmayhave forgottenthatHoratioNelson,forhimtheembodimentofEnglishseapower,wasdefeated

99 soundlybyMiskitianIndiansalongtheSanJuanRiverasayoungofficer.

Overthenext150years,threeofeveryfourUnitedStatesmilitaryinterventions throughoutLatinAmericajoltedtheWesternCaribbean.Averagingoneevery21months, UnitedStatesinterventionsinLatinAmericaclusteredbetweenColombiaandHonduras,inthe

1866.Theisthmusalsoservedasanalternaterouteto roundingtheCapeofGoodHope(SouthAfrica)for EuropeansemigratingtotheOrientandAustralia. 95 SalvadordeMadariaga, Disarmament (PortWashington,NY:KennikatPress,1967andNewYork:Coward McCann,1929),79,340,and346. 96 WalterLaFeber,ed., JohnQuincyAdamsandAmericanContinentalEmpire,Letters,PapersandSpeeches (Chicago:QuadrangleBooks,1965),97,109110,and125.Forthe1850sU.S.closingofaGermannavalbasein PuertoLimn,CostaRica,seeHelmutPolakowsky,EstacinNavalAlemanaenCostaRica, Revistadelos ArchivosNacionales 7(Jan.Feb.1943):5665. 97 JackChild,TheInterAmericanMilitarySystem(Ph.D.diss.,TheAmericanUniversity,1978),2728,4853, 8687,and54950. 98 AlfredThayerMahan,TheGreatIllusion, NorthAmericanReview [NAR]195(March1912):32021and332. SeealsothepathbreakingworkcompletedattheU.S.SmithsonianInstitution,asbasedupontheU.S.Nationaland PentagonArchives,byMelvynLeffler,TheAmericanConceptionofNationalSecurityandtheBeginningsofthe ColdWar, AmericanHistoricalReview 89(April1984):35456andMelvynLeffler, APreponderanceofPower: NationalSecurity,TheTrumanAdministration,andtheColdWar(Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,1991). 99 AlfredThayerMahan,TheMonroeDoctrine, NationalReview 40(Feb.1903):871and88183.Seealso HubertHoweBancroft,TheWorksofHubertHoweBancroft,HistoryofCentralAmerica,Vol.2,15301800(San Francisco:A.L.BancroftandCo.,1883), 48283and609612andAlfredThayerMahan, TheLifeofNelson,The EmbodimentoftheSeaPowerofGreatBritain(NewYork:GreenwoodPress,1968).Englandretainedtheregion thatbecameBelizein1981.

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100 threeisthmianstatesofCostaRica,Nicaragua,andPanama. MahansboldvisionofaUnited

Statesseaempirethusmaturedbythe1940sintoanationalcreed,defendingtherighttoexercise
101 violentpowerinjustwarthroughouttheAmericas.

Duringthe1940swar,whichalsoinvolvedCostaRica,Mahanstheorywasechoedby CarlSchmitt.AleadingNazilegalandinternationalrelationsscholar,Schmittmanipulated MahansvisiontoadvocatewhathecalledaGrossraum(GreatPowerSpace),aThirdReich betweentheSovietUnionandtheUnitedStates.Schmittproposedthisthirdlandpowerspaceto complementtheUnitedStatesseapowerspacebridgingtheAmericasandtheSovietlandpower spacebridgingAsiaandEurope.InextrapolatingMahanshemisphericviewforNazipurposes, SchmittpraisedUnitedStatesmilitarizationwhereithadbeenthemostbrutallyefficient,

102 namely,intheWesternCaribbeansincethe1850s. KarlHaushofer,anotherNazi,popularized

SchmittsnationalistideaswithhisAryansupremacist,anticommunist,andlebensraum(living
103 space)slogans. Buttherehavealsobeenverypowerfulnonviolentperspectivesonpower,

powerfulenoughtoendureamongsomeoftheworldsoldestsurvivingcivilizationsinIndia, aswillbedescribednext. IndianandCostaRicanOriginsofNonviolentPower ThenonviolentgeopoliticalconceptsfavoredbycontemporaryCostaRicawereformed firstintheearly1960s,inIndia,andwerepatterneduponIndianideasusedforconflict resolutioninSouthernAfrican,MiddleEastern,andSoutheastAsianwars.Gandhigram,a communityatthecenterofcooperativelandreforminIndia,heldaDecemberJanuary1960 1961worldconferencethatcalledforthecreationofaninternationalpeacebrigadenetwork. Usingtheterm sarvodayatodenotedecentralizedwealthforsustainabledevelopment,the
100 ThomasS.Bodenheimer,U.S.MilitarisminLatinAmerica:FactSheet,Mimeo(SanFrancisco:Institutefor

theStudyofMilitarismandEconomicCrisis,1985),19. 101 QuakerActionGroup, ResistanceinLatinAmerica,ThePentagon,TheOligarchiesandNonviolentAction (Philadelphia,PA:AmericanFriendsServiceCommittee[AFSC],1970),3334and67. 102 CarlSchmitt,VlkerrechtlicheGrossraumordnung,MitInterventionsverbotfrRaumfremdeMchteEnBeitrag zumReichsbegriffimVlkerrecht (BerlinLeipzigVienna:DeutscherRechtsverlag,1941),45,1218,and 2021. Bycomparison,intheJapaneselanguage, geopolitics literallymeantlandandpeacestudies,fromthewords chisei forlandorpeaceand gaku forstudies,accordingtoRussellNozomiHoriuchi, Chiseigaku,JapaneseGeopolitics (Seattle:University ofWashington,1975),30and133.Referalsoto ObunshasEssentialJapaneseEnglish Dictionary(Tokyo:Obunsha,1972)forthewordschisei and gaku. 103 JosephBendersky,CarlSchmitt,TheoristfortheReich (Princeton:PrincetonUniversity,1983),25255and258 61.ForappliedGermangeopoliticsintheMiddleEast,seealsoGeorgeBrinkley,TheVolunteerArmyandAllied InterventioninSouthRussia,19171921 (NotreDame:UniversityofNotreDamePress,1966),3840,216,373n28, and378n72.

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conferencedesignedthisnetworkfromaGandhigrammodelcalledashantisena,orpeacearmy. ParticipantsincludedmanyThirdWorlddelegates,plusA.J.Muste,JeanetteRankin,Bayard
104 Rustin,JosephAbileah(Israel),andStuartMorris(England).

AtaboutthetimethatCostaRicareceiveditsfirsttasteofLatinAmericandeath
105 squads, in19601961,thisGandhigramconferencewascreatingthefoundationsforaworld

peacearmy.GandhigramitselfhadbeenstartedbyDravidian,orsouthernBlack,Australoid IndianswhosharedintheleadershipoftheindependencesaltmarchesassociatedwithMohandas andKasturbaiGandhi.DravidianIndia,olderandmoreintouchwiththeJainsnonviolent theorythanAryanHinduIndia,botheredtheBritishRajbecauseofitsproximitytotheMiddle Easterntraderoutes.GandhigramprosperedinthispoorareaofIndia,naturallyhospitableonly tovipersandscorpions.AtitsadministrativecorewasahospitalnamedaftertheJainpoetess Avvai(fourthcenturyB.C.E.)andstaffedlargelybymaleandfemalenurses,doctors,and surgeonsfromthefirstsocialistAsianstate,Kerala,insouthwesternIndia. GandhigramspeoplesufferedrepressionandjailwithouttrialfromtheIndian government.Morethanmostgovernments,thegovernmentofIndiaknewthepowerof nonviolentresistanceandconflictresolution.Asaresult,Gandhigramsbakery,printshop, communitybank,schoolofmidwifery,ruraluniversity,familyplanningcenter,andhomespun cottonclothingfactorywereofficiallyencouragedbyforeignandfederalaid.Butitspeacearmy wasunderminedbytheIndiangovernmentandbynearbyUnitedStatesdevelopment foundations,onallegationsofsubversion,forfearthatitthreatenedtheprioritiesofthesovereign
106 state.

Thus,likethepeacemovementinCostaRica,Gandhigramspeacearmywasperiodically investigatedbyintelligenceagentsbentonsabotageandespionage.Thepeacearmysobvious

104 TheCallforAWorldPeaceBrigade,

Sarvodaya 10(Jan.1961):26568.SeealsoMohandasGandhi, NonviolenceinPeaceandWar,Vol.I(Ahmedabad:Navjivan,1962),15456orNancyJaneKenney,The GandhianEconomyandIndianEconomicPlanning(Ph.D.diss.,FletcherSchoolofLawandDiplomacy,1956),3 ff.ForsimilarattemptsinCostaRica,seeAnaSojo,LaDemocraciaPolticayLaDemocraciaSocial,UnaVisin DesdeCostaRica,IICongresoCostarricensedeSociologa,Mimeo(CSUCA),n.d.,5. 105 Pleasereferto chaptersixfordetailsofwhatarecommonlyorjournalisticallycalleddeathsquads especiallytothehistoryoftheFreeCostaRicaMovement(foundedin1961)andtheWorldAntiCommunist League(foundedinthelate1960s) aslogisticalnetworkssupportingtheContrainfrastructureinCostaRica. 106 Anobservationbasedoncommentsfromsomeofthe300coremembersofGandhigram,aswellastheAlbert SchweitzerFoundationrepresentativeoverseeingdonationstoGandhigram,totheauthorinMarch1977.Seealso followingfootnote.

31

medicalandemergencycontributionsgivingaidtovictimsoftyphoons,fires,tidalwaves, andsanitationcrises,aswellasdiggingwellsandbuildinghousesandroadsdidnothingto assuageofficialanxiety.Butinspiteofthisopposition,Gandhigramspeacearmybecamethe heartofagrowingnationalundergroundmovementforlandreform(Bhoodan)andIndianself

107 determination.

Atthe19601961Gandhigramconference,thekeynotespeechwasdeliveredby JayaprakashNarayan,apacifistsocialistleaderactiveinthestyleofMohandasandKasturbai Gandhi.Narayancalledforanetworkofworldpeacebrigades,basedonpowerdefinedas mutualchangeformutualbenefitandresponsibility.Narayansproposalcloselyresembled SalvadordeMadariagaspreviousproposalforaLeagueofNationspeaceguard.Bothproposals

108 hadguidedthedevelopmentoftheUnitedNationsBlueHelmetpeacekeepingforces. 109 MartinLutherKing,Jr.,JuliusNyerere,andKennethKaundawerecosponsorsoftheevent.

Withinayear,thepeacebrigadenetworkhelditsfirstworkingconferenceinthemountains aboveBeirut,Lebanon,atBrummanasQuakerandSuficommunityof AinAlSalaam (FountainofPeace),todiscussplanningforindependenceinstateslikeZambiavisvisconflicts

110 inSouthernAfrica.

Bythemid1960s,throughcoordinationinCostaRica,thepeacebrigadenetworkspread totheAmericasasatrainingprogramforcivilianbaseddefense.Thefirsttrainingexercise campheldin1966onGrindstoneIslandnearOttawa,Canada,wasdisastrous.A roleplaying gameofpacifistsandsoldiersfragmentedintoharshemotionaltrauma.Accordingtoatleast

107 Ibid.ShantiSenawasheadedbyawomanstudentelectedbystudents,sincewomenwerebelievedtobemore

adeptatnonviolentpoliticsthanmen.Thiswomanstudentledastudentcouncilofeightmenandeightwomen responsibleforShantiSena.Atthetimeoftheauthorsvisitin1977,theShantiSenaincluded500studentsfrom theruraluniversityandtheGandhigramcommunity.SeealsoGlennPaige,On thePossibilityofNonviolentPoliticalScience,HiroshimaUniversityInstituteforPeaceScience,ResearchReport No.4,Mimeo,n.d.[1985?],2829. 108 JayaprakashNarayan,TwofoldProgrammeforWorldPeace,Sarvodaya 10(Jan.1961):2andJayaprakash Narayan,WhyAWorldPeaceBrigade,Sarvodaya 11(Feb.1962):240 and26566.AttemptstodeployU.N. troopswithoutthegroundworkadvocatedinIndiaparalleledthe1960failureofU.N.peacekeepingintheCongo,a failurewhichshadowedtheuseofsuchU.N.troopsuntiltheearly1980s.SeealsoBjrnHettne,TheVitalityof theGandhianTradition, JournalofPeaceResearch [JPR]13(1976):22745. 109 RussellEugeneDowdy,NonviolenceVs.Nonexistence:TheVietnamWarandMartinLutherKing,Jr.(MA historythesis,NorthCarolinaStateUniversity,1983),2829.The authorisgratefultothearchivesoftheMartin LutherKing,Jr.CenterforNonviolence,Atlanta,Georgia,foraccesstothisandsimilarmaterials. 110 MichaelRandle,AWorldPeaceBrigade, Sarvodaya11(Feb.1962):26768.SeealsoCharlesC.Walker, A WorldPeaceGuard,AnUnarmedAgencyforPeacekeeping (Hyderabad,India:AcademyofGandhianStudies, 1981),6,12,and69.

32

twoparticipants,theseunexpectedlystrongresponsesarosebecauseoftheintenseemotions
111 ignitedforthefirsttimebythebrigadeconceptofpower justimportedfromIndia. In 112 1981,anAmericanbrigadenetworkwasorganizedinToronto,Canada, tochallengeUnited 113 StatesinterventionintheWesternCaribbean.

TheAmericanbrigadeswerecoordinatedintheisthmusfromCostaRica.Thefirst AmericanpeacebrigadewenttoGuatemalainMarch1983,toobserveconflict,reporthuman
114 rightsabuses,andsupplynecessitieslikemedicalaid. Thisdeploymentcoincidedwiththe

arrivalofchurchbasedWitnessforPeaceteams,sentmainlyfromtheUnitedStates.These civilianbasedbrigades,orpeaceteams,weredeployedinsideNicaraguaandalongthe
115 HondurasNicaraguaborder, butnotalongtheCostaRicaNicaraguaborder.Apparentlythe 116 latterwastooruggedanddangerous, despitedefiniteinterestinthedeploymentofsuchteams 117 expressedbyCostaRicaandNicaragua. Thedecisionin1984nottoriskplacingthebrigade

teamsontheCostaRicaNicaraguabordercoincidedwithnewsleakedthroughthenational CostaRicanlegislature,forecastinganimminentUnitedStatesinvasionofNicaraguafromCosta
118 Rica. Fortunately,CostaRicanneutralityandrepercussionsfromtheUnitedStates

CongressionalIranContrahearingsoutlastedplansfordirectUnitedStatesmilitaryintervention, suchasREX84,tobediscussedinChapterSix. Force,ConceptuallyViolentorNonviolent Inacontextofviolentpower,forcecanbeusedtoprotectorbreakanexistingpower structure.Ashasbeenexploredaboveandwillbeexplainedbelow,thehistoryofinternational

111 TheodoreOlsonandGordonChristianen,

ThirtyOneHours,TheGrindstoneExperiment (Toronto:Canadian FriendsServiceCommittee,1966).Civilianbased,asdistinctfrommilitarybased,referstounarmedcivilian forces. 112 JulioQuan,InOurFourthYear, PeaceBrigadesInternational[PBI],Jan.1985,1.SeealsoPietDijkstra, PeaceBrigadesInternational,TheExampleofDirect ActioninPeaceKeeping,PeaceMaking,andPeaceBuilding inItsHistoricalContext,InternationalPeaceResearchAssociationConference,Sussex,England(1319April 1986),Mimeo,12and78. 113 JulioQuan,Lecture,TheAmericanUniversitySchoolofInternationalService,Washington,D.C.,5Feb.1985. 114 GuatemalaReport, PBI,May1985.TheisthmiancoordinationcenterfortheseeffortswastheFriendsWorld CollegeinCostaRica. 115 TheCentralAmericaBorderTeam:ABriefReport(17Sept.to1Oct.1983),Mimeo,Philadelphia,n.p. 116 JohnTrostle,MonteverdeCommunity,nearSantaElena,CostaRica,interviewbytheauthor,10April1989. SuchdecisionsweremadebypeoplelikeCharlesWalkerofthepeacebrigadesPhiladelphia,PA,office. 117 DanR.Ebener,IsThereAFutureforNonviolence?Fellowship49(Nov.1983):6.

33

militarizationandconflictintheWesternCaribbeanafter1919predisposedtheisthmian leadershiptowardviolentforce,conflict,andcoercion.Tocountersuchstateviolence,bythe early1940s,oneofthefirstsocialistledcoalitionstogovernanAmericanstatewaselectedto 119 powerinCostaRicawhere,aswillbeshown,socialconditionsimprovedsteadily. However,littleelsechangedintheisthmusuntilthe1979NicaraguanRevolutionandattemptsat civiliangovernmentinElSalvadorin1980.CostaRicas1983NeutralityProclamationwas followedbymoreisthmianmilitarization,assuggestedbytheproU.S.militarystanceofa1984 KissingerCommission(especiallyforElSalvador),the1986armsanddrugscandals,anda1989

120 Panamainvasion. Continuingpeaceeffortspromotedmutualchangeformutualbenefitand

responsibility,despitetheprevailingmilitarizedapproachestoconflictresolution. EconomicForce Theanomalouseventsinthe1980sstemmedfromCostaRicasfirstexperimentin promotingitsowndevelopment,sustainedforseventyyears,from1914to1984.This experimentinnonviolentforce,whichmandatedsustainableeconomicgrowthfordevelopment, twicerequiredthenationalizingofCostaRicasbanks,in1914and1948.Relativelyviolent counterforcebytheUnitedStatestobreakthestatusquodidnotrestrictCostaRicasabilityto determineitsowndevelopmentuntilthatnationwaspartlyremilitarizedbytheUnitedStates. Thisremilitarizationandbankingcrisis,tobesketchedindetailbelow,reinforcedUnitedStates threatstoinvadeNicaraguaandtobankruptCostaRica.Toavoidfurtherseriousproblemswith theUnitedStates,inacrisisduringlate1984,CostaRicaopeneditsbankstofreeenterprise,
121 favoringUnitedStatesbusinessesoverthoseofothercountries. Thiswasthe1984debtand

Contracrisis,whenCostaRicafacedoutsidethreatsofbothmilitarydevastationbytheContras andeconomicdevastationbydebt.

118 ElCancillerVolioAlientaCampaasDesinformadorasContraCubayNicaragua,

ElDa,21Jan.1983,in ComitdeSolidaridadconlosPresosPolticosenCostaRica[AssortedpressclippingsreadatCIDEinMexico City],CSPPCR,60. 119 Thecoalition,whichheldpowerthroughmuchofthe1930sand1940s,wascoledbyaRepublicanandSocialist Party,aswillbediscussedparticularlyinchapter6. 120 Pleaseseetherestofthischapterandchapters57foradiscussionofthemeansandoutcomeofisthmianforce andpowerpracticedinviolentandnonviolentways. 121 JamesDunkerley,PowerintheIsthmus,AHistoryofModernCentralAmerica (NewYork:Verso,1988),597 and638.SeealsoJennie K.Lincoln,NeutralityCostaRicanStyle,CurrentHistory [CHY]84(March1985):121. TheBolandAmendmentcutU.S.ContraaidinOctober1984.

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Toputthisnationalizationof CostaRicasbankingsystemintoitshistoricalcontext,one shouldrememberthatCubadidnotnationalizeitsbanksuntil1960.Twentyyearslater, NicaraguanationalizedtheRosarioMiningCompany(anAMAXsubsidiary)becauseofits

122 violenthistory. ManagedprimarilybyJ.P.Morgan&Company,AMAXhadhadaviolent

historyoutsidetheisthmusaswell,controllingtheRhodesiancopperbelt,Namibiandiamonds
123 anduranium,andtheSouthAfricanarmsindustry(ARMSCOR). Naturally,onceitsbanks

couldnolongerpromotesustainableselfdevelopment,considerableCostaRicanzinc,bauxite,
124 anduraniummineraldepositswereavailabletobeexploitedinRhodesianfashion.

ForCostaRica,thedebtContracrisiswasexacerbatedbyeconomicviolencethathad beenincreasingthroughoutthetwentiethcenturybecauseofskewedlanddistribution:Atleast onehalfofthearablelandinthewholeisthmuswasbeingcultivatedforexportcrop

125 production. UnitedBrands(formerlyUnitedFruit),StandardFruit,andDelMonte,basedin 126 127 CostaRicafrom1889 tothepresenttime, havecontrolledtheproductionofsuchexport

cropsandproductsintheisthmus.FromWashington,D.C.,andSanJos,theAmericanInstitute forFreeLaborDevelopment(AIFLD),specializinginlaborpoliciesforexportcrops,alsohelped topromoterelatedmining,banking,andagriculturalinterestsinLatinAmerica,includingthose ofW.R.Grace,Anaconda,andRockefeller.AIFLDlandandlaborpoliciesoflongstanding madeworkingconditionsharsh.Ontheaverage,CostaRicantextileworkers,forexample,

122 U.S.BusinessinNicaragua,MultinationalMonitor 6(April1985):4.Oneotherrelatedcompanywasalso

nationalizedinNicaragua,theNeptuneMiningCompany,anASARCOsubsidiary. 123 StephenWeissman, AmericanForeignPolicyintheCongo,19601964 (Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress, 1974),3138and4950.SeealsoTheodoreGregory,ErnestOppenheimerand theEconomicDevelopmentofSouth Africa (NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1962),8289and115118TerrySchott,LeRoledesBanquesdans LeRenforcementdelaCapaciteMilitairedeLAfriqueduSud, NotesetDocuments (U.N.CenterAgainst Apartheid,No.21/81,August1981),1213orHelenaTuomiandRaimoVyrynen, TransnationalCorporations, 142,16062,and172.Overthelastfortyyears,AMAXhasalsodominatedU.S.coalminingfromthe westernstatestoIllinoisandAppalachia.SeePeoplesGrandJury,TheAMAXWarAgainstHumanity,Mimeo, Washington,D.C.,1974,3and1718. 124 Forlocations,see AtlasGeoqumicodelosCuadrngulosdeSanJosyGolfito(LosAlamos,NM:LosAlamos NationalLaboratory,1987). 125 TeresaHayter,TheCreationofWorldPoverty,AnAlternativetotheBrandtReport (London:PlutoPress,1981), 56. 126 EdelbertoTorresRivas,InterpretacindelDesarrolloSocialCentroAmricana(SanJos:EDUCA,1981),96. 127 SouthLatinAmerica, South (Jan.1985)inDCF (1985),13.

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earnedhalfthewageoftheirTaiwanesecounterparts.Thisconditionwascompoundedby
128 denationalizationinresponsetothe1984debtContracrisis.

AccordingtoMichaelBowker,theinternationaleventsleadingtothiscrisisbeganinthe late1970s,whenMexicoandCostaRicadonatedmorefood,financialaid,anddevelopmentaid
129 tohelptheSandinistastotheirfeetthandidCubaandtheSovietUniontogether. InAugust

1981,UnitedStatespoliticalpressureforCostaRicanremilitarization,combinedwithhazardous internationaltermsofdebtandtrade,forcedCostaRicatobecomethefirstLatinAmericanstate todefaultonitsdebt.Ayearlater,itsinflationwasclimbingthreetimesfasterthanNicaraguan

130 inflation. Bankdenationalizationandeconomicdependencyfollowedinthemid1980s.

WomenandPower,TheLitmusTestofForce Isthmianwomencaughtmorethantheirshareofthestructuralviolencecausedby forcefulUnitedStatesinterventioninthisperiod,aswillbedescribedbelow.Historically, womeninCostaRicansocietymayhaveexertedmorepoliticalpowerbeforetheSpanish conquestthanafterwards,ifpowerisinterpretedasanabilitytopromotedevelopmentby effectingmutualchangeformutualbenefit.Anthropologistshaveexploredartifactsfromapre EuropeanmatriarchalcivilizationlivingaroundtheSanJuanRiversystem.GeorgieAnneGeyer concludesfromtheseartifactsthatwomencomanagedprivateordomesticandpublic

131 developmentinthatperiod. Aftertheconquest,womenthroughouttheisthmuswere

subjugatedunderanationstatesystem.In1948CostaRicanwomenregainedsomepolitical
132 powerbytheirelectoralsuffrage,wonbeforethatofwomeninotherneighboringstates. From

128 TomBarry,etal.,DollarsDictators,1923,105109,and205206. 129

MichaelBowker,TheSovietUnion,TheThirdWorld,andDtente,inPeterShearmanandPhilWilliams, eds.,Superpowers,CentralAmerica,andtheMiddleEast (Oxford:BrasseysDefencePublishers/Maxwell PergamonPublishing,1988),193.BowkermaintainsthatCubanandSovietsupplies,includingarms,weresentfor themostpartonlyafterJuly1979. 130 JamesWallace,CostaRica:IsleofTranquilityinanAngrySea, U.S.News&WorldReport [USNWR],17 Sept.1984,inDCF (1984),2.SeealsoMiguelandMollyFiguerola,ByBusaroundCentralAmerica, Friends Journal 28(15April1982):19.NicaraguaninflationbegantooutpaceCostaRicaninflationrapidlyby1983, paralleledbyincreasingwardamage. 131 GeorgieAnneGeyer,TheNewLatins,FatefulChangeinSouthandCentralAmerica(GardenCity,NY: Doubleday,1970),241. 132 JamesDunkerley,CentralAmerica,601.

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thatpoint,illiteracyandinfantmortalityratesimprovedmorequicklyinCostaRicathaninthe
133 restoftheisthmus.

ButmanyoftheseCostaRicanimprovementswouldberolledbackbythedebtContra crisis,asremilitarizationshiftedeconomicprioritiesawayfrommeetinghumanneeds.By1985, forexample,therewereonlyfortydaycarecentersthrough outCostaRica,despitenear universalliteracyqualifyingwomentowork.Evenwhenchildcarewasnotaproblem,available jobswerelimited,duetoconditionscausedbytheprocessofremilitarization.In1985anational womensnetworkobservedthatthewavesofremilitarizationsweepingCostaRicawere

134 promotinglawlessness,homelessness,andlandlessness.

CostaRicanwomenendeavoredtoprotecttheirlegalrightstopoliticalandeconomic power.Butstatisticsshowedthatruralwomensufferedhigherratesof nervios,ornervous

135 breakdown,thanruralmen. Wagelevelsforwomeninurbanworkweredifficulttocompare

withthoseformenonthebasisofavailabledata.However,1983laborstatisticsdoindicatethat halfofallCostaRicanmothers,whetherruralorurban,weresingleparents,andassuch particularlypronetothestructuralviolenceofpoverty,rapidlybeingreinforcedby

136 remilitarization.

InneighboringNicaragua,perhapsmorelikeCostaRicathananyotherstateinthe isthmus,amajorityofwomenlearnedtoreadthroughliteracycampaignsintheearly1980s.But
137 thesamedebtContracrisissoonrolledliteracybackundersurvivalasanationalpriority.

133 ElsaTamez,AmadaPineda:AWomanofNicaragua,inDianaEckandDevaki

Jain,eds., SpeakingofFaith, GlobalPerspectivesonWomen,ReligionandSocialChange (Philadelphia,PA:NewSocietyPublishing,1986),37. 134 MaraCora,CostaRicanWomenFightPoverty,WarBuildup, ListenRealLoud,Fall1985,inDCF (1985), 15.Thecrisiswascomplicatedbyolderproblems,likebirthcontroldrugsoutlawedintheUnitedStatesbut dumpedinCostaRica,whichhadinjuredmanyCostaRicanwomen,despitecarefulfamilyplanningprojects superiortothoseofotherLatinAmericanstatesseeDeirdreWulf,CostaRicaLeadsLatinAmericasFertility DeclinePartlyBecauseofNationalProgramsRuralImpact,InternationalFamilyPlanningPerspectives4(Fall, 1978):9294. 135 PeggyF.BarlettandSethaM.Low,NerviosinRuralCostaRica, MedicalAnthropology 4(Fall1980):540. 136 CostaRica, NIN,Sept.1983,inDCF (1983),1.FormoreonLatinAmericanlaborstatistics,seeShirleyNuss, WomenintheWorldofWork,StatisticalAnalysisandProjectionstotheYear2000 (Geneva:ILO,1989),1415and 9497. 137 DianeJones,NicaraguanWomenAdvance,AMNLAECelebratesaDecadeofProgress, Frontline,23 November1987,7576.

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Throughvariousorganizations,bothCostaRicanandNicaraguanwomencontinuedtoorganize
138 formoreresponsivelawsandprogressovertheintolerancereinforcedbymilitarization.

Isthmianlaborstatisticsformenandwomenreflectgenderdifferencessimilartothoseof theUnitedNations,whereundertenpercentofrepresentativestotheGeneralAssemblyare 139 Afew women,andfewifanywomenreachhighWorldCourtorSecurityCouncilpositions. womenhavereachedhighpostsinCostaRica,likethesemihonoraryvicepresidencyheldby

140 thewifeofOscarArias,MargaritaPenndeArias. However,eveninanationlikeCosta

Rica,whichattemptstolegislateequalrightsforwomen,theyarestilllikelytobedeniedpolicy makingemploymentbecausethepowerforsuchworkisequatedwithmilitarymight. Powerinterpretedasamandatetorestrictandinfluencepeoplebyviolencehasalsobeen codifiedinAmericanmaritalandcohabitationlaw. Amanisdefinedinlegaldiscourseasthe onewhoprotectsafamilyunit.Legally,womenparticipateasmaritalpartnersineverythingbut

141 protectingthefamilyunitthroughviolence. Inthiscontextthepoliticalpowerofwomenis

limitedbylowearningpower,despitenearuniversalsuffrage.Althoughoverninetynine
142 percentofallwomenworldwidecanlegallyvote, forexample,theInternationalLabor

Organizationreportsthatwomenaroundtheworldclaimundertenpercentofalleconomic
143 incomeandunderonepercentofalleconomicproperty. Butgenderandpowerinstateswitha

highpotentialformilitaryviolenceremainevenmoredifficultissuestoresearchsocietally,since

138 RebeccaGordon,LettersfromNicaragua

(SanFrancisco:Spinsters/AuntKate,1986),22435. WholeEarthPapers 1(1978):8.CostaRican womensuchasVictoriaGarronhavechallengedsuchexecutiveprivilegeseeKarenCheney,Garron:Still WorkingforWomen,TicoTimes[TTS],20April1990,5. 140 Seetheworkof OscarAriasSnchezandMargaritaPenndeAriastopromotelegalandsocialequalityfor womeninCostaRica,approvedbytheNationalLegislativeAssemblyasLawNo.7142(1March1990),inLeyde PromocindelaIgualdadSocialdelaMujer (SanJos:FundacinAriasparalaPazyelProgresoHumano,1990), 124orKarenCheney,NewOfficestoOfferProtectionforWomen,TTS,1June1990,29. 141 ClareDalton,AnEssayintheDeconstructionofContractDoctrine, YaleLawJournal94(April1985):1107 and1111. 142 LisaLeghornandMaryRoodkowsky,WhoReallyStarves?WomenandWorldHunger (NewYork:Friendship Press,1977),35. 143 TwothirdsofpregnantThirdWorldwomenalsosufferfromseriousanaemiasee Women:AWorldReport (London:Methuen,1985),43and82.Seealso LookingtotheFuture:EqualPartnershipBetweenWomenandMen intheTwentiethCentury (Minneapolis,MN:HumphreyInstitute,UniversityofMinnesota,n.d.).
139 PatriciaMische,Women,PowerandAlternativeFutures,

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womensimplydonotparticipateequitablyinpolicymakingcareerswheremilitarizationis
144 confusedwithdevelopment.

Conflict,ConceptuallyViolentorNonviolent InastatelikeCostaRica,conflictcanbeeitheraviolentclashinwhichoneactorgains andtheotherloses,oracooperativeeffortagainstinimicalconditions.Examplesofthelatter course,althoughtheyareunusualindiplomatichistory,didoccurinstateslikeIndiaandthe NetherlandsbeforetheCostaRicanexperiment.InIndia,forexample,betweenthethirdandthe

145 secondcentury,B.C.E.,Ashokaruledonestatenonviolentlyforsixdecades. AshokasIndia,

likethegovernmentofthenineteenthcenturyNetherlands,enjoyedarespitefromtherhetoricof warandadulationofthefatherland.InboththekingdomofAshokaandthedemocracyofthe Netherlands,thereminiscencesofpeoplewhohadwieldedviolentpowerwereshunned, primarilyasanuisancetonationalfreedomandsecurity.Educationfocusedupontheresolution

146 ofconflictbyreconciliationandcommonculturalgrowth,notonthememoriesofwar. Much

thesamekindofculturalmilieuwascreatedinCostaRicabeforetheUnitedStatesattemptto remilitarizeitinthe1980s. CostaRicaandNicaraguahadtriedtoresolveborderconflictinsimilarlypeacefulways. Bordernegotiationsbegan throughanearly1800sisthmianfederationdesignedtoreplace

147 Spanishrule, butthesenegotiationsweredisturbedbyWilliamWalkerinthemid1800s.

Alongatrailetchedinblood,WalkerledMorganandVanderbiltfundedtroopssenttobuilda canalalongtheNicaraguanandCostaRicanborder,andtoencouragemoreslavestatevotesfor theConfederacyintheUnitedStatesCongress.TheresultingRivasWalkerwarwasended

144 Womenhavebeenshunnedinoccupationswhereverpowerderivesfromthepotentialforviolence,especiallyin

stateswitharmsasdangerousasnuclearweapons,includingtheU.S.seeBettyReardon,AGenderAnalysisof MilitarismandSexistRepression,ASuggestedResearchAgenda, IPRANewsletter 21(1983):39.Foraccountsof womencreatingorganizationsliketheLeagueofNationsandthustheU.N.,butthenbeingdeniedaccesstothe resultingpowerstructure,seeJaneAddams,etal.,WomenAtTheHague(NewYork:Macmillan,1915),15059. 145 PitirimSorokin, LostPower,6675. SeealsoLaurenceA.Waddell,DiscoveryoftheExactSiteofAshokas ClassicCapitalofPaliputra,ThePalibothraoftheGreeks,andDescriptionoftheSuperficialRemains (Calcutta: BengalSecretariatPress,1892). 146 ChrisBartelds, MondialeVorminginhetOnderwijs(Haren,Netherlands:PolemologicalInstitute,1980),1923. 147 ClotildeMaraObregonQuesada,CostaRica Nicaragua,ProblemticaInternaeInternacionaldela DelimitacinFronteriza,18211860(MAhistorythesis,UniversityofCostaRica,1985),3639.

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largelybymilitaryinterventionfromCostaRica,whichsufferedthehighestpercentageof
148 casualtiesinitsmilitaryhistory.Thewarleftanindeliblybitterimprintonisthmianmemory.

Localandglobalresourceshavebeenmobilizedforconflictintheisthmusmanytimes sincethen.Nevertheless,militaryinstitutionsremainedweakinCostaRica.Inneighboring Nicaragua,undertheSomozafamily,eventsdevelopeddifferently.TheSomozasgranted majoritycontroloverNicaraguasbankandrailroadstockownershiptoUnitedStatesbankers andmunitionsdealersin1912,thusensuringtheinstitutionalizationofmilitaryforcebythe

149 NationalGuard.

FarfromthesestrugglesinCostaRicaandNicaragua,aSeptember1919Conferenceat St.GermaineenLayeinFrancetriedtofosteraninternationalconsensusforcurbingconflictin regionsliketheMiddleEastandtheWesternCaribbean.AlthoughitwasshunnedbytheUnited

150 States,becauseofwhatitconsidereditsnationalsecurity, thisconferencechartereda

PermanentDisarmamentCommissionwithintheLeagueofNations.ThatCommission appointedspecialambassadorstoinhibitarmsfinancingandtoconfirmarmscompliancewith
151 itsdisarmamentplan. Mandatedbyitschartertoconstrainbanksthatfinancedwar,the

CommissiontargetedbankerslikeJ.P.Morgan,whowasthenusingNicaraguaasabasefor sellingisthmianarms,touseformilitaryinterventionandtoprotectsystemsofeconomic
152 exploitationwhichhadbeenbasedhistoricallyonwar. Butbecauseitcouldnotorwouldnot

riskprobingdeeplyintothelinkagesbetweenunderdevelopmentandmilitarization,theLeague ofNationsdissolvedjustasitwasformingitsPermanentDisarmamentCommission.

148 WilliamWalker,

TheWarinNicaragua(Mobile:S.H.Goetzel,1860,andDetroit:B.Ethridge,1972). Interestinglyenough,thedaughteroftheHonduranpresidentwhoexecutedWalkermarriedthefirstpresidentof Cuba,asocalledfightingQuaker.SeeEdwardCornell, SusannaCornellFergusonandHerDescendants:A GenealogyContainingalsoRandomReminiscencesandSomewhatoftheLifeoftheAuthor (Cornwall,NY: CornwallPress,1937),28.Seealsochapterfiveonserialwardead. 149 Jerome Davis,CapitalismandItsCulture(NewYork:Farrar&Rinehart,1941),217218.Thesamething happenedinCubafromthe1930sto1959. 150 ConstanceDrexel,TheMunitionsTraffic,NAR 236(July1933):6571andConstanceDrexel,ABrief Outlineof EffortstoControltheManufacturingandSaleofMunitionsandImplementsofWar,inJuliaJohnsen, ed., InternationalTrafficinArmsandMunitions (NewYork:H.W.WilsonCo.,1934),5157. 151 LeagueofNations,CommitteefortheReductionoftheTradeinandPrivateandStateManufacturesofArmsand ImplementsofWar,LeagueofNationsConferencefortheReductionandLimitationofArmaments,Vol.3(1932), 802812. 152 MirtaMuroRodrguez,etal., NicaraguayLaRevolucinSandinista(Havana:Editorialde Ciencias Sociales/EdicionesPoltica,1984),6364and90.SeealsoDonaldCastilloRivas, AcumulacindeCapitaly EmpresasTransnacionalesenCentroamrica (MexicoCity:SigloXXI,1980),35,59,7175,and257.

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TheglobalsignificanceofconflictintheCaribbean(andthusinCostaRica)became apparentduringthe1940s,whenNazi GermanysankmoreUnitedStatesoceanicshippinginthe

153 CaribbeanthaninanyothercoastalwatersoftheAmericas. Theselossesdrewinternational

attentionawayfromtheisthmustoCuba,whereUnitedStatescolonialinterestsprevaileduntil theCuban Revolution(1959)andtheworldMissileCrisis(1962).Thatcrisisbeganin1959 withanonviolentgeneralstrikethroughoutHavanawhichrapidlythrustFidelCastrointopower, inthewakeofguerrillawarfare,andwasfollowedbysolidaritystrikessweepingswiftlythrough

154 Chile,Peru,Mexico,Panama,andArgentina.

Theseconflictswagedforinternationalselfdetermination,andinspiredbythehistorical
155 exampleofCostaRica,particularlyfrom19341948, wereconceptualizedbypeoplelikeRal

RoaKouri.(ALebaneseCubanandaseminalLatinAmericaninternationalrelationsscholar, RoaKouriespousedtheoristslikeJohnBellers,butrejectedThomasHobbesandNcolo
156 Machiavelli. )Whensuchconflictsreachedacrisispoint,theyweremediatedbypeoplelike 157 BertrandRussell,whointheearly1960spersonallyhelpedallsidestowardcommonground.

153 RalSohr,

CentroamricaenGuerra,lasFuerzasArmadasdeCentroamricayMxico (MexicoCity:Alianza EditorialMexicana,1988),2223.ApparentlytheKissingerCommissionalsorecalledthishistoryinitsworries aboutpotentialSovietinterventionintheCaribbean. 154 EmiliaGrinevichandBorisGvozdariov,WashingtonContraLaHabana (Moscow:Progress,1986),6061,131 32,and234.Thesetwoauthorsnotetwomeetingstorestrict(intheearly1960s)andtoreopen(inthemid1970s) LatinAmericandiplomaticrelationswithCuba,bothheldin SanJos,CostaRicaseepages44,12126,137,and 149.Bycontrast,Cubaspent$3billiondefendingitselffromtheUnitedStatesduringthefirstthreedecadesafter theRevolution,accordingtoJosLuisRodrguez,LaLlamadaCubanologayelDesarrolloEconmicodeCuba, inTemasde[la]EconomaMundial 7(1983):143. 155 Inthe1960s,todownplaytheeffectsofthe19341948eventsinCostaRicaandtheeventsinCubaafter1959, theU.S.covertlyattemptedtoredesignthewholeisthmianuniversity systemthroughaCostaRicanbaseduniversity programLeonardJ.Currie,PlanningofCentralAmericanCampuses,ReportfortheAgencyforInternational Development(AID),RegionalOffice,CentralAmericaandPanamaAffairsandConsejoSuperior,Universitaria Centroamrica(Chicago:AID/CSUCA,1964),612.Theattemptconstrueddevelopmentasabusinessenterprise insuredbygovernmentagencieslikeU.S.AIDseeJohnSwomley,AmericanEmpire,100108.Thisattemptalso resembledU.S.domesticprograms seeEdgarS.CahnandJeanC.Cahn,TheWarOnPoverty:ACivilian Perspective,TheYaleLawJournal 73(July1964):131821.Seealsochapters34and68. 156 RalRoaKouri,HistoriadelasDoctrinasSociales(Havana:UniversidaddelaHabana,1949),137ff.,15560, and212217. 157 BertrandRussell,UnarmedVictory (NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1963),2065.RussellfoundNikita KruschevtobelessviolentthanJohnKennedy.SeealsoPedroValdesFuentes,AlgunasConsideracionesCriticas delaTesis delaVerdaddeBertrandRussell(MAthesis,UniversityofHavana,1983),72and105112.Russell foundhisconceptualfoundationsintheexerciseofhisrighttorefusetokillevenifimprisonedbythestate.SeeJo Vellacott, BertrandRussellandthe PacifistsintheFirstWorldWar(NewYork:St.MartinsPress,1980),23640. Forfurtherinsight,seeBarryFeinberg,ed., ADetailedCatalogueoftheArchivesofBertrandRussell (London: Continuum,1967),27172,onrelatedboxesofcorrespondencestartinginthemid1950s,aswellasAlSeckel, RussellandtheCubanMissileCrisis, Russell [MacMasterUniversity,Hamilton,Ontario,Canada]17(Winter 1984):25361.SeckelnotesthatUThantandKruschevbothexpresseddeepgratitudetoRussellforprovidingaless violentwayoutofthe1962Cuban,Soviet,andU.S.crisisthanthealternative,anuclearexchangethatmighthave

41

After1962,Cubandiplomacydriftedtowardnonalignment,emphasizingtheUnitedNations
158 disarmamentanddevelopmenthypothesisforinternationalconflictresolution. Cuban

leaderslikeRoaKouriandMiguelDEstefaniPisanidiscoveredthatinternationalneutrality, desiredandexemplifiedbystateslikeCostaRica,haddevelopedasthecoreofnonalignmentin
159 diplomatichistoryandselfdeterminationwithininternationalrelationstheory.

AmajorthemeinsuchThirdWorlddeliberationsoverselfdeterminationconcernedthe futureofThirdWorldresourcesliketropicalrainforests.Environmentalconcerncontinuedtobe animportantelementinthesestirringsforneutrality,nonalignment,andselfdetermination

160 withinThirdWorldstateslikeCostaRica. AroundthesametimeastheabolitionofCosta

Ricasmilitarypowerinthe1940s,UnitedNationsattemptstoresolveconflictbegan,withits 1946disarmamentresolution thefirstresolutionpassedduringtheGeneralAssemblysfirst

161 session. Asaresult,universityresearchoninternationalconflictresolutionwaslaunchedby

smallUnitedNationsandInternationalSocialScienceCouncilgrants. TheInternationalPeace ResearchAssociation,forexample,wascofoundedwiththeirfundingin1961.Headedfirstby BertRlingoftheNetherlandsPolemologicalInstitute,thisassociationhasbeenhousedat

resultedinwhatisnowcallednuclearwinter.GrahamAllison,directingtheKennedySchoolofGovernmentat HarvardUniversity,andothershavewrittendescriptionsofthe1962MissileCrisisfromotherpointsofview basedintheworldorderapproach. 158 InstitutoSuperiordeRelacionesInternacionales,(ISRI),UNIDIRNewsletter(Geneva),June1989,18.ISRI beganpublishingthe EstudioseInvestigacionesdelISRI inJanuary1985.ContributorsincludedSalvadorVilaseca Forn,CarlosAlzugarayTreto,RobertoGonzlezGmez,FranciscoLpezSegrera,MiguelA.DEstefanoPisani, andPedroUrra.Seealso[InRussian][TheCreationoftheScientificCouncilonPeaceandDisarmament Research,],[InRussian, InstituteofWorldEconomyandInternationalRelationsorIMEMO]7(1979):106111 and[InRussian][TheConceptionoftheInterconnectionBetweenDisarmamentandDevelopment Thesesof theInstituteofWorldEconomyandInternationalRelations,U.S.S.R.AcademyofSciences],IMEMO 8(1987):3 8andchapter4ondisarmamentanddevelopment. 159 MiguelA.DEstefanoPisani, FundamentosdelDerechoInternationalPblicoContemporneo,Vol.2(Havana: UniversityofHavanaLawFacultyandMinistryofHigherEducation,1983),9731029.Antigua,Brazil,Costa Rica,ElSalvador,Mexico,Uruguay,andVenezuelawouldjointhenonalignedmovementaspermanentobservers. Argentina,theBahamas,Barbados,Belize,Chile(temporarily),Colombia,Cuba,Ecuador,Grenada(temporarily), Guyana,Jamaica,Nicaragua,Peru,St.Lucia,Surinam,andTrinidad&Tobagobecamenonalignedmembers, accordingtoRobertArmstrong,Nicaragua:SovereigntyandNonAlignment, NACLAReportontheAmericas [NACLA]19(MayJune1985):16. 160 FidelCastro,TheWorldEconomicandSocialCrisis,ItsImpactontheUnderdevelopedCountries,ItsSomber ProspectsandTheNeedtoStruggleIfWeAretoSurvive (Havana:CouncilofStatePublishingOffice,Seventhor NonAlignedSummitReport,1983),109and117ff.ForanalogousNicaraguanviewpoints,seePhilosophiein Nikaragua AufbruchzuneuenHorizonten, DeutscheZeitschriftfrPhilosophie (DDR)4(1988):34751or. [InRussian,TatianaVorozheikina],[Nicaragua:SomePeculiaritiesoftheTransitionalPeriod], IMEMO1(1989): 8896. 161 JohanKaufman, ConferenceDiplomacy,AnIntroductoryAnalysis (Leyden:OceanaandDobbsFerry,NY:A.W. Sijthof,1968),17374.

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variouscentersinEuropeandtheAmericas,focusingonnonviolentsecurityalternativesand
162 equitableaccesstohumannecessities.

Meanwhile,bytheearly1980s,CostaRicansupportersofnonviolentconflictresolution successfullyestablishedthefirstUnitedNationsassociatedUniversityforPeace,UPAZ also thefirstinternationalpeaceresearchcenterinwhatwillbedescribedinchapterthreeasazoneof

163 globalconflict. MilitarizedwesternnationsadamantlyrefusedUnitedNationsfundingforthis

ThirdWorldpeaceresearchcenter,withgrimreactionsreminiscentoftheirrefusalto acknowledgethestillunsurpassedworlddisarmamentrecordsetbyKhomeinis$8billionarms (orders)cutinIranduring1979.ThereasonsgivenfordenyingfundingforUPAZbeganwith defensivestatements totheeffectthatsuchThirdWorldresearchwassuperfluous,andtherefore

164 notworthfunding. Meanwhile,UnitedStatesleadershipbegantosenditstopRepublican

PartycampaignmanagerstooverthrowCostaRicasmostpopularsocialdemocratpolitical party
165 atthepolls.

Coercion,ConceptuallyViolentorNonviolent Asnotedabove,coercionmayincludetheuseofmilitaryconflictandstructuralviolence. InastatelikeCostaRica,though,coercionmayalsoincludeusingmeansconsonantwithendsto promptsustainablepeace,security,anddevelopment.TheconstitutionoftheUnitedNations EconomicandSocialCouncilencouragesthelatterkindofcoercioninitsstatementthatwarcan

166 bechangedintopeaceonlywithinourminds. Futureviabilityofnonviolentalternativeswill

dependonsuchchange. VarioustraditionsprecedingtheCostaRicanexperimentbroughtapeacefulfuturecloser, bytheuseofnonviolentcoerciontoeffectmutualchangeformutualbenefit.Forexample,

162 PetervandenDungen,FoundationsofPeaceResearch

(London:HousmansandUniversityofBradford,Peace StudiesPapers,No.1,1980),51.SeealsoG.KennethWilson, AGlobalPeaceStudyGuide (London:Housmans andUniversityofBradford,1982),2829. Polemos,fromaGreekwordforconflict,substitutedfortheword peace becausepeacehassubversiveconnotationsinsomegovernmentalcircles. 163 UniversityforPeace (SanJose:GovernmentofCostaRica,1980),3340. 164 BruceRussett,Disarmament,HumanRightsandBasicHumanNeeds, BulletinofPeaceProposals [BPP]10 (1979):279. 165 ElectionsHereandThere, FriendsPeaceCenterNewsletter[FPCN],JulyOct.1988,3and8.U.S. RepublicansledbyRogerAileswouldleadastruggletopushaconservativepoliticalpartyintopowerinCostaRica inFeb.1990. 166 UnitedNationsEducationalandScientificCouncil[UNESCO],Constitution (16Nov.1945,amended17thsess.). TheUNESCOConstitutionstillusesthephrasemindsofmen. Butfortheroleofmindsatwarwheregender

43

CatharisandAlbigensiansduringtheeleventhtothirteenthcenturiesC.E.triedtobuilda
167 nonviolentcitystate,withaninternalpoliceforcebutwithoutamilitaryforce. Coercionin

relatednonviolenttraditionshasstemmedfromscepticalJainism,anarchism,Anabaptism, socialism,andvariousnaturalphilosophiesorreligions.Whateverthecase,onewaysuch coerciveoptionsmightbecomepoliticallypowerfulintheAmericashasbeentestedinCosta Rica. Traditionally,CostaRicanshaveelectedwritersandteachersovermilitarygeneralsfor nationalleadershipposts,includingthepresidency.FouroutstandingCostaRicanshelpedto establishthistraditionbetweenthelate1800sandthe1940s.ThesefourwereRobertoBrenes Mesn,OmarDengo,JoaqunGarcaMonge,andCarmenLyra.BrenesMesnandLyrawere creativewriters,whileDengocofoundedCostaRicasnationaluniversitysystem.Garca MongeeditedReportorioAmricano,withcontributionsby,forinstance,KahlilGibran,D.H. Lawrence,GabrielaMistral,andPabloNeruda.SuchtraditionsmadeCostaRicaacultural
168 centeroftheAmericas, andstimulatedstrugglesfornonviolentsolutionstosocialproblems, 169 suchasthepioneerartisanstrikesforaneighthourworkday.

Defendinghumanrightsundersuchtraditions,CostaRica,Peru,Chile,Guatemala,and Venezuelacosponsoredthefirstinternationalwomensconferencesonhumanrights.The conferenceresultswerearticulatedbyinternationaltreatiesinLima,Peru,in1878,thatdiscussed

170 separaterightstoconjugalproperty. Ironically,thishappenedduringthesameperiodinwhich

ahumanitarianUnitedStatespresident,AbrahamLincoln,andhisTreasurySecretary,Salmon
differencesareconcerned,especiallyonrapeasacoresexualdysfunctionofwar,seeEliseBoulding,Womenand SocialViolence, InternationalSocialSciences30(1978):801812. 167 AndrewW.Cordier,TheReconstructionofSouthernFranceAftertheAlbigensianCrusades(Ph.D.diss., UniversityofChicago,1927).HisdissertationwasfoundintheColumbiaUniversityCordierArchivalCollection. CordiercamefromanAnabaptistChurchoftheBrethrenbackground,throughwhich,inthe1940s,he helpedtostartthefirstU.S.academicpeaceandconflictresolutionprogramatManchesterCollege,North Manchester,Indiana.AftertheU.N.,hebecametheDeanofInternationalAffairsandthenthePresidentat ColumbiaUniversity,whileworkingwithstudentleaderslikeMarkRudd.SeeWolfgangSaxon,Dr.AndrewW. CordierAt74ColumbiaPresidentandU.N.Leader, NewYorkTimesBiographicalService6(July1975):833 34andJamesGould,AndrewW.Cordier,ModelDiplomat, BulletinofPeaceStudies (ManchesterCollege)9 (May1979):14. 168 AnaLuisaCerdasAlbertazziandGeradioA.VargasCambronero,LaAbolicindelEjrcitoenCostaRica,Hito deunCaminode[la]Democraciay[la]Paz (SanJos:ImprentaNacional,1988),37.ForparallelU.S.attempts, seeCharlesNorthend,ed., ElihuBurritt,AMemorialVolume (NewYork:D.Appleton,1879),2324. 169 VictorH.AcuaOrtega, LosOrgenesdelaClaseObreraenCostaRica:LasHuelgasde1920porlaJornada deOchoHoras(SanJos:CENAP/CEPAS,1986),37and15.

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171 Chase,wereinstitutionalizinganationalmilitaryconscriptionsystem. Oneof thefew

internationalorganizationssupportingstateslikeCostaRicawastheSocialistInternational,of whichCostaRicawasafoundingmember(Brussels,1891).TheSocialistInternational,like CostaRicaitself,wastopushforparityintheeconomicstatusofwomen,buttocontestmilitary

172 coercionenforcedbyconscription.

Duringthe1930sand1940sotherpoliticalorganizationsexperimentingwithnonviolent coercioninconflictresolutionemergedinbothCostaRicaandtheUnitedStates.CostaRica,for example,backedasuccessfulnonviolentcoupinElSalvador.ThisSalvadoreancoupdtat overthrewaproSomozaleader,MaximilianoHernndezMartnez,armedbytheUnitedStates andinimicaltoIndianpeople.TwoexiledSalvadoreansinCostaRica,JosLuisBozaand JoaqunCastroCanizales(aliasQuinoCaso),ledacoupcoalitionofpeasants,businesspeople,

173 andthemilitaryfrom1941to1944,usingGandhianstrategies. Beginninginthe1930sinthe

UnitedStates,theHopipeoplehadalsobeguntoleadtheirlegislativemovementforcultural freedom,abolishingtheColonialIndianBureau(intheWarDepartment)by1933andchanging
174 federallawsagainstIndianreligiousfreedombythe1940s.

Coercionwithoutviolencehadbeenusedtraditionallyinconflictresolutionthroughout theAmericas,especiallybyIndianpopulationsclusteredinPeruandBolivia.Suchcommunal nonviolencehadbeencultivatedbyIndiansoftheAndeanareainwhichErnesto(Che) Guevaradied,alsothehomeofliberationtheologianGustavoGutirrez,bothadvocatingthe

175 antidependencyapproach. SuchLatinAmericanstruggleagainstUnitedStatesled

militarizationpolicysupportedthe1962cementworkersmilitantnonviolentstrikeinPerus,a cityinBrazil.Thatstrikein1962triggeredacontinentaltradeuniongroundswellthatwould

170 AlicePaul,TowardsEquality,AStudyoftheLegalPositionofWomenintheUnitedStates(LL.D.diss.,The

AmericanUniversity,1928),ChapterXVIII,28. 171 DonnalVoreSmith, ChaseandCivilWarPolitics(Columbus,OH:F.J.HeerPrintingCo.,1931),4346.Chase cofoundedtheChaseManhattanBank.The1863conscriptionlawmayhavebeenthefirstofanyconsequencefor arepublicsincetheRomanEmpireseeRichardFox,ConscientiousObjectionto War:TheBackgroundanda CurrentAppraisal, ClevelandStateLawReview 32(Winter1982):7980. 172 KarlLiebknecht, MilitarismandAntiMilitarism (NewYork:Dover,1972),91and15859. 173 PatriciaParkman,InsurrectionwithoutArms,TheGeneralStrikein ElSalvador,1944(Ph.D.diss.,Temple University,1980),14546. 174 JohnCollier,OntheGleamingWay (Chicago:SageBooksandSwallowPress,1962),109111. 175 JohnSwomley,LiberationEthics,134.

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176 leadBrazil,LatinAmericaslargeststate,awayfrommilitarydictatorshipbythe1980s.

Contemporaryversionsofthesamephenomenacanbeseenintheconceptofpowercommonto NorthAmericanIndianculturessuchastheComanche,cultureswhichdefinepowerasshared
177 responsibility,notonlyforoneskindredbutfortheworldatlarge.

StructuralViolenceinCostaRicafromImposedViolentPower CostaRicashistoryisrichinexamplesofviolentandnonviolentcoercion.Its ChanquinaorChangueneIndians,forinstance,foughttothedeathagainstEuropeanslaveryin

178 the1700s. Still,becauseCostaRicawasrelativelyfreefromtheencomiendasystem,withthe

Indianslavery,genocide,andunderdevelopmentthatsystemhadbroughttotherestofthe Americas,itslivingstandardssurpassedthoseinotherLatinAmericanstatesuntil remilitarizationbytheUnitedStates. CostaRicanlivingstandardsbegantodropintheearly1980swhenCurtinWinsor,the UnitedStatesAmbassadortoCostaRica,pushedtoprivatizeitseconomy.Healsothreatenedto

179 withholdUnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopmentaid. Asmuchasseventyfive

percentoftheaidthatdidarrivewasorientedtobuildingaContrainfrastructure.Facingdire

176 MarioCarvalhodeJesus,VinteeDoisAnosdeLutaSindicalnaPerus,inFirmezaPermanente

(SoPaulo, Brazil:CoediaoLoyolaVega,1977),67and84.DemonstrationsontheorderoftheGandhiansaltmarchwere usedthen.Forbackgroundonthistradeunionstruggle,itsbeginningsinthe1950sandcruciallegalbattlesinthe late1960sandearly1970s,seeMariaHelenaMoreiraAlves,GrassrootsOrganizations,TradeUnions,andthe ChurchAChallengetoControlled Abertura inBrazil,LatinAmericanPerspectives 11(Winter1984):73102and alsoherM.I.T.diss.publishedas EstadoeOposiaonoBrasil (Petropolis,Brasil:Vozes,1984) aswellasher brotherMarcioMoreiraAlves,AGrainofMustardSeed,TheAwakeningoftheBrazilianRevolution (NewYork: Anchor,1973)andJosComblin, ElPoderMilitarenAmricaLatina (Salamanca:EdicionesSigueme,1978).For theother,parallelgovernmentinBrazil,19641984,seeG.H.C.,Brazil:TheEscolaSuperiordeGuerra, Bolsa Review [UniversityofSouthCarolina]5(1971):29AugustoFragoso,AEscolaSuperiordeGuerra, Problemas Brasileiros 8(1970):1934andRenArmandDreifus, 1964:AConquistadoAaoPolticaPodereGolpede Clase (Petropolis:Vozes,1981).Finally,fortheoverarchingroleofarmsproduction,whichbecameadominant partoftheothergovernmentinthose20years,seeClovisBrigago,OMercadodeSegurana,EnsaiosSobre EconomaPolticadeDefesa (RiodeJaneiro:EditoraNovaFrontiera,1984)andClovisBrigagoandTirzaFarhat, ACorridaparaaMorte,DesarmeoMundo Armado(RiodeJaneiro:EditoraNovaFrontiera,1984). 177 LaDonnaHarris,aComanche,inherAmericansforIndianOpportunityhomeandofficeweeklyThursday noonchats(Fall1989Spring1990),attendedbytheauthor.ShemarriedFredHarris,aSenatorfromOklahoma, andcontendedpoliticallyastheU.S.VicePresidentialcandidateonJesseJacksonsticket. 178 JaimeGranadosChacnandLgiaEstradaMolina, ReseaHistricadeLimn (SanJos:AsambleaLegislativa, 1967),41. 179 MiguelGutirrezSaxeand JorgeVargasCullell, CostaRicaeselNombredelJuego (SanJos:Instituto CostarricensedeEstudiosSociales,1986),29and43.TheU.S.targetwasArticle62oftheCostaRican Constitution,whichupheldCostaRicanbanknationalization.

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economiccrisisin1981,CostaRicawascoercedtowardunderdevelopmentbythis remilitarization. LuisAlbertoMonge,CostaRicaspresidentduringthedebtContracrisis,accepted UnitedStatesaidforroadsandairportstoferrytheContrasintoNicaragua.Inretaliation,

180 CostaRicantradeunionsorganizednonviolentwildcatstrikes. Theunionswereundercut

byantiunionpoliciesthatbrokethestrikes.Conservativebusinessorganizationsthathad
181 supportedSomozawerefundedunderprivatizationpolicies, asadvocatedbytheUnitedStates 182 KissingerCommission.

StructuralViolenceLeadingtoConflictfromViolentCoercion TocomplywithUnitedStatesconditionsforaidafterthe1979NicaraguanRevolution, CostaRicanpublicfundswereshiftedfromhumannecessitiestotheproductionofcashcropsfor export,compoundingcapitalflightproblems.TheUnitedStatesAgencyforInternational DevelopmentheadquartersinSanJosfundedlargely byCostaRicanpaymentsonthe

183 interestforaidgrantsorloansfromtheUnitedStates arrangedtheseaidconditionsthrough

acovertparallelstatesetuptomanagethedebtContracrisis.Revelationsaboutthiscovert coercionbyJohnBiehl,economicadvisertoOscarAriasandarchitectoftheAriaspeaceplan,
184 forcedBiehlfromCostaRicaintoexile.

CostaRicacontinuedtodefaultonitsdebtthroughthe1980s,whileUnitedStates economiccoercionsustainedthepressureforContrawar.CoercionbytheUnitedStatesAgency forInternationalDevelopmentwasdirectedfromamultimilliondollar,steelreinforcedheliport

180 KevinDanaher,PhillipBerryman,andMedeaBenjamin,

HelporHindrance:UnitedStatesEconomicAidin CentralAmerica (SanFrancisco:InstituteforFoodandDevelopmentPolicy,1987),4649.This75%ofU.S.aid fortheContrainfrastructurewasdesignatedasEconomicSupportFunds,acategoryforsecurityassistanceandso calledhumanitarianassistance.PleaseseetablesinChapter8also. 181 GeoffreyFox,ClassWarintheLatinSwitzerland:`ModelCostaRica, Nation,28Jan.1984,9495. 182 NationalBipartisan [Kissinger]CommissiononCentralAmerica (Washington,D.C.:GPO,1984),61and7180. 183 ComparewithJapaneseisthmiancoercione.g.,AaronSegal,LatinAmericaFindsJapanToBe:TheIrresistible Force,TimesoftheAmericas,21Jan.1989,11.JapanssupportfortheContadoratalkswasillustratedbythefirst Japaneseforeignministryisthmianvisitsincethe1940s,toGuatemalaCityseeTadashiKuranari(Ministerof ForeignAffairs),TheEstablishmentofPeaceUnderDemocracyinCentralAmerica JapansContribution,(29 Sept.1987).SpeechmimeosenttotheauthorbytheJapaneseEmbassyinWashington,D.C.,Fall1988. 184 LezakShallat,U.S.AidtoC.R. TheStoryBehindtheUproar, TTS,15July1988,4.Biehlandhisfamily wereforcedinto exileby(death)threatstohimandhisfamily.ForthecovertroleofactorssuchastheCIAinthis parallelstate,pleaseseethesectionsontheCIAinchapters3and8.

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commandcenter,completewithbasementbunker,groundfloorwindowslits,antitank fortifications,andsurveillancesystems,builttomanageamultimilliondollardestabilization
185 enterprise. Theenterpriseresembledanotherallegeddevelopmentmodelthathadenabledthe 186 FrenchtoseizemuchofthearablelandinVietnam. Asaconsequence,sixtyfivepercentof

allUnitedStatesaidtoSouthVietnamwasreportedbygovernmentaidagenciesaspromoting
187 militarization, tenpercentlessthanthereportedseventyfivepercentdedicatedtothe 188 remilitarizationofCostaRica. Insum,beginningwithoutmilitarypower,CostaRica

underwentakindofeconomicVietnamization,enforcedbylowintensitytechniquesofcovert actionanddisinformation,insteadofsaturationbombing. Theexamplesofpower,force,conflict,andcoercioninthischapterhavebeenintroduced toillustratethebasicconceptsofthecentralhypothesisanditsconverse,thatistosay,that nonviolentconflictresolutioninCostaRicahaspromotedpeace,security,anddevelopment,and thatviolentconflictresolutioninCostaRicahaspromotedwar,insecurity,and underdevelopment.Itmattershowonedefinesthetermsofthishypothesis,butalsohowone conceptualizesthesetermsinviewoftheirrelevancetotheconceptsofpower,force,conflict, andcoercion. Next,thesefourconceptswillbeexploredwithinthethreemajorapproachesto internationalconflictresolutioncentraltothedissertationshypothesis,thatis,theworldorder, antidependency,andnonviolentapproaches.Asnotedinboththedefinitionoftermsandthe
185 U.S.AidBuildsItsParallelState,

FPCN,Nov.Dec.1988,12.Madagascar,undersimilardebtstrain,could notavoidabloodycoupdtatseeR.T.Naylor,ReaganismandtheFutureoftheInternationalPaymentsSystem, ThirdWorldQuarterly [TWQ](Spring1985):67475.SuchdestabilizationalsoimpairedChileandJamaica. For analogousNicaraguancoercionbythePlasmafresisCompany,supplying10%oftherawbloodplasmaannually usedbytheU.S.from400,000donors,seeBernardNietschmann, CaribbeanEdge,TheComingofModernTimesto IsolatedPeopleandWildlife (Indianapolis,IN,andNewYork:BobbsMerrillCo.,1979),110111.Exposureofthis businessby LaPrensa,editedbyPedroJoaqunChamorro,andhisconsequentassassinationbySomozaagentsled toamassivegeneralstrikewhich,amongotherevents,ledtothe 1979revolutionlaunchedfromCostaRica. VioletaChamorro,widowofPedroJoaqunChamorro,thenactedashadCorazonAquinointhePhilippines winningthe1990electionsinastatewearyofintensiveandprolongedwar.Seealsochapters57onthisintensive war. 186 Over95%ofthearableland,accordingtoJeanChesneaux, ContributionalHistoiredelaNationVietnamienne (Paris:EditionsSociales,1955),124. 187 FrankSnepp,DecentInterval,AnInsidersAccountofSaigonsIndecentEnd,ToldByThe CIAsChiefStrategy AnalystinVietnam (NewYork:VintageBooks,1978),160and565.TotalUnitedStatesmilitarizationaidsentto SouthVietnamwastwicethetotalamountsenttoNorthVietnambysocialiststatesformilitarization.InVietnam, UnitedStatesaidalsorarelyconcentratedonprovidingforhumannecessities,despitethefactthat,forexample,less than2%oftheLaopeoplehadaccesstocleanwaterseeLaos,NIN,Oct.1984,32. 188 KevinDanaher,etal., HelporHindrance,4649.

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illustrationsofconceptsbasictothecentralhypothesis,thesetermsandconceptslieona continuumfromviolencetononviolence.Inotherwords,relativeandcontextualratherthan absolutecombinationsofthesetermsandconceptsgovernthetheoreticalapplicationofthethree approaches.

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Chapter3 PrincipalApproachestoConflictResolution
Contemporarystatesusethreemajorapproachestoanticipateinternationalconflict resolution.Astheoreticalmaps,theseapproachesdeterminetheconcepts,values,anddefinitions whichguidethepowerofthestatetowarddifferingoutcomes.Thethreeapproaches characterizedhereasworldorder,antidependency,andnonviolence operateinacontinuum ofmoretolesspoliticalviolence.Groupedandembeddedhistoricallyinfourglobalconflict zones,tobediscussedattheendofthischapter,thesethreeapproachesmayonedayevolveinto anowstillunforeseen,morefullyhuman,interdependentapproachtowardpeaceandconflict resolution. Theworldorderapproach,currentlymorewidelyheldthanthetwootherapproaches, beginswiththepremisethatmilitarymightisthebasisofpowerandtheguarantorofcultural, economic,andotherkindsofpower.Theantidependencyapproachreflectsoppositiontoa worldorderoutlookandthehopeforliberationfromthestructuralviolenceofsuchaworld order.Inspiteoftheirdifferences,nationsrelyingonbothofthefirsttwoapproaches customarilydependonarmsandsuppliesmanufacturedbythemoremilitarizedstatesfor security.Incomparison,thenonviolent,unarmeddiplomacyfavoredbyastatelikeCostaRica indicatesthepotentialforamoreintegral,interdependentapproach mutualchangeformutual
189 benefitnotdependingonthemilitarizationemphasizedbythefirsttwoapproaches.

Atthesametime,eachoftheapproacheshasbeenflawedtosomedegree,andthemore violentapproachestoagreaterdegree,becauseofthegreaterphysicaldangerofviolencethey haveposedtopeoplebywarandconflict.Inotherwords, thefirstapproach,whileithas assumedithasprovidedsecuritybyaffirmingmilitarypower,andthesecondapproach,whileit hasassumedithasprovidedsecuritybyaffirmingrevolutionarymilitarypower,bothendanger

189 Theantidependencyapproachactsasamirroroftheworldorderapproach,whilethenonviolentapproach

opposestheviolenceinbothoftheothersseeRolandWarren,Truth,LoveandSocialChange,AndOtherEssayson CommunityChange (Chicago:RandMcNally&Co.,1971),260ff.Internationalrelationsepistemology,expressed bythesethreeapproaches,hasalsobeenculturallyinfluencedbytime,chaos,quantum,paradigm,relativity,and superstringtheoriesinthenaturalsciences.

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peace,security,anddevelopmentwiththeirviolence.Thethirdapproach,whileemphasizing disarmament,maylikewisetendtooversimplifyitspresumedrejectionofallmilitarypowerby affirmingonlycivilianbasednonmilitarysecurity despiteaneedforlocalandstatepolice.It isoftenforgottenthatsuchpolicearenotaccustomedtowarringagainstotherstates. TheoristsneedtheseconflictresolutionapproachestoexplainhowstateslikeCostaRica resolveconflict.However,nosingle,generalapproachexistsyetintheliterature.BjrnHettne, forexample,distinguishedcapitalistandantidependencyoptionsfromathirdecodevelopment

190 option. Thethreearemuchlikethethreeapproachesunderdiscussion.ButRichardAshley,

CharlesBeitz,andK.J.Holstilimitedthemselvestotwooptionswithintheworldorderoutlook
191 plusavagueantidependencyoption. ThirdWorldtheoriststendtostresstheantiimperialist

orantidependencyapproach.Furtheralongthecontinuumtowardneutralityornonviolence, WilliamT.R.Fox,AnnetteBakerFox,andMahendraKumarchosetocompareoneworldorder
192 andantidependencyoptionwithasecond,equitable,lessviolentoption. Thesethree

approachesoverlapeachotherconsiderablyinthecommonsearchforoneintegralapproachto internationalconflictresolution.

190 BjrnHettne,

Approachesto theStudyofPeaceandDevelopment:AStateoftheArtReport (Gthenburg, Sweden:UniversityofGthenburg,andTilburg,theNetherlands:EADIWorkingDocumentNo.6,1984),613. Spanishinternationalrelationsliteratureappearinginthe1950s,byLuisGarcaArias,CelestinodelArenal,Roberto Mesa,andRalRoaKouri,amongothers,concernedbetteringhumanconditions,notgeopoliticalmightseeFelix FernndezShaw, RelacionesInternacionalesyMediosAudiovisuales (Madrid:EditorialTecnos,1985),5864.See alsoRobertoGonzlesGmez,TeoradelasRelacionesInternacionales(Havana:ISRI,1987)AugustoVaras,La PolticadelasArmasenAmricaLatina(Santiago,Chile:FLACSO,1988),4251and324andPiotrNikolaevitch Fedoseyev,ScientificCognitionToday,ItsSpecificFeaturesandProblems,inP.N.Fedoseyev,ed.,trans.by RobertDaglish, PhilosophyintheUSSR,ProblemsofDialecticalMaterialism (Moscow:ProgressPublishers, 1977),1114and1618. 191 RichardAshley,ThePoliticalEconomyofWarandPeace,TheSinoSovietAmericanTriangleandtheModern SecurityProblematique (NewYork:NicholsPublishing,1980),23447and269.SeealsoCharlesBeitz,Political TheoryandInternationalRelations (Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1979),vii,89,1490,and12930and K.J.Holsti,TheDividingDiscipline,HegemonyandDiversityinInternationalTheory (Boston:AllenandUnwin, 1985),34and811.ForsimilaritieswithSovietworldorderperspectives,seeG.Kh.Shakhnazarov,trans.byJames Riordan, ContemporaryPoliticalScienceintheUSAandWesternEurope(Moscow:Progress,1982),3234,121 23,and27172.Forthecommunistversionofworldorderastheillusionoffullknowledge,seeCzesawMilosz, TheCaptiveMind (NewYork:Vintage,1953),192and206. 192 WilliamT.R.FoxandAnnetteBakerFox,TheTeachingofInternationalRelationsintheUnitedStates, World Politics[WPS]13(April1961):33945and34959orMahendraKumar, ViolenceandNonviolencein InternationalRelations(NewDelhi:Thomson[India],Ltd.,1975),40101and198233.Hermeneuticalor contextualtheorytypicalofnonviolenceliesclosertomolarphysicsrelativitytheorythanquantumorprobability theory.Thelatterisbuiltonmeasuringtheirreversiblecausesandeffectsofeventsas empirical,observablefacts

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TheWorldOrderApproachTowardSecurity Aswillbeshown,eachofthethreeapproachesplacesvaryingprioritiesonviolenceand nonviolence,andthusontheviolentandnonviolentorganizationsderivedfromthesepriorities. Thefirstapproach,withitsrelianceonmilitarypowerandhierarchicalorganizationstoexercize thismilitarypower,emphasizesmilitarizationandcounterinsurgencyinitsconceptualizationof war.Asaresult,andaswillbeshown,thebusinessofwarandtransnationalcorporatesecurity maybecomeoneandthesame.Thustheisthmianbusinessofwarhasrangedfromaworld orderapproachimposedbyEuropetothatimposedbytheUnitedStates. AsahighlyplacedUnitedStatescorporateattorney,GrenvilleClarkintroducedthe phraseworldorderintointernationalrelationsdiscourseconcerningpost1945warconditions. Clarkwouldinfluencemanytowardthisapproach.PaulWehr,attheUniversityofColorado,for example,hasnotedthat theworldorderapproachasintroducedbyClarkinfluencedHarold
193 Lasswell,MyresMcDougal,SaulMendlovitz,andevenRichardFalk. Suchinfluencefrom

thisworldorderapproachmightalsobecomparedwiththatofasimilarlypowerful,yetalso
194 unelectedleader,ZhouEnlai,workingwithMaoZedongandZhuDehinChina. However,

otherswouldalsodistancethemselvesfromtheemphasisonmilitaryandintelligencemattersin
195 theworldorderapproach, becausetheypreferredalessviolentorevenanonviolentapproach 196 asexemplifiedbyMohandasGandhiandJ.C.KumarrappainIndia.

(closertotheworldorderapproachortheantidependencyapproach)seeArthurEddington,ThePhilosophyof Science (NewYork:Macmillan,1939),2830,8991,and208223. 193 Paul WehrandMichaelWashburn, PeaceandWorldSystems(BeverlyHills,CA:Sage,1976),3839Richard Falk,TheEndofWorldOrder,EssaysonNormativeInternationalRelations(NewYork:Holmes&Meier,1982), 7475andRichardFalk, ThePromiseofWorldOrder,EssaysinNormativeInternationalRelations (Philadelphia: TempleUniversityPress,1987),15. 194 GrenvilleClark,Lawyer,84,Dies, NYT,13Jan.1967,23JamesWadsworth,ExSenator,74,Dies, NYT,22 June1952,1ChouEnlai, InQuest,PoemsofChouEnlai,trans.byNancyLin(HongKong:Joint,1979),pp.10 30JulesArcher,ChouEnlai (NewYork:Hawthorn,1973),3183passim.SuyinHan, MyHouseHasTwoDoors (NewYork:G.P.PutnamsSons,1980),17255passim.andSuyinHan, WindintheTower,MaoTseTungandthe Chinese,19491975 (Boston:Little,BrownandCo.,1976),129329passim. 195 ForaconciseanalysisofnonviolentoppositiontoClarkandHarryTruman(17consecutivedefeats)inthe1940s andearly1950s,seeJohnSwomley,AStudyoftheUniversalMilitaryTrainingCampaign,19441952,(Ph.D. diss.,UniversityofColorado,1959). 196 NancyJaneKenney,TheGandhianEconomyandIndianEconomicPlanning,(Ph.D.diss.,TuftsUniversity, FletcherSchoolofDiplomacy,1955),4296.

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InCostaRica,however,theworldorderapproach,whichintroducedmany inconsistenciesintotheCostaRicanpreferencefornonviolence,appearedwiththeSpanish intervention.AboutthreequartersofCostaRicaspresidentshavedescendeddirectlyfromsuch outsiders,viatheAcosta,Alvarado,andVsquezdeCoronadoconquistadorfamilies.Its nationallegislaturehasbeendominatedbythelesspowerfulHispanicandSephardicBeck, Brenes,Koberg,Niehaus,Altmann,Hernndez,andTattenbachfamilies.Aboutfourofevery

197 fivesignersoftheindependencechartersharedtheseSephardicgenealogicalties. CostaRican

businessleadershiphasalsoreflectedthissameheritageof outsideinfluenceandtheliberal
198 Europeanideologythataccompaniesit.

TheHanseaticLeaguecitiesofBremen,Hamburg,andLubeck,however,orientedmore tofreetradewithoutviolence,werethefirstnonAmericanentitiestosigninternationaltreaties withCostaRica,in1848.Later,whenEnglandandtheUnitedStatesclashedovertheSanJuan RiverandMiskitia,CostaRicacollaboratedintreatieswithFranceandEnglandtocounter

199 increasingviolentlyUnitedStatesintervention. The1850BulwerClaytonTreatysetCosta

Ricanterritorialboundaries,whilethefruitcompaniesintroducedUnitedStatesrailroadsand capitalismtotheisthmus.CostaRica,Nicaragua,andCubathenledregionalstrugglesagainst
200 WesternCaribbeanmilitaryelitesimposedbyoutsideintervention, asCostaRicabegantobe

buffetedbytheUnitedStatesviewofworldorder. AlthoughitwasthefirstoftheAmericanstatesintheearly1940stodeclarewaragainst
201 Japan, CostaRicaemergedfromintenselaborstrikeswith thefirstSovietsupportedAmerican 202 government. CostaRicathenchallengedtheUnitedStatescriteriaforworldorderby

ignoringmarchingordersfortheColdWar.In1964,CostaRicawastheisthmianstatemost
197 JamesDunkerley,CentralAmerica,48n78,614615,and622.SeealsoTomBarry,CentralAmerica,6065

andLawrenceE.Harrison, UnderdevelopmentisaStateofMind,TheLatinAmericanCase (Cambridge,MA: CenterforInternationalAffairs,HarvardUniversity andUniversityPressofAmerica,1985),4849. 198 SalvadordeMadariaga,NotaSobreDonFranciscoGiner, ReportorioAmricano [RAO]13(11June1932): 328.Forexample,AlfonsoRobelo,aContraleader,alongwiththefatherandabrotherofOscarAriasSnchez,co ownedCostaRicaslargestsugarcaneagribusiness,subsidizedbyU.S.AIDseeSandraPeddieandBrianDonovan, BusinessBeforeNeutrality,Newsday(LongIsland,NY),21July1987,3. 199 ClotildeMaraObregonQuesada, CostaRica,RelacionesExterioresdeUnaRepblicaenFormacin,1847 1849(SanJos:EditorialCostaRica,1984),8689,17489,and196202. 200 RalphLeeWoodward,TheRiseandDeclineofLiberalisminCentralAmerica, JournalofInteramerican StudiesandWorldAffairs[JISWA]26(August1984):295300. 201 JonD.Cozean,TheAbolitionoftheCostaRicanArmy(MAthesis,GeorgeWashingtonUniversity,1966),36 37and114122.CostaRicawasalsothelastAmericanstatetowithdrawitsdeclarationofwaronGermanyinthe 1940s. 202 JamesWallace,CostaRica:IsleofTranquilityinanAngrySea, USNWR,17Sept.1984,41.

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reluctanttojointheCentralAmericanDefenseCouncilorCONDECA,dominatedbytheUnited
203 States andintendedtocountertheCubanRevolutionsdemonstrationeffect.But,inthe

1980s,CostaRicaacceptedaVoiceofAmericashortwavetransmitteronitsterritorybefore
204 otherLatinAmerican states. Suchinconsistenciesdefiedtheautarchiclogicofworldorder.

ThroughitallCostaRicastruggledtosurviveonanabstractfoundationofinternational law,whichhadcriminalizedallwar.Ontheonehand,forexample,claimingitsneutrality rights fromthefifthandthirteenthHagueconventionsandtheUnitedNationscharterpreamble

205 outlawingwar, CostaRicaspentunderonetwelfthoftheannualmilitaryallocationsofthe 206 otheristhmianstatesbetween1945and1985. ButCostaRicaalsoacquiescedtoUnited

Statesdemands,backedbyEnriqueChacn(ViceMinisterofSecurityunderMonge),to
207 supporttheContras. Insodoing,CostaRicaallowedaproBatistacubiche(exCuban)media

mogul,JuanAntonioAlonzoSnchez,toimposeaconservativeeditorialslantonitsmajor
208 209 newspapers, andcountenancedmanyanticommunistpoliticalorganizations.

MilitarizationandCounterinsurgencyConceptualizingWar TheUnitedStatesworldorderapproachinCostaRicawasmotivatedbymorethanfear ofcommunismoraltruisticconcernforthepoor.CostaRicaispartoftheWesternCaribbean sideoftheGulfofMexico,theprimegatewayforrawmaterialsenteringtheUnitedStatesfrom theThirdWorld.Overhalfofthestrategicoilandthestrategicminerals(suchasbauxiteand

203 JohnSaxeFernndez,TheMilitarizationofCostaRica,

MRW 24(May,1972):6168.CONDECAwas formedin1964. 204 JennieK.Lincoln,CentralAmerica:NicaraguaandCostaRica,inBarbaraA.Lafford,ed., CentralAmerica andtheCaribbean:TodayandTomorrow (Tempe,AZ:CenterforLatinAmericanStudies,1987),102103. 205 ManuelFreerJimnez,LaNeutralidadPermanentedeCostaRica,FundamentosJurdicos,inAdolfJonker,ed., LaNeutralidaddeCostaRicayLasNeutralidadesdeEuropa:SemejanzasyDiferencias,Mimeo,NationalTheater Speeches(1417Dec.1984),23and68. 206 JozefGoldblatandVictorMilln,TheCentralAmericanCrisisandtheContadoraSearchforRegional Security,inSIPRIYearbook1986,WorldArmamentsandDisarmament (NewYork:OxfordUniversity,1986), 52627. 207 JeanHopfensberger,NeutralityUnderSiege, Progressive,Sept.1984,inDCF,(1984),1. 208 KateDoyleandMarkStatman,AntiPeacePropaganda,U.S.WarMongersareBusyatWorkinCostaRica, Guardian,30Sept.1987,inDCF (1987),3031. 209 JennieLincoln,CentralAmerica:NicaraguaandCostaRica,inBarbaraLafford,ed., CentralAmerica,99100. Foradditionalinsightintothe internationalsupportoftheContras,withinatraditionofcounterinsurgencybythe CIAinThirdWorldconflict,seeJamesLongandLaurenCown,BuyoutfromCIABoostsEvergreenHelicopters, TheOregonian,15August1988,A8 A9.Comparewith NicaraguanBiographies:AResourceBook (Washington,D.C.:UnitedStatesDepartmentofState,SpecialReport174,1988),3942.

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nickel)boundfortheUnitedStatesfromtheThirdWorldcrossthroughtheWesternCaribbean
210 daily apowerfulargumentforinterventiontoinsuresecurity.

UnitedStatescounterinsurgencyforcesfirstappearedintheisthmusduringthelate 1800s.In1929,duringtheGreatDepression,HerbertHooverinterruptedthismilitarizationby
211 withdrawingtheMarinesfromNicaragua. Butafterthe1940swar,theUnitedStatesagain

stationedlargenavalwarshipsoneithersideoftheisthmusforinterventionbywayofCuba,
212 Panama,andPuertoRico. Inthenextthreedecades,overoneineveryfourUnitedStates 213 globalmilitaryinterventionsstrucktheCaribbean. TheUnitedStatesdidnotseethese

interventionsascontrary totheRioTreatysignedin1947,althoughsomeLatinAmerican governmentsdid. In1962theInterAmericanDefenseCollegeinWashington,D.C.,begantheequivalent

214 ofcounterinsurgencytraining,despiteoppositionfromBrazil,Mexico, andCostaRica.As

befittedaneutralstate,CostaRicatriedtobalanceitssecurityinterestsbyparticipatinginthe UnitedStatesAllianceforProgress.Butitcounterbalanceditsinterestsbyalsosheltering isthmianwarrefugeesclassifiedascommunist.Consequently,JosFigueres,thenheadofthe rulingCostaRicanNationalLiberationParty,wasalmostdeposedbytheUnitedStates predictablereactionsagainstanystatewhichwouldharborwarrefugeescallingthemselves

215 communists.

Inthe1980s,theUnitedStatestriedtostopCostaRicanparticipationintheContadora talks.Forexample,itsStateDepartmentandNationalSecurityCouncilthreatenedtocutitsaid
216 ifCostaRicawouldnotsupportwaragainstNicaragua. TheUnitedStatesalsoescalated

counterinsurgencyagainstNicaraguafromCostaRica,despiteofficialUnitedStatessupportfor

210 IsabelJaramilloEdwards,

LaEstrategiaIntervencionistaEstadounidensehaciaelMedioOrienteyenla CuencadelCaribe(Havana:AvancesdeInvestigacin,18,1983),12and46n2729.JaramillocitesGeorge Shultz,theU.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,andothersources. 211 AlgieInnmanNewlin, TheArbitrationPolicyoftheUnitedStatesSince1920 (Geneva:ImprimireduJournalde Gnve,1940),9596. 212 JohnBell, CrisisinCostaRica (Austin:UniversityofTexas,1971),6,37,and151. 213 MargaretDalyHayes,TheStakesinCentralAmericaandUnitedStatesPolicyResponses,Current (Sept. 1982):4748. 214 SIPRI,ArmsTrade,274. 215 GregorioSelser, DeDullesaRaborn,LaC.I.A.,Mtodos,LogrosyPifiasdelEspionaje (BuenosAires, Argentina:EdicionesdePolticaAmricana,1967),6668.TheseU.S.reactionsweredominatedbytheCIA.In SpanishtheNationalLiberationPartyisthe PartidodeLiberacinNacional orPLN. 216 CindyHawes,U.S.UrgedCostaRicatoStartWarwithNicaragua, PeoplesDailyWorld[PDW],14April 1987,inDCF (1987),73.

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theContadoratalksandUnitedNationspeaceefforts.ConservativeCostaRicanleadersbacked thiscounterinsurgencyandbelittledtheContadoratalksasnarcotichallucinationsthat
217 camouflagedCuban,Grenadian,Nicaraguan,orPalestinianaggression.

TransnationalCorporateSecurityandtheBusinessofWar InterventionjustifiedbynationalisttheoriesliketheMonroeDoctrinehaspermeated UnitedStatesdecisionmakingintheWesternCaribbean.Transcorporateinterestinextracting resourcesfromthesmallisthmiancountrieslikeCostaRicahadonlytobuildonthisgeopolitical doctrine.ThedesireforaUnitedStatesseaempire,reflectedbyassociatedsystemsofideaslike

218 regimetheoryinGrenvilleClarksworldorderapproachintheUnitedStates, continuedto

justifyisthmianintervention.Theoriesemergedfromsuchdoctrinestojustifywarlike interventionthatwouldallegedlyprotecttheinterestsof UnitedStatestransnational corporations. GrenvilleClarkbuiltaframeworkfortheseprioritiesonthebasisofAlfredThayer Mahansgeopoliticaltheory,andputitintopracticeinCaribbeanstateslikeCostaRica. SupportedintheUnitedStatesCongressbyJamesWolcottWadsworth,Clarkbeganby managingamilitaryofficerandcounterinsurgencytrainingcampinPlattsburgh,NewYork. JohnPierpontMorganfinancedthiscamptotrainantiCuban,antiIndian,andantiMexican

219 fighters. AccordingtoanofficialbiographerofClark,thecamptrainedeightypercentofthe

217 JaimeDaremblum,ElSueodeOpiodeContadora,inJaimeDaremblumandEduardoUlibarri,eds.,

Centro Amrica,ConflictoyDemocracia(SanJos:LibroLibre,1985),8284.Fortheworldorderviewofthe AmbassadortoCostaRicaunderJimmyCarter,thentheU.S.president,seeVironVaky,PositiveContainmentin Nicaragua, ForeignPolicy [FPY]68(Fall1987):4243and4849. 218 RobertJervis,SecurityRegimes,InternationalOrganization[ION]36(Spring1982):378.Jervisquotes GrenvilleClark,afounderofworldordertheory,tojustifyregimetheory atheorysensitivetothe interdependencyofworldorganizationsbutnottotheimplicationsofmilitarypower.ThelinkbetweenMahanand ClarkwasElihuRoot,likeClarkaprivateattorneyforMorganinterestsseePhilipCarlJessup, ElihuRoot,Vol.I (NewYork:Archon,1964),413414 passim.PleaseseealsothesectiononCubainchapter8andAlbertEsgain, MilitaryServitudesandTheNewNations,inWilliamOBrien,ed., TheNewNationsinInternationalLawand Diplomacy (NewYork:Praeger,1965),8687.Theterm militaryservitude wascoinedtodescriberelateduseof expropriatedmilitaryandterritorialresources,e.g.,Cuban,Panamanian,andPuertoRicanmenandland,forsoldiers andbases. 219 FerdinandLundberg, Americas60Families(NewYork:VanguardPress,1937),143and 157.Military leadershipcamefromLeonardWood,laterthefirstmilitarygovernorofCuba(thefirstU.S.colonializedstate)and ofthePhilippines.WoodsfameoriginatedinhisassassinationoftheIndianleaderGeronimo.

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UnitedStatesmilitaryofficersfortheFirstWorldWar(19131919).Later,ClarkputJohn McCloyandHenryStimsonintothetwotop1940sPentagonpoststoreinforcehiseconomic
220 priorities. ThenClarkdraftedtheDumbartonOakseconomicstructure,withitsUnited

NationsSecurityCouncilsafetyveto,ineffectregulatingCaribbeanandThirdWorldpricesfor
221 rawresourcecommoditiesontheworldmarket.

ClarksplantoprotecttheMorganfamilyinterestscalledformilitarizingtheWestern CaribbeanstateslikePanama,Nicaragua,andCostaRica.OnthebasisofthisWestern Caribbeanwarexperience,theMorganbankholdingcorporationorganizedinternationalwar

222 makinglogisticspolicyfortheUnitedStatesgovernment. Induetime,Morganssuccessful

$140milliongambleonarmsforcreatingtheBoerWarledtocontrolofSouthAfricangoldand diamonds,whichallowedittoinvestanother$200millioninconstructingthePanamaCanal,the
223 apexofMorgansprioritiesandMahansdreams. Theresultingworldorder,basedonwhat

mightbecalledanInterAmerican(Caribbean)region,structuredunderdevelopmentinthe
224 WesternCaribbean,andmadethatregionMorgansspringboardtoworldtrade. ThelegalfoundationsforinternationalviolencebasedintheWesternCaribbeanwerelaid 225 226 in1917and1940,asClarkdrafted andWadsworthsponsored nationallegislationfor

militaryconscription.Inthemeantime,HenryStimson,Secretaryof Warinbothworldwars, deniedpoliceprotectiontothemajorantiwarandantinationalistleaderslikeAlicePaul.They

227 wereleftatthemercyofstreetthugsduringtheirantiwardemonstrations. ElihuRootandthe

Wadsworthfamilylaunchedpersonalvendettasaswell,accusingleaderslikeherandUpton

220 GrenvilleClark,Lawyer,84,Dies,NYT,13Jan.1967,23. 221 GrenvilleClark,DumbartonOaksPlansHeldinNeedofModification,NYT,15Oct.1944,IV8. 222 SidneyLens,TheForgingoftheAmericanEmpire 223 AnnRochester,

(NewYork:ThomasY.CrowellCo.,1971),24347. RulersofAmerica,AStudyofFinanceCapital(NewYork:InternationalPublishers,1936),33

37. 224 ScottNearingandJosephFreeman,DollarDiplomacy,AStudyinAmericanImperialism(NewYork:B.W. HuebschandtheVikingPress,1925),26263. 225 JohnM.Swomley,Jr.,TheMilitaryEstablishment(Boston:BeaconPress,1964),12,19,and32. 226 ConscriptionNews(Washington,D.C.),29Jan.1945,8. 227 SuffrageParade,inWomanSuffrageandthePolice,ThreeSenateDocuments,UnitedStatesSenateCommittee ontheDistrictofColombia(NewYork:ArnoPressandtheNewYorkTimes,1971),vvi.SeealsoAlicePaul, Foreword,TheSuffragist 1(15Nov.1913):1.PaulfinishedherLL.D.attheAmericanUniversityin1928and wasalsooneofthetheoristsfortheEqualRightsAmendment.

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228 Sinclairofplottingagainstwar,worldorder,andfreeenterprise. Morgansreturnonmilitary 229 investments,fattenedbyWorldWarI,alsotemptedDuPont, GeneralElectric,ElectricBoat

(laterGeneralDynamics),andGeneralMotorstorearmJapan,Germany,andtheSovietUnion
230 beforewarinthe1940s.

FlankingClarkandWadsworth,WilliamDonovancovertlyadvancedthesesame priorities.DonovanwentfromengineeringmajorNewYorkCitybankruptcycasesintheGreat Depressiontocontrollingintelligenceservicesforinternationalfinancecapitalbasedinthe

231 Caribbean. HelitigatedMorganandDuPontfinancialsecurityinterestsduringthe1934Nye 232 233 MunitionsCongressionalHearings, againstprosecutingattorneyAlgerHiss. AUnited

StatesMarineMajorGeneral,SmedleyButler,whohadledmanyUnitedStatescorporate isthmianinterventions,wasalsoapproachedcovertlybyMorganandDuPontproxiesandasked topreparetotakeovertheWhiteHousebyviolenceincasetheNyeMunitionsHearingswent

234 awry.

However,the1930sNyeMunitionsHearingsfinishedmuchliketheIranContrahearings inthe1980s,alsoconcerningtheisthmus,withmuchfanfareandlittlechange.ThenDonovan organizedaworkingbasisforUnitedStatesespionageandintelligenceorganizationsaccording toClarksworldorderapproach.Hebasedmuchofhisworkonatreatythathearrangedwith EnglandforfullUnitedStatescontroloverallisthmianandCaribbeanmilitarybases.Donovan

235 alsoextractedcriticalinformationfromNaziGermanyformakingtheatombomb. McCloy

228 MaxineBlockandAnnaRothe,eds.,

CurrentBiography,WhosNewsandWhy,(NewYork:H.W.WilsonCo., 1944),796.SeealsoElihuRoot,OpposingSuffrage, WashingtonPost [WPT]reprint,23Feb.1913,1.[Froma transcribedNewYorkConstitutionalConventionSpeech]. 229 DuPontI:TheCaseofAlfred, Fortune,Nov.1934,192and207. 230 Congress,Senate,SpecialCommitteeonInvestigationoftheMunitionsIndustry,MunitionsIndustry,944(3), 74thCongress,pursuanttoS.Res.206,73rdCongress,1936,3133and73. 231 DonovanPicksHisStaff,NYT,15May1929,34. 232 1,245,000WorkforDuPontsinWar, NYT,13Sept.1934,5. 233 MorrisV.Rosenbloom,PeaceThroughStrength,BernardBaruchandaBlueprintforSecurity (Washington, D.C.:AmericanSurveys,1953),193.TaxfraudchargeswereleveledbyHissforpastwarfinancecapital. 234 AnthonyS.Sutton,WallStreetandFranklinDelanoRoosevelt (NewRochelle,NewYork:ArlingtonHouse, 1975),14354.SeealsoJulesArcher,ThePlottoSeizetheWhiteHouse (NewYork:HawthornBooks,1973),28 34and160200.ButlertookhisstorytoajournalistcalledPaulComlyFrench,whoinformedJohnMcCormick, latertobecomeSpeakeroftheHouseofRepresentatives.Frenchbecamethemainlobbyistforconscientious objectiontomilitaryconscriptionduringthe1940swar.Hisswenttoprison.Butlerdiedinretirement. 235 MaxineBlockandE.MaryTrow,eds.,CurrentBiography,1941(NewYork:H.W.WilsonCo.,1941),22930. Thisworkingbasis,firstnamedSWANCC(Navy)andthentheOSS(StateDepartment,OfficeofStrategic Services)organizedmanyprivate,public,military,andbusiness(warproduction)groups.

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andStimson,thetop1940spolicymakersinthePentagonhelpedintoofficebyClark,dutifully
236 carriedoutClarksandDonovanspriorities.

Finally,ClarkassembledaNationalSecurityCommitteetomanagehissecuritypriorities,
237 includingthethreecentralisthmianstates. Theresultingnationalsecuritylegislation,again 238 sponsoredbyWadsworth,wascalledtheNationalSecurityAct. ADecember1947National

SecurityDirectivelegalizedcovertactionunderthisactforwhatbecameknownastheCentral
239 IntelligenceAgencyandtheNationalSecurityAgency. TwolasttouchescompletedClarks

worldorderframework:(1)financialcontrolbyMorganovertheLosAlamosSandia Laboratoriesatthecenterofnuclearweaponsresearch,supportedbysecuritylegislationlikethe
240 McCarranAct, and(2)JohnMcCloyspresidentialappointmentstobuildaWorldBankanda 241 federalArmsControlandDisarmamentAgency.

ButoppositioncontinuedtobuildfromantidependencygroupsinstateslikeCostaRica. TheirsentimentswereechoedbyexsoldiersliketheUnitedStatesVeteransforPeace. OpposingwarinNicaragua,inthe1980s,forinstance,theVeteransforPeaceinitiallyreceived supportfromIsraelisoldiersrefusingcombatinLebanon.ThentheVeteransforPeacegained recognitionbyexpeditinglargeoverlandfoodandclothingshipmentstotheisthmus,frequently

242 coordinatedacrossbordersofwarringstatesthroughCostaRicaninfrastructures.

236 McCloyandStimsonmadethedecision,executedbyHarryTruman,todropatombombsonHiroshimaand

Nagasaki,butchosenottofirebombthosesupplyroutestotheNazideathcampswhichweretiedindirectlytothe U.S.corporatestructure.SeeMorganMintzandAndreaKingsley,WhyDidntWeBombAuschwitz? WashingtonPost[WPT],17April1983,D12. SeealsoSidneyLens, TheDayBeforeDoomsday (GardenCity, NY:DoubleDay,1977),51. 237 JohnM.Swomley,Jr.,AStudyoftheUniversalMilitaryTrainingCampaign,19441952(Ph.D.diss., UniversityofColorado,1959),251. 238 Congress,SubcommitteeonNationalPolicyMachinery,CommitteeonGovernmentalOperations, OrganizationalHistoryoftheNationalSecurityCouncil,86thCongress,1960,2orAldenHatch,TheWadsworths oftheGenesee(NewYork:CowardMcCann,1959),29394andThomasTroy,Donovan andtheCentral IntelligenceAgency:AHistoryoftheEstablishmentoftheCentralIntelligenceAgency (Frederick,MD:Aletheia Books/UniversityPublicationsofAmerica,1981),39396.Variouslobbyists,likeClarkClifford,alsoaidedClark andWadsworth. 239 SatishKumar,TheCIAandtheWorld,AStudyinCryptoDiplomacy (NewDelhi:Vikas,1981),1011. 240 JamesStewartAllen, AtomicImperialism,TheState,Monopoly,andtheBomb (NewYork:International Publishing,1952),8990. 241 KennedyAppointsMcCloyasHisDisarmamentChief, NYT,3June1961,A1and16.Formaterialon interlockingcorporateboarddirectoratesbetweenatomicweaponssystemsandMorganinterests,seePaulHubers, BankingOnWarorPeace,MorganizationMythv.RealizationofPeace,(Ms.copyrightedatU.S.Libraryof Congress,1984),159pp.ForconsultantrolesofHenryKissingerandEdwardTellertoGeneralDynamics (formerlyElectricBoatCo.)andthustotheseMorganinterests,seePolarisAction, MidwestPacifist Commentator, 17June1987,3. 242 VeteransforPeace,Inc.,MajorActivitiesJuly1985ThroughJanuary1989,Pamphlet,n.p.,n.d.Seealso PrensaLatina(Cuba)CablePL269(19May1988),onthecaravanof40VeteransforPeace18wheelertrucks

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Emphasizingchangeformutualbenefit,theVeteransforPeacestressedthatarmedwarriorscan nolongerprotectsocietyinanageofnuclearterror.Theeffectsofstateterrorism,whether throughguerrilla,nuclear,orbiomolecularwarfare,haduprootedthenotionofnationalsecurity througharmsjustasartilleryoncebreachedthewalledsecurityofmedievalcastles.Unifying politicallywithSovietveterans,theseUnitedStatesveteranscalledfortheabolitionofwaras

243 theirpreferredapproachtoconflictresolution.

TheAntiDependencyApproachTowardLiberationandRevolution CommencinginLatinAmericancountrieslikeCostaRica,whichlackthecapitaland technologyofthecountriesespousingaworldorder,theantidependencyapproachcriticizesthe underdevelopmentinflictedundertheworldorderapproach.LeadingWesternCaribbeanwriters withthisoutlookhavebeenFidelCastro(Cuba),DanielOrtega(Nicaragua),RalRoaKouri (Cuba),VicenteSanz(CostaRicaandMexicoinexile),OscarAriasSnchez(CostaRica), GregorioSelser(Mexico),andAnaSojo(CostaRica).OthersuchwritershaveincludedRal Prebisch(Argentina),AndrGunderFrank(theNetherlands),andTeodorodosSantos(Brazil), aswellasSteveBiko(SouthAfrica),JoEnlai(China),TeresaHayter(England),Kenneth

244 Kaunda(Zambia),andHoChiMinh(Vietnam).

However,whiledemandingdevelopment,suchanapproachhasalsodependedonthe armsneededforitsrevolutionary challengefromtheveryworldorderorientedstatesbeing challenged.Currentliteratureindicatesthatthemilitarizationparadoxofarmsdependency habitsmaybeevenmoredebilitatingthantheprevious,rawfinishedcommoditiesdependency, limitedtopoortermsintraderelationships.Therefore,thecontemporaryantidependency approachhasnotyetbeenabletodevelopdurablesustainablealternativestoresolveeitherthe

filledwithfood,clothes,andmedicineheadedforElSalvador,butblockedbyU.S.customsattheU.S.Mexican borderinTexas,despitesupportoftheVeteransforPeacebytheMexicanBishop,SergioMndezArceo. 243 CombinedStatementofVeterans,(SignedbyGeraldGenesioandNikolaiVolkov),VeteransforPeace, MissiontoMoscow,January1988Delegation (Portland,ME:VeteransforPeace,1988),2and21.Theauthoris gratefulforinsightsfromRobertGanter(ManaguaTruckConvoyCoordinator,VeteransforPeace),duringaone weektrucktripwithGanterfromWashington,D.C.,toManagua,Nicaragua(915March1989).Heworkedwitha majorNicaraguansocialserviceagency,InstitutoNicaragunsedeSeguridadSocialyBienestar(INSSBI), responsibleforfeeding,housing,and repatriatingdisplacedpeople,e.g.,Contras,Miskitos,andhurricanevictims. SeePrensaLatina(Cuba)CablePL036/33.22(9Jan.1988). 244 SeetheoutlinesofthisapproachinNormanGirvan,TheDevelopmentofDependencyEconomicsinthe CaribbeanandLatinAmerica:ReviewandComparison, SocialandEconomicStudies 22(March1983):133orin MagnusBlomstrmandBjrnHettne, DevelopmentTheoryinTransition,TheDependencyDebateandBeyond: ThirdWorldResponses (London:Zed,1984),3,2778,and169215.

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armsdependenciesorrelatedinternationaldebts,thatis,theinsecurityandunderdevelopment promotedbysuchintenseandprolongedconflictasthatencounteredintheWestern
245 Caribbean.

Inthe1900s,asoneofthestatestryingtoavoidthemilitarizationparadoxofanarms dependencyhabit,CostaRicacontinuedtospendlessthanotheristhmianstatesonarms,and moreonsustainabledevelopment.BjrnHettnedocumentedthedifferenceandalsoidentified fouranalogousdevelopmentsinGhana(19691979),Turkey(1920s1950s),Mexico

246 (1920s1940s),andNigeria(19841987). SomewritersfollowingHettnesapproachhave

adoptedaworldsystemsviewpoint,basedontheantidependencyapproach,butstilllinkedto
247 theworldorderapproach. Others,likePatriciaMischeandAbdulAzizSaid,haveemphasized

acreativetransformation oftheworldorderapproachtowardsustainable,lessmilitarized
248 development. AlltheseinsightsechoArticles23and25intheUnitedNationsDeclarationof 249 HumanRights,overaccesstonecessitiesandprotectionfromviolentconflict.

TheMilitarizationParadoxoftheArmsDependencyHabit RosaLuxembourgwasoneofthefirstantidependencytheoriststoanalyzeeventssuch asthosepioneeredinCostaRica.Sheobservedthatcapitalaccumulationbymilitarization

250 cyclicallyrobsbothworkersandthemeansofproduction,suchasthesoil. Subsequently,

theoristslikeJ.VanGelderenandN.D.Kondratiefftriedtoadjustherobservationstoexplain criticaltrends,cycles,orfluctuationsincapitalistproduction,interspersedwithwarsthat
251 increasetherateofresourceextraction. Thesecyclesweretunedtofiftyyeartimespansand

245 HelenaTuomiandRaimoVyrynen,

TransnationalCorporations,Armaments,andDevelopment (NewYork:St. MartinsPress,1982),24554and271andNicoleBall, SecurityandEconomyintheThirdWorld (Princeton: PrincetonUniversityPress,1988),142203passim. 246 BjrnHettne, PeaceDevelopment,8085.JapanfailedtodemilitarizebecauseofU.S.pressuretoremilitarize. 247 ThomasShannon, AnIntroductiontotheWorldSystemPerspective (Boulder,CO:WestviewPress,1989),1219. 248 GeraldandPatriciaMische, TowardAHumanWorldOrder (Maryknoll,NY:Orbis,1977).Seealsovarious booksoninternationaltheoryandinternationalhumanrightsbyAbdulAzizSaid. 249 DeclarationofHumanRights,inEdmundOsmanczyk,TheEncyclopediaofTheUnitedNationsand InternationalAgreements (PhiladelphiaandLondon:Taylor&Francis,1985),362. 250 RosaLuxembourg, AccumulationofCapital,trans.AgnesSchwarzbild(NewYork:MonthlyReview,1968), 46065.SeealsoKarlMarx,DasKapital,abridgeded.(Chicago:HenryRegnery,1970),254. 251 J.VanGelderen(aliasJ.Fedder),Springvloed(3),BeschouwingenOverIndustrieleOntwikkelingen Prijsbeweging,DeNieuweTijd (Amsterdam)18(MayJune1913):447.SeealsoRaimoVyrynen,Economic Cycles,PowerTransitions,PoliticalManagement,andWarsBetweenMajorPowers, InternationalStudies Quarterly[ISQ]27(1983):392,401,and407.

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aligned,forexample,withtheadventofelectricityandsteampowerinthe1800sorwiththe developmentoftelecommunicationandcomputertechnologyinthe1900s. Acloserlookmight haveidentifiedothertimecycles(sometimescalledhistoricalwavesorstreams)ininternational peace,feminist,antiimperialist,andGandhianliberationmovementsinthe1900s,builtuponthe 1800sstrugglesforhumanrightsandagainstslavery. EveninCostaRica,antidependencytheoristswereuneasyaboutcausallylinking underdevelopmenttoinsecurityfrommilitarization,althoughoriginalcontributorstoCosta Ricanneutrality,suchastheaforementionedJosNstorMoureloAguilar,havefruitfullycom paredthenonviolentapproachofLevTolstoywiththeantidependencyapproachofAbraham Guilln.ThoroughlyesteemedinLatinAmericaasaleader,ontheorderofErnesto(Che) Guevara,GuillngainedrecognitionforblamingtheunderdevelopmentoftheWestern
252 CaribbeanandtheMiddleEastonSovietandUnitedStatesmilitarization. Theoristsofthe

LatinAmericanbasecommunities,suchasLouisJosephLebret,alsoreceivedrecognitionfor
253 thiskindofanalysis. PaulBaran,arepresentativetheoristofanalogousNeoMarxisminthe

UnitedStates,exploredthiscausationinthe1950s,buthiswritingsappearedinprintonlyunder
254 analias. CostaRicaneffortshaveinspiredmuchoftheLatinAmericanantidependencyliterature.

Beginninginthe1870s,forexample,CostaRicantradeunionssupportedsuchearly antidependencythinkersasAntonioMaceo,AugustoCsarSandino,andVictorRalHayade laTorre,andtheCubanexilesJosMartandJulioAntonioMella,whosetravelsincluded

255 Mexicoandtheisthmus. Bythe1930s,anantidependencyorientedtradeunionhadformed

252 JosNstorMoureloAguilar,ElAnarchismo(Lic.lawthesis,UniversityofCostaRica,1970),11526and

13738.SeealsoAbrahamGuilln,LosDerechosHumanosylaGuerra, MemoriadelPrimerCongresoMundial deDerechosHumanos,Vol.7, DeclaracinUniversaldelosDerechosHumanos:SuHistoria,SuImpactoySu CaracterJurdico (SanJos:ImprentaNacional,1986),23435. 253 LouisJosephLebret, ManifiestoPorUnaCivilizacinSolidaria(Lima,Peru:EditorialUniversitaria,1961),97 131. 254 JamesM.Cypher,CriticalAnalysesofMilitarySpendingandCapitalism, EasternEconomicJournal 9(July Sept.1985):275.SeealsoPaulA. Rosen,(aliasforPaulBaran),MilitarismandAmericanTechnologicaland ScientificProgress,MRW 8(March1957):405410. 255 VladimirdelaCruz,LasLuchasSocialesenCostaRica,18701930 (Madrid:RuedoIbrico,1980),19091.See alsoJamlDaniloUrrozEscobar,AlgunosAspectosdelSindicalismoySuDesarrolloenCostaRica(Lic.thesis,

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256 inCostaRicatodealwiththeUnitedFruitCompanyoveremploymentmanagementdisputes.

Heraldingrevolutionarychangetocomeinthe1940s,therepeatedlaborstrugglesthatensued
257 wouldfocusoncontroloftherailroad,telephone,andelectricpowercompanies.

In1934intenseCostaRicantradeunionstrikeshittheUnitedFruitCompany,parallelto theNyeHearingsintheUnitedStates,whichledtotheabovementioned,Sovietsupported
258 governmentcoalitioninthe1940s. Analogousantidependencyorliberationstruggleserupted

almostsimultaneouslybetween1933and1936inBrazil,Chile,Cuba,Haiti,Peru,Panama, Uruguay,Argentina,Bolivia,Nicaragua,andtheDominicanRepublic(muchlikelatereruptions
259 in19591961and19791982). TheclassicUnitedStatesrationaleforopposingthese 260 eruptionscontinuedtobefearofSovietbases. However,thecauseslaymuchclosertohome,

sincethebeliefthattheisthmiancountrieslikeCostaRicawantedaSovietmilitarybasewas consistentwithaworldviewshapedbytheworldorderapproachtoconflict. TheCostaRicanRevolution:ViolentorNonviolent Underafederalsocialistcoalition,whichcriticizeddependencyontheUnitedStates, CostaRicawasthefirstisthmiannationtoestablishdiplomaticlinkswiththeSovietUnion. Thesesdiplomaticrelationswereestablishedinlate1944,althoughthefirstofficialCostaRican ambassadordidnotgotoMoscowuntil1976,becauseofUnitedStatesdisapproval.Bytheearly 1980s,whileCostaRicamaintaineditsfriendlyrelationshipswiththeUnitedStates,oneofevery fiveLatinAmericanexchangestudentsstudyingintheSovietUnionwouldbeCostaRican.

UniversityofCostaRica,1966),7386.HayadelaTorreandAntonioMaceowere(longtermandshortterm) refugeesinCostaRicafromPeruandCubarespectively. 256 AlfredoGmez,AnarquismoyAnarcosindicalismoenAmricaLatina (Madrid:RuedoIbrico,1980),19091. 257 NacionalizacindelaFuerzaElctricayCreacindelServicioNacionaldeElectricidad, LaGaceta 174(2 August1928).Seealso:AlfredoSanz, ContratosyActuacionesdelasCompaasdelFerrocarrildeCostaRica, laNorthernRailwayCo.ylaUnitedFruitCo.,enCostaRica(SanJos:ImprentaLaTribuna,1929)Rafael CastroQuesada, NacionalicemosNuestraEnerga (SanJos:Gutemburg,1929) RafaelEstrada, Aspectosdel ProblemaElctricoenCostaRica,las`HoldingCompaniesdeCostaRica,Vol.1(SanJos:Reportorio Amricano,1931),5and9and,ontheBond&ShareCompany:ElMonopoliodelaFuerzaElctrica, Liberacin (Sept.1935): 36.TheauthorisgratefultoCarlosMelendezChaverriforinsighthere. 258 CarlosLuisFalas, ReseadelaIntervencinyPenetracinYanquienCentroAmrica(MexicoCity:Fondode CulturaPopular,1954),1011.SeealsoManuelRojasBolanos,LuchaSocialyGuerraCivilenCostaRica,1940 1948,2ded.(SanJos:EditorialPorvenir,1980),6668. 259 ErnestGalarza,Debts,Dictatorship,andRevolutioninBoliviaandPeru,ForeignPolicyReports7(13May 1931):101. 260 RalOsequeda, OperacinGuatemala,$$OK$$ (MexicoCity:EditorialAmricaNueva,1955),1718,105 115,22122,24142,and295301.TheauthorisgratefultoGregorioSelserforinsighthere,gainedduring interviewsinhishomeinMexicoCity(April1989).

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OnlyCuba,amongLatinAmericancountries,wouldbesendingmorestudentstotheSoviet
261 Unioninanaverageyear.

Theselinks,initiatedbyCostaRica,hadoriginatedfromthe1934revolutionforhuman rightsandthesatisfactionofhumanneeds.SubsequentdisagreementoverthreatsbytheUnited StatestoinvadeCostaRicaculminatedina1948warledbyJosFigueresandManuelMora. Mora,headingtheincumbentsocialistgovernmentforces,beganthebattleincontroloftheSan Josgovernmentbuildings,themilitarybarracks,thenationalairport,andthepresidentialpalace. ButFigueres,supportedbytheUnitedStates,wagedaruralguerrillawarwhichoverwhelmed

262 Morasforces. Thefinal1948offensivespearheadedby800Figueristasendedthe 263 revolution.

CostaRicansocialistshadintroducedlandreform,incometaxes,socialsecurity, unemploymentinsurance,aminimumwage,publichealthcare,andtherighttostrike.Aftera NazisubmarineattackedaUnitedFruitCompanyshipin PuertoLimnharbor,theFigueristas hadcapitalizedonantiGermanbiastooverthrowthesocialistsandimpoundGermancompanies. Figuereskeptpowerbyabolishingthearmyandretainingstatewelfarelaws,whilealso nationalizingsomebanks.Hewasaidedbyaformerconservativepresident,LenCortes.In addition,FigueressetaprecedentforCostaRicandebtContraproblemsbytakingWorldBank andInternationalMonetaryFundloanstopayforthewar,andbypermittingexCuban,pro

264 Batistaguerrillacamps,ledbyMauelArtime,tooperatenearLakeNicaragua.

Followingthe1948war,UnitedStateswarshipscontinuedtopressCostaRicafromboth sides.Quesada,acityhalfwaybetweenSanJosandtheNicaraguanborder,wasoccupiedby proSomozaandproBatistafighters,threateningboththeFigueristasandthesocialists.

261 FranciscoRojasAravena,CostaRicaunddieSowjetunion

VierJahzehnteDiplomatischerBeziehungen,in AndreasMaislinger, CostaRica,15254. 262 JonCozean,Abolition,21and49. 263 RalSohr, CentroamricaenGuerra,LasFuerzasArmadasdeCentroamricayMexico (MexicoCity:Alianza EditorialMexicana,1988),15,201,and141.Incomparison,only500SandinistasledthefinalassaultonManagua duringtheJuly1979Revolution. 264 JacoboShifter,OriginsoftheColdWarinCentralAmerica:AStudyofDiplomaticRelationsBetweenCosta RicaandtheUnitedStates,19401949(Ph.D.diss.,ColumbiaUniversity,1983),32324.

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Fortunately,inthemid1950s,theresultinginternationaltensionwasbrokenbyanonviolent brazoscados,orgeneralstrike,whichhadtheeffectofreconcilingtheUnitedStates proponentsoftheworldorderapproachandtheCostaRicanproponentsoftheantidependency

265 approach.

CostaRicaalsoreceivedhelpfromtheOrganizationofAmericanStates,andthereafter
266 steereditsdiplomacywiththeSovietUnionthroughParis,France. Revolutionaryfervor

abatedinCostaRicauntiltheSandinistasdeclaredtheirprovisionalNationalReconstruction JuntafromSanJos,onemonthbeforetheJuly1979Revolution.ThenCostaRicarefuseda UnitedStatesrequestforarmedinterventionbytheOrganizationofAmericanStates,and

267 becamethefirststatetorecognizetheSandinistagovernmentinManagua.

InresponsetothebombingsandkidnappingsthatfollowedtheantiSandinistaContras intoCostaRica,theCostaRicangovernmentveeredfurthertowardanantidependency
268 viewpointandcondemnedthe1983invasionofGrenada.FearingeconomicLebanization,

OscarAriasoptedfortradeandimmigrationnegotiationswithNicaragua.Inthesenegotiations,
269 Ariasreliedonthetheory ofC.WrightMillsandthesupportofFigueres. Understandably,

NicaraguastillfearedacounterrevolutionbythesamelandroutefromCostaRicathatthe
270 Sandinistashadtakentopower. Inspiteofthisfear,in1986,CostaRicanotonlyshouldered

265 JohnBell,

CostaRica,14950.BellreportsthatU.S.fightersjoinedtheproSomozaandproBatistafighters againstCostaRica.SeealsoJosFerrerFigueres,RelacionesdeCostaRicaconlaUninSovitica:Respuestadel SeorPresidentedelaRepblicaDonJosFigueresFerrer,aunaCartaPublicada(SanJos:Publicacionesdel MinisteriodeGobernacin,1971),7andRobertoFernndezDuran, LaHuelgadeBrazosCados (SanJos: EditorialCostaRica,1983),4546.QuesadalaterbecameJohnHullsbase,aswillbediscussedinchaptersix. 266 PeterShearman,TheImpactofSovietPolicyinCentralAmerica,inShearmanandWilliams,eds., Superpowers,133. 267 SolveigAasandTordHoivik,DemilitarizationinCostaRica:AFarewelltoArms?inAndreasMaislinger, CostaRica,358. 268 JoanneKenen,PracticallyNeutral, Atlantic,March1984,inDCF (1984),69.TheinvasionofGrenada occurred3daysafterthe bombingdeathsof241U.S.marinesinBeirut.AsinLebanon,theContracauseattracted mercenarieswhohadfoughtontheextremerightandextremeleftseeHugoSpadafora,LaDerotaComunistaen Nicaragua(MiamiandSanJos:AlianzaRevolucionariaDemocratica/ARDE,19831984). 269 J.S.Fuerst,MoreThanaPeacemaker,thePoliticalWritingsofOscarArias,Commonweal(4Dec.1987):701 703. 270 ForparticipationbyfightersfromFrance,Spain,Italy,Mexico,Colombia,andWestGermany,viaCostaRicain the 1979NicaraguanRevolution,seeAlexDrehsler,ForeignersJoinNicaraguaFight,Union (SanDiego,CA),18 June1979,1.

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theresponsibilityforpeaceplanproposals,buteventhreatenedforthefirsttimetosuethe UnitedStatesintheHagueforbasingContrasagainstNicaraguafromsovereignCostaRican
271 territory. CostaRicathusmaintaineditsoppositiontoboththetransnationalbusinessofa

militarizedworldorderpromotingunderdevelopmentandanykindofliberationthatwould
272 promoteanevenmoreseverearmsdependencyrelationshipofunderdevelopment.

TheNonviolentApproachTowardSurvival OneoftheclearestcontemporaryHispanictheoriesofnonviolencewasarticulatedby MauelSacristanLuzon.Hebelievednonviolencetobeapeacefulstrugglerootedingenderand ecologicalparity,atheartopposedtotheecologicalpollutionproducedbyworldorderandanti dependencypolicies.Theheartofnonviolencewasoppositiontoallwar,evenifEuropean guerrillaforcesliketheNorthernIrelandRepublicanArmycontinuedtoappropriatenonviolent

273 toolslikepoliticalfasting. AccordingtoaMoureloAguilarinCostaRicaoraSacristan

LuzoninSpain,thepacifistapproachtopowerwasevenmorepowerfuloverthelongtermthan theintellectualcynicismofthe(worldorderoriented)imperialistsorthepracticalcynicismof the(antidependencyoriented)anarchistsandsocialists,whoviewthestateeitherasa revolutionaryinstrumentoranobstacletorevolution.Insum,insteadofrelyingonwaror militarizationtoproveitspoints,thenonviolentapproachstressedascepticalstrugglefor survivalbasedinmutualchangeformutualbenefitandresponsibility.Unfortunately,the nonviolentapproachtowardunarmeddiplomacy,aspreferredbyCostaRica,hasoftenbeen obscuredintheorybytheviolentdiplomacyofthefirsttwoapproaches.

271 GustavNiebuhr,CostaRicaProbingU.S.InvolvementinUseofSecretAirstriptoAidContras,

Atlanta Constitution,11March1987, A7.For(securityminister)AngelEdmundoSolanosantidependencyoutlook versus(securityminister)AlfonsoCarrosworldorderoutlookfavoringtheContrasgovernment seeDennis Volman,CostaRicanGovernmentStrugglesWithInternalDivisionsandArmedExtremists, ChristianScience Monitor[CSM],5July1984,10. 272 OneindicationofthekindofbattlebeingwagedbyCostaRicaatthistime,inthemid1980s,mayhavebeenthe firewhichguttedtheinsidesofitsWashington,D.C.,Embassy afireneverquiteclearedfromthesuspicionof sophisticatedarson. 273 ManuelSacristanLuzon, Pacifismo,EcologayPolticaAlternativa(Barcelona:IcariaAntrazyt,1987),9,14,71 72,91101,and121.Asapacifistsocialistundergroundleader,SacristanLuzonopposedFrancoforcesinSpain. HefrequentlycitesWolfgangHarich,anEastGerman,onthefeministrootsofecologicalpolitics.Seealso MarienelaCandelariaBorrego,UnEjemplodeRevisionismo:LaInterpretacindel`AntiDhring(MAthesis, UniversityofHavana,1983),onSacristanLuzon.SeealsoselectbibliographyforworksbyArneNaess,AlicePaul, MubarakAwad,EliseBoulding,MohandasGandhi,FlorenceKelley,andothers.

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NonviolentScepticism forConceptualizingPeace Socialistandanarchistviewpointsinparticular,ascharacteristicoftheantidependency approach,havefrequentlybeenconfusedwiththeclaimsofunarmeddiplomacybystateslike CostaRica.Socialistswhoemphasizejusticemayignoretheabuseofstatesecuritypower(by armedadvocatesofworldorder),ontheclaimthatwaroriginatesfromcapitalism.Anarchists whoemphasizepeace,ontheotherhand,mayignoreviolentindividual(revolutionary)behavior

274 harmfultosociety. Still,eventhearchrealistoftheworldordervision,ThomasHobbes,had

toconcedetothenonviolentpremisesscepticalofboththeworldandantidependency
275 approaches,totheextentthathehonoredasoldiersrefusaltokillfamilymembers. In contemporaryterms,BertrandRussellidentifiedsuchnonviolentpremisesascentralto

thecontextof truth,whichiswiderandmoreprofoundthanmereknowledge.ThusRussellused wordslikerelativityandsignificationinsteadof causeandeffect todescribepoliticaltruth reachedbynonviolenceorrelativenonviolence.Deeperindividualandstateimplicationsfor longtermnonviolenceofthisnaturecanalsobefoundinthewritingsofD.H.Lawrence,a 1940sfriendofBertrandRussell,exiledfromhisnativeEnglandbecauseofhisoppositionto conscriptionforwaragainstGermany,whoseworkshelpedtoencouragenonviolentapproaches

276 tointernationalconflictresolutionsuchasciviliandefense.

274 MulfordQ.Sibley,Pacifism,Socialism,Anarchism,WhichWayto

PeaceandJustice?(NewYork:WarResisters League,1980),4749. 275 BartholemydeLigt, VredeAlsDaad,Beginselen,GeschiedenisenStrijdmethodenvandeDirekteActieTegen Oorlog(Arnhem,theNetherlands:VanLoghumSlaterus,1931),11.ForthefoundationsofCostaRicanpacifismin scepticism,seePiotrKropotkin,HerbertSpencerySusPaisanos, RAO 8(21July1924):286.Forscepticism underlyingtheoldestinternationalpacifistorganizationinNorthAmerica,seeBettyLynnBarton,TheFellowship ofReconciliation:Pacifism,Labor,andSocialWarfare(Ph.D.diss.,FloridaStateUniversity,1974).Forsceptical preGandhian(ThirdWorld)MaoripacifismledbyTeWhitiinNewZealand,seeRoweMorrow,PaxPacifica, CaseStudiesinNonViolentActionintheSouthPacific (OConnor,ACT,Australia:ReligiousSocietyofFriends, 1979),216ff. 276 BertrandRussell,HumanKnowledge,ItsScopeandLimit (NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1948),11058.See also RAO16(8Dec.1934):entireissue,especiallythe articlesbyAldousHuxley,AndrMalraux,andKatherine Mansfield.LawrencespacifismstemmedfromhismarriagetoaGermanbaroness,FriedavonRichthofen,and theirfriendshipswithMansfield,JohnMiddletonMurray(Mansfieldshusband),CynthiaAsquith,andamutual friendofBertrandRussell OttolineMorrell.SeeHarryMoore,D.[avid]H.[erbert]LawrencesLettersto BertrandRussell (NewYork:GothamBookMart,1948),2ff.Seealsothecasestudiesofnonviolentcivilian defenseagainstSovietinterventioninAlexSchmid, SocialDefenceandSovietMilitaryPower:AnInquiryintothe RelevanceofanAlternativeDefenceConcept (Leiden,theNetherlands:CenterfortheStudyofSocialConflict, StateUniversity,1985).

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Nonviolenceinaneraofomnicidalpowerhasbeencomplicatedbytheruinsofabipolar ColdWar,stilltransfixedbynuclearstockpiles.SovietandUnitedStatessecurityinterestshave beenopposedespeciallyintheWesternCaribbean,overUnitedStatespriorities,andinthe MiddleEast,overSovietandUnitedStatespriorities.Nevertheless,dynamicstreet demonstrationsinCostaRicaandEasternEuropehaveillustratedtheremarkablepowerof nonviolence,evenforareasofintenseconflictshadowedbythreatsofnuclearwarsincethe

277 1960s.

CostaRicanNonviolencefortheBusinessofPeace Inthemid1960s,strongantiwardemonstrationswereorganizedbytheCostaRican UniversityFederationofStudents,focusedonevictingCONDECA,theUnitedStatesdominated militaryorganization,fromtheisthmus.Unfortunately,thesepeacefuldemonstrationswere disruptedinSeptember1966bynationwidebombingsandbombthreats.Thedisruptionshave beentracedtotheantiCubanFreeCostaRicanetwork(MCRL),initiallyfundedbytheCentral

278 IntelligenceAgency.

Likeotherpeacemovements,theCostaRicanpeacemovementadaptedunderfireto initiatemutuallybeneficialchange.In1971theseadaptationsproducedapioneerAmerican hemisphericgathering,intheolduniversitytownofAlajuela,CostaRica,oftheorganization

279 Service,Peace,andJustice. Bylate1977,suchorganizationshadhelpedtoreinforce

277 ThePolishKORandSolidarityorganizations,whichinfluencedchangeinEasternEurope,chosenonviolence,

e.g.,fromSERPAJ(consolidatedinCostaRica),asopposedtotheTupamarosinUruguay(undertheleadershipof thoselikeLechWalesa,AdamMichnik,orJacek&GraynaBoruckKuro).SeeLawrenceWeschler,TheGreat Exception,1 Liberty,NewYorker,3April1989,46ff.and76ff.,aswellasotherNewYorker articlesby Weschler(19811989passim).AdditionalinsightintosuchnonviolentchoicescanbefoundinJanJsef Lipski, KOR:AHistoryoftheWorkersDefenseCommitteeinPoland,19761981,trans.byGeneMooreandOlga Amsterdamska(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1985),6277,43233,and515n1aswellas forevents leadingtoTiananmenSquare,inBeijing,China LawrenceWeschler,Afterword,inMarinMoskitandMariusz Wilk,eds.,Konspira:SolidarityUnderground,trans.byJaneCave(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1990), 25161.ForPolishleadershipinEasternEurope,atleastasfarbackas1956,seeJanosKis, PoliticsinHungary: ForaDemocraticAlternative,trans.byGborFollinus(HighlandLakes,NJ,andBoulder,CO:Columbia UniversityandAtlanticResearchandPublications,1989),25n3,28,and7778. 278 JohnSaxeFernndez, ElConsejodeDefensaCentroamricanoylaPaxAmricana, CuadernosAmricanos [CAS]26(MayJune1967):3957andalso,JohnSaxeFernndez,TheMilitarizationofCostaRica, MRW 24 (May1972):6267.InSpanishMCRLstandsforMovimientoCostaRicaLibre,ortheFreeCostaRicamovement ornetwork.ThewordnetworkwillbeusedbecauseofthehistoricallyorganizedcharacteroftheMCRL. 279 RichardPost,TheSecondConferenceonNonviolentLiberationMovementsinLatinAmerica,Friends CommitteeonNationalLegislation[FCNL]Mimeo,n.d.SERPAJorServicio,Paz,yJusticia hasdevelopedabase inalmosteveryLatinAmericanstateandisaffiliatedwithsimilarorganizationsinNorthAmerica.

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consciousnessraisingmeetingswithdiscussionsonnonviolencebyrepresentativeLatin
280 AmericanCatholicleadersinMedellin,Colombia. Themeetingsproducedmorethanmere

analyticalworkonthesignificanceofleaderslikeMohandasGandhi.Theyalsogenerated politicalpressureforUnitedNationspeacekeeping,especiallyafterJavierPrezdeCuellar visitedCostaRicainlate1986.PrezdeCuellarsvisit,ontheheelsofthecontroversialcrash

281 ofEugeneHasenfus,wasthefirstofitskindbytheUnitedNationstotheisthmus.

Parallelisthmianeventsinspiredothernonviolentactionsbasedonecology,pacifism, andgenderparity.NicaraguanforeignministerMiguelDEscoto,forexample,lostthirtytwo poundsinatwentysixdayhungerstrike,andsucceededintemporarilyreconcilingNicaraguan

282 religiousfactionsestrangedbyContrawar. Atthesametime,womenhungerstrikerswere

alsopartiallysuccessfulinpushingtheCostaRicangovernmenttomeetbasicneedslike
283 housing,insteadofswitchingitsresourcestoremilitarization. Theeffectsofthesenonviolent

actionsspreadacrosstheUnitedStates,asfarmersevictedfromtheirfarmsbydebtforeclosure
284 movedtheirfamiliesontoborderlandNicaraguanfarms. Inthemeantime,BrianWilson

wouldemergeasapacifistleaderoftheVeteransPeaceActionTeamsafterlosingbothhislegs
285 belowthekneestoaCaliforniamunitionstrainheadedfortheisthmus.

Suchchangewaspartofalargercontextwithinfourmajorglobalconflictzonestobe describedbelow.Thesezoneshavecontainedfarmorethantheirshareoftheworldsconflict, sincethe1940s,inproportiontotheirpercentageoftheworldspopulation.Thefourzoneswill

280 AdolfoPrezEsquivel,ChristinaPoncho

(Maryknoll,NY:Orbis,1983),118133.PrezEsquivelreceivedthe NobelPeacePrizewhileinprisonforhisnonviolentleadership.Suchnonviolenteventsalsoencourageda Lebanesepeacemovementduringthistime,includingsuchgroupsasthe AlMuntalikun(inArabic:People ChangersorUprisers).ThisLebanesegroupwasvisitedbytheauthorduringtravelandinterviewsinIsraeland Lebanon,MarchMay1976,aftermeetingsomeofitscofoundersinToronto,Canada(19741976). 281 JimMorrell,ContadoraEludesU.S., InternationalPolicyReport[IPR],(Jan.Feb.1987):2and36.Seealso YusafnJarqunJacob,LaDoctrinadelaNoViolenciaenelPensamientodeGandhi(Ph.D.diss.,Universityof CostaRica,1986). 282 DEscotoEndsFast,AttacksU.S.ChurchLeaders, NationalCatholicReporter,30August1985,21. 283 CiciliaMadriz,TriunfoenlaluchaporVivienda, COPAN 4(April1986):4345. 284 JaneJuffer,FarmlandfortheHardy, MotherJones,June1986,10. 285 IniciBrianWilsonNuevasProtestasPorlaAyudaEstadounidenseaContras, ElDa(MexicoCity),10Oct. 1987,7.

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serveasthegeographicalbasisforintroducingamoreintegratedtheoreticalperspectiveon internationalconflictresolution. GlobalConflictZones Nomadicruinsthatenduretothisdayindicatethatmajorcivilizationsbeganinthe isthmianstates,likePanamaandCostaRica,andtheLevantinestatesoftheMiddleEast.World order,antidependency,andnonviolentapproachestoconflictresolution,risingfromthese ancientcivilizations,continuetomoldourviewsoninternationalconflictresolution.According

286 toSabloffandLambergKarlovsky,theWesternCaribbeanandMiddleEasterncivilizations

havegroupedandsurvivedinvariousformsovermanycenturiestosustaintwoofourpresent civilizationsmostsignificantinteroceanicroutes.Thesetworoutes,thePanamaandSuez
287 Canals,continuetobeassociatedwithgeopoliticallysignificantconflictzones. Thesectionwhichfollowsisintendedtoofferanexpandedorientationforinternational

conflictresolutiontheory,extendingthistheoryinaglobalsense,tofocusontheWestern CaribbeanandtheMiddleEastasglobalconflictzones.ThefourzonesaretheWestern Caribbean,theMiddleEast,SoutheastAsia,andSouthernAfrica.Amongthesezones,the MiddleEastandSouthernAfricahaveaboutthesamelandarea,butthehighestandlowest populationdensities,respectively.Incontrast,theWesternCaribbeanandSoutheastAsianzones

288 eachcoveranareaoflandathirdthatofeachoftheothertwozones. Centralgovernment

286 C.C.LambergKarlovskyandJeremyA.Sabloff,MiddleEastAncientCivilizations,TheNearEastand

Mesoamerica (MenloPark,CA:BenjaminandCummingsPublishingCo.,1979),32728.Accordingtothesetwo authors,thosecivilizationsintheWesternCaribbeanhadtwicetheurbanpopulationoftheMiddleEastatthattime. 287 VicenteSanz,LosCanalesInternacionales,CAS 16(MayJune1957):79.SeealsoRuthVerrillsmanuscript noteson100centuriesofoverlappingAmericanIndian,isthmian,andMiddleEasterncultures:Inscriptionsinthe AmericasandCocleProvince[Penonom]Panama,1924andRuthandA.HyattVerrill, AmericasAncient Civilizations(NewYork:G.P.PutnamsSons, 1953),12542orLaurenceWaddell, MakersofCivilizationinRace andHistory (London:Luzac,1929). 288 SocialIndicatorsofDevelopment1988 (Baltimore/London:WBKandJohnsHopkinsPress,1988)and Anuario EstadsticodeCuba1982(Havana:ComitEstatal deEstadsticas,1982),51926.Namibiaisnotlisted.Thefour globalzones,hometoafifthoftheworldpopulation,are(1)theWesternCaribbean:Belize,Colombia,CostaRica, DominicanRepublic,ElSalvador,Guatemala,Haiti,Honduras,Jamaica,Mexico,Nicaragua,Panama,and Venezuela(2)theMiddleEast:Afghanistan,Algeria,Bahrain,Cyprus,Djibouti,Egypt,Ethiopia,Greece,Iran, Iraq,Israel,Jordan,Kuwait,Lebanon,Libya,Oman,Pakistan,SaudiArabia,Syria,Turkey,UnitedArabEmirates, bothYemens,Kenya,Qatar,Somalia,Sudan,andTunisia(3)SoutheastAsia:Burma,Indonesia,Kampuchea,Laos, Malaysia,Singapore,Thailand,andVietnamand(4)SouthernAfrica:Angola,Botswana,Burundi,Congo,Lesotho, Madagascar,Malawi,Mauritius,Mozambique,Rwanda,SouthAfrica,Swaziland,Tanzania,Uganda,Zaire, Zambia,andZimbabwe.Comparativedataonarablelandisnotavailable.Allfourzoneshaveahigherthan

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expenditures,from1945to1985,forthesefourglobalconflictzones,indicatethatmilitarization frequentlyprofitsthesupplierofarmsbutpromotessevereunderdevelopmentforthe
289 recipient.

AworldorderapproachtowardsmallstateslikeCostaRicahasinspiredpolicies,likethe MonroeDoctrine,usedtojustifyconflictinsuchzones.From1945to1985,ninetypercentof UnitedStatesforeignaidandarmswenttostatesinthesefourzones,undervaryingcommand

290 structuresgovernedbytheworldorderapproach. ComparableSovietpoliciesweremainly

directedattheMiddleEast,forreasonsofstrategicgeopoliticalproximityandbecauseMuslims
291 wouldconstituteoverafourthoftheSovietpopulationby earlyinthe21stCentury.

Onthewhole,accordingtoBarrett,Kende,Petit,Rageau,andChaliand,thesefourzones accountedforanaggregatethreefifthsofrecordedwarsfrom1945to1985.Thisaggregate countmeasuresthewarssignificantbothfortheirtotalnumberdeadandtheirimpacton internationalrelations,includingsuchconflictasthatinChile,Afghanistan,andEasternEurope. Thoughsignificantassourcesofworldoil,coffee,cotton,anddiamonds,thesefourzonesappear tomattermore tothesuperpowersfortheirgeopoliticalsignificanceinarmsanddrugsthanfor

292 theirresourceextractionvalueaswillbecomeclearerinChaptersFivethroughEight.

averagefertilityrate,statisticallycompensatingforwarloss.PleaseseealsoAppendixCforintensityofwarsand percentagesofdeadfromwar,bystate,andAppendixDforaworldmap,shadedtoillustratethefourzones. 289 NicoleBall,ThirdWorldSecurityExpenditures:AStatisticalCompendium (Stockholm:NationalDefense ResearchInstitute,1984)seealso WorldDevelopmentReport1985 (NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1985)and the Government FinanceStatisticsYearbook(Washington,D.C.:InternationalMonetaryFund,1984).Forindustrializedcountries, wheredocumentedmilitaryspendingasapercentageofGNPcorrespondsinverselywithmanufacturinggrowth percentages(regressioncoefficient=.94andcoefficientcorrelation=.73),seeRobertDeGrasse,Military Expansion,EconomicDecline(NewYork:CouncilonEconomicPriorities,1983),8182.PleaseseealsoAppendix Bandthepreviousfootnoteforrelevantdata. 290 OtherzoneshavebeendominatedbysimilarpoliciessuchastheOpenDoor,ManifestDestiny,andConstructive Engagement(allU.S.),orMarchingFrontiers(Soviet).Forthepercentofaidandarms derivedbydividingthe numberofstatesreceivingaidinthesezonesbythenumberofallstatesreceivingsuchaid seeU.S.AID, ImplementationofSection620(S)oftheForeignAssistanceActionof1961,AsAmended,AReporttothe Congressfor1984,(ReceivedbyHouseCommitteeofForeignAffairs,20Nov.1985),Mimeo,2526a.Forthe commandstructures,seeHumbertoGarcaMuoz,LaEstrategiadeEstadosUnidosylaMilitarizacindelCaribe (RoPiedras,PuertoRico:UniversityofPuertoRico,1988),22331. 291 DorotheaE.Woods,IslamicCountriesandConscientiousObjectiontoWarandMilitaryService(Geneva: QuakerU.N.OfficeMimeo,n.d.),23.SoutheastAsiamayalsohavegeopoliticalsignificanceforSoviet interventionininternationalrelations,atleastmoresothantheotherzone,i.e.,SouthernAfrica. 292 IstvanKende,WarsofTenYears, JournalofPeaceResearch[JPR]15(1978):23941IstvanKende, TwentyFiveYearsofLocalWars, JPR 8(1971): 522LinusPauling,etal.,eds., WorldEncyclopediaofPeace, Vol.1(OxfordandNewYork:Pergamon,1986),s.v.LocalWarsSince1945[p.546]byIstvanKendeand GrardChaliandandJeanPierreRageau, StrategicAtlas,AComparativeGeopoliticsof theWorldsPowers,trans. TonyBerrett,mapsbyCatherinePetit(NewYork:HarperandRow,1985),4850andalsoEllenJamison,etal., WorldPopulationProfile:1987(Washington,D.C.:DepartmentofCommerce/BureauoftheCensusandtheGPO,

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Similarfindingsonthesefourzoneshaveemergedfromtrendresearchonwar,genocide, terrorism,andevenwarrelatedprostitution,byGurr,Harff,Azar,Berry,Eckhardt,andthe
293 BrookingsInstitute.

StrategicConflictDominatedbyViolentPower FromaCostaRicanviewpoint,conflictinthesefourzonesraiseschallengingissuesof sovereignty.Ontheonehand,CostaRicaclaimstohaveabolisheditsmilitarypower.Onthe otherhand,theUnitedStates,dominatingmilitarypowerrelationshipsaroundCostaRica,still adherestonationalisttheorieslikethoseofMahanandClarkthatpreemptCostaRicanclaimsof neutrality.AccordingtoBjrnHettne(aprofessorinthePeaceandConflictResearch DepartmentattheUniversityofGothenburg,Sweden),theeffectofthisUnitedStates militarizationismostthreateningfromasovereigneconomicdevelopmentstandpointinthe

294 destabilizationthatresultedfromaContrainfrastructureintendedforinvadingNicaragua.

PerhapsthesimplestwaytointerprettheUnitedStatesprogramforworldorderinCosta Rica,throughsuchdestabilization(tobemorefullyexploredinChapterEight),istotracethe
87647922, 1987),17,3948,and6569.Again,pleaseseeAppendixCforquantification.Directevidenceofsuch violencecanalsobeaccessedintheannualreportsoftheCanadianCentreforVictimsofTorture,uniqueinthe Americas,witha$250,000peryearbudget,62%ofitsclientscomingfromtheglobalconflictzones.Seeits AnnualGeneralMeeting,July19th,1990,Mimeo,n.p. 293 In1986 ascitedinthefootnoteabove Kendebrieflyreworkedhisearlierresearch(upto66%ofallwars beingwagedinthe globalconflictzonesfrom19451986),toalignhisfindingsmorecloselywiththatofChaliand. See[IstvanKende,in]LinusPauling,etal.,eds.,Vol.1,WorldEncyclopediaofPeace (OxfordandNewYork: Pergamon,1986),s.v.LocalWarsSince1945[p.546].SeealsoEdwardAzarandWilliamEckhardt,Major MilitaryConflictsandInterventions,19651979, PeaceResearch 4(Oct.1979):203207TedGurrandBarbara Harff,ResearchNoteToward[An]EmpiricalTheoryofGenocidesandPoliticides:Identificationand MeasurementofCasesSince1945, ISQ32(Sept.1988):36465KathleenBerry,TerrorandCoercion,The FemaleSexualSlaveTrade, Ms.,Nov.1979,6263,7475,and7980andBarryBlechmanandStephenKaplan, ForceWithoutWar,UnitedStatesArmedForceasaPoliticalInstrument (Washington,D.C.:BrookingsInstitution, 1978),33.TheauthorisgratefultoGregorioSelserforpointingoutthelatterbook.AzarandEckhardtcounted 53%ofthewarsfrom19651979asbeingintheglobalconflictzones.ForGurrandHarff,thecountwas64% (19451988),andBlechmanandKaplan onU.S.intervention84%(19461974). 294 ThedestabilizationofCostaRicaandNicaragua,withitsemphasisonremilitarization,wasaimedatdestroying thealternativedevelopmentmodelofselfrelianceintheisthmuspreferredbybothstates.SeeBjrnHettne, ConflictandDestabilizationintheCaribbeanandCentralAmerica:TheCasesofJamaicaandNicaragua,inChad AlgerandJuditBalzs,eds., ConflictandCrisisofInternationalOrder:NewTasksofPeaceResearchProceedings oftheInternationalPeaceResearchAssociationsTenthGeneralConference(August29Sept.2,1983) (Budapest: HungarianAcademyofSciences,1985),192,200and204ff.ThedestabilizationofJamaicainvolvedlessmilitary violence.Humanneedsspending,asoneindicatoroftheonsetofthisdestabilization,fellby32%from1980to 1983inCostaRica asopposedto22%inJamaicafrom1981to1984 accordingtoGreenCameronDuncan, InternationalMonetaryFundStabilizationProgramsandIncomeDistribution:CostaRicaandJamaica(Ph.D. diss.,TheAmericanUniversity,1987),320.SeealsoEvelynHuberStephensandJohnD.Stephens,Democratic SocialisminJamaica:ThePolitical MovementandSocialTransformationinDependentCapitalism (Princeton,NJ: PrincetonUniversityPress,1986),131ff.Seealsochapter5onCostaRicanlivingstandards.

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UnitedStatesCentralIntelligenceAgencysCaribbeanpersonnelmanagementpatterns.During theinitiationoftheContrawar(19791983),forexample,accordingtoNeubergerand Opperskalski,thestatesofCostaRica,Nicaragua,andJamaicaeachaccountedforaboutfifteen percentoftheCentralIntelligenceAgencystotalpersonnelstationedintheCaribbean.The remainingpersonnelwerespreadthroughouttherestoftheCaribbean,clusteringinPanama, Guatemala,ElSalvador,andTrinidad&Tobago.Thereweretwiceasmanyagentspercapitain Jamaica,Nicaragua,CostaRica,andTrinidad&TobagoaselsewhereintheCaribbean.Finally, atleastsixagentsseasonedinLatinAmerican,MiddleEastern,andSoutheastAsianwarzones werestationedinCostaRicaduringtheearly1980s.ThroughouttherestoftheentireCaribbean, outsideofCostaRica,onlyoneortwooftheseseasoned,veteranagentswerestationedineach
295 state.

From19791983,suchveteranagentsdirectedUnitedStatesCentralIntelligenceAgency managementinCostaRica.AcentralfigurewasDeaneHinton,troubleshootingthroughout
296 theisthmus,bywayoftheUnitedStatesStateDepartment. Anothercentrallyimportantagent,

JamesAnderson,gainedhisexperiencewhilecodirectingtheoverthrowofSalvadorAllendein
297 Chileintheearly1970s, havingservedpreviouslyintheDominicanRepublicandMexico 298 (1960s). Nextinline,JackForcey,withexperienceinCosta Ricagoingbacktothecountrys

revolutionary1950s,hadbeenpostedtoCairolaterinthe1950s,thentoBrazil,Vietnam,and Kampucheainthe1960sbeforereturningtoCostaRica.DavidMacDonnellservedinthe DominicanRepublic(1960s),andRichardVagoinLaos(1960s)andinFinland(1970s),before

299 CostaRica. From19841987,JosephFernndezdirectedtheCentralIntelligenceAgencyin

295 GnterNeubergerandMichaelOpperskalski,

CIAinMittelamerika (BonnMerten:Lamuv Verlag,1983),18083 and188200.ForsimilarstudiesinSovieteliteroles,seeWilliamZimmerman,ElitePerspectivesandthe ExplanationofSovietForeignPolicy,JournalofInternationalAffairs 24(1970):8498. 296 HintonbeganhiscareerinCIAandStateDepartmentmattersinSyriain1946,beforeworkinginKenya.See QueHacelaCIAenAmricaLatina, Moncada (2doftwoarticles),12Oct.1978,23.Afterfurtherworkin Mozambique,heswitchedtoEuropeanmattersaswellbeforebeingpostedto CostaRicaduringtheContraarms drugwars.HelaterbecameGeorgeBushsenvoytoPanamain1989.SeeDean[e]RushHinton, WhosWhoin [the]CIA (Berlin:JuliusMader,1968),23637,andthe WPT(Dec.1989)passim. 297 DonaldFreedandFredLandis,DeathinWashington,TheMurderofOrlandoLetelier (Westport,CN:Lawrence Hill,1980),108111. 298 ThomasHauser, Missing:TheExecutionofCharlesHorman (NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1978),226.See also BiographicRegister(Washington,D.C.:GPO,1972),72andPhilipAgee,InsidetheCompany:CIADiary (Harmondsworth,Middlesex,England:PenguinBooks,1975),533. 299 JackM.Forcey,BiographicRegister(1972),356.SeealsoNeubergerandOpperskalski, Mittelamerika,180 83and188200PhilipAgeeandLouisWolf,eds.,DirtyWork,TheCIAinWesternEurope(Secaucus,NJ:Lyle Stuart,1978),689andDennisFaySmith, BiographicRegister (1973),356.SmithwaspostedtoVietnaminthe

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300 CostaRica,allegedlyunderProjectVeilaftertheLaPencabombing. Fernndezhadseen 301 dutyintheMiddleEastbeforeworkinginBrazilinthe1960sandinVietnaminthe1970s.

TheseveteranagentsfocusedUnitedStatessecuritydecisionmakingforaworldorderapproach toconflictresolutionviolentlyrootedintheWesternCaribbean. AnArabLatinFocusHopesandOptions Thereasonforconsideringthesezonesistofacilitateanunderstandingofintenseconflict insuchaswayastointroduceamoreintegratedunderstandingofviolenceandnonviolencein internationalconflictresolution.Sincemuchoftheliteraturedealswithviolentconflictinthe MiddleEast,lessviolentconflictresolutionstrategiesinCostaRicamayseemunrelatedatfirst toconflictresolutioningeneral.Thus,thetwoprimeexamplesforclarifyingviolentand nonviolentapproachesarethetwostatesofLebanonandCostaRica,althoughtheverybrief comparisonfollowingismeantonlytopreparethewayfordiscussionofthemethod(inPart Two)andoutcome(inPartThree)ofinternationalconflictresolution. Outsideinterventionbeganinbothstatesinthe1850s,withperiodic,intenseconflictin the1950sandagainafter1975,whenbothstateswerestillconsideredastheleadersinliteracy
302 andcultureoftheirrespectiveArabandLatinworlds. AfterthedecisiveLebanesearms

1950s,andthentoHonduras,Nicaragua,andElSalvadorby1983.The authorisgratefultoLouisWolffor computerassistanceinlocatingthesecites. 300 SeeU.S.A.v.JosephF.Fernndez,Defendant,CriminalNo.89150A,U.S.DistrictCourtfortheEastern DistrictofVirginia,AlexandriaDivision,Fall1989,forthefollowing:[1]GovernmentsMemorandumofPoints andAuthoritiesinOppositiontoDefendantsMotionstoDismissCountsOne,ThreeandFourandtoDismissthe IndictmentforLackofFairNotice(RespondingtoDefendantsPretrialMotions Nos.4,5,6,and9)(2May1989),3and33.ThisdocumentdescribesFernndezbecomingCIAchiefofstationin CostaRicain1984,allegedlyunderWhiteHouseNationalSecurityDirective(NSD)159whichauthorizedProject Veil[2]DefendantsMemoranduminOppositiontoGovernmentsMotiontoProhibitReferencestoFernndez DismissalfromtheCIA(10July1989),12.ThisdocumentdiscussesFernndezfiringbytheCIAinDecember 1987and[3]WhiteHouseCovertActionPolicyApprovalandCoordinationProcedures(declassifiedfromtop secret),NationalSecurityDirectiveNo.159(15Jan.1985),pp.12.SeechaptersixformoreonFernndezNSA decoder,usedforcoordinatingContraarmsanddrugsafterthefailedassassinationplotonantiSomozaContra leader,EdenPastora.TheauthorisgratefulforinsightherefromDavidMacMichael. 301 BiographicRegister(Washington,D.C.:DepartmentofState,1973),116.Asanacademicnoteonthefelony levelfederalprohibitionagainstrevealingtheidentityofCIAagents,pleasenotethattheauthor,notemployedbya government,intendstoproduceonlyacademicresearchonconflictresolutionissuesfrompublicsourcesoutside thefederalU.S.5yearlimitoninternalmaterialsseeIntelligenceIdentitiesProtectionActof1982,UnitedStates StatutesAtLarge1982(96Stat.122,Pl97200),Part1(Washington,D.C.:GPO,1984). 302 Seethefirstpartofchapter8onCostaRicanliteracylevels.ForLebanon,seePatandJohnCaldwell, PopulationChangeandDevelopmentintheECWARegion,CairoDemographicCentre,ResearchMonograph Series (Cairo:CairoDemographicCentre,No.9,1984),45.

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shipmentstailoredtofitEdenPastorasscruplesagainstacceptingweaponsfromanysource connectedtotheproSomozaNationalGuardwhichhadtorturedandkilledhisfatherand thentheIranContrascandals,(tobediscussedinChaptersSixandSeven),notevenCostaRica

303 continuedtobesuchaleader. AfewindividualsintheMiddleEaststillpreferredthe 304 nonviolentapproachalsopreferredbyCostaRica.

ThebrieflookatLebanonwhichfollowsforinsighttoprefaceashortdiscussionof whyconflicthasconcentratedintheWesternCaribbeanandtheEasternMediterranean comes fromthecofoundersoftheLebanesePeacemovementalMuntalikun,SouheilandEsma (Nadine)Khouwli.StartedbywomenlikeWadadCortas(apioneereducatorofArabuniversity women),AlMuntalikun literally,thepeoplechangershad200coremembersanda workingmembershipof1,000.Itmobilizedcommunityresourcesforpracticalfirstaid,bomb shelters,andeducationforliberation.Membersdealtwithbreadlines,unemployment,lethal roadblocks,mercenarysnipers,brokenwaterlines,cuttelephonelines,disruptedpostalservices, andthevictimizationofindiscriminateshelling.Theirorganizationrestedonbothgenderparity andinterculturalroots,andwascontinuedbyNajdeh(aLebaneseandPalestinianwomensaid society)after1976. DuringMarch1976,acoalitionofpopularforces,includingalMuntalikun,struggledto establishaNationalLiberationFrontandanantidependencyorientedrepublicinLebanon.As theKataebmilitiaarmedbyIsraeldestroyedthecitysmainfoodandwatersupplies,andSyria undercutarmsandmunitionssupplies,Beirutsciviliansfacedatighteningcordonblocking
303 Aswillbecarefullynotedinchapters67,thisscrupleofPastoraskewedcovertCIAarmslogisticsinnorthern

CostaRica thecruciblefromwhichbothSandinistaguerrillas(leadingtothe1979revolution)andContra guerrillas(leadingtothe1990Chamorroelection)hadbasedviolentconflict towardLebanonviaIsrael.Other LebanonCostaRicaparallels:severedebts,mountainousterrain,selfproclaimedneutrality,dependencyonoutside energysources,thelackofstatearmyconscriptionsincethe1940s,andguerrillamilitarypower(theFSLNformed in1961inSanJosandthePLOformedin1964inBeirut).Pleasenotethattheterms Levant andLevantine will refertotheEasternMediterranean,especiallyIsrael,Lebanon,andSyria,ascounterpartstotheterms isthmus and isthmian. 304 AMiddleEastpacifist,JosephAbileah,ledappealsforaconfederationbasedoncooperativeuseofallthe MiddleEasternrivers,especiallytheJordan,Litani,Yarmuk,andEuphratesRiversystems,onthebasisof somethingliketheCentralAmericanCommonMarket,(suspendedfrom1979to1990)seeJosephAbileah,An IsraelisProposalforPeace, MennoniteBrethrenHerald8(30May1968):8.Theproposallandedhiminjailoff andon,after1948,buttheideacaughtoninformally.

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305 incomingsuppliesoffoodandwater. AnArabDefenseForcefromSyria,fundedbyKuwait 306 andSaudiArabia,triedtorestraintheresultingchaoticviolence, whichfilledeventheBayof 307 Beirutwiththerottingrefuseofwar. Thepolarizationofthis1976wardeepenedasIsraeland

SyriafoughteachotheronLebaneseterritory.InascenariofamiliartoCostaRicans,the
308 Lebanesewereeventuallyforcedtoimporteightypercentoftheirfood. Sealingthemouthsof

theLitaniandAwwaliRivers,IsraelfinallysucceededinblockadingSidon,Tyre,andBeirut fromtheMediterraneanSea.IsraelwasbackedinthisnavalblockadebytheKataeb,operating
309 inlandasIsraelsproxyforce.

AbouthalftheUnitedNationspeacekeepingforcestodieanywhereinthefieldwoulddie
310 inLebanon,defendingLebaneseneutrality. AsinCostaRica,theLebaneseconflictwas 311 complicatedbydrugsanddebt. TheinternationalwarsinbothLebanonandCostaRica,

305 WidadCortas,interviewswiththeauthorinBeirut,MarchApril1976andSouheilandEsmaKhouwli,

interviewsandconversationsinToronto,Canada,andNewYorkCitywiththeauthor,19741976.Souheilsfather, helpingtocoordinatesecurityintheJouniehCasino,disownedSouheilwhenherefusedtofightinthewarthere. EsmasparentsdirectedtheSchoolofEducationintheAmericanUniversityofBeirut.ShejoinedSouheilinexile. (DuringtheauthorsvisittoBeirutinMarchApril1976,about1to1.5millionpeople(refugeesandresidents)were atriskduetoincomingfireandshortagesofbasicnecessitieslikefoodandwaterbecauseofthisblockade.The concussiveeffectsofbombingandshellinginBeirut,byIsrael,Syria,andthevariousmilitiasandguerrillaforces, didnotfeelverydifferentinforcefromthe2030secondearthquaketremors[from4.55.0ontheRichterScale] alsoexperiencedbytheauthorinMexicoCityduringApril1989.)Tocomparethisnonviolentviewpointofthe KhouwliswiththeworldorderapproachoftheU.S.AmbassadorandCIAagents,seasonedinSoutheastAsia throughthearmsanddrugbusinessandpostedtoBeirutduringthistimein1976,seeJohnKelly,TheCIAinthe MiddleEast,Counterspy 3(Dec.1973):311. 306 AdeedDawisha,SyriaandtheLebaneseCrisis(NewYork:St.MartinsPress,1980),16264.TheADF operatedasaninternationallyacceptedpeacekeepingforce,notliketheCostaRicanContrasprivatelyfundedby SaudiArabia. 307 BrianUrquhart, ALifeinPeaceandWar(NewYork:Harper&Row,1987),303304.Meanwhile,Pierre GemayelspokewarmlytopeoplelikeUrquhartabouthishero,BenitoMussolini,fromthesideofhiscrowded Jouniehswimmingpool. 308 AugustusNorton,WaitingfortheNadir, AmericanArabAffairs 24(Spring1988):21.Between1976and 1988,theLebanesecurrencyunit,theLebanesepound,fellfrom3per$1(U.S.)to100per$1(U.S.). 309 IsraelSecretlyJoinstheWarinLebanon,Time,13Sept.1976,3031. 310 TimurGoksel,UNIFIL:HonourinLebanon, [U.S.]ArmyQuarterlyandDefenseJournal 113(Oct.1983):400 and406.Gokselnotesthe useofattackdogs,patrolcheckpoints,electronicterrainsurveillance,andpersonnel surveillanceradars,whichcouldalsobeusedintheisthmus.Thelocationofitstelecommunicationsheadquartersin Nahariya,Israel,hasbeenaproblemforUNIFILseeMarianneNeibergandJohanJrgenHolst,Peacekeepingin Lebanon,ComparingUNIFILandtheMNF,Survival 17(1986):402403and416417.Parallelingtheeffortsfor neutralityinCostaRicawhenfacedbyoutsidewar,mobilizationforpeacealsooccurredinsideIsraelseeWest BankRadicalsSweepLocalElections, JerusalemPost,14April1976,1.Intheshadowofthe1976warofBeirut, BethlehemwastheonlycityinIsraelsPalestinianareasthatdidnotalteritspoliticalleadership. 311 FortheKataebarmsanddrugbusiness,basedon290,000acresofopiumpoppiesandtransplantedColombian cocaplants,seeCollinKnox,TheLebaneseConnection,BekaaValleyDrugsFuelEndlessConflict, Soldierof

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moreover,werealsofoughtoverthedevelopmentoftwocriticalfreshwaterrivers,theLitani (threatenedbysalinizationasaresultofdesertification)andtheSanJuan(threatenedby undergroundwatersalinizationfromtheoceanscompressingeithersideoftheisthmus).Both

312 wereusedforgrowingcashcropsandforhydroelectricpower. CostaRicahasusedrelatively

nonviolentstrategiestoretaincontroloveritspartoftheSanJuanRiverecosystem,although repeatedCostaRicanborderincidentsallegedlyspurredbytheContrainfrastructureconstructed bytheUnitedStatesCentralIntelligenceAgencyhavethreatenedtheSanJuanRiverandLake

313 Nicaraguaecosystems. Lebanon,ontheotherhand,hasalmostlosttheLitaniRivertoIsrael

severaltimesduringviolentstruggle. The1980sUnitedStatesIranContra CongressionalHearings,althoughtheycamelate andaccomplishedlittle,strengthenedtheCostaRicanstanceagainsttheContrasandforregional

314 peace. But,atleastaccordingtoLondon ObserverjournalistsFarzadBazoftandSimonde

Bruxelles,theextenttowhichcriticalUnitedStatesinterestsinCostaRicawereaffectedbythe strategic1984tomid1985revelationsofWilliamBuckleyinIranandLebanonremains
315 unknown.Iranmayhavesoldortradedtheserevelationsinsecretinexchangeforarms.

Nevertheless,CostaRicanleaderslikeOscarAriastiedtheirhopesforpeacetothehalt oftheContrawarduringthepotentialUnitedStatesembarrassmentoverthearmsanddrugscan dal.AriassentFaridAyalesEsnaashisambassadortoopenpeacenegotiationswithNicaragua

Fortune,May1988,54,59,and85.WithLibyaprovidinghalfitsnaturalgasforfuel,Lebanonsmountingdebtand tradeoutcomesweresuchthathalfitstradeshiftedtoBulgaria,Romania,andtheSovietUnionsee Lebanese EconomicReport(Beirut:EditEcoSarl/tudesetConsultationsEconomiquesSud, 1986),27,4346,and5960. 312 Coursingdownhardmountainrockasrainormeltingsnow,theflowoftheLitaniRiveramountstoasixteenth ofthePotomacRiverflowatWashington,D.C.,orhalftheSanJuanRiverflow.SeeJamesHudson,TheLitani RiverofLebanon:AnExampleofMiddleEasternWaterDevelopment, MiddleEastJournal (Winter1971):24 and78passim.Forthe1982invasion,seeJoeStork,WaterandIsraelsOccupationStrategy,MERIPReports (JulyAugust1983):24.Israelgained25% morewaterfromthisinvasionseeMerviGustafsson,International ConflictsOverFreshWater:SomeTheoreticalNotesandTheCaseofTheMiddleEast, DPH (Budapest)6(Spring1985):137.TheothermajorfreshwatersourceaccessedbyIsraelwasundertheWestBank seeH.J.Skutel,IsraelsDemographicDilemma, ReviewofInternationalAffairs38(5June1987):17. 313 TonyAvirganandMarthaHoney,TheC.I.A.sWarInCostaRica, Nation,31Jan.1987,105107. 314 LaPaz,EntreLaDignidadyElSometimiento, Envo (Managua)81(March1988):7374. 315 FarzadBazoftandSimondeBruxelles,IranDealonBetrayedCIARing, Observer(London),3May1987,1 and15.

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316 immediatelyafterthehearingsopened. Ontheotherhand,despiteCostaRicaninitiatives,

NicaraguaretainedadistrustofIsrael,asaUnitedStatesproxysellingarmstoIranandarming
317 theContras. Meanwhile,asiftocounterCostaRicanpeaceinitiatives,theUnitedStates

reiterateditscomplaintsofterrorismfromSandinistaNicaragua,exemplifiedintheterrorist takeoversofitsembassiesinvariousstates,primarilyintheWesternCaribbeanbutalsointhe
318 MiddleEast.

Quietly,inadditiontobackingtheirgeopoliticalprioritieswithnuclearthreats,theUnited StatesandtheSovietUnionalsocontinuedtoexperimentinthesezonesofconflictwithcheaper, butequallycontroversial,biochemicalandbiomolecularinnovationsinjustwarfare. AlthoughPillerandYamamoto,forexample,notetheimpossibilityofestablishingcauseorguilt fortheuseoftheseweapons,theseauthorshavedevisedchartswhich,withsomereconstruction, revealapatternintheuseofsuchweaponsinthefourzones.Thisgeneralpatternofuse,from the1950sonward,startedandcontinuedwiththetestingintheWesternCaribbeanoftear(CS) gas,biochemicalandbiomolecularwarfare,andTW(trichothecenemycotoxin)herbicides instateslikeCuba,Grenada,Guatemala,Honduras,Nicaragua,andCostaRica.Bythe1960s, theuseofsuchweapons,especiallyCSgas,hadbroadenedtoSoutheastAsiatostateslike Burma,Laos,Thailand,Vietnam(10,000tonsinSouthVietnam),Indonesia,andKampuchea. Bythe1970s,thiswarfarehadspreadaswelltotheMiddleEastandSouthernAfrica tostates likeIraq,Iran,Zaire,Angola,Israel,Lebanon,Pakistan,Afghanistan,Namibia,Ethiopia,and
319 SouthAfrica.

316 LowellGudmundson,CostaRicasAriasatMidterm

CHY 86(Dec.1987):417420and431.

317 MarshallYurow,TheLegacyofthePledgeIsraelsInvolvementinNicaragua(MAnonthesisoption,The

AmericanUniversity,1986),Chapter1,n.p. 318 BrianJenkins, EmbassiesUnderSiege,AReviewof48EmbassyTakeovers,19711980 (SantaMonica,CA:Rand R2651RC,1981),12and19. 319 CharlesPillerandKeithR.Yamamato,GeneWars,MilitaryControlOvertheNewGeneticTechnologies(New York:BeachTreeBooks,1988),6469.PillerandYamamatouseSIPRIandtheU.S.governmentasthesourcesfor theirfindings. Theauthorsalsonotethatthe19751976ChurchCommitteeintheU.S.Senatediscoveredfurther weaponscontrolledtoalargedegreebyorganizationsliketheCIA,suchasparalyticshellfishtoxin. CSgas isa generictermforteargas.

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After1979,UnitedStatesgeopoliticalplanswerereorganizedbyaRapidDeployment ForcebasedinFloridawithover100,000troopsanda$14billionannualbudget.Targetingthe
320 otherthreezonesfromtheWesternCaribbean, theseplanswereoperationalizedbyspecial

forcesusingsmalltiltrotorplanes,landtoairsnatch planes,propellerdrivenparachutes,and evenbackpackstodeploysmallnuclearbombsortocarrycomputersinterfacedwithsatellitesin

321 space.

Itappears,asaresultofsuchaffairsintheoryandtechnology,thatonlytheislandof DiegoGarciaandthestateofIsraelhavebecomeascentralforintelligencemattersasCostaRica intheUnitedStatesworldorderapproachtoconflictresolution.Theseaffairsmayalsohelpto explainwhyIsraelandCostaRicahavesharedthehighestpercapitalevelsof indebtednessto UnitedStatesaid tobediscussedmorefullyinChapterEightontheoutcomeofthe internationaldebtinCostaRica. Underthisworldorderapproach,equidistantfromgulfoilintheMiddleEast,from

322 SingaporeinSoutheastAsia,andfromSouthAfrica, DiegoGarciahaschanneledMiddleEast 323 intelligenceinformationthroughAustraliabacktotheUnitedStates tocompensateforthe

securityproblemsofanenergyproductionvoid(forexample,scarceoiloruraniumfields)inthe
324 capitalistEastAsianstatesandSouthAfrica. Bythesametoken,Israelgained(imported)

nuclearweaponscapabilityshortlyafteritsformationin1948,directlyfromtheManhattan

320 A.J.Jongman,HetAmerikaanseCentraleCommando(USCENTCOM),EnStabiliserendefDstabiliserende

FactorinZuidWestAzi?Ontwikkeling&Veiligheid (Groningen)14(April1985):1116.SeealsoRapid DeploymentForceUnderCENTCOM,MilitaryArmoftheU.S.ForeignandEconomicPolicy,NewPerspectives (Helsinki)2(1985):10. 321 AmericasSecretSoldiers:TheBuildupofU.S.SpecialOperationsForces,DefenseMonitor 14/2(1985):115. 322 WilliamStivers, AmericasConfrontationwithRevolutionaryChangeintheMiddleEast (NewYork:St. MartinsPress,1986),2831.SeealsoOgunOgunbadejo,DiegoGarciaandAfricasSecurity,TWQ4(Jan. 1982):104105orK.S.Jawatkar, DiegoGarciainInternationalDiplomacy(NewDelhi:Sangam,1983),30ff.and 269302. 323 SeethecampaignliteratureoftheAustralianfederalsenator,JoVallentine,pioneeroftheNuclearDisarmament Party,forexample:PeterD.Jones,WorkingforJo,TheFriend (6March1987):29192andAustraliasNuclear Connection:Facilities,Bases,NuclearDisarmamentPartyMapofAustralia,n.d.,n.p.NorthWestCape,Our NuclearConnection,Pamphlet,n.d.,n.p.andPineGap`JointDefenceSpaceResearchFacility,Pamphlet,n.d., n.p.AustralianbanksalsolaunderedproSomozaarmsanddrugmoney.Seealsochapters6and7. 324 RoyHofheinz,Jr.,andKentE.Calder, TheEastAsiaEdge (NewYork:Basic,1982),15863.SeealsoDavidH. Albert,TheTextandSubtextsoftheIranianRevolution, TelltheAmericanPeople,PerspectivesontheIranian Revolution(Philadelphia:MovementforaNewSociety,1980),26.

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325 Project, acapabilitysoonaugmentedbymissilescapableofreachingmuchof Europe,Africa, 326 andAsia. ButIsraelspotentialforinterventionremainedstrongerinSouthernAfricaandthe 327 MiddleEast, withDiegoGarciabeingactiveinSoutheastAsianaffairsaswell.

Thenextchapter,chapterfour,willintroducePartTwoonmethodology.Inthechapters ahead,discussionwillexplorethemethodsandoutcomesofconflictresolution intendedto addresssuchproblemsasgeopoliticalsecurity,animposedcanal,andecologicallysustainable developmentinrelationtoCostaRicasproblemsofinternationaldebtandtheinternational

328 armsfordrugtrade. Employingdifferinglevelsofviolenceandnonviolence,thesemethods

andoutcomesflowfromthethreemajorapproachestoconflictresolutionjustreviewed.

325 BenjaminBeitHallahmi,

TheIsraeliConnection,WhoArmsIsraelandWhy (NewYork:Pantheon,1987),126 33.SeealsoSeymourM.Hersh,TheAngletonStory,NYTMagazine,25June1978,15,63,69,and73. 326 In1987,NouhadMahmoud(U.N.LebaneseRepresentative)denouncedwhatheclaimedwere600Israeli900 milerangeICBMsseeIran,Lebanon,Oman,Afghanistan,CostaRica,andSomaliaPresentViewstoConference onDisarmamentand DevelopmentQuestions, UNPressRelease (DC/DEV/17,1Sept.1987),2. 327 ComparewiththeongoingIsraeliattacksinIraq,Egypt,Lebanon,Syria,andTunisiaorseeSouthAfricaHurls IsraeliTechnologyAgainstAngola,MayBuildLaviAircraft, IsraeliForeignAffairs[IFA]13(Dec.1987):1. 328 Forfurtheranalysisofthemirrorimagesraisedbycontendingsidesinconflict,includingtheuseoffear,terror, fanaticism,selfrighteousness,namecalling,ongoingdialogue,andthetruthineachsideoftheconflictseeMike Yarrow,QuakerExperiencesinInternationalConciliation (NewHavenandLondon:YaleUniversityPress,1978), 96103.Pleaseconsulttheselectbibliographyformoreonthethreeoutlooks.

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PartII Method Chapter4

DisarmamentandDevelopment Thischapter,openingPartTwoonthemethodsusedinconflictresolution,introduces bothCostaRicanandinternationalattemptstoresolveconflict(asrepresentedbytheUnited Nations).Aswillbeshown,CostaRicahasattemptedtousetheruleofinternationallawasits primarytoolinresolvingconflict.Tothedegreethatinternationallawhastriedtoabolishall war,CostaRicahasattemptedtosolveitsproblemswithoutrecoursetomilitarypower.For example,ratherthanenlargingitsmilitiaintoapermanentmilitaryforce(ashasbeencommon throughoutthenationstatesystem),whenitmobilizedinthe1850sandthe1940stomeet outsidethreats,CostaRicainsteaddisbandeditsmilitaryforcesbackintoitslocalmilitias
329 followinginternationallawliterally,ratherthanrhetorically.

InCostaRica,asanationstate,however,unarmedorarmedapproachestoconflict resolutionmayevolvetowardcombinationsofpeace,security,anddevelopment,orwar, insecurity,andunderdevelopment.Sincetheinternationallyacceptedcriteriaforevaluatingthe practiceofconflictresolution,aspreviouslynoted,stemfromthetriangulardebateoftheUnited NationsGeneralAssemblyondisarmament,development,andsecurity,thischapterwillbe

330 couchedinthetermsofthatdebate. Thethreesidesofthistriangulardebatecanbeseeninthe

affinityoftheworldorderapproachformethodsthatproducesecurity,oftheantidependency approachformethodsthatproducedevelopment,andofthenonviolentapproachformethods thatproducedisarmament.Afittingsymbolofthehypothesiscentraltothisdissertation,this triangulardebatealsobringstogetherthethreetheoreticalapproachesusedasoptionstoproduce

331 domesticandinternationalconflictresolution.

329 Internationallawssincethe1940swars,includingtheU.N.Charter,haveliterallydeclaredwarwrongorillegal

foruseinconflictresolution.However,thislegalrhetoricoutlawingwarhasnotbeenobservedliterallybymany states. 330 Thisdebatefocusedonthepropositionthatpeaceandsecuritydependonacombinationofdevelopmentand disarmament,aspreviouslyintroducedinChapter1. 331 Thequalitiesrelatingintranational(domestic)andinternationalconflictresolutioninthissametriangularcontext forresolvingproblemsare:(1)fairnessandparityindisarmament,(2)efficiencyandcosteffectivenessin

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332 Documentsfromthistriangulardebate, acceptedbynearglobalconsensusbyaplenary

voteoftheGeneralAssemblyintheUnitedNations,statethatpeaceandsecuritycomefromthe interplayofmutuallyinterdependentdisarmamentanddevelopment.Themainpropositionto resultfromthisdebatewasatriangularone,thatdisarmament,development,andpeaceor securitydependoneachother.

Thisdebatehasbeentroubledbycontendingdefinitionsofsecurity.Thesecontendingdefinitionsconcern thesecondaryhypothesisofthisdissertation thatwhentheattempttogainormaintainsecurityisskewedby militarization(violentconflictresolution),thenwar,insecurity,andunderdevelopmentdominateinternational relations.Bythesametoken,theantidependencypreferencefordevelopmentandthenonviolentpreferencefor disarmamentcanalsobedistortedintoshortsightedcharityorfoolishpassivity.Thetriangularpropositionfrom thisUnitedNationsdebatewillberefinedintermsofthetwohypothesesofthisdissertation,outlinedinthefirst threechapters,toexplainnumerousattemptstousetheruleoflawforresolvingconflictpeacefullyintheSanJuan Riverborderecosystem.

MethodologicalNonviolentCriteriaandTheirCharacteristics
Table1,followingbelow,willidentifythreecriteriaandcharacteristicsofnonviolentconflictprevention andresolution.TheexamplesinthetableallconcernCostaRica.Thesecriteriaandcharacteristicswillbeexplored throughouttheremainingtwopartsofthedissertationonmethodandoutcome.AsshowninTable1,thethree intentionalcriteriathatcharacterizesuchnonviolenceinclude,ontheonehand,(1)anonviolentapproachthat defendspeaceable,ecologicallysustainablevaluesandanonviolent(re)definitionofsecurity.Ontheotherhand, thesecriteriaalsoaffirmasocietythat(2)securesneeds,rights,andselfreliancedomestically,and(3)emphasizes theruleoflawandunarmed,nonalignedneutralitytoachieveitsinternationalobjectivesinsteadofwar, militarization,ormilitaryviolence.Suchcriteriatendtoproduceafireproofsociety,ratherthanasociety dependinguponfiretofightfireforitspreventionand resolutionofconflicts.

development,and(3)stabilityandcredibilityinsecurity.Theseinterrelationshipswerehighlightedinapanel chairedbyCarolynStephenson,includingHerbertKelman,LouisKreisberg,andBrianMandell,Mediationin InternationalConflicts(SponsoredbytheInternationalPeaceResearchAssociation),InternationalStudies Association,31stAnnualConvention,OmniShorehamHotel,Washington,D.C.(13April1990). 332 OnlytheRepublicof SouthAfricaandtheUnitedStatesvotedagainstthisconsensusintheAugustSeptember 1987U.N.ConferenceonDisarmamentandDevelopment,heldinNewYorkCity.SeeU.N.GeneralAssembly, InternationalConferenceontheRelationshipBetweenDisarmamentandDevelopment,NewYork,24Aug.11Sept. 1987,FinalDocument,E.87.IV.8,1987,112.

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Table1
ThreeNonviolentCriteriaandTheirCharacteristicsinInternationalConflictResolution

1 Anonviolent approach toapeaceable,unmilitarizedsociety,(perenniallyrethinkingnational security),envisionedtopreventorresolveconflictandtoinspirethevaluesofequitableprovision forneedsandrights anapproachcharacterizedbyconsensual,futureoriented,ecologically 333 sustainablecriteria,insteadofmilitarizationormilitaryinterventioncriteria suchas,for example:

A Creatingandencouragingpoliciesthatarticulatenonviolentorunarmedneutrality,basedupon 334 equitable,ecologicalneedsandrightsinterests(sincethestatebeganin1821) and

B BuildingthefirstThirdWorlduniversityforpeaceful,ecologicallysustainabledevelopment, andconflictpreventionorresolution theU.N.UniversityofPeaceorUPAZ(established1978 335 1982).

2 Anonviolent society tosecureinternalpublicsafetyandnecessities,(viaeconomicallyfireproof, civilianbasednationalsecurity) asocietycharacterizedbyactivetrendsandstrategiesthat 336 suchas,for emphasizeselfrelianceinlabor,skillstraining,andtechnologicalfeedback example:

A Targetingfundsonhealth,housing,employment,andeducationneedsandrights,pairedwith equitablegenderparityandlanddistributionstandards thusreducingmilitaryallocationsand expenditures(sincethe1880s),aswellascontrollingbanking,farmortradeunions,andindustrial 337 productionfacilities,while avoidinganarmsdependencyrelationship(19141984)

333 See,e.g.,AndreasMaislinger,ed.,

CostaRica,Politik,GesellschaftundKultureinesStaatesmitStandiger AktiverundUnbewaffneterNeutralitt(Innsbruck,Austria:UniversityofInnsbruck,1986)LauraBrooks,Latin AmericanFirst AGreenPartyPreparestoTryItsHandinCostaRica, PacificaNewsService (11Jan.1985),in DCF (1985):23CatherineCaufield, IntheRainforest (NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1985)andPaulHubers,A GlobalMethodologyofNonviolence,GandhiMarg (NewDelhi,India)97(April1987):1719. 334 See,e.g.,JosNstorMoureloAguilar,ed., MemoriadelPrimerCongresoMundialdeDerechosHumanos,Vol. 1,LaNeutralidadPerpetuadeCostaRica (SanJos:ImprentaNacional,1984)andCarlosJosGutirrez Gutirrez, NeutralidadyDemocraciaCombativa (Heredia:CentrodeEstudiosDemocrticosdeAmricaLatina, 1987). 335 See,e.g.,GovernmentofCostaRica,UniversityforPeace(SanJos:GovernmentofCostaRica,1980) UniversidadparalaPaz,InstalacindelConsejodelaUniversidadparalaPaz,DocumentosBasicos,Primera SesindeTrabajo,SanJos,58March1982(SanJos:NationalPress,1982)UniversityforPeace(SanJos: GovernmentofCostaRica,1980)and UniversityforPeace(Charter) (SanJos:GovernmentofCostaRica,1981). 336 See,e.g.,OscarAriasSnchez,NuevosRumbosParaElDesarrolloCostarricense(SanJos:EDUCA,1979) andMercedesLynndeUriarte,CostaRicans Wantthe ContrasOut:ALandTornApart, Nation,3November 1984,44445. 337 See,e.g.,LeonardoMata,InvestinginEducationandHealthversusMilitarism:TheCaseofCostaRica, IPPNW[InternationalPhysiciansforPreventionofNuclearWar,Boston]Report2(October1984):2235Andreas MaislingerandLeonardBird, CostaRica:EinLandOhneArmee (Vienna:SensenVerlag,1980)andLezakShallat, U.S.AidtoC.R. TheStoryBehindtheUproar,TTS,15July1988,4.

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B Encouragingprogressiveviews,asdemonstratedinnonviolentstrikes,opinionpolls,voter support,andstreetdemonstrations,evenifthestateisforcedtowardmilitarization thusdeterring outsideeconomicorpoliticalpressuretoremilitarize(since1821)andabolishingmilitarypowerand 338 conscriptionpolicies(inthe1850sandsince1948) and

C Votingconsistentlyforprofessionalssuchasdoctors,farmers,lawyers,orteachers,ratherthan pastmilitarygenerals,forthetopnationalleadershipposts(since1821) complementedbya voluntarymilitiainsteadofaprofessionalmilitary(sinceits1850sPyrrhicvictoryoverWilliam 339 WalkerandtheUnitedStates).

3 Anonviolentinternationaloutlooktopreventandresolveexternal,internationalconflict an outlookcharacterizedbyactive(formalandinformal)diplomaticeffortsthatemphasizetheruleof 340 lawandstatesupportfornationalandinternationalpeaceorantiwarmovements suchas,for example:

A Affirmingitsselfdeclared,internationallyrecognizedstatusof unarmedneutrality (in1822, 1848,1858,and1983) andsoprovidingitsterritoryanddiplomaticgoodofficesasabasisfor exemplarydiplomaticopenings:suchasfortheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion(from1945to 341 the1980s)andforCubaandtheUnitedStates(since1960)

B Foundingandhostingtheworldsfirstinternationalcourtinitscapitalcity,SanJos(1907 1916),andthensupportingworldrule oflawthroughtheWorldCourtintheHague(since1921) includingitsrecoursetotheinternationalruleoflawtoprotectgenericisthmianinterestscentered 342 onitsborderwithNicaragua(1916and1986) and

338 See,e.g.,AriasAcusaaAntisandinistasdeAbusardelDerechodeAsilo,LaNCN,29July86,A8Arias

InsistsonDemobilization,BlastsFMLN, TTS,21March1989,24MaraCora,CostaRicanWomenFight Poverty,WarBuildUp, ListenRealLoud,Fall1985,inDCF (1985),15EnCostaRicaDesmantelaronlaRed LogisticadeARDE, ElDaInternacional [MexicoCity],27April1984,15J.BryanHehir,TheAriasPlan, FramingOurChoices, Commonweal(25Sept87):522CeciliaMadrz,TriunfoenlaLuchaporVivienda, COPAN4(April1986):4345andRoyMay,LosPobresdelaTierra(SanJos:DepartamientoEcumnicode Investigacin,1986). 339 See,e.g.,LuisAlbertoMonge, LaNeutralidaddeCostaRica (SanJos:CostaRicanGovernment,1984)and RichardWalton,CostaRicaBackfromthe Brink, Nation,20December1986,698. 340 J.S.Fuerst,MoreThanaPeacemaker,ThePoliticalWritingsofOscarArias. Commonweal(4December 1987):701703KateDoyleandMarkStatman,SavvyAriasWalkedAFineLineDuringU.S.Trip, Guardian [Manchester],7October1987,inDCF (1987),35MarthaHoneyandTonyAvirgan,LeaningonArias, Nation, Sept.1987, DCF (1987),32andAnaSojo,LaRatioNacionaldeEsquipulasII,VistadesdeCostaRica, Polmica 5(MayAugust1988):37. 341 See,e.g.,MoureloAguilar,ed.,PrimerCongreso,Vol.1,NeutralidadPerpetua,116andGrinevichand Gvozdariov,WashingtonContra,12126and147153. 342 See,e.g.,CarlosJosGutirrezGutirrez,NeutralidadeIntervencin:DireccinyProblemasdelaPoltica InternacionalCostarricenseyProblemasdelaPolticaInternacionalCostarricenseDuranteelPrimeroQuartodel SigloXX, RevistadelaUniversidaddeCostaRica 14(Nov.1956):1239DanielOrtega,ConfiamosenlaPazy enOscarArias,SeminarioUniversidad(SanJos),22July1988,19andInternationalCourtofJustice,Military andParamilitaryActivitiesinandagainstNicaragua,(Nicaraguav.USA),JudgementoftheCourt, ICJPress Release 86(27June1986):320.

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C Guaranteeinginternationalsecuritythroughitsselfreliantneutralityandnonalignment standards bywayofsuchinternationalorganizationsastheUnitedNations,theSocialist International,theNonalignedMovement,andtheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(sincethe 343 1940s).

Note:Forsimilar interpersonal,notinternational,behavioralcriteria,seeGeneSharp, ThePoliticsof NonviolentAction,Part2, TheMethodsofNonviolentAction (Boston,MA:PorterSargent,1973),117 435.CostaRicansalsoshowlittleinterestinalternativemilitary serviceseeMichaelSherradenand CarmenMaraCastillo,CostaRica:NonMilitaryServiceinaNationWithNoArmy(4448),or MichaelSherraden,MargaretSherrardSherraden,andDonaldEberly,ComparingandUnderstanding NonMilitaryServiceinDifferentNations(16465),inDonaldEberlyandMichaelSherraden,eds., TheMoralEquivalentofWar?AStudyofNonMilitaryServiceinNineNations (NewYork: 344 GreenwoodPress,1990).TheauthorisgratefultoStevenArnoldforongoingfeedbackhere.

Toplacethesecriteriaandtheircharacteristicsinperspective,onemorebrieflookatthe SwissandAustrianviewsofallthreeofthesecriteriaabovemightbehelpful.Brieflystated,a SwissorAustrianpersonwouldquicklyremindanoutsiderthattheyobservearmedneutrality, notunarmedneutralityasclaimedbyCostaRica.But,aspartofacenturiesoldtradition providingneutralitytoresolveconflictbetweenstatesatwar,neutralstatescommonlydooffer discreetgoodofficesofficeswhichneutralizealessviolentstateasareconcilerforbelligerent states. SwissandAustriancitieshavetraditionallyofferedthemselvesasdiscreet,neutral,less violentmeetinggroundsforstatesandsuperpowersinconflict.Asaresultoftheinternational

343 See,e.g.,AryehNeier,HasAriasMadeaDifference?NewYorkReviewofBooks,17March1988,22Martha

HoneyandMichaelEmory,ThePatchworkofPeacework,SomeViewsWithouttheWhiteHouse,LosAngeles Times,24January1985,6PlaidoyerPourUnAccordC.E.E.AmriqueCentral,LeFigaro,11June1980,3and ElizabethPond,Europe:U.S.InterventioninCentralAmericaWouldHarmNATO, ChristianScienceMonitor,2 April1985,19. 344 SeealsoIrenePickau,ed., AnEvaluationofDevelopmentServicesandTheirCooperativeRelationships, 3Vols., (Washington,D.C.:KetteringFoundationandtheSocietyforInternationalDevelopment[plusU.S.AIDand ACTION/PeaceCorps,theWestGermanVolunteerService/MinistryofEconomicCooperation,andtheSwiss InternationalSecretariatforVolunteerService],1978) fora14nationstudy(alsoincludingCostaRica)of alternativelaborsystems.Forsustainable(healthy,efficient,biodegradable,culturallyconscious)productivityfrom carefulharvestinginsteadofminingorclearcuttingtechniques,seeRobertGoodland,EnvironmentalSustainability inEconomicDevelopment WithEmphasisonAmazonia,[WorldBankEnvironmentalProgram],inRobert Goodland,ed., RacetoSavetheTropics:EcologyandEconomicsforaSustainableFuture(Washington,D.C.: IslandPress,1990),17273or:HermanDaly,ed., Economics,Ecology,Ethics:EssaysTowardASteadyState Economy (SanFrancisco:W.H.Freeman,1980)IvanFrolov,GlobalProblemsandtheFutureofMankind (Moscow:Progress,1982)andtheBrundtlandReport,asdevolvedfromtheU.N.disarmamentanddevelopment debate,inOurCommonFuture (NewYork:OxfordUniversityPressandWorldCommissiononEnvironmentand Development,1987).Othersuchwriters:FritzhofCapra,SeymourMelman,JeremyRifkin,HazelHenderson,and RachikFaramajzian.

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trustplacedintheirgoodoffices,SwissandAustrianembassiesmay,inturn,host ambassadorsfromconflictivepariahstates(asinthecasesofChile,Israel,orSouthAfrica), overseeelections(asinNamibiaorNicaragua),andevenshepherdotherambassadorialinterest sections(asinHavanaorWashington,D.C.) aswellasconductingIraniandSoviet

345 diplomacyinsensitivestatessuchasEgypt,SouthAfrica,andsoforth. (CostaRica,of

course,mostdirectlyconcernsAmericaninterests.) TwoprimehistoricaleventsrelateconflictresolutioninCostaRicatointernational conflictresolution.ThesetwoeventstwocasesinwhichtheUnitedStatesfirmlyrejectedan internationalcourtduringthe20thcentury areinterestingasexamplesoftheuseof internationallawinsteadofwartoresolveconflictbystates.Thefirstevent,in1916,wasthe undercuttingbyWoodrowWilsonofwhatwasthentheworldsonlyinternationalcourt.The second,in19851986,wasRonaldReagans1985abandonmentofalaterworldcourt,to preemptthatcourtsdecisionin1986.BothoftheseeventsinvolvedtheSanJuanRiverand

346 issuesrelatedtoit.

Analysisoftheseevents,historicallyframedbyabackgroundofconflictresolution beginningin the1850s,willbekeyedtotheongoingCostaRicanstruggleforneutrality, complicatedbyaThirdWorldpushfornonalignment.Afterthe1940s,intenseviolencewould dominateconflictresolutionintheWesternCaribbean,andafterthe1960s,similarly intense levelsofviolencewouldresonateintheEasternMediterranean,SouthernAfrican,andSoutheast Asianzonesofglobalconflict. CostaRicaandItsPrimaryTool:TheRuleofLaw AlthoughCostaRicapreferrednonviolence,atleastbyhistoricalaccountsinisthmian literature,thereweretwomajortimeswhenCostaRicamobilizeditspoliceormilitiastodefend itselfbyarmedforcefromarmedintervention asbefittedaneutralstateunderinternational
345 SeeDanielFrei,

SwissForeignPolicy (Zrich:ProHelvetia,1983),13and2835orMarkoMilivojevicand PierreMaurer, SwissNeutralityandSecurity:ArmedForces,NationalDefense,andForeignPolicy (NewYork: Berg/St.MartinsPress,1990/91).TheauthorisalsogratefultoJeanJacquesdeDardel,theSwissEmbassy, Washington,D.C.,for12April1991correspondence,overtheSwissNationalTouristOffice,ASmallState SeekingaRoleinEurope,Switzerland 700YearsAfter, 12911991Schweiz,Suisse,Svizzera,Switzerland,July 1990[Mimeo]PressRelease,History/E3,pp.14andForeignPolicy/E10,12andtheAustrianEmbassy, Washington,D.C.,forApril1991correspondence,overthe AustrianForeignPolicyYearbook1989 (Vienna: FederalMinistryforForeignAffairs,1989),127. 346 TheauthorisgratefultoNoamChomskyfor19881990correspondence,especially23Dec.1988,overthislittle publicizedaspectofU.S.andinternationallaw.

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law.CostaRicaandtheUnitedStatesconfrontedeachotherforthefirsttimeonsuchafieldof battleinthe1850sRivasWalkerwar.This1850swarframedisthmianUnitedStatesconflict thatwouldendtheclaimsofSpain,England,andGermanyforgeopoliticalpowerinthe

347 isthmus. ThesewarsforgeopoliticalpowercontinuedtoinfluenceCostaRicasfuture,

whethertheycenteredoncommonlocalandglobalneedssuchasabordercanal,oronthe
348 specificpurposesoftheUnitedStatessuchasanoilpipelineinCostaRicanearNicaragua.

TheUnitedStatesUndercutsaWorldCourttoStopCostaRicanNonviolence Thetwoepiceventsininternationalconflictresolutionmentionedabovein1916and 1986concernariverchristenedElDesaguadero(or TheDrain)bytheSpanishconquistadors. TheriverwassoonrenamedafteravillagecalledSanJuandelNorte,locatedwheretheriver enterstheAtlanticOcean.Thisvillagefirstgainedimportanceastheportusedfortransshipping AmericanlootfromPeruovertheisthmustoSpain.WhenEnglishcolonialismreplacedSpanish colonialism,thevillagebecameaneutralMiskitianportbetweentheunconqueredinteriorofthe

349 isthmusandtheareasintheWesternCaribbeansubjugatedbyEngland. Englandusedthis

portasanisthmiangatewayforitsattemptstoconquertheinteriorbyviolence. Intheearly1800s,Englishattemptstocolonizetheisthmianinteriorwerechallengedby isthmianforcesmobilizedfromChinandegainwhatisnownorthernNicaragua. Characteristicallyforaneutralstatethatresistedbeingdrawnintoanysideofawar,CostaRica wasattackedfirstbyEngland,inunsuccessfulforaysfromtheAtlanticOcean,andthenbythe isthmianforcesresentfulofitsneutralitywhoinvadedfromthePacificOcean.Theisthmian forceswereledbyFranciscoMorazan,aHondurangeneralknownastheisthmianSimn BolvarwhofoughttofreetheregionfromtheEnglishbymilitaryviolence.In1844,England

347 D.ManuelMaradePeralta,

ElCanalInterocenicodeNicaraguayCostaRicaen1620yen1887 (Brussels, Belgium:ImprentadeAd.Mertens,1887),56.Thesetwoevents,inthe1850sandthe1940s,werenotedasthe timeswhenCostaRicadeterredoutsidepressureto remilitarize,eventhoughitdidmobilizeforceswhichwere quicklydemobilizedaftertheseevents seeTable1,2Babove. 348 ManuelArayaIncerainhisSanJos,LatinAmericanSocialScienceFaculty(FLACSO)office,interviewbythe author,30March1989.ApipelinewouldhaveprovidedtheU.S.withabackuptotheTransPanamaPipelineand alsoanexcuseforinvadingsouthwesternNicaraguafromCostaRicaoverallegedSandinistasabotage. 349 EdwinGngoraArroyo,BiografadelRoSanJuan (Alajuela,CostaRica:MuseoHistricoCulturalJuan Santamara,1983),911.

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throttledmilitaryresistanceintheisthmusbyblockadingSanJuandelNorte,despitethe interferenceofNapoleonBonaparte,whoalsowantedtobuildanisthmianbordercanal.Fora
350 decadeorso,theisthmushadtomeetEnglishtermsforworldtrade.

ButisthmianmilitaryresistancetoEnglishcolonialismregroupedalongtheSarapiqui RiverinnorthernCostaRica,whichconnectedSanJostotheSanJuanRiver,andaroundthe villageofRivasinsouthwesternNicaragua,nearBritoonthePacificcoast.Thisresistancewas temporarilyoverwhelmedinthe1850sbyaUnitedStatespiratearmyledbyWilliamWalker.A CostaRicancounterattack,ledbyJuanRafaelMora,decimatedWalkersarmy.Lastingabout twentyhours,thiscounterattackendingthebloodyRivasWalkerwarwasthelastsignificant foreignmilitaryventureinitiatedbyCostaRica.Italsomarkedthefirstofmanylowintensity

351 counterinsurgencywarsinitiatedbytheUnitedStatesintheisthmus.

WalkersbackersintheUnitedStateshadastheiraimtoexpandNewYorkCity transoceanictradewithCalifornia,bywayoftheisthmusandNewOrleans.Detouringaround theRockyMountains,thetriptoandfromCaliforniaaveragedtwoorthreeweeks,including severaldaysofportageacrosstheisthmus,evenfortheshorter,moredesirableroutealongthe

352 CostaRicanborderwithNicaragua. Toconsolidateitsrightstoisthmianpassageafterthe

RivasWalkerwar,theUnitedStateshadrestrictedEnglishclaimsintheisthmusbyan1850 (HenryL.)Bulwerand(JohnM.)ClaytonTreaty.This1850BulwerClaytonTreatyestablished
353 legalprecedentsfortheinteroceanicSuezCanalTreaty,tobesignedin1863. Then,from

1854to1856,UnitedStateswarshipstriedtoestablishcontrolovertheisthmusandtheborder

350 ClotildeMaraObregonQuesada,

CostaRica,RelacionesExterioresdeUnaRepblicaenFormacin,1847 1849(SanJos:EditorialCostaRica,1984),18,116120,123,and198. 351 EdwinArroyo,San Juan,1213. 352 RafaelObregonLoria, CostaRica,laGuerradel56(LaCampaadelTransito)18561857 (SanJos:Editorial CostaRica,1976),30,33,and37.ThisborderroutewasfasterthanandhalfthecostofaPanamaportage. 353 HughGordonMiller,The IsthmianHighway,AReviewoftheProblemsoftheCaribbean(NewYork:Macmillan Co.,1929),28993.

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routebyheavilyshellingtheFrench,English,German,andSardinian tradingvesselsand
354 businessesintheharborofSanJuandelNorte.

InthewakeoftheRivasWalkerwarandthecarnageinSanJuandelNorte,a CaasJerezTreatyin1858delineatedCostaRicanandNicaraguanborderrights,suspending borderdisputesbetweenthetwocountriesandturningGuanacasteintoaprovinceofnorthwest CostaRica.This1858treaty,mediatedbyElSalvador,alsoestablishednavigationrightsover theSanJuanRiverbetweenCostaRicaandNicaragua,fromthreemileswestofElCastillo

355 Viejo(TheOldCastle)easttothecoastoftheAtlanticOcean. However,sincesandbars

physicallyshiftedmuchoftheSanJuanRiversoutheastbythe1860saswell,CostaRicagained sovereigntyovertheflowoftheColorado,thedominantmouthoftheSanJuanRiverwhereit
356 flowsintotheAtlanticOceanfromCostaRica.

Afterthe1860s,anexCubanengineerintheUnitedStatesNavy,AnicetoMenocal, initiatedtwosurveysforatransoceanicbordercanal.Hispreliminarysurvey,finishedin 1886,

357 roughlyestimatedworkingcostsatbetween$48and$65million. Shortlyafterward,his

secondsurvey,foranofficialUnitedStatescanalcommission stronglysupportedby,for
358 example,menofwealthsuchasthefatherofFranklinDelanoRoosevelt, assessedthetotal

constructioncostforabordercanalat$120million.Thisproposedbordercanalwouldstretch betweenthevillagesofSanJuandelNorteandBritoinsouthernNicaragua,touchingonCosta RicantributariesintotheSanJuanRiverforaboutathirdofthewayinlandalongtheborderwith

354 PhilippeAugustedeBarruelBeavert,

BombardementetEntireDestructiondeGreytown(Paris:Deleguedela PopulationFranaise,20September1856),3839.EnglandcalledSanJuandelNorteGreytown. 355 EdwinArroyo,SanJuan,2021. 356 FelipeRodrguezSerrano,LosDerechosdeCostaRicayNicaraguaenelRoSanJuan (SanJos:Lehmann, 1983),1112and51. 357 AnicetoG.Menocal, ReportoftheUnitedStatesNicaraguaSurveyingParty,1885 (Washington,D.C.:GPO, 1886),48. 358 GeoffreyWard, BeforetheTrumpetYoungFranklinRoosevelt,18821905 (NewYork:Harper&Row,1985), 166and210.

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359 Nicaragua. Fromanengineeringviewpoint,Menocalssurveysrecommendedabordercanal 360 asbetter,cheaper,andfasterthanacanaloverPanama.

AUnitedStatescompanythenbegantodigabordercanal,excavating17feetdeepand 230feetwideinthefirstof170projectedmiles.Excavatingthefirstmilealsoincluded logisticalmatterssuchaspreparingshipdocks,warehouses,machineshops,militarybarracks, andathousandfootcementbreakwater.Inaddition,engineersstrungsixtymilesoftelegraph line,coveringhalftheneededdistance,asloggerscutdownthreefourthsofthetreesscheduled

361 tobeeliminatedforthewholeproject. However,eventsprecipitatedbyunarmedCostaRican

diplomacywithEngland,combinedwithaneconomicrecessionintheUnitedStates,stoppedthe work. DiplomatsfromEnglandandCostaRicafoughtthisbordercanalprojecttoastandstillby helpingtonegotiatetheHayPauncefoteandBunauVarillaTreaties. Thesediplomatsnegotiated thetwotreatiesinsuchawayastoincludefourinternationalneutralityrights,basedonthelegal precedentofan1888Constantinople(Straits)AgreementforbuildingtheSuezCanal.The1888 agreement,inturn,hadbeensynthesizedfromthe1863Suezand1850BulwerClaytonTreaties. Therightsguaranteedtoanystatehostinganinteroceaniccanalzonebythe1888agreement werenavigation,maintenance,sovereignty,andarbitration.IncludedintheHayPauncefoteand BunauVarillaTreaties,thesefourrightsdefinedthestructureforthePanamaUnitedStates
362 canaltreatiesandanyotherpotentialbordercanaltreaty.

Ineffect,insteadofabordercanal,the1903BunauVarillaTreatyauthorizedUnited StatesclaimsforaPanamacanal,conceivedbyAlfredThayerMahanandfinancedbyJohn PierpontMorgan.CoststotheUnitedStatesforthePanamaCanalroseto$387million over

359 RicardoJinesta,

ConfirmacindelosDerechosdeCostaRicaenelCanaldeNicaragua (SanJos:Falco Brothers,1937),72. 360 VicenteSanz, ElCanaldeNicaragua,ConferenciasyDiscusionesdeMesaRedonda,Paraninfodela UniversidadNacionaldeMxico,24Juliode1929 (MexicoCity:Michoacan,1929),89. 361 ArchibaldRossColoquhoun, TheKeyofthePacific,TheNicaraguaCanal (London:ArchiboldConstable&Co., 1895),2122and4043.Itwasanother20milesacrossLakeNicaragua.TheCanalwastohave6locks. 362 VicenteSanz,LosCanalesInternacionales,CuadernosAmricanos[CAS]16/3(MayJune,1957):1113,15, and17.Sincethesewerefourneutralrights,theuseofthePanamaCanalZoneforwarbecametechnicallyillegal aswell,despiteU.S.practicetothecontrary.Seealso,e.g.,Table1,3Aabove.

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threetimestheofficiallyassessedcostforabordercanal afiguremuchclosertowhatCosta
363 Ricawouldhaveconsideredfairpaymentfortherightstoabordercanal. Theseconflictsover

controloftheisthmus,whichpeakedinthe1850s,formedthebackgroundforthefirstofthetwo crucialeventsinvolvingtheUnitedStatesandCostaRicainaninternationalcourtinthe1900s. ThefirsteventwasajudgementagainsttheUnitedStatesintheworldsfirstinternational court.ThisInterAmericanCourt,fundedinCostaRicabya$100,000AndrewCarnegiegrant, beganwithgreatpromiseasitsfivejudgesassumedfiveyeartermsin1907.Forcedfrom

364 CartagotoSanJosaftera1910earthquake, thecourtfalteredtwoyearslaterwhennearly

3,000UnitedStatesMarinesstormedNicaraguainordertocancelabordercanalproposalfrom
365 Japan. In1914,underWoodrowWilson,theUnitedStatesdesignedtheBryanChamorro

Treatytodeteranyfurthercompetitionoversuchacanal.Soonafter,$3million,allegedlypaid toamortizeNicaraguandebtaccordingtothetermsoftheByranChamorroTreaty,returnedto
366 UnitedStatesbanks. ButCostaRicachallengedthelegalityofthetreaty,andwoulddefeatthe

UnitedStatesinthispioneerinternationalcourt. CostaRicachallengedthesalebyNicaraguatotheUnitedStatesofCostaRicasrightof sovereigntyintheSanJuanRiver.ThischallengeunderminedUnitedStateshegemonyinthe isthmus.Recallingjuridicalprecedentslikethe1858CaasJerezTreatyovertheSarapiquiand SanCarlostributariesoftheSanJuanRiver,andthefourneutrality rights,CostaRica invalidatedtheBryanChamorroTreatyin1916intheinternationalcourt.Inreactiontothe

363 GregorioSelser,

Panam,EraseUnPaisAUnCanalPegado(MexicoCity:UniversidadObreradeMxico, 1989),3538.ThiscostincludedpaymentstotheFrenchwhostartedconstruction.ThePanamanianswhofought forindependenceagainstColombiareceived$67millioninpaymentoverthenextthreequartersofacentury,upto thetimeofthe1977CarterTorrijosaccord,whiletheU.S.netted$32billioninprofit,accordingtoU.N.data quotedbySelser.TheCostaRicandecisionforlessviolentconflictresolutionthanthatchosenbyPanamakept CostaRicafrombeingoverrunbyaforeignownedandmanagedcanal. 364 ThomasL.Karnes,TheFailureofUnion,CentralAmerica,18241960 (ChapelHill,NC:UniversityofNorth CarolinaPress,1961),19196.TheinternationalcourtinCostaRicawascalledtheInterAmericanCourtofJustice. TheHagueworldcourtintheNetherlandswouldbecalledtheInternationalCourtofJustice.AndrewCarnegie initiallyfundedbothcourts. 365 RalSohr, Centroamrica,13132. 366 CanalConvention Nicaragua,August5,1914,inStatutesatLargeoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,from December1915toMarch1917,ConcurrentResolutionsoftheTwoHousesofCongressandRecentTreaties, Conventions,andExecutiveProclamations,Vol.39(2)(Washington,D.C.:GPO,1917),166164.William JenningsBryanandEmilianoChamorrosignedthetreaty,validfor99years.

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courtsjudgement,theUnitedStatesquitthecourt,anactionwhichundercutandquicklykilled thecourt.InrefusingtorecognizetherightofCostaRicansovereignty,theUnitedStatesalso
367 encouragedproxyinvasionsbyNicaraguaagainstCostaRicain1919.

Twoyearslater,amoredurableinternationalcourtbeganintheHague,theNetherlands, basedupontheCostaRicanexperienceandguidedbytheLeagueofNations.Tostabilizethis internationalcourtasmuchaspossible,theHagueCourttripleditsnumberofjudgestofifteen

368 andalmostdoubledtheirbenchtimebetweenelectionstonineyears. Towardtheendof1921,

flaggingattemptstorebuildtheisthmianinternationalcourtdisintegratedunderUnitedStates
369 claimsofitsrighttointervenemilitarilyinCuba. Nevertheless,over120international

treaties,protocols,andconventionswerefiledintheHaguecourtbyCostaRicabetween1921 and1985,allattemptstoreassertisthmianrights(especiallyonecologicalsovereignty)through
370 theinternationalruleoflaw.

Inthe1930s,AugustoCsarSandinoinNicaragualedisthmianconflictresolution attemptsunderanantidependencyapproach.Sandinosprimaryinternationaldemandswere isthmiansovereigntyovertheSanJuanRiversystemandcessationofinternalcounterinsurgency

371 warsovertheownershipofland. HejoinedforceswiththeInternationalWorkersofthe

World(Wobblies),exiledforopposingUnitedStatesconscriptionandmilitarization.His

367 Congress,Senate,MessagefromthePresidentoftheUnitedStates,

TransmittingaReportoftheSecretaryof StateinResponseto InquiriesContainedinaResolutionoftheSenate,August2,1919,inRegardtotheInvasionof CostaRicabyNicaraguanArmedForcesandtheReasonwhyCostaRicawasnotPermittedtoSignthePeace TreatyatVersailles,66thCongress,1stsess.,Doc.No.77(21August1919),35passim.SeealsoMaryStewart, TheRecognitionPolicyoftheUnitedStatesinCentralAmericasince1907(Ph.D.diss.,ClarkUniversity,1931 [?]),8990. 368 ArthurNussbaum, AConciseHistoryoftheLawofNations (NewYork:MacmillanCo.,1947),26667. 369 CarlosJosGutirrezGutirrez,NeutralidadeIntervencin:DireccinyProblemasdelaPolticaInternacional CostarricenseyProblemasdelaPolticaInternacionalCostarricenseDuranteelPrimeroQuartodelSigloXX, RevistadelaUniversidaddeCostaRica 14(Nov.1956):1213and2739. 370 AlexanderBonilla,TratadosyOtrosAcuerdosInternacionalesRelacionadosconelMedioAmbienteque DeberanSuscribirLosPasesCentroamricanos,No.1,Mimeo,(June1986) CSUCA,financedbythe Netherlandsgovernmentina19851986AgroChemicalsandEcologystudy. 371 JamesDunkerley,CentralAmerica,71and81n44.

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methodsofstruggleforindependencewereavariedassortmentincludingyoga,anarchism,
372 theosophy,freemasonry,AmericanIndiansocialism,andSeventhDayAdventistideas.

InthefaceofCostaRicasruleoflawandSandinosguerrillas,theUnitedStatesbuilt aboutthirtymajormilitarybasesinPanamaandNicaragua.Thesebasessponsoredresearch, training,anddeploymentforwarfarethroughoutLatinAmerica,andelsewhere,despitethefour

373 previouslymentionedneutralityrightsforanyinternationalcanalzone. Inresponsetothis

militarizationandintensewarfaretoitsnorthandsouth,CostaRicatriedtodeterfurtherviolent conflictin1948byabolishingitsownmilitaryandexecutivewarmakingpowers.Thisabolition
374 ofitswarpowerswasintegratedintotheCostaRicanConstitution,articles12and121. Then

CostaRicarenovateditsPentagonintoanationalmuseum,withexhibitsrangingfrom
375 archeological artifactstomemorialsofpeaceparades.

Nevertheless,UnitedStatessenatorsrepresentinganautarchicworldorderview,suchas JohnTowerandStromThurmond,stilllobbiedhardtounderminethesovereigntyofthe
376 isthmiannationsbytryingtorevivetheBryanChamorroTreaty. Thereafter,bythe1960s,

accordingtotheStockholmInternationalPeaceResearchInstitute,undersuchautarchic,outside

372 JayMoore,TheTrueStoryofSandino,

KickItOver (Toronto),Winter19851986,1517andalsoJayMoore, TheTrueStoryofSandino,Part2, KickItOver,Summer1986,1517.Foranonviolentapproach,seeRobert CubaJones,TheFORAFSCJointPeaceMissiontoNicaragua,19271928,Mimeo,n.d.,SwarthmorePeace Collection.TheauthorisgratefultoRonPagnuccoforthisarticle.ThismissioncontainedSamuelInman,Paul Douglas,JohnSayre,CarolenaWoods,andElbertRussell.ThetripontheeveoftheGreatDepressioncostthe groupstranslator,RobertCubaJones,hisPh.D.candidacystatusattheUniversityofChicago.Thegroup interviewedAnatasioSomozaGarcaandthewifeofSandino,amongothers,beforearrangingforthethreeyear presenceofawifeandhusbandteaminCostaRicatopromoteisthmianconflictresolution. 373 GregorioSelser, CanalPegado,5859,6364,136,146,and17375. 374 UrgenteCombatiralaOPENparaDefenderConquistasDemocrticas,Libertad,26Nov.2Dec.1982,3in CSPPCR,92. 375 TheNationalMuseumofCostaRica,formerlyitsPentagon,wouldlaterholdOscarAriasSnchezNobel PeacePrizeaswell.Seealso,e.g.,Table1,1above. 376 IrisMaraNavarreteMurillo,ElTratadoBryanChamorro(LL.D.diss.,UniversityofCostaRica,1971), 14248.SeealsoSecretaraPermanentedelTratadoGeneraldeIntegracinEconmicaCentroamricana(SIECA) andtheInterAmericanDevelopmentBank,ProyectodeNavegacineHidroelectridadenRoSanJuan (Guatemala City:EstudiodeCuencasMultinacionalesenCentroamricana,5Dec.1973,SIECA/73/INFPC/49 GUATEMALA),85.ForsimilarwatersovereigntyproblemsinIsraelandLebanon,seeJohnCooley,TheWar OverWater,FPY54(Spring1984):8andBennyMorris,TheBirthofthePalestinianRefugeeProblem,1947 1949(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1987),7073,19091,and286.

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militarypressure,onlyMexicoandCostaRicacouldclaimtobeciviliandemocraciesinthe
377 CaribbeanandinLatinAmerica.

TheUnitedStatesAbandonsaWorldCourttoDeterCostaRicaNonviolence ThesecondUnitedStatesrejectionofaninternationalcourtaccompanieditsrejectionof the1979NicaraguanRevolution.Atfirst,theUnitedStatesreacted tothisrevolutionbytrying topersuadetheOrganizationofAmericanStatestosponsoraninvasionofNicaragua.But,as notedalready,thisreactionwasfoiledbyJosFigueresandVictorRalHayadelaTorrefrom

378 CostaRica,amongothers,duringatensemeetingoftheOrganizationofAmericanStates. At

thesametime,whiletheOrganizationofAmericanStatesandtheUnitedStatesCongresswere workingtowardaconsensusnottoattackNicaragua,theexecutivebranchoftheUnitedStates governmentbeganaseriesofcovertattacksonNicaraguanterritory. TheCentralIntelligenceAgencycoordinatedthesecovertContraattacksonNicaragua fromFlorida,Honduras,andCostaRica.ItsattacksfromCostaRicawereclusteredaroundthe SanJuanRiverbetweenLakeNicaraguaandtheAtlanticOcean.AlfonsoCarro,Enrique Chacn,andBenjaminPizaaidedinsupervisingtheseattacksfromtheiradministrativeposts

379 insideCostaRicasfederalruralguardandministryofsecurity. Oneofthemostintense

militarybattlesrazedthevillageofSanJuandelNorteduring1317April1984.Shellingfrom theAtlanticOceanbythebattleshipU.S.S.McKinleybeganthisbattletobreachaContra beachheadinsideNicaragua.ButtheContraswerebackinCostaRicainlessthan72hours,

380 belyingtheirclaimtohavegainedNicaraguanlandbyviolentstruggle.

Meanwhile,since1980,JapanhadbeeninsistingmoreloudlythaneverthatthePanama Canals50,000metrictonlimitwasobsolete.Asproof,Japanpointedtoafiftypercentdropin theCanalsabilitytoaccommodateworldclass,oceangoingshipsbetween1970and1978. JapanarguedthattheCanalslimitationswereplacingneedlessrestrictionsonitsownglobal economicpotentialandthatoftheUnitedStates. But,despitethesupportofotherstates,suchas

377 SIPRI,ArmsTrade,261.SIPRIalsomadethisclaimforCuba. 378 FigueresPidia[la]OEA[inEnglish:OAS]EvitarIntervencinNorteamricanaenelConflictoNicaragense,

NCN,16June1979,A21. 379 GregorioSelser,NuevasViolacionesdelaCIAala NeutralidaddeCostaRica, ElDa,19April1984,12. 380 WilliamI.RobinsonandKentNorsworthy,DavidandGoliath,WashingtonsWarAgainstNicaragua (London: ZedBooks,1987),9899.

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Brazil,Japans$8.3billiontenyearcanalprojectproposalforPanamawasburiedafterafew
381 monthsbyaquicklyconvened,jointJapanUnitedStatesstudycommission.

ThiscompetitionoveranalternativetothePanamaCanalsmolderedbeneaththeContra warandignitedtheentireisthmus.Awareoftheneedforabettercanaltoaccommodate supertankersandaircraftcarriers,aswellasJapanesetrade,WilliamCaseyandJohnSinglaub calledrepeatedWhiteHousemeetings.Thesemeetingswereheldtostageavictoryin NicaraguaandtocoordinatetheJapaneseproposaloverconstructionofanothercanal,managed bytheUnitedStates,beforetheCarterTorrijosAccordcouldtakeeffectin1999.Otherwise,

382 newarrangementswouldhavetobemadeinPanama. Canalconstructionplansforthose 383 meetingswereforwardedfromtheBechtelCorporation,representedbyGeorgeSchultz and 384 RobertAnderson(the1980Panamacanalstudycommissionchair). Butinspiteof Soviet,

Japanese,andBrazilianpressuretowidenthecanalorconstructanotherone,theWhiteHouse
385 advancedshortterm,covertmilitarizationintheisthmusfavoringBechtelsplansinstead, a

coursesoonrepudiatedbyalmostglobalconsensus. From10May1984to27June1986,theHagueWorldCourthammeredoutthisnear globalconsensus,condemningtheUnitedStateswarandblockadeintheisthmus,whetheralong theAtlanticCoastfromtheCocoRiverinHondurastoPuertoLimninCostaRica,oralongthe

381 TheSecondPanamaCanalProject,

JapanQuarterly[JPQ]27(JulySept.1980):303307.SeealsoArmando Mayorga,GobiernoCanetolsoenRespaldoaCanalNicaragua, NCN,16March1989,A4. 382 DonDevereux,NicaraguaCanalPlanClaimed, Scottsdale(AZ)Progress,24Nov.1987,12.Theauthoris gratefultotheChristicInstituteforaccesstotheDevereuxarticles.NodoubtCaseyandSinglaubwereawarethat thePanamaCanalhadbasedaircraftcarriersfortheU.S.IndoChinaWarandtransported70%ofallthecargosent toIndoChinaforfightingthatwarseeUnitedStates:BigBusinessvs.the`BigStick, NACLA 13(Sept.1979):4 and10. 383 DonDevereux,U.S.ConsidersNicaraguanCanal,Scottsdale(AZ)Progress,29Feb.1988,12.ForBechtels roleintheCIA,madepossiblebyJohnAlexMcCone,seeGregorioSelser, DeDullesaReborn,LaC.I.A.,Mtodos, LogrosyPifiasdelEspionaje (BuenosAires:Ed.dePolticasAmricanas,1967),16465. 384 DonDevereux,SinglaubSaysShultzHasConflict, Scottsdale(AZ)Progress,9March1988,6.ForRobert Anderson,see Moodys Manual (NewYork:MoodysInvestorsService,1982),466.ForBechtel,seeStephen DavisonBechtel,Sr.(1900xx), Fortune,Jan.1976,124.ForJ.P.Morgan&Co.andSecuritiesPacificCorp. rolesinPentagoncontractorbankinterlockingdirectoratesconcerningGeorgeShultzandBechtel,seeCongress, Senate,SubcommitteeonReports,Accounting,andManagement,CommitteeOfGovernmentalAffairs, InterlockingDirectoratesAmongtheMajorUnitedStatesCorporations,95thCongress,2dsess.,(1978),677ff.and 783ff.plusthe AnnualReportoftheSecurityPacificCorporation,1981 (LosAngeles,CA:SecurityPacific Corporation,1983),andthe AnnualReportofJ.P.Morgan&Co.,1981 (NewYork:J.P.Morgan,1982) plus FileNo.BH2NY(31Dec.1981)attheFederalReserveBoard,FreedomofInformationActionOffice,viewedby theauthor(RoomB1122),Washington,D.C.,13May1983. 385 AllanDoddsFrank,EveryoneWantsUs, Forbes,23Feb.1987,37.ForBechtelsparallelbrainstorming optiontofree WilliamBuckleyandtofundtheContrasthroughIraq,bycovertlyrunningapipelinefromMosuland KirkukinnorthwesternIraqtoAqabainsouthernIsrael,seealsoStephenEngelberg,TheIranPanelNever ReceivedPipelineMemo, NYT,24Feb.1988,A1213.

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PacificCoastfromPuertoCorintoinNicaraguadowntoMurcilago,CostaRica.In recommendingthattheUnitedStatesstopitscovertattacksconcentratedonNicaragua,the WorldCourtalsoadvisedaninterimpaymenttoNicaraguaandnegotiationsforwardamagesto bepaidtotheotherstatesdamagedbythewar.Inresponse,duringthisconsensusprocess,the UnitedStatesrejectedtheWorldCourton7October1985,toavoidrespondingtothecourt

386 judgementexpectedin1986. InabandoningtheWorldCourtasacurrentheadofstate,

RonaldReaganputhimselfinthecompanyofIransKhomeini,whoalsorejectedthecourts
387 consensusduringthehostagecrisisintheUnitedStatesEmbassyinTeheran. Bysupporting

anantidependencyapproachtoward regionalpeaceanddevelopment,theWorldCourtsJune 1986judgementrejectedtheinterventionistUnitedStatesviewofworldorder. ThenextitemonCostaRicasdiplomaticagendawastogainworldrecognitionofthe SanJuanRiversystemasaninternationalriver,astatushistoricallyrecognizedbythe1815 TreatyofVienna.Internationallegalprecedentsforthisrecognitionwould,ofcourse,include relatedEuropeanriverbordertreatiesdealingwiththeDanubeandtheRhineRiver. Internationaldiplomacypatterneduponthe1815TreatyofViennathusbackedtheunarmed diplomacyagendaofCostaRica,asdidtheinternationalcourtjudgementsof1916and1986. YetnoprecedentexistedintheAmericasforexercisingsuchdiplomacyoveraborder canal.Afterall,theSt.LawrenceSeawayagreementsaffectedonlyaboutathirdofthe CanadianUnitedStatesborder.TherewerenocooperativebordertreatiesgoverningtheCoco River(HondurasNicaragua),theRoGrandeRiver(MexicoUnitedStates),orthe
388 PlateUruguayRiver(BrazilUruguayArgentina).

386 JosefGoldblattandVictorMilln,TheCentralAmericanCrisisandtheContadoraSearchforRegional

Security,inSIPRI1986,523.SeealsotheInternationalCourtofJustice,MilitaryandParamilitaryActivitiesin andagainstNicaragua,(Nicaraguav.theUnitedStatesofAmerica),JudgementoftheCourt, ICJRelease 86/8(27 June1986):35,9,and20.TheICJcriticizedtheU.S.tradeembargoonNicaragua,theminesnearElBluff,Puerto Corinto,andPuertoSandino,andthemilitaryattacksonPuertoSandino(Sept.1983March1984),PuertoCorinto (October1983),SanJuandelSur(March1984),andSanJuandelNorte(April1984).TheICJalsoadvisedan initial$370.2millionwardamagepayment,asaninterimawardtoNicaragua,tobelater negotiatedasafixedsum agreeabletoallparties. 387 JohnGerassi,Nicaragua,Shmate13(Fall1985):21and23. 388 ManuelFreerJimnezinhisSanJoshome,interviewbytheauthor,29March1989.FreerJimnezwasoneof theoriginalarchitectsofofficialCostaRicanneutralityin1983(seechapterone).TheRhineRiverflowsalongand throughtheNetherlands,WestGermany,France,andSwitzerland.TheDanubeflowsalongandthroughRomania, theSovietUnion,Bulgaria,Yugoslavia,Hungary,Czechoslovakia,Austria,andWestGermany.Therelevant treatiesalsoproceededfromtheabovementionedfourinternationalneutralityrightsfromthe1850,1858,1888,and 1903treaties.TheauthorisgratefultoAdolfJonker,aretiredDutchdiplomat,forinsightintotheseexamples.See also,e.g.,Table1,1A,3A,3B,and3Cabove.

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Inthehopeofadvancingisthmianpeace,CostaRicatriedtointerprettheHaguedecision asbothabridgetosupportNicaraguaandalevertoexpelContraarmsanddrugsfromCosta
389 Ricanterritory. CostaRicaalsousedtheHaguedecisionasabasisforitsattemptstoattract

thepeacekeepingforcesoftheUnitedNations.Atthesametime,furtherbargainingbetween JapanandNicaraguaforabordercanalearlyinthetwentyfirstcenturycomplicatedtheclaims
390 ofCostaRicatotheSanJuanRiver. Asadoortotheoutsideworld,theSanJuanRiver

systemwasstartingtoattractvibrantforeigninvestment,industry,andtrade,thusinvigorating theleastpopulatedelectoralzonesofNicaraguaandCostaRica,andcreatingthepotentialfor
391 rapideconomicgrowth.

CostaRicanEcologyinPracticeExpandingLegalMeans

CostaRicaappliedecologicallysensitiveconflictresolutiontoconflictsovertheSan JuanRiversystem.Itseffortsheightenedinternationalawarenessoftheneedforlegal conventionsonpollutioncontrolandresourcereplenishment.Ecologicalsensitivityonthelevel neededbyCostaRica,itmightbeadded,wasinitiallymanifestedbytheUnitedNationsduringa previouswarwithecocidaldimensions.Thatwar,inLaosandVietnam,mayhavepermanently damagedsoil,water,andbioticelementsoftheIndoChinaenvironment.CostaRicafeareda similarfate. However,inourinterdependentworldwhereunderthreepercentofavailablewaterisfit

392 forconsumption, CostaRicachosetoexploititsfreshwatersurplusforprofit,concentrating

389 AnaSojo,LaRatioNacionaldeEsquipulasII,VistadesdeCostaRica,

Polmica(SanJos)5(MayAugust 1988):37. 390 CanaldeNicaragua, NCN,19Feb.1989,C2.Referalso toNewsfromNicaraguaThisWeek,WPFW, Washington,D.C.,AudioEvidence(newsprogram),18Feb.1989,onanInteroceanic(Japanese)Canal FeasibilityStudyprojectedfor$15billionover20years. 391 ComandanteCarlos...TheRevolutionAdvances, AgendaInternational (FrenteSandinistadeLiberacin NacionalorFSLN),Mimeo,Nov.1986,10.Forinformationonthe8,000peasantsregionallydisplacedbythe 19781979war(leavingonly250peoplenearSanJuandelNortein1979),andaboutthezoneitself,withthe highestproFSLNvoterpercentageofanyNicaraguanfederalelectoralzone,seealsoRoSanJuan:`TerritoryFree ofLandlessPeasants, Envo(5Oct.1986):3036. 392 MerviGustafsson,InternationalConflictsOverFreshWater:SomeTheoreticalNotesandtheCaseofthe MiddleEast,DevelopmentandPeace [DPH](Budapest)6(Spring1985):12831.SeealsoArneNaess, EnvironmentalEthicsandInternationalJustice, EcoSpirit (Bethlehem,PA),1988,7orRaymondDasmann, EcologicalPrinciplesforEconomicDevelopment(NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Ltd.,1973),3544.For relativelynonviolentgrassrootslobbyingprinciplesthatledtoformationoftheU.N.EnvironmentalProgram,see TomArtin, EarthTalk,IndependentVoicesontheEnvironment (NewYork:GrossmanPublishers,1973),170ff.

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onhydroelectricpowerandcashcropsforexport,andnotonbasicfoodcropsforlocal consumption.UnderUnitedStatespoliticalpressure,itsagribusinessproductionofcashcrops grewtomeetitsdebtpayments.Theecologicalimpactofagricultureonthisscalewas complicatedbycropfungicides,herbicides,nematocides,andinsecticides(likeDDT),plusforty sixhundredtonsofagentorange. PesticidepoisoningcasesbegintoriseamongCostaRican childrenandanimals,especiallythefishandbirds.Inaddition,adultlungandstomachcancer ratesroseeachyear,linkedtotoxiccombinationsofairpollutionandchemicallyabusedtropical

393 soil,additionallyacidifiedbydeforestation.

DeforestationandTheCollectiveGood ResourceLimits DeforestationinCostaRica,coupledwithaContraagribusinessinfrastructurefor attackingNicaragua,hadconsequencesbeyondthelossoflumberprofits,oreventhedepletion ofozone.Thisdeforestationalsodisruptedwhatecologistscall hydrologiccycleregeneration. Undernormalconditions,waterrecyclessteadilythroughsoil,plants,andtheatmospherebythe interactionofprecipitation,absorption,runoff,andevaporation.However,whenrainstrikes barrendirtwherespongyrootsandfoliageformerlykepttropicalforestsoilmoist,loose,and fertile,theearthispackedharderandhardereachtime.Thispackeddirthindersrainfrom replenishingundergroundwatertablesandresultsinflashfloodsthatdenuderiverbanks.These flashfloodsstuntplantgrowth.Decreasedrainandcloudcover,asaresultofthefailureofthe hydrologiccycletoregenerate,leadtodesertification,andovertimetoclimaticwarmingeffects thatmayhavecatastrophicoutcomes,astheyhaveinHaiti,theSudan,Ethiopia,and
394 Bangladesh.

CostaRicahassufferedmanysetbacksinitsnonviolentuseoftheruleoflawtoresolve suchconflictiveissuesasagrowingdeforestationproblem followingontheheelsofthe ContrasimposedbytheUnitedStatestooverthrowagovernmentunacceptabletotheUnited StatesinNicaragua.Aswillbediscussed,deforestation,concentratedsincethe1850sin

393 AlexanderBonilla,

SituacinAmbientaldeCostaRica (SanJos:MinisteriodeCultura,JuventudyDeporte, InstitutodelLibro,1985),1923,51,7071,and26265. 394 JodiJacobson, EnvironmentalRefugees: AYardstickofHabitability (Washington,D.C.:WorldwatchNo.86, Nov.1988),19.Forothermilitarizationdeforestationlinks,seeJohnTinker,etal.,EnvironmentalDegradationand HumanConflict, Alternatives(Petersborough,Ontario,Canada)12(SpringSummer1985):67.

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395 northwesternCostaRica tobeintensifiedinthe1940sforUnitedStatesbases,inthe1960s

andthe1970s1980s(throughoutnorthernCostaRica)forUnitedStatesfundedantiCubaand
396 antiSandinistawars,respectively clearedawayapreviouslyindomitablerainforest.

Originallyjustifiedbytherequirementsofwarorconflict,suchdeforestationassociated withlandabuseandinequitablelanddistributionhaskilledabouteightypercentoftheCosta Ricantropicalrainforests.Thisrapiddeforestationisaseriousthreattotropicalrainforestslike thoseinCostaRica,whichhavesustainedabouthalfoftheworldsgermplasm,theDNA

397 buildingblocksoflivingcells. Giventhepresentrateofdesertification,especiallyinthe

WesternCaribbean,SoutheastAsia,andSouthernAfrica,scientistsininternationalecologyand developmentpredictthattropicalrainforestsmaydisappearmidwayintothetwentyfirst
398 century.

Reversingthethreatofdeforestationwouldrequirechanginghowweviewsuchviolent ecocide.Inthefuture,respectforrainforestsasacollectivegoodmaysomedayoutrankthe humanbiasthatfavorsmilitaryproblemsolving.But,achievingsuchacollectivegoodwill requireadefinitetimetableinthenearfuture,sincearainforestdependsuponwateranddust nutrientsfromelevatedorsuspendedepiphytesandfungoidgrowth(mycorrhizae),oran ecosystemofjungleandanimalbiomass.(Thereare850generaand28,200speciesof suspendedepiphytesaloneinthebiomassofforestslikethose thatstillexistinCostaRica.)A rainforestwhichdependsonbiomasssuspendedhighabovethejunglefloorforitsnutrients cannotgrowbackafterclearcuttingascanatemperateforestecosystem,sustainedbyground soilnutrients.Unlessthewholeecosystemisrebuiltatgreatexpense,beginninginthenext

395 ThenorthwesternareaofCostaRica,nowthecantonofGuanacaste,becamepartofCostaRicaafterthenear

disastrousRivasWalkerwarinthe1850s. 396 CostaRicamayhave,however,delayedsuchdeforestationmuchmorethanmayhavebeenthecaseinthewar relateddesertificationoftheMiddleEastorSouthernAfricaasnotedinchapter2.TheU.N.debateon disarmamentanddevelopment,whenrelatedtosuchdeforestation,wouldseemtoindicatethatthepotential developmentofCostaRicawilldependondemilitarizationinordertoredevelopitsmainnaturalresource,its rainforest.Inotherwords,peace,security,anddevelopmentinCostaRicawilldependonhownonviolentlythis militarizationanddeforestationtrendisaddressed.Seealso,e.g.,Table1,1A. 397 CatherineCaufield,IntheRainforest (NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1985),3739and59.Caufieldpredictsthe followingpercentagelosslevelsbythe1990s:CostaRica over80%Thailand 60%Honduras,Nicaragua, and Ecuador50%Guatemala,Colombia,andMexico 35%Madagascar 30%Philippines 25% Malaysia 25%andIndonesia 10%.ShealsonotesthatHaiti,India,Bangladesh,andSriLankahavelosttheir rainforests,whileNigeriaandtheIvoryCoastmay losetheirsinthe1990s.Intheearly21stcentury,LatinAmerica maybeleftwith57%oftheremainingrainforestsworldwide. 398 NicholasGuppy,TropicalDeforestation:AGlobalView, FAS62(Spring1984):928and93133.

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decades,littlemorethanaridorsemiaridbrushwillbeabletogrowonthejunglesoilleft
399 behind.

Insuchacontext,theUnitedNationstriangularhypothesisimpliesthatdevelopmentand reforestationinastatesuchasCostaRicamayhingeonhowquicklymilitarizationcanbe reversedbeforelaterizedsoilpreventsreasonableregrowthofthetropicalforestecosystem. TheWorldBank,forexample,intryingtoimplementthishypothesis,hasdiscoveredthat reforestationdependsuponforwardlookingplantingofcertaintrees.Thesenitrogenfixingtrees improveregionalsoilporosityandbulkdensity,aswellasprerequisitetreecanopyclosure, nutrients,(re)cycling,transfer,andconservation.CostaRicahaspioneeredinsuchglobalsocial

400 andscientificexperimentation.

Thetraditionalremediesfamiliartoecologicaladvocatesapoliticalmandatefor environmentalprograms,governmentalprioritiesthatbalancetheneedsofrural andurban citizens,andregularqualitychecksforchemicalsedimentationinvarioushabitatsalthough important,willbeonlypartofreversingtheenvironmentaldamage.Becausecriticalchangesin thedelicateecologicalbalanceoftheisthmusalsoaffectthebalanceofcontinentaland internationalpoliticalsystems,strengtheningnonviolentmeansforinternationalconflict resolutionmayalsobenecessary.Forinstance,whenproposinga33meterdeep,200 meterwide,and500,000metrictonsealevel canaloverPanamain1980,theJapaneselearned throughresearchmodelscenariosthatasealevelcanalcouldintroduceacanthasterstarfishfrom

399 JulianPerryRobinson,

TheEffectsofWeaponsonEcosystems(OxfordandNewYork:Pergamon,UNEPand U.N.CenterforDevelopment,1979),37.Forepiphytes,seeWillowPoundsandNaliniNadkarni,CanopyPlants oftheMonteverdeCloudForest,pamphlet,2ded.(SanJos:TropicalScienceCenter,andUniversityofCalifornia, SantaBarbara:BiologicalSciencesHerbarium,1986),35. 400 FlorenciaMontagnini,EcologyAppliedtoAgroforestryintheHumidTropics,pp,5258andAsanayagam Rudran,etal.,TrainingAppliedEcologytoNationalsofDevelopingCountries,13436inRobertGoodland,ed., RacetoSavetheTropics:EcologyandEconomicsforaSustainableFuture (Washington,D.C.:IslandPress,1990). NutrientsrefertopH,nitrogen,andphosphorus,etc.,compositeformationinthesoil.Oneofthefirstsuchtraining programsbeganinTurrialba,CostaRicain1942,andisnowalsouniquelytiedintotheM.S.programofthe UniversityofCostaRica.Othersuchprograms,accordingtotheabovearticles:Tanzania(1963),Argentina(1968), Cameroon(1970),IndiaandIndonesia(1979),andtheU.S.Smithsonian(1981).Thefirst(andstillunparalleled) comprehensiveregionalsoilimprovingmatricesexperimentsalsobeganinCostaRicaduring1987,withthe cooperationofU.S.scientistssuchasDanielJantzen(anunusualtropicalbiologyprofessorfromtheUniversityof Pennsylvania).Forthe1942beginningsinCostaRica,linkedwiththeOAS,seethediscussionoftheInstituto InteramericanodeCienciasAgrcolas(IICA),toberenamedCentroAgronmicoTropicaldeInvestigaciny Enseanza(CATIE)in1952,inL.D.GmezandJ.M.Savage,SearchersonThatRichCoast:CostaRicanField Biology,14001980,inDanielJanzen,ed., CostaRicanNaturalHistory (ChicagoandLondon:Universityof ChicagoPress,1983),78.

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thePacifictoplundertheCaribbeancoralreefs,alongwithCaribbeancoralreefsharkstodevour
401 thePacificanchovyfishingindustry.

CostaRicanarrowlyescapedasimilarecotastrophein1974,whenecological advocatesstoppedanoilpipelineacrossthecountry.ProposedbytheUnitedStatesInteroceanic LiquidTransportCompany,this$400millionpipelinewouldhaveextendedfromCahuitaReef toGolfoDulce.TheUnitedStatesintendedthepipelinetoreinforceitsothergeopolitically strategicpipelines:theTransAlaskanPipeline(PrudhoeBaytoPuertoValdez),theCapline (NewOrleanstoSt.Louis),theColonialLine(TexastoNewJersey),andtheTransPanama Pipeline.However,pushinganonviolentstrategytotheforeinnationalcongressorlegislative assemble,theCostaRicanEcologicalorGreenPartystoppedthispipelineproposalbyraising

402 thepossibilityofoilspillsandpoliticallymotivatedsabotage.

Borderplanningbyecologicaladvocatesbeganasfarbackasan1840smeetingonCuba
403 404 IslandinLakeNicaragua. In1974greenpolitics overaborderparkwereagainsupported 405 byNicaraguanandCostaRicancooperativesalongtheSanJuanRiver. InJune1985,Daniel

Ortega,presidentofNicaragua,proposeddemilitarizedareasforpeaceandconservationbetween
406 NicaraguaandCostaRica. Aerialwarfare,Contraforaging,tropicaldeforestation,and

inflatedlandprices,however,fromUnitedStatesinfrastructuralprojectstosendContrasinto
407 Nicaragua,inhibitedCostaRicasPresident,LuisMonge. PerseveringuntilOscarArias

401 TheSecondPanamaCanalProject, 402 AlexanderBonilla,

JPQ27(JulySept.1980):307. UnOleoductaenCostaRica,TodoloqueseDebeSaberPeroNosehaDicho(SanJos: AsociacinCostarricenseparalaConservacindelaNaturaleza,1983),5,7,11,and114115.Aspilllikethe AlaskanoilspillwouldruinasmallstatelikeCostaRica.Seealso,e.g.,Table1,1A,2A,2B,and3C. 403 JorgeEnriqueBastosOrozco,ElTratadoClaytonBulwer,SuRepercusinsobreelProblemadelimitesCosta RicaNicaragua(Ph.D.diss.,UniversidadNacionalAutonoma,SanJos,1978),32. 404 DraftforInternationalSystemofProtectedAreasforPeace,Mimeo,n.d.,23.Thisplanwasfora16,000 squaremile(or41,700squarekilometer)Sia[la]Paz(orYestoPeace)Park,ofwhich6,440squaremiles (40%)wouldbeinsideCostaRicaand9,660squaremiles(60%)insideNicaragua.Formoreontheborderpeace park,seeCongress,Senate,SubcommitteeonInternationalEconomicPolicy,Trade,OceansandEnvironment, CommitteeonForeignRelations,U.S.DevelopmentAssistanceandEnvironmentallySustainableDevelopment, 100thCong.,2dsess.,S.Hrg.,100967,1988,4453.32847,and38587 ontestimonybyDavidWirth,Bonnie Souza,andBrentBlackwelder.SeealsoAppendixD. 405 OfertaTecnicaEconmicaParaElEstudioBasicoenelAreadeAmoritiguamiento,ProyectodelaCuencadel RoSanJuan(Managua),Mimeo,March1989,12. 406 IlianaCruzAlfaroandRonaldSaborioSoto,LaSeguridadExternadeCostaRica,FrentealaCrisis Centroamrica(LL.D.thesis,UniversityofCostaRica,1986),223. 407 PedroLen,microcellularbiologistandboardmemberoftheCentroparalosAmigosparalaPaz,SanJos MazorcaRestaurant,interviewbytheauthor,3April1989.

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replacedMongeaspresidentofCostaRica,Ortegaresumedthisborderplanningwithbetter
408 results.

Protectedborderareasforpeacebegantolookmoreattractivebythelate1980s,as NicaraguaandCostaRicastartedplanningtogetheragainsttheContrasanddeforestation.On16 May1987aManaguanconferenceresumedthepeaceandreconstructionthemesofthe1974San

409 Josconference, addressing,amongotherthreats,thepotentialinternationallossofgenetically

uniqueandspeciesdiversetropicalecosystems. However,disagreementonhowtoestablishtheseprotectedareasforpeacearosewithina ManaguanCanalCommissionformedinsidetheNicaraguanMinistryofFinanceinMarch1989,

410 underWilliamHpper.CostaRicavoicedaddeduncertaintyoverNicaraguanpriorities after

anaerialborderreconnaissanceflightinlateMarch1989byprivateJapanesebusinessmenledby YasunobuSomura.ReactionstothisflightledtheJapaneseAmbassadorinManagua,Yoshizo Konishi,publiclytodenythenewproposalandanyotherJapanesebordercanalplanswithina

411 fewdays. Buttheinitiativeforjointborderplanningwaslostonceagain.

Ontheotherhand,Japanesepressureforasealevelbordercanalcontinuedtoattract increasinginternationalinterest.Japansfirstattempt,stoppedbytheUnitedStatesMarinesin Nicaraguain1912,farednoworsethanits$8.3billion,tenyearPanamanianproposalof1979 1980,buriedunderContraconflictandUnitedStatesdeliberations.Japansthirdbordercanal proposal,lastingunder48hoursduring1819March1989,increasedthestakesto$15billion, spreadoveratwentyyearperiodofconstructionintothetwentyfirstcentury.

408 InternationalUnionforConservationofNaturalResources,SeventeenthSessionoftheSecretaryGeneralofthe

InternationalUnionforConservationofNatureoftheSeventeenthTechnicalMeetingProceedings(SanJose: IUCN,1988),199. 409 CentroCientficoTropical(ed.byRalSolrzano), PropuestaparalaCreacindelSistemaInternacionalde AreasProtegidasParalaPaz(SanJos:NationalCostaRicanandNicaraguanCommissionsforBorderPeace ReservesandtheGovernmentsof theNetherlands,Norway,andSweden,1988),30and56.ForaNorwegian pledgeofalmost$1million,seePlanOperacionaldelProyectodeRegeneracindeBosquesHumedosTropicales, IUCN,Mimeo,n.p.,n.d.Forforestry,oceanography,andagribusinessplanningrecommendations,seeComisin TecnicoCientfico(Workshop),ProyectodelaCuencadelRoSanJuanSiAPaz(IUCN)Conferenceatthe LaureanoMairenaConventionCenter,Managua,Mimeo,n.p.,9Dec.1988.Theauthorisgratefulforadviceon thisdevelopmentplanningfromtheSwedishEmbassyinManagua. 410 DanielAsplund,forestryofficer,inhisofficeattheSwedishEmbassyinManagua,interviewbytheauthor,17 March1989.Also:JudyButler,editor,inherEnvo officesinManagua,interviewbytheauthor,17March1989. 411 JapnRepite:NoleInteresaelCanal,NiegaAseveracindeMiembrodeMisinCientfica, LaPrensa,20 March1989,1.Affirmedinlessthan48hoursbyananonymouspoliticalaffairsattachintheJapaneseEmbassyin Managua,interviewbytheauthor,20March1989.Suchannouncementsfromanembassyareunusual,since embassiesarenotoftenpubliclyinvolvedwithprivateenterprise.

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Deforestation,GreenPolitics,andEcologicalViolence Thedamsiltationanddeforestationforbeefexportwhichthreatentodestroythetropical rainforestecosystemofnorthernCostaRica,sincethe1850s,maystemfromdeforestationof thisareaformilitarypurposesorthroughdevastatingwars.Itisclearthat,asaresultofthe combinedmilitarizationandunderdevelopmentalongtheirsharedborderdiscussedinPartOne, from1961to1978CostaRicaandNicaraguabegantoleadtherestoftheisthmusinbeefexport, startingslowlyandthenacceleratingsixfoldinquantitybyweight.After1979CostaRica becamethesinglelargestbeef exporterintheisthmus,thoughanaverageCostaRicanstillate

412 lessmeatthananaverageUnitedStateshousecat. Simultaneously,erosionandsiltation

begantoclogCostaRicasArenalDam,amultibilliondollarInterAmericanDevelopment Bankprojectinthenorth.RelatedsiltationintheSanCarlosRivercomplicatedenvironmental damageintheupperAlajuelaandLosChilesprovinces,whereContramilitarizationwasalso

413 concentratedagainstNicaragua.

ThechallengeofgreenpoliticstoCostaRicanremilitarizationcamefirstfrom organizationsliketheGuanacasteMonteverdeCommunityandspreadtothedowntownSanJos PeaceandTropicalScienceCenters.TheMonteverde(or GreenMountain)Communityhad begunwithenergeticisthmianandUnitedStatespacifistsocialistpeopleinthe1940s.Itstarted nearSantaElenaintheTileranMountains,twentyfivemilesnorthofPuntareasandafew mileswestofthecontinentaldividenearLakeArenal.Someofitsfounderslatermovedto CanadaandAustralia,butitsoriginal1,000acresgrewto6,000,prosperitybasedonits creamerycooperativeproducing2,300gallonsofmilkandatonofcheesedailybythe1980s. Monteverdesfarmingmethods,whicheschewedorstrictlylimitedburning,clearcutting,and agrochemicals,andemphasizedpasturerotation,soonbecameavitalecologicalexamplefor
414 othersmallcooperativefarmersinthearea.

412 NormanMyers,TheHamburgerConnection:HowCentralAmericasForestsBecomeNorthAmericas

Hamburgers, Ambio 10(1981):3and56. 413 IDBandCentralAmerica:DeforestationThreatensBigHydro,WRR,MarchMay1988,1and5.Forthe geostrategicnatureofthisdam,seeRodrigoCamachoElizondo,AtlasGeogrficoDidctico (Heredia:Editorial RodrigoCamacho,1980),18,23,25,and2728. 414 CatherineCaufield, Rainforest,113121.SeealsoAlBurt,SocialistColonySurvivesinWallaceDomain, MiamiHerald [MHD],20May1975,A1.

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AshortlivedCostaRicanGreenParty,reflectingthemethodsofMonteverde,also
415 agitatedforlegislationtoreversedeforestationandecologicalpollution. ButbothmajorCosta

RicanpoliticalpartiesaccusedtheGreenssevenmemberexecutivecouncilofcommunist
416 sympathies. ThetwopartiescombinedtodrivetheGreenpartyoutofpowerinthelate1980s

bycondemningtheGreens1974parliamentarydefeatoftheoilpipelineproposal,mentioned
417 above.

Internationalconflictresolutioncontinuedtobelinkedecologicallytoborderpeace proposals.Politicalconsensusforaborderparkexpandedwithhelpfrom Norway,Sweden,the Netherlands,theUnitedNationsEnvironmentalProgram,privateUnitedStatesorganizations, andtheSwissInternationalUnionforNatureConservation.UnitingbehindtheSiAPazPark proposal,itsproponentstriedtoreversetheecologicaldamagefromremilitarizationinthe

418 isthmus. Duringthe1987Managuaconference,forexample,Norway,Sweden,andthe

NetherlandsproposedfundingforthisecologicalheartoftheAriasorEsquipulasIIpeace
419 plan.Conferenceparticipantsestimateda$2millionstartupcost, towardwhichthe

Netherlandshadadvanced$0.5millionbeforeobstaclessuddenlyappearedfromJapan,inthe
420 formofits1989canalproposal,andfromtheUnitedStates.

Theobstaclesconcernedvestedeconomicandpoliticalinterests.Forexample,United Statespesticidecorporationswereexportingoverfortypercentoftheirtotalsalestotheisthmus bythemid1960s.Anecologicalagreementthreatenedsuchsalesandcomplicatedsuchinterests inNicaragua.Forexample,underUnitedStatesleddevelopmentmethods,bythe1970s, NicaraguahadcometoleadtheentireworldinthepercapitarateofinternalizedDDT.In1980, forcedtoimport2.4millionpoundsofDDTbycarefullycraftedContraattacks,Nicaraguaagain

415 AlexanderBonilla,

SituacinAmbiental,26671.PartidoEcolgicoCostarricensewasthefirstAmericanGreen Partytowinavotingplaceinitsnationalparliament. 416 LauraBrooks,LatinAmericaFirst AGreenPartyPreparestoTryItsHandinCostaRica, PacificaNews Service [PNS],11Jan.1985,inDCF (1985),23. 417 AlexanderBonillaDurninhisSanJosTrianonBuildingoffice(sharedwithCostaRicasAmbassadorto NicaraguaunderOscarArias[FaridAjales]andthedeanofthecountrysonlyuniversityinternationalrelations program[MyronRos]),interviewbytheauthor,27March1989.Platformstatementsonequitablewealth redistributionandgenderparityinwagesdidnothelptoassuagethebiasofthetwodominantpoliticalparties againstcentralecologicalprinciples.OnsimilarissuesintheBeringStraitsandtheeasternMediterranean,seeJan KnippersBlack,Greenpeace:TheEcologicalWarriors, USAToday 115(Nov.1986):28ff. 418 BillHall,CentralAmericansConfrontEnvironmentalCrisis, EarthIslandJournal [EIJ](Summer1987)in DCF (1987):96. 419 Draft,Mimeo,n.p.,n.d.,fromLilianaMadrigal(ConservationFoundation),Washington,D.C.,6pp. 420 MattijsvonBonzel,politicalattachinhisofficeattheNetherlandsEmbassyinSanJos,interviewbythe author,19April1989.

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reportedDDTbreastmilksamplesfortyfivetimestheWorldHealthOrganizationsmaximum
421 tolerancelevel thenaworldrecord. Inaddition,aUnitedStatesmanufacturerhaddumped

fortytonsofmercury,abyproductofpesticideproduction,intoLakeManaguaattheoriginof theSanJuanRiverecosystem.ThepoisonseepedslowlyintoalagoonnearManaguaswater
422 reservoir.

Geopoliticalconsiderationsalsocontinuedtoimpedeecologicalagreement.For example,theUnitedStatesopposednotonlynonAmericaninvolvementinanecologically
423 benignNicaraguangeothermalpowerplant, butalsononAmericanbasedcriticismof 424 deforestationsiltingupthefreshwatersourcesofthePanamaCanal. TheUnitedStatesopted

formoremilitarizationinstead,despitetheecologicaldangerstotherainforestsandwater suppliessurroundingCostaRica. ThesubordinationofecologicalconcernstoUnitedStatesgeopoliticalprioritiesinCosta RicarecallssimilareventsinLaosandVietnam.Asfarascanbeascertained,theUnitedStates DepartmentofDefenseandtheAgencyforInternationalDevelopmentusedecocideinLaosand Vietnamforcomparativelydistantgeopoliticalgoals.ButoveraquarterofSouthVietnam,then aUnitedStatesclientstatelikeCostaRicathoughmuchfurtherawayfromtheUnitedStates thanCostaRicageopolitically wasscarredbythekillingordamagingof45,000,000trees, andthebombcrateringdisplacementofthreetrillioncubicmetersofearth.Becauseofthe chemicaldesigncharacteristicsofagentorange,herbicidaldamagewasconcentratedin
421 DouglasMurray,SocialProblemSolvinginaRevolutionarySetting:NicaraguasPesticidePolicyReforms,

PolicyStudiesReview 4(Nov.1984):22022.SandinistaNicaraguatriedtousesafer,organicpesticides,fromthe Netherlandsinparticular,butthesepesticideswereselectivelydestroyedatportsofentrybyContraattacks,leaving theSandinistaslittleoptionotherthanmoreDDT whichfurtherendangeredtherestoftheSanJuanRiver ecosystem,includingCostaRica.ForthelethaleffectsofsuchpesticidesasDDToninternationallymigrating birds,manyofwhichsummerintheU.S.,seethetestimonyofJamesBarborak,UPAZprofessor,Congress, Senate,SubcommitteeonInternationalEconomicPolicy,Trade,OceansandEnvironment,CommitteeonForeign Relations, U.S.DevelopmentAssistanceandEnvironmentallySustainableDevelopment,100thCong.,2dsess.,S. Hrg.,100967,1988,35057. 422 EPOCA,Nicaragua,AnEnvironmentalPerspective,GreenPaper 1(SanFrancisco:EarthIslandInstitute, 1985):26. 423 VolcanoCoreofBoldNicaraguanRenewablesPlan, WISEBulletin(Amsterdam,theNetherlands),April1982, 1. 424 DeniseVoelker,PanamaCanal:FallingVictimtoDeforestationandPolitics, WRR,MarchMay1988,3.The nonAmericanentitiesinvolvedespecially theEEC.Forsimilarecologicaldisregardwhen,e.g.,thePLObeganits militaryoperationsbytryingtocounterIsraelidiversionandpollutionofhalftheJordanriverandtwounderground aquiferslinkingtheWestBankwithHaifaandTelAviv,seeJohnCooley,TheWarOverWater,FPY54(Spring, 1984):910,13,15,17,and25RaisingtheDeadSea andArabTempers, USNWR,4May1981,38and IsraelAskedtoHaltWorkonCanalLinkingDeadSea,Mediterranean,U.N.MonthlyChronicle,Feb.1982,27 28.

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500,000hectaresofmangrovetrees.Herbicides,cheaperandmoreefficientthanaerial
425 bombing,cutallVietnameseindustrialandagriculturalproductionbyfortypercent. Halfof 426 thetreesintheVietnamesetropicalrainforestswerescarredorkilledbyherbicides. Inthe

1980s,coastalVietnamesesummertemperatureshadclimbedfifteendegreestoanaverage 100degreesFahrenheitandintensifiedunderdevelopmentinVietnamthroughcyclical
427 flooding,erosion,anddesertification. Atleastfortypercentofthemangroveestuariesalong 428 theCaribbeanhavealsobeensingledoutbyagentorangeinCostaRica. Theecological

impactofthisgeopoliticalviolenceheightenstheeffectsofwar,insecurity,and underdevelopment,whetherinVietnamorCostaRica.

DisarmamentandDevelopmentUnitedNationsOptions Peace,security,anddevelopmentinstatessuchasCostaRicamaydependonthe internationalconsensusexpressedbytheUnitedNationsdisarmamentanddevelopmentdebate. ThisconsensuswasmadepossibleintheThirdWorldbystatessuchasCostaRicaandIndia, whichhavetraditionallyusedtheirstatusofneutralityornonalignmenttoestablishrelationships withboththeSovietUnionandtheUnitedStates.NeutralstatesinEuropesuchasAustria, Finland,andSweden,alongwithformerlyneutralstatessuchastheNetherlands,formedanother blockofsupport.ConcretizedbyathreeweekGeneralAssemblyconferenceledbyIndiainthe fallof1987,thisinternationalconsensusalsoconcerneditselfwiththe$14billionannuallylost

429 throughindustrialpollution. Inbrief,theconferenceengenderedmuchdebateoverhowtore

425 A.Sokolova,TheEcologicalConsequencesofAmericanAggressioninVietnam,TheEnvironmentandPeace

andEarth (Moscow:Nauka,1987),5258.For100footdiameterand60footdeepbombcrateringinnorthern Vietnam,seeE.W.Pfieffer,PostWarVietnam, Environment 148(Nov.1973):2933.Astandardsmallbomb crater threeorfourfeetindiameterdestroyedabouthalfofanaveragesmallfarmers200250squarefoot farmingplot. 426 YuriFederov(ExecutiveSecretaryoftheSovietScientificCouncilonPeaceandDisarmament),TheImperatives ofCooperationandtheDogmasofConfrontation(Moscow:Nauka,1983),53. 427 JoelCharnyandJohnSpragens,ObstaclestoRecoveryinVietnamandKampuchea,UnitedStatesEmbargoof HumanitarianAid(Boston:OxfamAmerica,1984),2932.Foralternativestodangerousherbicidesandpesticides, seeMartinRedfern,MosquitoControlWithoutPesticides, Panoscope,27June1987,20. 428 ColinDanby,AidingCentralAmerica,AnAlternativeforEquitableandSustainableDevelopment,PACCA, Washington,D.C.,1989,3.Forthegenocidaleffectsofmangroverainforestdisappearanceontropicalbirds migratingthroughtheisthmus,seeAllenKeast,Synthesis:EcologicalBasisandEvolutionoftheNeoarctic NeotropicalBirdMigrationSystem,inAllenKeastandEugeneMorton, MigrantBirdsinTheNeotropics: Ecology,Behaviour,DistributionandConservation (Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitute,1980),55960and 564. 429 GroHarlemBrundtland,WhatIsSustainableDevelopment?inPANOS,ed., TowardsSustainable Development (ConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopmentatSaltsjbaden,Stockholm,810May1987)

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educaterelativelymilitarizedandindustrializedstatestowardecologicallysustainableconflict resolutionanddevelopment. TheUnitedNationsdebategrewfromanobservationthatpeaceandsecuritydependon bothdisarmamentanddevelopmentinareasliketheisthmus.Discussionofdisarmament, however,evenintheUnitedNations,isskewedbymilitarysecuritypriorities.IntheUnited States,ontheotherhand,internationalconflictresolutionderivedhistoricallyfrommilitarized

430 interpretationsoftheRenaissancenationstatesandtheIroquoisConfederacy. IntheSoviet

Union,bothpro andanticzaristwriters,likeIvanBliokhandYakovNovikov,havealso
431 interpretedconflictresolutionfromtheviewpointofviolenttraditions. Theprevalenceandthe

easeofrecoursetoassemblylinemilitarizationhasthuscompromisedthepotentialofaUnited Nationsconsensusforlessviolentconflictresolutionaroundtheworld. Itisironic,then,giventhisconsensusoversecurity,insecurity,andmilitarization,thatthe InternationalLaborOrganizationchosetoconvenethedisarmamentanddevelopmentdebate originallybydiscussingwartornareasliketheisthmus.InMay1927,forexample,shortlyafter theVersaillesTreaty,aworldconferencewasheldtodiscusseconomicdevelopmentand internationalconflictresolution.ThatconferencewasattackedandboycottedbytheUnited

432 433 States, althoughitmighthavepreventedtheAxisblitzkrieg(lightningwar)inthe1940s.

SubsequentmeetingsandproposalssponsoredbyIndiaeventuallyledtoaUnitedNations disarmamentanddevelopmentresolutionforinternationalconflictresolution. In1950,twoyearsafterCostaRicaabolisheditsmilitarypower,Indiadrafteda preliminarydisarmamentanddevelopmentresolution.HonoringMohandasGandhi,the1950

(Alexandria,VA,andLondon:PANOS,1987),ixx.Thethreeweek1987NewYorkConferencewasattendedby theauthor, asreportedinthefall1987issueof TheAmericanCounciloftheUnitedNationsUniversityNewsletter (Washington,D.C.).Fortheecologicalundercurrentsofthisdiscussion,seeArneNaess,IdentificationasaSense ofDeepEcologicalAttitudes,inMichaelTobias,ed.,DeepEcology(SanDiego,CA:AvantBooks,1985),257. Naessarticle basedontheU.N.debate stimulatedmuchofthedeepecologicaltheoryunderlying GreenpeaceInternationalandvariousGreenparties. 430 DonaldA.Grinde,Jr.,TheIroquoisandtheFoundingoftheAmericanNation (SanFrancisco:IndianHistorian Press,1977),13033. 431 PetervandenDungen,PeaceResearchandtheSearchforPeace:SomeCriticalObservations,International JournalonWorldPeace2(JulySept.1985): 4446. 432 RobertMeagher, AnInternationalRedistributionofWealthandPower,AStudyoftheCharterofEconomic RightsandDutiesofStates(NewYork:Pergamon,1979),1011. 433 PhilipNoelBaker, TheFirstWorldDisarmamentConference,19321933,andWhyItFailed (Oxford:Pergamon Press,1979),13136.IndustrialplanningmighthavedivertedGermanyawayfromwar.Forrelatedconversionin England,seeCongress,Senate,SubcommitteeonEmploymentandManpower,CommitteeonLaborandPublic Welfare,The UnitedKingdomExperience,inConvertibilityofSpaceandDefenseResourcestoCivilianNeeds:A SearchforNewEmploymentPotentials,Vol.2,88thCongress,2dsess.,(1964),105106.

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IndianresolutionsuggestedaUnitedNationsPeaceFund,maintainedbydisarmamentsavings
434 anddevotedtodevelopment. Duringthelate1950s,thenonalignedmovement,alongwith

DagHammarskjoldandRalphBunche,managedtheadoptionbytheUnitedNationsofmore
435 practicalmethodsforimplementingtheIndianresolutionalsomentionedinchapterone. In

1959,aLatinAmericandraftproposalforinternationalconflictresolutionappeared spontaneouslyduringanOrganizationofAmericanStatesmeetinginChile.Then,in1971, CostaRicasponsoredanOrganizationofAmericanStatesresolutiontoencourageboth

436 sustainabledevelopmentandinternationalconflictresolution.

ThesethreeThirdWorldinitiatives,in1950,1959,and1971,ledtotheUnitedNations CouncilonTradeandDevelopment(UNCTAD)agreementin1974,articulatingeconomic principlesforThirdWorldnonalignment.This1974agreementwasstrengthenedin1978bya proposalforanewinternationaleconomicorder,whichreaffirmeddisarmamentand

437 developmentasthefoundationforinternationalconflictresolution. In1980theUnited

NationsInstituteforDisarmamentResearchopenedinGenevaasaclearinghouseforsuch initiatives,supportedbyFrance,Jordan,theNetherlands,Romania,Argentina,and
438 Switzerland.

Intheearly1980s,withthehelpofinstitutionsrelatedtotheGenevabasedDisarmament ResearchInstitute,CostaRicaengenderedthefirstUnitedNationsrelateduniversityforThird
439 Worldpeaceresearch. FranceandBrazilmobilizedasteeringcommitteeforthe1987General

434 M.AzimHussain,ThirdWorldandDisarmament:ShadowandSubstance,

inMarekThee,ed., Armaments, ArmsControlandDisarmament,AUNESCOReaderforDisarmamentEducation (Paris:UNESCO,1981),202. 435 SydneyBailey,WarsEnd,Vol.1, UnitedNations,52and12021. 436 JosEncinasdelPando,DeclarationofAyacucho,AnalysisandQuantificationofaPossibleAgreementon LimitationofMilitaryExpenditureinSouthAmerica(Lima,Peru:U.N.DisarmamentandDevelopmentProject, 1980),Mimeo,105. 437 FedericoSalas,ConferenciaInternacionalSobreLaRelacinEntreDesarmeyDesarrollo, RevistaMexicana dePolticaExterior 19(AprilJune1988):19. 438 LiviuBota,UNIDIR[UnitedNationsInstituteofDisarmamentResearch], Disarmament 4(Oct.1981):2532. Bota,fromRomania,directedUNIDIR.Debatederivedparticularlyfromthe thirdU.N.workingcommitteefor needs,rights,refugees,andnarcoticsissuesseeSydneyBailey,TheGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNations,A StudyofProcedureandPractice (NewYork:Praeger,1964),104.TheU.N.BureauofSocialAffairs,withitsLatin AmericaandMiddleEastunitsunderECOSOCfortheFAO,theILO,theWHO,UNICEF(ChildrensFund), UNRWA(ReliefandWorksAgency),plusvariouswomens,narcotics,population,andhumanrightscommissions, wasalsopartofthisinternationalconflictresolutionmatrixseeArthurDunham, CommunityWelfareOrganization: PrinciplesandPractices (NewYork:ThomasY.Crowell,1958),239ff. 439 CarlosJosGutirrezGutirrezandEmmaCastro,CostaRicanMissionRepresentativestotheUnitedNationsin New YorkCity,interviewsbytheauthor,springandfall1987.

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440 Assemblyconferenceondisarmamentanddevelopment. ButtheGenevaDisarmament

ResearchInstitutecouldnotlocatemorethantwelveglobalcomputerdatabasescapableof trackingandverifyingworlddisarmamentanddevelopmenttrends.Sixofthesetwelve databaseswerelocatedinWashington,D.C.,andoneeachinAnnArbor(Michigan),Seattle (Washington),Pittsburgh(Pennsylvania),NewYorkCity,Paris,andMoscow.Thescarcityof suchlargedatabaseslimitedthepotentialofcriticaltrenddatastudiesforthemostparttothe

441 French,English,andRussianlanguages.

Despitesuchlimitations,ongoingGenevaDisarmamentResearchInstituteplanningfor upgradinginternationalconflictresolution,incooperationwiththeUnitedNationsUniversity, hasproduced:(1)aWorldInstituteforDevelopmentEconomics(WIDER,Helsinki,1985),(2) anIvoryCoastandGhanaianinternationaldevelopmentorganization(1989),and,forthefuture: (3)auserfriendly,computerizedtechnologicalassistanceorganization(intheNetherlands),an

442 outerspaceorganization(inAustria),andacomputersoftwarelaboratory(inMacau). Further

criteriahaveevolvedinthestudyofdisarmament,development,oceanography,outerspace,and
443 regionaltechnologies. ClearrepresentativestatementsoriginatedespeciallyfromCuba,

Sweden,BurkinaFaso,andtheNetherlandsduringthe1987fallconferenceondisarmamentand
444 developmentinNewYorkCity.

440 UNIDIR,U.N.SecretaryGeneral,

EstablishmentofAnInternationalDisarmamentFundforDevelopment, RelationshipBetweenDisarmamentandDevelopment(Geneva:UnitedNations,A/39/229,31May1984),3and5. ForafollowupContinentalConferenceoftheAmericasandtheCaribbeanondisarmamentanddevelopmentfor peaceandsecurity,see PazySoberania,1(1989):160(entireissue). 441 UNIDIR,EstablishmentofanAutomatedDataBaseonDisarmament (Geneva:PalaisdesNationsandUNIDIR, 1981),3and29105. 442 UNUGoestoCongress,andInstituteforNaturalResourcesinAfrica(INRA), AmericanCouncilofthe UnitedNationsUniversityNewsletter,SpringSummer,1989,12. 443 UNIDIR,DataBase,3. 444 IngaThorsson, InPursuitofDisarmament,ConversionfromMilitarytoCivilProductioninSweden,Vol.1B, Summary,Appraisals,Recommendations (Stockholm:LiberAllmanaForlaget,1984),4346and5660andInga Thorsson,InPursuitofDisarmament,ConversionfromMilitarytoCivilProductioninSweden,Vol.1A, Background,Facts,Analyses (Stockholm,Sweden:LiberAllmanaForlaget,1984),18086,19194,and207209 andNationaleAdviesRaadvoorOntwikkelings Samenwerking, AdviesOntwikkelingenOntwapening 76(May 1982).BurkinaFasosFatimaDah,theonlywomanrepresentativetoaddresstheGeneralAssemblyplenary,noted that1%oftheworldsannualmilitaryexpenditurescouldprovidefoodfortheentireplanetforoneyear:D&D ConcludesFirstWeekofGeneralDebate,HearsNineMoreSpeakers,UNPressRelease (DepartmentofPublic Information,NewYorkCity),(DC/DEV/14),4.RepresentingCuba,IsidoroMalmieraPeolinotedthat15%ofthe worldsannualmilitaryexpenditurescouldfundselfsufficienteconomicdevelopmentinalltheworldsstatesfor oneyearseeConferenceonRelationshipBetweenD&DHearsTenFurtherStatements, UNPressRelease (DC/DEV/8),5.SimilarstatementscamefromtheU.S.byRogerBezdek,The1980Economic Impact Regional andOccupational ofCompensatedShiftsinDefenseSpending, JournalofRegionalScience 15(1975):195 fromEuropebyJanTinbergen,TheContributionofEconomicSciencetoPeaceKeeping,IFDDDossier 48(July August1985):5960fromcapitalistThirdWorldcountriesinObjectivesandMeansforLinkingDisarmamentto

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InCostaRica,planningforUnitedNationsinternationalconflictresolutionledtooffers fromSpainandCanadatoprovideunarmedorlightlyarmedpeacekeepingtroopsandfromWest Germanytosendsuppliesforthispeacekeeping.Thesepeacekeepingoffersweremadein responsetoOscarAriaspleaforUnitedNationsintervention.Peacekeepingwasplannedfor southernHonduras,northernCostaRica,andthesoutheasternandnorthwesternbordersof

445 Nicaragua,althoughitwasnotlikelythentobemanagedfromNicaragua. Thepreliminary

agendameetingfortheseinternationalventureswasconvenedbythefiveconcernedisthmian foreignministersinSanJosinlateMarch1989. Thisforeignministersisthmianmeeting,heldinthesameYellowHousethathosted theearly1900sinternationalcourtendowedbyAndrewCarnegie,readilyapprovedsecurity

446 verificationmechanismsforUnitedNationsisthmianpeacekeepingforces. Later,atameeting

inTela,Honduras,thefiveisthmianpresidentsexpandedonthepreliminaryforeignministers meetingbyrequestingthattheContrasdisarmandreturntoNicaragua.HumanitarianUnited StatesContraaidandPanamanianinterventionwouldinterruptthemomentumforthe deploymentofUnitedNationspeacekeepingforcesintheisthmus,butinternationaleffortsto deescalateisthmianwarandviolencewouldalsocontinue. CostaRicahasattemptedtousetheinternationalruleoflawnonviolentlyforpeaceful negotiation,basedonecologicalsustainability.Suchacombinationwellreflectstheintentofthe UnitedNationsdebateondisarmamentanddevelopment.Althoughrelativelyunrecognizedat thetime,CostaRicanattemptsinaninternationalcourt,bothdirectlyin19151916and indirectlyin19851986,wouldhelptosteereventheUnitedStatestowardlessviolentconflict resolutioninthisisthmus.Butsuchnonviolentmethodsarehardtomeasuredirectly.Aswillbe discussedinthenextchapter,violenceleavesameasurabletrailofdeadbodies.

Development,inRichardJolly,ed., DisarmamentandWorldDevelopment (Oxford:PergamonPress,1978),105 109andfromCMEAandsocialistThirdWorldstatesinSozialkonomischeAspektederAbrstung(Theses), IPWBerichte (DDR)1(1981):6163. 445 UNSetsCriteriaforCentralAmericanPeacekeepingForce,AriasDelaysSummitMeeting, InternationalPolicy Update (10January1989):1ff. 446 MecanismodeVerificacinde Seguridad, RPA,31March1989,6A.FortheterseCostaRicanreactionsee AriasInsistsonDemobilization,BlastsFMLN, TTS,21March1989,24.ForthejubilantNicaraguanreaction acrossitspoliticalspectrum,seeSeCumplelaPacificacin, ElNuevoDiario,31March1989,1and6.Costa Ricastilldistrustedproposalsforanisthmianparliament,andremainedwaryofU.S.relationshipswithPanama, Nicaragua,andElSalvador.

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447 Butnonviolence,eventhoughitmaymovemillionstoactquickly, oncesomesortof

yetundefinedcriticalmassininternationalconsensusisachieved,leaveswhatmaybebest describedasaninvisibletrail notmeasurablebycurrentsocialscientificindicators(unless oneincludestheindicatorswhichmeasurerelativeaccumulationofwealth).CostaRican nonviolencemay,however,bemeasuredindirectly,aswillbeintroducedinthenextchapter, evenifthisnonviolenceconcernseconomicormilitaryinterventionbystatesaspowerfulas JapanortheUnitedStates.

447 AsoccurredinIndiainthe1920s1930sorinEasternEuropein19891990.

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Chapter5 Power,Needs,andRightsCriteria
InordertotesttheviabilityofCostaRicannonviolenceinconflictresolution,asrecently introducedinChapterFour,thischapterintroducesaquantifiablemeansofmeasuringviolence inconflict.Thisquantifiablemeansshouldalsohelptoproveordisprovethehypothesisofthe dissertationontherelativeeffectsofviolentandnonviolentconflictresolutioninpromotingor underminingpeace,security,anddevelopmentrelevanttoCostaRica.Theindicatortobe introducedhereresemblestheinfantandchild(ages15)mortalityrateindicator,commonly usedtomeasurerelativestructuralviolence.Buttheserialviolenceindicatortobeintroducedin thischaptershouldmeasurenotonlythewardeathsofchildren,ortherelativeaccumulationof wealthsupportingachildoraninfant,butthedeathsofallpeopleinwarinotherwords,a deathtollindicatorhelpfulformeasuringbothconflictintensityandthepotential forlessormore
448 violentconflictresolution.

Fewinternationalindicatorsexistthatcansignificantlymeasurelevelsofconflict intensityorpredictthepotentialofsuccessinconflictresolution.Suchanindicatorisbasicto provingthatnonviolentconflictresolutionpromotedpeace,security,anddevelopmentinCosta Ricafrom1914to1984,andthatviolentconflictresolutionpromotedwar,insecurity,and underdevelopmentafteritsremilitarizationinthe1980s.Byslowtrialanderror,UnitedNations peacekeepinghasonlybeguntoaddressthelackofsuchanindicatorofvulnerability,a fundamentaldeficiencyinourunderstandingofconflict,insecurity,andmilitarization.Instead ofquantifyingwartimesufferinganddeath,mostresearchershavemeasuredthistollindirectly throughindicatorsofstructuralviolenceorthedenialofaccesstohumannecessitiesin underdevelopmentresultinginonewayoranotherfromwar. However,militarizationandunderdevelopmentareintimatelyrelated toeachotherinan historicalcyclethatwillbeexaminedinthecontextofCostaRica,surroundedandattimes
448 Aswillbeexplainedhereinchapter5,andalsoinAppendixCwiththeappropriate,iflengthy,presentationof

data,thisindicatorhasbeendevelopedthroughacarefulmeasurementofdeathtollsfromongoingwarssince1945 inwhatiscommonly calledtheThirdWorld.Thestepsusedindevelopingtheindicatorbeganwithcurrent literature,biasedtowardwhatmightbecalledFirstorSecondWorldconflict,inthefieldofconflictandconflict

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overrun,aswillbediscussed,bymuchofthemostintensewarfareknownonourplanet.Inthis cycle,militarization,orremilitarizationin thecaseofCostaRica,hasbeenusedtorepress dissent,whichleadsinturntoviolentrevolution,andwhichinturncallsupmorerepression,and soforth. SerialViolenceATooltoMeasureConflictIntensityandItsResolution Theterm serialviolenceindicatorwilldenotethequantitativeinternationalindicator introducedheretomeasuretheintensityofcondensed,continuous,orperiodicconflict,andthe

449 potentialsuccessofconflictresolution. A serialviolencenumberrepresentsapercentage

derivedfromtotalnumbersofpeoplekilledinwardividedbynationalpopulationtotals, measuredovertwentyyeartimeperiods.Thefourglobalwarzonesmentionedinchapterthree, wheremuchofthemostlethal,hardcorecolonialwarfareishistoricallyrooted,exhibit unusuallyhighserialviolence.Inthesezones,theaccuracyofthedataonserialviolencemaybe compromisedbypersonalhazardsfortheresearcher,includingsocialostracism,physicaldanger, andevendeath.AresearcheranalyzingserialviolenceinCostaRica,forexample,aswillbe discussed,needstoprobethereasonsforcovertbombingsandborderincidents,aswellasthe relationshipofcocaineanddiplomaticprotectiontothespreadofAIDS. Thepercentagesofserialviolencemayhelptoexplainaggregatedensitylevelsof structuralviolenceaswell.Inagloballywideningpovertygapwhichcondensestheunremitting conditionsofserialviolence,peopleareoftendeniedaccesstobasichumannecessities,suchas food,housing,healthcare,education,andemployment.Butthelossof20to25millionpeople
resolutionresearch.Thisindicatorisespeciallyrelevanttotheglobalwarzonespreviouslydiscussedattheendof chapter3. 449 ThewordserialwassuggestedtotheauthorbyWilliamT.R.Fox(professoremeritus),thefounderwithhiswife AnnetteBakerFox(professoremerita)oftheColumbiaUniversity CenterfortheStudyofWarandPeace,aswell asthe WorldPoliticsjournalatYaleUniversity inpersonalandtelephoneinterviewswiththeauthorinNew YorkCity,Aug.Sept.1987.Inthischapter,theadjective serial describescondensedwarfarethatiscontinuousor periodic.ColleaguesoftheFoxes,studyingArabIsraeliconflictattheHebrewUniversityinIsrael,believethat effectivelyresolvingconflictwillbeeasieroncewehaveachievedsomescientific,statisticalunderstandingof warfareandconflictresolutionpotential.Thewordserial wasoriginallyliftedfromjournalisticusageintheU.S., asinserial rapeorserial murder.TheanalogytheFoxesusedtoexplainsuchscientificunderstandingwasthe researchofoneoftheirancestors,whodiscoveredthecauseofcholerainrelativelyimpurewaterduringacholera epidemicinLondon.Thegeneralavailabilityofdatamaynarrowsuchresearchoninternationallevelstoafter1945, butthisisamatterofwhatdatahasbeencollected nottheuseoftheindicatorhereidentifiedasserial.

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since1945,atthecoreofintenseThirdWorldconflict,ishardertoevaluatethanthelossof another20to25millionpeoplefromwarrelatedfamine,thelatterdyingslowlyunderless
450 abrupt,terminalviolence.

Serialandstructuralviolencetogetherareanintegralpartofthehardcorebusinessof
451 arms,drugs,andgeopoliticalideology. Lightweight,easytocarrycocaineandheroin

shipments,forexample,fundvestedintereststhatencourageviolentconflictresolutioninorder tostimulatemorearmsanddrugsales,allmorallybuttressedbyconservativegeopolitical ideology.Bywayofillustration,accordingtoobserverslikeZbigniewBrezezinski,theclashing ofgeopoliticalideologiesintheUkrainehaspromotedthehighestconcentrationofserial

452 violenceanywhereintheSovietUnion. Thecombinationofserialandstructuralviolence

thereextendsovertotheMiddleEast,tostateslikeAfghanistan,whereheroinhasbeenan importantsourceforarmsfunding.TheMiddleEastarmsanddrugbusinessmayhavepromoted correspondingconflictintheUkraine,inafamiliarcycle. Tounderstandthecontextofserialviolenceinthenationstatesystemasitimpactsone statelikeCostaRica,itmaybehelpfultostandbackmomentarilyandanalyzetheaccelerating violenceofwar.Theapproximatefigureswhichfollowareintendedtoprovideabackgroundfor

450 NationaleAdviesRaadvoorOntwikkelings

Samenwerking, AdviesOntwikkelingenOntwapening76(May 1982):2829and82.SeealsoAlexPoteliakhoff,TheArmsRaceandtheHealthNeedsoftheDeveloping Countries, Medicine&War3(AprilJune1987):102.Thisnumberdoesnotincludethedeathsofinfantsand childrenduetowarorresultantviolence,estimatedat15milliondeathsperyear. 451 Conflictresearchproblemsarecompoundedbythemilitaryinterventionofindustrializedstatesinnationslike ColombiaanddeathsinthosesamestatesfromLatinAmericancocaine.Furtherproblemsarisefromuncertainties overinternationalarmsanddrugroutes,since,e.g.,Brazil,Chile,Japan,Peru,Lebanon,Argentina,Bolivia,and Colombia,andsoforth,allgrowcocaplantscommercially,butPeruandColombia orCubaorCostaRica,where allegedlynococaineisgrown attractmuchofthegeopoliticalattentionrelatedtococaine. 452 ZbigniewBrezezinski,TheGrandFailure,TheBirthandDeathofCommunismintheTwentiethCentury(New York:CharlesScribnersSons,1989),27,37,84,98,110,15455,214,22021,237,and23940.Brezezinski counted50milliondead 30millionofwhichwereinChina,Poland,theUkraine,andtheBalticRepublics.This countrangedfromabout7%deadintheSovietUkrainetounder1%inChina.Aswillbediscussedlaterinthis chapter,thisSovietserialpercentageexceedstheNicaraguanlevelsofserialviolence,butfallsunderthatof Lebanon.Forderivationsofthesepercentages,seeJohnBartholomew,TheHandyReferenceAtlasoftheWorld (London:JohnBartholomewandSons,1940),21PremierWorldAtlas (NewYork:RandMcNally,1978),13750 andWorldPopulationProspects,EstimatesandProjectionsasAssessedin1984 (NewYork:U.N.,1986).Total 19201967Chinesewardeadestimates,quotedbyBrezezinski,stemfromtheSovietestimateof26.4million ChinesedeadseeJayantaniyaBandyopadhyaya,MaoTseTungandGandhi,PerspectivesonSocialTransformation (Bombay:AlliedPublishers,1973),106107.

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comparingwarsbeforeandafter1945.After1945,moreaccuratebutstillapproximate measurementsofthedeathtollsfromwaremergedforwaroftenlimitedtotheThirdWorld, whichwillbeevaluatedbytheintroductionofserialviolencedataasanexperimentalindicator. Alltheworldsrecordedconflictsbeforethe1980skilledabout3.64billionpeople. Europeanwarsalonekilled37.5millionpeoplein19131919and55millionmoreinthe

453 1940s. NinetypercentofalltheEuropeanwardeadrecordedsince1700werekilledin

twentiethcenturywars.Anotherthreebillionpluspeoplewouldbekilledinanuclearexchange,
454 accordingtonuclearwinterprojections. Biologicalandchemicalarmsalsothreatenboth

nuclearandnonnuclearstates. Highbodycountsinpre1945warswerehistoricallyfocusedin thefourglobalconflict zones,especiallyintheAmericanisthmus.EarlySpanishestimatesofwardeadintheAmericas indicatedthatthreequartersofthenativepeoplelivingintheAmericasdiedduringthe1500 1800s,withthehighestpercapitadeathtotalsintheisthmussurroundingwhatbecameknown

455 asCostaRica. RecentAmericanestimatesforthattime,whichmorethanlikelyincludewar

453 O.BogomolovandA.Vakhrameyev,TheSocialistCommunitysEffortforPeaceandDisarmament

(Moscow: ScientificResearchCouncilonPeaceandDisarmament&Nauka,1984),89and4548.Europeanwardeadcounts inthe1800s:5.4million,upfrom3.3millioninthe1600s.For19131919wardeadtotals,seeH.C.Engelbrecht andF.C.Hanighen, MerchantsofDeath (NewYork:Dodd,Mead,1934),155.For1940swardeadtotals,see RachikFaramazyan,DisarmamentandtheEconomy(Moscow:Progress,1978),911,23,35,and67.Faramazyan notesthattheU.S.willpayforitsIndoChinaWarinthe1960sand1970swellintothe twentyfirstcentury.HistoricalserialviolenceparallelsintheU.S.:18611865,1%,17751783,0.6%,18461848 and19411946,0.2%,19171918,0.1%,and1898,19501953,and19641973,lessthan0.1%.See WorldAlmanac andBookofFacts,1990(NewYork:WorldAlmanac,1990),792andHistoricalStatisticsoftheUnitedStates, ColonialTimesto1970,Part1(WhitePlains,NY:KrausInternational,1989),TableSeries68,8 asaccessed afterrecommendationsbytheU.S.PentagonLibrary,anonymoustelephoneinterviewbytheauthor,3July1990. 454 RichardRhodes,ManMadeDeath:ANeglectedMortality, JournaloftheAmericanMedicalAssociation 260 (5August1988):68687.Rhodesnotesalsothedangerofnationalisminmodernconflict,whichincreasingly affectsmostlyciviliansinthedeathtoll climbingfrom50%ofthedeathtoll(1940s)to85%(1980s).Inthe 1920s,LewisRichardson,afounderofpeaceandconflictresolutionresearch(andstatisticalmeteorology), furnishedabasisforsuchnumbersofthedeadinwar,whenheinitiated theclassificationofEuropean(Great Powers)wardeadin300warsfrom18201949 usinglogarithmsofwarswithonetotenmilliondeadperwar seeEditorsIntroduction, LewisF.Richardson,StatisticsofDeadlyQuarrels (Pittsburgh,PA:BoxwoodPress, 1960),vixii.SeealsAppendixB. 455 EduardoGaleano, OpenVeinsofLatinAmerica,trans.CedricBelfrage(NewYork:MonthlyReviewPress, 1973),4953.

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456 relatedfaminedead,exceedninetyfivepercentofthepopulationorninetyfivemilliondead. 457 ThiswasatatimewhenfiftymillionEuropeanslivedwestoftheUrals.

AfricanandAsianwardeadcountsareslightlylessstaggering.Forexample,W.E.B.du BoisestimateddeathsfromtheAfricanslavetradeandrelatedwarsatsixtymillion,ortwenty
458 fivepercentoftheAfricanpeople,duringtheperiodfromthe1500stothemid1800s. Over

sixteenmilliondiedfromEuropeanwarsinIndiafromthe1600stothemid1900s,atollthat doesnotincludestructuralviolenceonAsianplantationscopiedfrommodelsinLatin
459 America. DeathtollsfromAsianwarsaveragedunderfivepercent,includingaberrationssuch 460 asthe18501864TaipingRebellionandthe18211856GreekTurkishwar. Attheturnofthe

twentiethcentury,inacrudeSouthernAfricanpreludetothe1940sHolocaust,twentythousand DutchorHuguenotBoersandeightythousandHerrero(Namibian)peoplediedinintense
461 AfricanEuropeanwars.

456 WilliamM.Denevan,TheNativePopulationoftheAmericasin1492

(Madison:UniversityofWisconsinPress, 1976),2. 457 RoxanneDunbarOrtiz,TheIndigenousQuestions,inGeorgeIrvinandXabierGorostiaga,eds.,TowardsAn AlternativeforCentralAmericaandtheCaribbean(London:GeorgeAllen&Unwin,1985),230and236. 458 W.E.BurghardtduBois,Africa ItsPlaceinModernHistory(Girard,KS:HaldemanJuliusPublications, 1930,andKTOPress,1977),46.Russianestimates(foratradescarcelyinvolvingRussia)varybetween5055 milliondeadseeN.Kochakova,ReviewofS.Yu.AbramovasTheHistoryoftheSlaveTradeontheUpper GuineaCoast(USSRAcademyofSciences,AfricanInstitute), AfricainSovietStudies,1968 (Moscow:Nauka, 1969),25152.Otheranalystsestimatefrom30to100milliondeade.g.,BasilDavidson, AfricainHistory, Themes andOutlines (London:Macmillan,1968),191.ExplorerslikeHenryStanleybelievedthatthecontinentalAfrican populationgrewfrom150millionto205millionfromthe1750stothelate1800sseeWilliamHailey,AnAfrican Survey,AStudyofProblemsArisinginAfricaSouthoftheSahara(London:OxfordUniversityPress,1938),104 and1310.TheEuropeanpopulationinAfricamanagingtheslavetradecarnagegrewfrom25,000(1800)to 750,000(late1800s),whenEnglandhad31millionpeopleseeRobinHallett, Africato1875,AModernHistory (AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,1970),36869. 459 TeresaHayter,TheCreationofWorldPoverty,AnAlternativetotheBrandtReport (London:PlutoPress,1981), 54and57. 460 RuthLegerSivard,WorldMilitaryandSocialExpenditures,11thed.(Washington,D.C.:WorldPriorities,1986), 26.Measuredregularlybycensus,Chinaspopulationgrewfrom100million(1600s),and275million(1700s),to 430million(1850s)seeGwenddaMilston, AShortHistory ofChina (Stanmore,NewSouthWales:Cassell AustraliaLtd.,1978),219and238. 461 LuciaAmesMead, SwordsandPloughsharesorTheSupplantingoftheSystemofWarbytheSystemofLaw, ForewordbyBerthavonSuttner(NewYork:G.P.PutnamsSons,1912),225.ForNamibianwardead,seeRuth First, SouthWestAfrica (Baltimore:Penguin,1963),28.FortheoriginsoftheEuropeanconcentrationcampfrom ThirdWorldwarandslavery,referHannahArendt,TheOriginsofTotalitarianism (NewYork:Harcourt,Braceand Co.,1951),18797and415ff.

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Thiscarnagemarkedan18851905shiftfromprivatecolonialenterprisetopublicneo colonialenterprise,endingwithreformsinEuropeancolonialismafterthedeathofaboutthirty percent(seventoeightmillion),ofthetwentyeightmillionpeoplelivingintheBelgian

462 Congo. Ecologicalaftershocksofplaguefollowingwar,asrecordedbyE.FranklinFrazier,

werenotasintensiveoverthelongruninareasphysicallyunsuitableforwhiteEuropeans. Thoseunsuitableareaswere:China,Japan,India,Africa(betweentheSaharaandSouthAfrica), SoutheastAsia(includingIndonesia),andmuchofthePacificIslands(whereoriginally

463 decimatedpopulationscompetedwellinthe1900s).

Ingeneral,throughoutthetwoorthreecenturiesofEuropeancolonialism,organized oppositiontothefiercestoftheworldswarsthatmutilatedtheAmericanlandscapecamefrom Europeanfeministsandpacifists.Atthecoreofthisopposition,beginninginthe1500s, throughouttheHanseaticLeaguesneutralcities,pacifistBrethren,Quakers,andMennonites opposedtheEuropeanstatesystemofwaritself.Later,theseHanseaticLeaguecitieswerethe

464 firstEuropeanentitiestosigninternationalnonaggressiontreatieswithCostaRica. Butfew

462 WilliamRogerLouisandJeanStenger,eds.,

E.D.MorelsHistoryoftheCongoReformMovement (Oxford: ClarendonPress,1968),xand25260.EdmundDeneMorelandhiswifeMaryFlorenceRichardsonledthis reform,fundedbyWilliamCadbury.ButtheseintensewarsinAngolaandtheCongoRiverBasinwereresolved largelybywhatbecametheworldslargestnonviolentorpeacechurch.ThiswastheKimbanguistChurch,with anestimated35millionmembers,ledbyLucienLuntadilaseeLanzadelVasto,SimonKimbanguetla NonviolenceAfricaine, JeuneAfrique385(2026May1968):6265.Theauthorhasnotbeenabletoascertain presentmembershiplevelsbecauseofadversepoliticalconditions.Inthe1990s,thesocalledEuropeanpeace churches,theBrethren,Quakers,andMennonites,numberedaltogetherabout1millionpeople,notcounting unknowntotalsintheUSSR.ForKimbanguisthistory,e.g.,theAprilSept.1921antiwarcampaignofSimon KimbangulaunchedfromNKamba(nearKinshasa),the19211959killingofallbut2,000membersof37,000 Kimbanguistfamiliesinprison,andtheleadershipofmenandwomenincommunitybuildingandwarrelief stretchingtoAngolaafter 1959,seeMarionKeeneyPreheim,SendUsYoungMenWithoutGuns,CanadianMennonite,22Aug.1969,6. 463 E.FranklinFrazier, RaceandCultureintheModernWorld(NewYork:AlfredKnopf,1957),1830and8190. Pacificplaguepercentagesasawholeapparentlyreached33%,butover80%ofthenativeblacksorIndians died,e.g.,inAustraliaorNewZealand,respectively and77%oftheHawaiians. 464 CecilJohnCadoux,PhilipofSpainandtheNetherlands,AnEssayonMoralJudgementsinHistory (Oxford: Archon,1969),70and220ff.SeealsoCorneliusKrahn,DutchAnabaptism,Origin,Spread,LifeandThought (14501600) (TheHague:MartinusNijhof,1968),33,38,42,69,7980,91,19194,207,220,and260aswellas chapteroneontheHanseaticLeague.Sincethen,fewstatesotherthantheNetherlandshavetakenthetimetotryto combinehumanrightsandinternationaldecisionmakingseeMinistryofForeignAffairsoftheKingdomofthe Netherlands, HumanRightsandForeignPolicy (TheHague:MinistryofForeignAffairs,1982),23and8485. WomenleaderswhoopposedEuropeancolonialismwerepunishedbymassEuropeanmovementsthatsomeclaim tohaveexterminatedninemillionwomenaswitchesduringthecolonialperiod.SeeStarhawk,DreamingtheDark, Magic,SexandPolitics(Boston:BeaconPress,1982),187and200.

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465 EuropeansdidmuchtostoptheAmericankillingorsuffering. Ofthehundredsoftreatiesco

signedbyEuropeanandAmericanIndiandiplomats,onlyDutchandAmericanIndiantreatiesin
466 Surinam,duringthelate1500sandearly1600s,mayactuallyhavebeenhonored. Violent

Europeansinvadedlikemassiveearthmovingmachines,plowingIndianpeopleapart,over,and under,voidingareasofpopulationtoberefilledbyEuropeansinnationslikeCostaRicaandthe UnitedStates. Bycontrast,internationalconflictinareassurroundingtheSanJuanRiverresultedin highEuropeanratherthanIndianwardeadcounts.OverhalfoftheHispanicEuropeanCosta Ricanmilitiafightinginthe1850sRivasWalkerwardiedinthatwar includingayoungboy

467 whosenamegracesthenationalairport,JuanSantaMara. ClotildeMaraObregonQuesada

claimsthattenthousand,ortenpercentofthe totalCostaRicanpopulation,diedeitherfrom
468 warrelatedcholeraordirectlyfromthatwar. IgorNemiraclaimsthatanother200,000

people,mostlyHispanicNicaraguans,diedinthisareaduringviolentforeigninterventionsin
469 1909,1912,and1927. Yetanothercostlybattlewouldbefoughtinthesameareain1978 470 1979,todeterminetheoutcomeoftheSandinistaRevolution.

465 Educationalstatisticshererevealmuchstructuralviolence.Forexample,90%oftheincomingstudentsinU.S.

IndianschoolsaredeniedthekindofbilingualeducationthatwouldallowthemtonavigatethegapbetweenEnglish andtheirownlanguage.Thiscultureandlanguagegapcontinuesincollege,where,forexample,lessthan3%of IndianorU.S.NativeAmericanstudentswhoentercollegegraduatefromcollege,andstillfewerearnPh.D.ssee WilliamE.Coffer,SleepingGiants (Washington,D.C.:UniversityPressofAmerica,1979),3335.InLatin America,Cuba,CostaRica,Ecuador,Guatemala,Mexico,Nicaragua,Paraguay,andPeruclaimtoaccommodate IndianculturesintheclassroomseeKjellJ.Lings, UnElementodeReflexinTerriblementeDinmico,Antologa TematicaSobrelaNuevaEducacinIndgenaenAmricaLatina (Stockholm:InstituteofLatinAmericanStudies OccasionalPapersSeries,1987),4272. 466 A.HyattVerrill,TheAmericanIndian,North,South,andCentralAmerica (NewYork:NewHome,1927),70. ThosetreatiespredatedEnglishcolonialism. 467 RichardandKarenZubrisandMariaHiltunenBiesanz,TheCostaRicans (EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall, CostaRica/EUNEDEdition,1982),20. 468 ClotildeMaraObregonQuesada,CostaRicaNicaragua,ProblematicaInternaeInternacionaldela DelimitacinFronteriza,18211860(MAhistorythesis,UniversityofCostaRica,1985),209and211.CostaRica thenhad100,000people. 469 IgorNemira, Nicaragua,LaGuerraNoDeclaradadeE.E.U.U.(BuenosAires:EditorialAnteo,1984),34. 470 Thiscriticalbattlewillbediscussedinthenextchapter,chaptersix.SeethevariousarticleswritteninJuneJuly 1979byAlexDrehslerfortheSanDiego(CA)Union.DrehslercoveredthateventasaU.S.reporter,anddescribed whathesawastrenchstylewarfarereminiscentofWorldWarI.Conversationswiththeauthor,TheAmerican University(December1989).

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SuchhardcoreserialviolenceamongEuropeanemigrantsconvergedafterthe1860sin theWesternCaribbeanandtheMiddleEast.Therewardsofsuchcostlyvictories,however,
471 remaineddubious. Sixtyyearsofsporadicwarfarebeginninginthe1860sinCuba,for 472 example,costthelivesof250,000people. SuchviolencewaslessfrequentamongEuropean

emigrantstotheMiddleEast,anexceptionbeingthe1920sblockadeofLebanonbyEurope.
473 ThatblockadetodefeattheOttomanEmpirecostLebanon100,000ofits420,000people.

Thelevelsofintoleranceinwarsurgedinthe1940s,followedbywhatwillbedescribed asserialviolenceafter1945.InCostaRica,accustomedtoresolvingconflictbydemocratic means,thisintolerancewaslimitedtotheimprisonmentofGermanspeakingCostaRicansin

474 militarycampslikethosehousingcitizensofJapaneseancestryintheUnitedStates.

Elsewhere,intolerancesanktonewdepthsineventslikethedrowningofonemillionChinese peopleintheYellowRiverbytheKuomintang(1938),orthebombingsofHiroshima(78,000
475 deaths),Tokyo(83,000),andDresden(135,000).

Atthesametime,intolerancedegeneratedintogenocideinPoland,Russia,and
476 Yugoslavia. BradfordLyttlenotesthatthegenocideof(whatamountedto)thehostagesinthe

NazideathcampspeakedinresponsetosaturationbombingraidsonGermany,asinitiatedbyan
477 Englishgeneral. Paradoxically butquiteinkeepingwithbothofthecounterintuitive

hypothesesofthisdissertation althoughsixmillionJewswerekilled,Jewshadthehighest survivalratesinthosestatesthatusednonviolentstruggleagainsttheNazis:thatis,inItaly,

471 JamesE.Bristol,NonviolenceNotFirstForExport,AFSC

Pamphlet,1972,4.Suchvictoriesweremutually destructive,similartotheU.S.1860swar.From18301890,e.g.,theU.S.taxpayerspaidtheequivalentof$1 milliontokilleachIndian,accordingtoJohnCollier, AmericasColonialRecord (ResearchSeriesNo.119,Fabian Publications,Ltd.,n.d.),31. 472 JosephJudge,TheManyLivesofOldHavana, NationalGeographic,August1989,290. 473 RiadB.Tabbarah,BackgroundtotheLebaneseConflict, InternationalJournalofComparativeSociology20 (1979):107108. 474 LeonardBird, CostaRica,TheUnarmedDemocracy (London:SheppardPress,1984),3738.TheU.S.costof warfrom1900to1945exceeded$2trillionseeScottNearing, EconomicsforthePowerAge (EastPalatka:World Events,1952),21. 475 SIPRI,WeaponsofMassDestructionandtheEnvironment (NewYork:Crane,Russak&Co.,1977),6263. 476 RaoulHilberg,TheDestructionoftheEuropeanJews(Chicago:QuadrangleBooks,1961),55556and665666. 477 Fortheinterwovenhistoriesofthedeathcamps,saturationbombing,andnonviolentconflictresolution,see BradfordLyttle,TheHolocaustandWorldWarII, MidwestPacifistCommentator,10Nov.1988,24and69. SeealsoJohnSwomley, AmericanEmpire,ThePoliticalEthicsofTwentiethCenturyEmpire (New York:MacMillan,1970),76and8586.

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Denmark,Finland,Norway,Bulgaria,Luxembourg,andtheRussianrepublicoftheSoviet
478 Union.

Acomparativelylowerbodycountfromnonviolentconflictresolution,aspracticedby CostaRica,canalsobefoundinotherstatistics. InnorthwestIndiaduringanticolonialconflict inthelate1920sand1930s,forexample,oneofthebloodiesteventstookplaceinthecentral SikhTemplecourtyardinAmritsar.ThecolonialpoliceandEnglishadviserstherekilled379 peoplebecauseafewhadforgottentousenonviolence.Agroupassaultedthepoliceandthe

479 advisors,whothenfiredintothecrowds. However,onlytwononviolentprotestersdiedinthe

crucialconflictoftheGandhiancampaigns.ThatbattleinApril1930involved2,500nonviolent fighters,orsatyagrahisledbySarojiniNaidu,aCambridgeeducatedwomanfromMadras tryingtoentertheDharasanaSaltworks,150milesnorthofBombay.Underasweltering temperatureof116degreesintheshade,Naidumarshalledherforcesonbloodstainedground againsttheincessantblowsofsteelstuddedBritishlathis orpolicesticks.Thegoryeventhelped

480 tocrystallizeworldopinionagainstthebitterviolenceofEnglishcolonialism. Bytheendof

the1930s,only8,000IndiansandahandfulofEnglishsoldiershaddiedinthisprototypical
481 nonviolentstruggletofreeIndiafromEuropeancolonialismandtheopiumtrade.

ThirdWorldSerialViolenceintheWorldsWars Thedominotheoryofworldordertheoristscanjustifybutnotexplaintheincreased intensityofwar,insecurity,andunderdevelopmentinCostaRicaafterremilitarizationinthe

478 For1940sJewishsurvivalrates,seeLucyDavidowicz,TheWarAgainsttheJews,19331945,10thed.(New

York:Seth/FreePress,1986),38890and403.IsraeliresearchersnotethatPoland,Yugoslavia,andtheSoviet Unioneachlostabout10%oftheirpeopleinthe1940s apercentagesimilartothatinCostaRicainits1850s RivasWalkerwarwhereas,in19131919,FranceandGermanyeachlostabout5%.Incontrast,from1945to 1985,theIsraeliserialviolencelevelwasunder0.3%seeBaruchKimmerling,MakingConflictaRoutine: CumulativeEffectsoftheArabJewishConflictUponIsraeliSociety,inMosheLissak,ed., IsraeliSocietyandIts DefenseEstablishment,TheSocialandPoliticalImpactofaProtractedViolentConflict (Totowa,NJ:FrankCass, 1984),17.Aswillbeexplainedfurtheron,Lebanonlost510%inthe1970sand1980s.SeeAppendixBformore onIsrael. 479 JamesE.Bristol,Nonviolence,NotFirstforExport,AFSCPamphlet,Oct.1972,6.Bristoladdsthat125 peoplewerekilledundersimilarcircumstancesinSharpeville,SouthAfrica,in1960. 480 RobertPayne,TheLifeandDeathofMahatmaGandhi (NewYork:E.P.Dutton&Co.,1969),39698andalso SarojiniNaidu, SpeechesandWritingsofSarojiniNaidu(Madras:G.A.NatesanandCo.,n.d.),viiviii. 481 MulfordQ.Sibley,TheQuietBattle,WritingsontheTheoryandPracticeofNonviolentResistance (NewYork: Anchor,1963),8182.Ananalogyinnorthernstatesoccurredfrom1913to1919in Englishprisons,duringthe pathbreakingstrugglestodecriminalizetherighttorefusetokillforthestate when71warresistersdiedand31 wentinsanefromtorture.SeeJohnGraham, ConscriptionandConscience,AHistory,19161919 (London:George Allen&Unwin,1922),35153.

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1980s.Neithercantheantidependencyoutlook whichdefineswarfareasastruggleto controlthesurplusextractionofnaturalresourcesexplainwhytheisthmusandMexicoshould beabattleground,whenthetworegionstogetherrepresentunderonepercentoftheUnited Statesincomefromforeigntrade.Intheearly1980s,thisconflictintheisthmusdid,however, motivateMexicotowardworkingwithGuatemala,Nicaragua,andCostaRicaforaContadora peaceprocess.MexicoemphasizeditsneedforregionaldialoguewithstateslikeNicaraguaand CostaRicatostimulateisthmianpeaceplans.Mexicoalsoarrangedspecialoilcreditagreements

482 withCuba,Nicaragua,andCostaRica, tominimizetheLebanonizationorBalkanizationofthe

isthmus. Butstatebystateserialviolencepercentagesdocontrastintensityandconflictresolution levelsthehigherthepercentageofconflictintensity,thelowerthepotentialforpeaceful resolution regardlessofthesynchronicityofsuchintenseconflict(indicatedbyparentheses). DespitethehighrateofviolencetoitsnorthinNicaraguaandnumerousinterventionsinPanama sincethe1850s,CostaRicaitselfrankedrespectablylowinsuchserialviolence.From1945to 1990,rankedonanoverallspectrumofnations,CostaRica(withongoingconflictbetween1948

483 and1990)liesonthelowsideofthecontinuumwithCuba(19521990),Chile (19731989),

andIsrael(19481990),allunderonepercent(D onthegraphbelow). Algeria(19451965),Iran(19461989),Iraq(19611990),Colombia(19481990), Guatemala(19541990),Afghanistan(19781990),ElSalvador(19691990),andtherecently unitedYemen(19481990)rankalongthiscontinuumattwopercentdeadorlower(C onthe graphbelow).Uganda(19641984)andNicaragua(19451990),atfourpercent(B onthegraph below),extendhigher.Finally,Laos(19451990),Lebanon(19581990),Vietnam(19451990),

482 LuisMaira,LaPolticaLatinoamricanadelaAdministracinReagan:DelDiseoArmonisoalasPrimeras

Dificultades,inCentroamrica:CrisisyPolticaInternacional,3ded.(MexicoCity:SigloXXI,1985),161and 18586. 483 At1015yearsinlength,thewarsinbothChileandAfghanistanlackthe20yearsindurationnecessaryto qualifyasserial.Theyareincludedforreferencepurposes,sincetheseevents andotherhighlypublicizedwars liketheIsraeliconflictandtheinvasionofHungaryandCzechoslovakia measuremuchloweronthisspectrum thanmightbeexpected(e.g.,Israel)ortoolowtobemeasured(e.g.,HungaryandCzechoslovakia).Thenumbers whicharerelevantarethepercentages,notthegeopolitical orserendipitoussynchronicityofwarsbetween1945to 1990.

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Kampuchea(19651990),andNorthKorea(19501970),haveeachexperiencedserialviolence levelsoffivepercentandabove,reachingthehighsideofthiscontinuum(Aonthegraph below). Fromthegraphbelow,itcanbeseenthatthestatesatthevortexofglobalconflictzones withfivepercentorhigherserialviolence(A)havealowpotentialforconflictresolution.These statesareLebanon(thehighestlevels)aswellasLaos,Vietnam,Kampuchea,Nicaragua,and NorthKorea.UgandaandNicaraguahavesomewhatlessintractableconflict.CostaRica appearsasananomalousstate,which,ifmilitarized,shouldhaveahigherlevelofserialviolence thanitdoes.Israelspositioncanbepartlyexplainedbythefactthatithasverydifferentserial violencelevelsamongitsEuropean(counted)andPalestinian(oftenuncounted)populations. Statesunder(C)and(D)wouldappeartohavelessserialviolenceandmorepotentialfor successfulconflictresolutionbynonviolentintervention. Inotherwords,thosestatesemphasizingalessviolentapproachtoconflictresolution shouldbeexpectedtohaveamoresuccessfulrecordinthepeacefulresolutionofconflict.A nonviolentorlessviolentapproach,asfollowedbyCostaRica,shouldtendtoleadtolesskilling inwarfare,asmeasuredbytheserialviolenceindicator.Becauseofthislowerserialviolence level,oralowerdialecticofkillingandvengeance,ahigherpotentialforpeacefulsecurityand developmentshouldalsobeexpectedinstatesrelyingonnonviolentorlessviolentconflict resolution.

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BarGraphofSerialViolencePercentages,ByState

(A)

Laos,Lebanon,Vietnam andKampuchea NorthKorea Uganda,Nicaragua Afghanistan,ElSalvador Yemen,Guatemala Iran,Algeria,Colombia Iraq Israel Chile,Cuba,CostaRica

==================================== =========================== ==================== ============== ========= ======= ====== ==== === 0 1 2 3 4 510Percent

(B) (C)

(D)

DecreasingPotentialforSuccessinConflictResolution, asSerialViolenceIncreasesfrom(D)to(A) Thehigh serialviolencelevelsresemblethetenpercent1940slevelsinPoland, Yugoslavia,andtheSovietUkraine.Allinall,aminimumof60percentofthewarsandthe deathsinwarsintheThirdWorldbetween1945and1990 oranestimated60to70ofthe estimated99to101warssince1945,aswellasfrom12to16.8milliondeathsofthetotal20to 25millionwardeathssince1945 occurredinoneofthefourglobalconflictzones.Inother words,since1945,inaworldwithoversixbillionpeopleby theyear2000,thefourglobalwar zonesheld2ofevery10people,andover6ofevery10(orthreetimesmore)warsandwar
484 deaths.

484 IstvanKende,WarsofTenYears,

JournalofPeaceResearch[JPR]15(1978):23941andGrardChaliand, StrategicAtlas,AComparativeGeopoliticsoftheWorldsPowers,trans.byTonyBerrett,mapsbyCatherinePetie (NewYork:Harper&Row,1985),4850.Forworldpopulationnumbers,seePopulationReferenceBureau,1985 PopulationDataSheetofthePopulationReferenceBureau,Washington,D.C.,1985aswellasU.N., World PopulationProspects,EstimatesandProjectionsasAssessedin1984(NewYork:U.N.,1986).Thesefigures concern19451985inparticular.PleaseseealsoAppendixB.Thepopulationpercentagesofdeadbywarwere higherintheAmericas(9599%)andAfricaorLebanon(25%)beforethe1930s whenmuchlowerpopulation totalsobtainedoverall.

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After1945,intensewarfarewasfocusedinthefourglobalwarzones,withbodycounts whichequaledorsurpassedthetenpercentdeadinPolandinthe1940s.Post1945potentialfor globalviolenceclimbedintheearly1960s,whensixoffourteenUnitedStatesNationalSecurity CouncilmembersvotedtoattacktheSovietUnionwithnuclearbombsinadisputeoverCuban

485 sovereignty.

HardcoreviolenceintheThirdWorldoftenremainsobscure.Littleexistsinprint,for example,abouthowtheSandinistaswereinitiallysupportedbyMexico,Venezuela,andCosta Rica,butnotbyCuba,theSovietUnion,ortheUnitedStates. NoCampDavidAccordswere appliedtotheisthmus.AtthetimeoftheJuly1979Revolution,theNicaraguantotalsofwar deadroseto50,000,includingCostaRicanskilledinborderfightingandintheSandinista

486 struggleinNicaragua,withanother160,000woundedororphaned. Fromthe1979Revolution

inNicaraguato1990,another50,000Nicaraguans,Hondurans,andCostaRicansmayhavedied
487 inContrawar. FightingduringthisdecadefocusedinsouthernNicaraguaandnorthernCosta

Rica,aswellasnorthwesternNicaragua,where,forinstance,estimatesforthenumberdead
488 rangedupto600fromasinglemid1980sSanJuandelNortefirefight. After1980,Costa

485 MarcusRaskin,

Being&Doing(NewYork:RandomHouse,1971),xiiiand63.Raskinobservedthevoteasa WhiteHouseaideintheU.S.NationalSecurityCouncilduringthe(1962)worldMissileCrisis. 486 DanielOrtegaSaavedra,SixthAssemblyoftheNonAlignedMovement,PlenaryStatement(6September 1979), CombatiendoPorlaPaz(MexicoCity:SigloXXI,1988),2021.SeealsoMirtaMuroRodrquez,etal., NicaraguaylaRevolucinSandinista (Havana:EditorialdeCienciasSociales,1984),229.Inanactionhistorically analogoustothe1952CubanguerrillaattackontheMoncadaGarrisoninSantiago,Cuba,Sandinistaguerrillas attackedaSanCarlos,Nicaragua,militarygarrisonon13Oct.1977.LaunchedfromSolentinameIslandinLake Nicaragua,thisSanCarlosbattlewasfoughtwhereLakeNicaraguaemptiesintotheSanJuanRiver,andledtothe 1979RevolutionlaunchedfromSanJos.See HistoriaEconmicadeRoSanJuan (Managua:Centrode InvestigacionesyEstudiosdelaReformaAgraria,n.d.),10and15073. 487 Numbersvaryonthistimeframe:(1)for1978toNovember1979(aftertheJulyRevolution),accordingtothe Nicaraguangovernment,therewere35,000NicaraguandeadseeSecretariadeRelacionesExterioresdeFSLN, BalancePreliminar:ANoventaDiasdelaRevolucinSandinista,inGregorioSelser,ed., Nicaragua:Elementos Histricos,Estratgicos,yTacticosdelaRevolucinFSLN(MexicoCity:SEPLA,1979)(2)for19801987, accordingtotheNicaraguangovernment,therewere18,000deadseeAgendaInternacional,FactSheet:TheCosts oftheWar,(April1987),MimeofromtheNicaraguanrepresentationtotheU.N.,n.p.and(3)for19801987,see alsotheWitnessforPeaceestimateof22,500deadinCasualtiesoftheWar,from1980toJune1987, Witnessfor Peace,Feb.March1988,12. 488 FridaModak,NlaCIAPudoManteneraPastoraenSanJuandelNorte, ElDaInternacional,17April1984, 16.TheSandinistaslost72.Before1979,structuralviolenceinNicaraguawashighestintheNicaraguanzone acrosstheSanJuanRiverfromnortheastCostaRica,with,e.g.,thehighestinfantmortalityratespercapita.That samezonehadonephysician,nopavedroads, andonlyahandfulofteachersfortheprimarygradesseeWillieNey,

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Ricanwardeadtotalsmovedclosertothosefromthe1980sGrenadianorMalvinaswars, althoughtheactualnumbersremainedhazy,sincefewCostaRicannewspaperswouldwillingly
489 reportsuchnumbers. Meanwhile,whattheKerryCommissioncalledticketpunching,ordiplomaticprotection,

begantocharacterizethearmsanddrugbusinessintheisthmus.Suchticketpunching referringtothepunchingofonesticketatapubliceventorwhileridingapublicconveyance, suchasatrain describeddiplomaticprotectiongiventodrugtraffickers.Thisprotection grantedimmunityfromprosecution tothedrugtraffickerswhoclaimedtobeanticommunists, astheyarmedtheContraswhofoughtagainsttheSandinistasinNicaragua,andusedthe protectionthusaffordedtotrafficundisturbedincocainewithminimumdangerofdrug

490 enforcementprosecution.

Thisdiplomaticprotectionshieldedtheprofiteersofthearmsanddrugbusiness,who
491 wereresponsiblefordrugrelateddeathandviolenceevenintheUnitedStates. The

arrangementputCostaRicadirectlyintheanticommunist,orantiantidependency, diplomatic(andeconomicbrokerage)centerofthecocainewaveheadingoverlandattheUnited States.Asadiplomaticshield,itproducedanarcoticsprosecutorsnightmare,protecting mercenariesanddrugtraffickerswhoblendedpoliticallywiththeContrastoavoid

TheSandinistaRevolutionaryProgramorReality?ACaseStudyofOneCommunityinSouthernNicaragua(BA InternationalRelationsThesis,ButlerUniversity,1986),4,78,and1185. 489 MiguelSobrado,ContrarrevolucinenCostaRica:HistoriadeUnaGuerraOculta,inGabrielCoronado, MiguelSobrado,andLedaTrejos,eds.,QuinQuiereLaGuerraenCostaRica?(SanJos:InstitutoCostarricense deEstudiosSociales[ICES]andCoordinadoraRegionaldeInvestigacionesEconmicasySociales[CRIES],1988), 1617,20,and24.AccordingtoSobrado,thewardeadnumberswerethehighestinareasdominatedbyproBatista exCubansorcubiches,i.e.,CIAtrainedmercenariesfromtheBayofPigsfiasco timingtheirattackswith CostaRicanelectionstopersuadeCostaRicanstosupporttheContranetworkandtoproduceelectronictechnology toaidtheContras.CostaRicangovernmentcensusestimatesplacetheinvolvedCostaRicanpopulationatbetween 5,000and10,000see CensodePoblacin,1984,Vol.1(SanJos:MinisteriodeGobernacinyPolica,Imprenta Nacional,1986)andalso,Poblacin,Total,UrbanayRural,PorProvincias,CantonesyDistritos,Vol.2(San Jos:MinisteriodeEconoma,IndustriayComercio,DireccinGeneraldeEstadsticasyCensos,1974),1718. Evenafter1979,only1,000CostaRicanmenpatrolledthe200mileNicaraguaCostaRicaborder,accordingto DennisVolman,USAntiSandinistaEffortsBegintoStrainCR, ChristianScienceMonitor[CSM],3July1984, 14.Seechapter6also. 490 (KerryCommission),SubcommitteeonTerrorism,NarcoticsandInternationalOperations,Senate,Committeeon ForeignRelations, Drugs,LawEnforcement,andForeignPolicy,100thCongress,2dsess.,S.Prt.100165,1989,2, 79and124.Foruseofthephraseticketpunchingtomeanstatusclimbinginacorporateormilitarybureaucracy aswell,see:GetYourTicketPunchedinWashington,D.C.,NationsBusiness68(Aug.1980):18orNicholas Lemann,ThinkinglikeaCaptain:HowtoMakeGeneral, WashingtonMonthly10(May1978):2128. 491 Inthe1980s,accordingtorandompublicopinionpolls,U.S.citizensconsideredcocainethesinglemost dangerousthreattoU.S.securityseeJamesVanWest,TheUSStateDepartmentsNarcoticsControlPolicyinthe Americas, JISWA30(SummerFall1988):23.

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492 AstheContrawarwentfrombadtoworse,cocainedeathsincreasedinsidethe prosecution.

UnitedStatesbyeightypercent,withthemetropolitanareasofMiamiandWashington,D.C.,
493 toppingthecharts. Evenmoresignificantly,between1982and1988,socialandclinicaltrend

researchonintravenouscocaineuseinurbancenters,fromSanFranciscotoNewYorkCity, indicatedthatbingeusersofcocainewerethesinglelargestgrowingfactorinthenational
494 transmissionofAIDS.

Meanwhile,duringtheContrawaragainstNicaragua,overallcasualtiesandbodycounts werelowertothenorthofNicaragua.From1978to1985,forexample,about200,000people diedaltogetherduringneighboringwarsinGuatemalaandElSalvador.ButGuatemalaandEl Salvador,withlargerpopulationsthanNicaragua,alsoregisteredserialviolencelevelsarounda

495 thirdofNicaraguas,orclosertothatofCostaRica. Overall,from1945to1990,anestimated

110,000to250,000peoplediedinwarthroughouttheisthmus,inadditiontothe50,000war
496 deadassociatedwiththeeventsleadingtothe1979NicaraguanRevolution.

ReverberationsintheGlobalConflictZones Militarizationorviolentconflictresolutionhaspromotedhardcoreserialviolenceand underdevelopmentintheWesternCaribbean.Butthisviolentconflictresolutionhasalso infectedthethreeotherglobalconflictzones,thatis,theMiddleEast,SoutheastAsia,and SouthernAfrica.Itshouldbenotedhereasastrongcaveatthatthenumbersofpeoplekilledin

492 KerryCommission,

ForeignPolicy,2,79,and124.FordeathscausedbycocaineintheU.S.,seeDoWe KnowtheLethalDoseof Cocaine? JournalofForensicSciences32(March1987):303312.Pleaseseechapters7 8forthepoliticalandeconomicdamageofthearmsfordrugtrade. 493 NationalInstituteonDrugAbuse[NIDA], AnnualData1987(Washington,D.C.:HealthandHumanServices, Series1[7],1988):15253.Thissurveycovered27U.S.cities.ThereisstillnoU.S.widedataoncocaine comparabletothatavailableforAIDS.SeealsoJimColliverandJoanneGampel,ADecadeofDAWN:Heroin RelatedCases,19761985,Mimeo fromNIDAandDAWN(DrugAbuseWarningNetwork),n.d.,13and20. 494 TheCocaineAIDSConnection, ScienceNews,9July1988,27. 495 GregorioSelser,PresenciadelaInternacionalSocialistaEnAmricaLatina,inCentroamrica:Crisisy PolticaInternacional,3ded.(MexicoCity:SigloXXI,1985),281.ForSalvadoreandata,seeD.C.SanctuaryCity Campaign,FundraisingLetter,1Nov.1986,1andEditor,NaziGermany,ElSalvador,andNonviolent Resistance, MidwestPacifistCommentator,5March1989, 34. 496 Forestimateson1%or250,000deadoftheisthmianpopulationseeJorgeArturoReina, Anlisisdelos ConflictosenAmricaCentral(Heredia:CentrodeEstudiosDemocraticosenAmricaLatina,1987),18.In addition,forestimatesrangingfrom110,000to140,000deadseeRichardR.Fagen, ForgingPeace,TheChallenge ofCentralAmerica (NewYork:BasilBlackwell/PACCA,1987),7n56and59.Likewise,foranestimateof 120,000deadlinkedtotheNicaraguangovernment(NicaraguanNewsAgency),seeWilliamRobinsonandKent Norsworthy,DavidandGoliath,WashingtonsWarAgainstNicaragua(London:ZedBooks,1987),15.For anotherestimateof120,000for19781984,seeRichardGarfield,HealthandDevelopmentinCentralAmerica,in HealthCareintheCaribbean,StudiesinThirdWorldSocieties20(CollegeofWilliamandMary)(Dec.1984):115.

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warafter1945,althoughgenerallymoreaccuratethanpre1945numbers,arestillsubjectto muchdebate.Thebodycountofserialviolenceisnotthatmuchmoreaccuratethanthe estimateddataforlevelsofaccesstohumannecessities,alsousedtomeasuredevelopmentand underdevelopment. Forexample,from1956to1976,theLebaneseserialviolencelevelmayhaveclimbed higherthantheserialviolencelevelforallfourpreviousArabIsraeliwars(estimatedat37,500

497 498 dead). Lebaneseestimatesfor1956to1976rangedfrom10,000to100,000Lebanesedead.

AhighpercentageoftheLebanesedeathswasattributedtorightisttroopsliketheKataebmilitia oftheconservativeChristianPhalange,tiedhistoricallytoFrench,Italian,andSpanishfascism. In1958thismilitiawastrainedbyUnitedStatesadvisorsexperiencedinisthmianmilitary

499 intervention. Bythemid1980s,someLebaneseestimatessurpassed150,000dead,incontrastwiththe

100,000deadinNicaraguaandCostaRica.FromapopulationthesizeofCostaRica,upto 900,000peoplehadalsofledLebanonsincethe19751976war.From1976to1986,the LebaneseGNPfellbysixtypercent,andthecostofreconstructionwasestimatedatover$12

497 TrevorDupuy,ElusiveVictories:TheIsraeliWars,19471974(NewYork:Harper&Row,1978),124,333,and

609.The1948,1967,and1973ArabIsraeliwarscost37,500dead notcountingapparentlyuncounted Palestiniandead. 498 AFSC, ACompassionatePeace,AFutureFortheMiddleEast(NewYork:Hill&Wang,1982),9394or ThomasWersto,ProtectingNoncombatantsinNewKindsofWar, CSM,8January1982,23 forthe1948, 1967,and1973wars.However,otherrespectedcommentatorsestimatedthe19751976Lebanesewardeadat 10,000(ItamarRabinovitch),upwards(EricRouleau, LeMondecorrespondent)to25,000(GeoffreyJansen, Economist) whileIsraeli intelligenceestimateslisted100,000dead,accordingtoNoamChomsky, correspondencewiththeauthor(9April1990).TheAFSCandWerstonumbersof100,000werelowerthanthose claimedinLebanesejournalsthen,especiallyforthefightinginthemountainsabovethecoastalcities,viewedby theauthorinBeirut,MarchApril1976.ButthoseeditionsofBeirutsMondayMorning andthe Stardonotappear tobeavailableforverificationinsidetheU.S.,despitenumerouspersonalandtelephoneinterviewswiththe concernedexBeiruteditorialstaffofthosesameArabjournalsinWashington,D.C.,inthespringof1989. 499 WilliamEllis,APhoenicianIsStillaPhoenician, TheReporter27(11Oct.1962):35.Ellisdescribesthe trainingasdeathsquadtraining.In1976,thecentralKataebmilitiatargetwasTelZaatar,aBeirutworkers quarter,where15,000diedseePaulFindley,TheyDaretoSpeakOut,PeopleandInstitutionsConfrontIsraels Lobby (Westport,CN:LawrenceHill,1985),5.Atleast800 peoplediedinananalogousSabraandShatilabattle seeAFSC,QuestionsandAnswersOnLebanon(Philadelphia:AFSC,1983),7.AmnonKapeliouk,anIsraeli journalist,estimatedthe SabraandShatiladeadin19821983at3,000,almostquadruplingtheIsraeliintelligenceestimateof800dead, accordingtoNoamChomsky,correspondencewiththeauthor(9April1990).On23Oct.1983,241UnitedStates MarinesweretruckbombedseeEdwardDobbins,TheBuckleyAffair:AnatomyofanIntelligenceDisaster, CovertActionInformationBulletin[CAIB],Summer1988,50.

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500 billion. AsmuchastenpercentoftheLebanesepopulationmayhavebeenkilled.Thebirth

ratefailedtokeeppacewiththelosses.SuchintenseconflictinLebanonmayalsohave
501 promptedSovietdiscordandapprehensionoverinvolvementinAfghanistan.

SoutheastAsiahasalsoexperiencedintensewarfare.From1945totheearly1960s, FrenchcolonialisminVietnamkilledasmanyas2,000,000peopleandmutilatedanother
502 680,000peoplebytorture.AftertheUnitedStatesbegantointervenethereinthemid1950s,

Saigonattractedgrowingwavesofrefugees,manyaddictedtoheroinorafflictedwithsuch diseasesasleprosyandthebubonicplague,whileaidformilitarizationpromotedcorruption
503 insteadofdevelopment. WhentheUnitedStateswithdrewin1975,atleast3,000,000

IndoChinesepeoplehaddiedfromthethirtyfiveyearsofrandombombingandwarrelated
504 diseaseandfamine,inadditiontothosekilledbytheFrench. OnthesamepatternasUnited

Statesexperienceintheisthmus,throughwhatmayhavebeenrenegadedeathsquadsinitiatedby theCentralIntelligenceAgency,consequentdeathsquadstherealsopinpointedLaoand
505 Vietnameseleadershipforextinction. Evenafterthewarsofficialendin1975,some890,000 506 unexplodedbombsandmineswouldkillhundredsmore.

Finally,from1960to1990inSouthernAfrica,serialviolencealongthewesterncoast, southfromtheCongoRivermouth,waslowerthanNicaraguasbuthigherthanCostaRicas.In
500 CharlesPercy,TheCostsofConflictintheMiddleEast,GeopoliticsIgnoresHumanSuffering,

CSM,22 December1986,11.OtherestimatesgearedtowardsouthernLebanonmentionanother100,000deadseeKhatmeh Osseiran,TestimonyonHumanitarianConditionsinLebanon,TestimonyforHouseAffairsSubcommitteeon EuropeandtheMiddleEast(25July1989),Mimeo,3and5.By1985,aboutathirdofallLebaneseinfantswere bornphysicallyormentallyhandicappedinonewayoranother,while45%oftheteenagershadturnedtohard drugs,accordingtoasurveybytheAmericanUniversityofBeirutpsychologist,AdnanSabbaghinLebanon InformationProcessingService [LIPS](BritishRefugeeCouncil),14August1985,1.About15to20million internationallymigratingbirdsalsodiedoverLebanonannually,promotingerosionwhenpestinfestedtreesdied seeRickBoling,BatteredBirdsofLebanon, Audubon88(Jan.1986):3639.Theteemingseabottomoffthe LebanesecoastwasthusturnedintoatoxicvoidseeWarMakesLebanonanEcologicalDisasterZone,NYT,31 May1984,A8. 501 ZbigniewBrezezinski,GrandFailure,92.BrezezinskinotesthatSovietacademicoppositiontothisintervention datesfromthewarsbeginning,ledby,e.g.,OlegBogomolov(aWesternCaribbeanspecialist)andYevgeniy Primakov(aMiddleEasternspecialist)withintheMoscowUniversityAcademyofSciences. 502 ArlenEisenBergman,WomensWorkinVietnam, Scienceforthe People,July1975,25.Forthe680,000 woundedortortured,seeRenAlvarezRos,Vietnam:HistoriayPolticaPrquePierdenlosEstadosUnidosla Guerra?(Havana:InstitutodePolticaInternacional,MinisteriodeRelacionesExteriores,1965),79. 503 JoanMcMichael,HealthintheThirdWorld,StudiesfromVietnam (Nottingham,England:BertrandRussell PeaceFoundation,1976),305306.TheestimatedcostofkillingoneVietnamesecommunistin1969was $322,000seeAFSC, AnatomyofAntiCommunism (NewYork:Hill&Wang,1969),125. 504 NoamChomsky,InterventioninVietnamandCentralAmerica:ParallelsandDifferences, MRW 37(Sept. 1985):12orMennoniteCentralCommittee,ATimetoHealandtoHelp,AnMCCStudyGuide,Mimeo,n.d. 505 VigilanteTerror,AReportonCIAInspiredDeathSquadsinthePhilippines, NationalReporter,Fall1987,30. 506 JanMather,TheScarsofWar,Observer(London),16Oct.1977,7.

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theearly1960s,forexample,55,000peoplediedand500,000weredisplacedbecauseofex
507 CubanandUnitedStatesairraidsinAngola. Inthe1970sand1980s,bubonicplaguestruck 508 thesouthernAngolanborderwithNamibia. Another70,000diedfrom1976totheearly

1980sfromwarinAngolaandNamibia,aftertheformationofanantiapartheidorganization
509 theSouthernAfricanDevelopmentCoordinatingConference,orSADCC. TheUnitedNations

warandfaminebodycountinAngolafortheearly1960stothemid1980sclimbedtoover
510 Sowhatkind 320,000,takenfromapopulationthreetimesthatofNicaraguaorCostaRica.

ofwarisCostaRicaresolvingwithitsunarmeddiplomacy,inthelightofallthesestatistics? Liketheproverbialeyeofthehurricane,CostaRicahassurvivedatthegeostrategiccenterof fiercepreandpost1945percapitalevelsofwardead.CostaRicasrecentbodycountmay neverbefullyknown,giventhereluctanceofitsmediatocovereventhe1980sContrawars,let alonethemoreviolent19781979conflict.Butitsserialviolenceratewaslowerthanexpected. Comparingallofthepost1945Caribbean,MiddleEastern,andSouthernAfricanwars withthenowfamiliardiseaseofAIDS,itcanbededucedthatthe19751976warinLebanon mayhavecausedasmanydeathsasAIDSdidintheUnitedStatesfromitsfirstappearanceto mid1989.Likewise,theAngolan,Lebanese,andSovietUkrainianwardeadcounts,taken singly,eachsurpassedtheglobaltotalofinfectiousAIDScasesreportedtotheUnitedNations
511 WorldHealthOrganizationbymid1989. Atthesametime,theserialviolencelevelsfor

507 TonyHodges,TheStruggleforAngola,HowTheWorldPowersEnteredaWarinAfrica,

RoundTable 262 (April1976):174and184.ForexCubansseeDavidWelsh,FlyboysoftheCIA, Ramparts,Dec.1966,1112. FortheplightofrefugeesseeMariodeAndradeandMarcOlliver,TheWarinAngola,ASocioEconomicStudy, trans.byMargaHolness(DarEsSalaam:TanzaniaPublishingHouse,1975),6061. 508 ANationinPeril,HealthinNamibia (London:InternationalDefense&AidFund,FactPaperonSouthern Africa,No.13,1985),8. 509 JoseEduardodosSantos,OpeningSpeechatSeminaronEconomic andFinancialRestructuring,(Mimeo, AngolanMissiontotheU.N.),Luanda,(17August1987),1.ForestimatesofNamibiandeadfromtheSouth Africanmilitary,seeVictoriesWithoutPeace, Newsweek,28June1982,22. 510 Another215,000diedinMozambiqueseeDanOMeara,DestabilizationoftheFrontlineStatesofSouthern Africa,19801987, CanadianInstituteforInternationalPeaceandSecurity (BackgroundPaperNumber20),(June 1988):6and8086.Onemillionpeoplediedandanother11millionpeopleweredisplacedinSouthernAfrica,ina 30year,$60billionSouthernAfricanwarseeVictoriaBrittain,OveraMillionDeadinSouthAfricanWars, Guardian,16April1989,8.CubanwardeadinAngola(2,016)orEthiopia(160)yieldedalowserialviolence percentagewellunder.1% sincethepopulationofthefirsttwostatesnumberedover9millionandthelatterover 40million.Millionsofcrocodilesalsodiedinrelatedecologicalhavoc seeMwelmaMusambachime,TheFateoftheNileCrocodile inAfricanWaterways, AfricanAffairs86(April 1987):202205.Inthelate1980s,theU.N.beganpeacekeepingattemptshere. 511 Update:AIDSCasesReportedtoSurveillance,Forecasting,andImpactAssessmentUnit(SFI),Global ProgrammeonAIDS[149statesreporting],WHOMimeo,1July1989,17.ThisWHOreportfoundthatAIDS casesinthefourglobalconflictzoneswereespeciallyconcentratedinSouthernAfrica.Infurthercomparison:auto accidentsmaykill500,000peopleperyearworldwideseeHylkeTromp,PeaceandDisarmamentattheEndofthe

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NicaraguawerehigherthanthoseforAngola,butatmost,halftheserialviolenceinLebanonor theSovietUkraine.Onthewhole,despiteitslocationatthecenterofhardcoreconflictinthe pastandthepresent,CostaRicasunarmeddiplomacyclaimsanditsinclinationtoward nonviolentresolutionmayaccountforitslowlevelsofserialviolence.Nootherverifiable explanationseemstoexistyetintheliterature. Power,HumanNeeds,andHumanRights Needsandrightscriteriaare,ofcourse,moreexpressiveoftherangeofpotentialviolence thanthestarkcorpsesofwar.Pleasenotethatneedsasusedherereferstosocialandeconomic necessities(emphasizedbytheantidependencyapproach),forexample,accesstoadequate health,housing,andeducationservicesasobservedbytheUnitedNationssocialand economicconventionsonhumanrightsandtherightsordutiesofstates.Inaddition,rightsas usedherereferstoculturalandpoliticalnecessities(emphasizedbytheworldorderapproach), forexample,civilrightslikefreedomofspeechandassembly asobservedbytheUnited
512 Nationsculturalandpoliticalconventionsonhumanrightsandtherightsordutiesofstates.

However,withintheworldorderperspective,culturalandpoliticalnecessitiesmaybe consideredmoreimportantthansocialandeconomicnecessitiesforpromotingfreeeconomic enterprise.Thusquestionsastotherighttohousingoremploymentmaybedifficultto categorizeasotherthanfreedomneeds,asopposedtotheneedsofworkandhealthor

513 education characterizedthenasidentityandwelfare(charity)needs,respectively. Asa

result,needsmaybeinterpretedforthemostpartasneedsforsecuritythatare(1)genetically
514 determinedbybiologicalbehaviorand(2)ontologicallydominatedbylegalrolesandrules.

ColdWar, UNIDIRNewsletter,Sept.1989,29.Pesticidesmaykillanother220,000peryearworldwideseeJ. Jeyaratnam,Editorial,HealthProblemsofPesticideUsageIntheThirdWorld, BritishJournalofIndustrial Medicine 42(1985):505.But15millionchildrendiefromwarrelatedhungereachyearworldwideseePetra Kelly,FightingforHope,trans.byMarianneHowarth(London:Chatto&Windus,1984),105. 512 SeeHouse,Congress,CommitteeonForeignAffairs, HumanRightsDocuments,CompilationofDocuments PertainingtoHumanRights,CommitteePrint,1983. 513 JohanGaltung,TheBasicNeedsApproach,inKatrinLederer,ed.,HumanNeeds,AContributiontothe CurrentDebate (Cambridge,MA:Oelgeschlager,Gunn,andHain,1980),6667.Forrelatedattemptstogobeyond naturallawininterpretinggroupidentityasanontological,intra andinterpersonalsecurityneed,seeRichard Rubenstein,BasicHumanNeedsTheory:BeyondNaturalLaw,inJohnBurton,ed., Conflict:HumanNeeds Theory (NewYork:St.MartinsPress,1990),33655.ThisbookalsoreprintedmuchofGaltungs1980article, despitehisdisclaimer,markedbyanasteriskafterhisnameabovethisreprint. 514 JosephScimecca,SelfReflexivityandFreedom:TowardaPrescriptiveTheoryofConflictResolution,inJohn Burton,ed., HumanTheory,36ff.Wordssuchaswar,wealth,conflict,orviolencearemoreorlessabsentfrom suchaworldorderorienteddefinitionofneeds.

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Atthesametime,allthreeapproaches,theabovetwoapproachesandthatof nonviolence,arestillquitedifficulttoquantifyregardingneedsandrights,beyondtheattempts ofsuchaswritersasAmartyaSen,PaulStreeten,andMahbubulHaqwho,whilestillunable toindexsomeunverifiableissues,haveattemptedtodefinemorethanonlysecurityneeds. Thesethreewriters,amongothersintheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram,havethus proposedatentativeHumanDevelopmentIndex,baseduponevaluationofanindividuals literacy,lifeexpectancy,andbuyingpower.Thisindexalsohighlightsthepromising performanceofstatesthathaveconsciouslytargetedtheirbudgetstowardmeetingthepriorities ofhumanneedsandrights:suchasGhana,Botswana,Mexico,Mauritius,Tunisia,andCosta

515 Rica,regardlessoftheiroriginaleconomicstartingpoint.

AstatelikeCostaRicafearstheintenseisthmiangeopoliticalpowerstrugglesleadingto warandpoverty.Thecostsoftheseviolentstrugglescanberepresentedbythefactthat,inthe 1940s,outsideofdemilitarizedCostaRica,overninetypercentoftheisthmian populationwas deniedproperhousingornourishmentanddiedwithoutanurseordoctorpresent.Outsideof

516 CostaRica,overhalfofallisthmianchildrendiedbeforeagenine. However,inaCostaRica

withamilitaryforce,warandpovertycombinedoverthenextfewdecadescouldhaveproduced thesamelevelofstructuralviolencefoundintheneighboringstates.Instead,untilthe1980s, CostaRicawasservingastheisthmianacademicsourceforantidependencynotionslike liberationtheology notionswhichspreadtoNicaraguafromCostaRicaafter1979while alsotryingtomeethardeningUnitedStatesdemandsthatitbehavelikethenewlyindustrializing

517 countriesofChile,Taiwan,Singapore,andSouthKorea.

515 AmartyaSen,

PaulStreeten,andMahbubulHaq,etal., HumanDevelopmentReport1990(NewYork:UNDP andOxfordUniversityPress,1990),13,1013,5051,7778,106107,112,and12855(tables). 516 VicenteSanz,Pasado,Presente,yPorvenirdeCentroAmrica,CAS 3 (Nov.Dec.1944):46. 517 OscarAriasSnchez,NuevosRumbasParaElDesarrolloCostarricense (SanJos:EDUCA,1979),7274. TravellersenteringCostaRicainthelate1980s,exceptforforeignsoldiers,weresubjectedtoconditionsreflecting fearoverdrugsandAIDS.Forexample,staysbeyond30dayshadtobeapprovedbythefederalgovernmentafter expensiveAIDStesting.Then,beforeleaving,afterastaylongerthan30days,malevisitorswererequiredby federallawtoleaveverifiableevidencewiththefederalcourtofnothavingfatheredachildinCostaRica.Petty thieveryandprostitutionwereinevidenceinlargeCostaRicanbusstopsandmajorcitymarkets.Theseconditions werereminiscentofpre1959CubaorHaitibefore1990,atleastaccordingtotheauthorsimpressionsduring1989 1990inCubaandCostaRica.

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CostaRicanLivingConditions QuantifiableViolence Toreconcileconflictingexternalandinternaldemands,CostaRicaorganizeditselfto meetthehumanneedsofitsownpeopleandrefugeesfromwarsinneighboringcountries.For example,duringthefirstfourdecadesafterits1940srevolution,CostaRicaincreasedthe numberofjobsinthepublicsectoreighttimesandtripledprivatesectorjobs.Atthesametime, CostaRicagavehalfitspeopleaccesstoadequatewaterandsanitation,despitethedifficultyof

518 reachingitsbarely accessibleruralandmountainareas. Hydroelectricplantswerebuiltto 519 furnishninetyeightpercentofthenationsenergyneeds. Inessence,CostaRicatriedto

distributeitswealthequally,despitethepressureofmilitarizationbothfromtheUnitedStates andfromsurroundingisthmiannations. Waroverwhelmedtheeconomiesoftheotheristhmianstates,likeHonduras,Nicaragua, andElSalvador,asevidencedbytheirindividualannualincomesexpectedtoremainunder

520 $1,000pasttheyear2000. ButCostaRicacontinuedtoreconcilethesepowerfulthreatsby

shiftingitscentralgovernmentexpenditurestowardneedslikeeducationandawayfrommilitary
521 allocations.Thispolicycontinuedintotheearly1980s. CostaRicansocialindicators

continuedtoreflectastandardoflivinghigherthanisthmianaveragesuntiltheUnitedStates
522 begantoremilitarizeCostaRicainordertooverthrowtheSandinistasinNicaragua. Costa

RicansocialconditionsdepreciatedfurtherstillwhentheUnitedStatesrepressedbothCosta
523 RicasandNicaraguasfavorableoilagreementswithMexico.

518 JamesDunkerley,CentralAmerica,605606.Forwatersupply,seeLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanRegional

Office,WaterSupplyandSewerageSectorMemorandum,CostaRica (Washington,D.C.:WHOandIBRD CooperativeProgram/PAHO,24Jan.1977),n.p. 519 U.S.AID/CostaRica,NaturalResourceManagementinCostaRica:AStrategyforU.S.AID,U.S.AID Memo,Washington,D.C.,(Dec.1987),35. 520 NormanA.GrahamandKeithL.Edwards,TheCaribbeanBasintotheYear2000,Demographic,Economicand ResourceUseTrendsinSeventeenCountries(Boulder/London:WestviewPress,1984),9and3839. 521 JeanMichelCousteau,Interview PeaceOnEarthinCostaRica:PresidentOscarAriasSanchez, Calypso Log(CousteauSociety)14(Feb.1988):4. 522 SeeCostaRicaIndex, FPCN,JulyOctober1988,2. 523 OlgaPellicer,PolticaHaciaCentroamricaeInteresNacionalenMxico, Centroamrica,3ded.,23536and 246.

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RemilitarizationpressureinCostaRicamaterializedalsointhereversalsofhumanrights standards.Forexample,AdolfoPrezEsquivel,anArgentineanNobelPeacePrizeLaureate, wasdetainedandinterrogatedinthenationalairportandthendeportedfromCostaRicaby federalpoliceon16January1985.Nochargeswerefiled.PrezEsquivelwascarryinga conflictresolutionproposalfromTomsBorgeinManaguatostrengthenContadorapeacetalks

524 withNicaragua. Inthemid1980s,CostaRicanpoliceincreasedsuchillegalreceptionsatthe

nationalairportandotherborderentrypoints,whileinitiatingmassurbanroundupswithout warrantsofallegedprostitutesandhomosexuals,justifiedbyallegationsofAIDS.InJune1987, prisonstatisticsindicatedanunprecedentedfortythreepercentoftheCostaRicanprison

525 populationillegallyinprisonwithouttrial. SuchdetentionscontravenedtheCostaRican

federalconstitution,whichdemandsverifiableevidenceandajudicialwritforlegaldetention
526 andprolongedinterrogation.

OtherunprecedentedeventscompelledCostaRicaneconomicdestabilization.In1984, thenationalCostaRicanhealthbudgetwasshavedbyeighteenpercentandthesocialwelfare budgetbyelevenpercent.Withinthreeyears,nationaleducationfundingfellfifteenpercent. SevenpercentofallCostaRicanstudentswerethusunabletoattendschoolatallandeighteen

527 percentofthestudentsattendedschoolswithnochairsordesksforthem.

EventheleaderoftheHonduranlegislaturefoundcausetofretaboutthedestabilization
528 orLebanonizationofCostaRica. Between1977and1982,halfofCostaRicaspopulationnot 529 previouslyunderthepovertylinefellbelowthatline. Smallfreeenterprisebusinessesand 524 JosMelendez,PrezEsquivelDetenidopor`UnErrorenCostaRica, Excelsior(Mexico),17Jan.1985,A2. 525 ComisinparalaDefensadelosDerechosHumanosenCentroamrica(CDHUCA),InformeAnual,1987,

SituacindeLosDerechosHumanos (SanJos:CDHUCA,1987),7985.Remilitarizationthereforepromoted prisonmethodsinlinewiththeU.S.Auburn,Attica,orSingSingmodelsseeBlakeMcKelvey,AmericanPrisons, AHistoryofGoodIntentions(Montclair,NJ:PattersonSmithCriminologySeries,1977),50. 526 ComisinCostarricensedeDerechosHumanos/CODEHU,InformeSobrelaSituacindelosDerechosHumanos enCostaRica (SanJos:CODEHU,1987),1927. 527 CODEHU,DerechosHumanos,82and83.SimilarpercentagesandschoolclosingsappliedinsideNicaraguaas aresultoftheContrawar. 528 RalSohr, Centroamrica,179. 529 RodrigoJauberthRojas,CostaRica:CrisisdeHegemonaenlosSectoresdelCapitalyRepresinContralos SectoresPopulares,CentrodeEstudiosCentroAmricanosdeRelacionesInternacionales,MexicoCity,Mimeo, 1984, n.p.fromElCentrodeEstudiosparalaAccinSocial,LaCrisisenCostaRica,n.d.,9and17.

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530 cooperativescaughtthebruntofthishardeningdestabilization, traceabletotheUnitedStates

inspiredparallelstateidentifiedbyOscarAriaseconomicadvisor,JohnBiehl.Asaresult, unemploymentratesreachedtwentypercentby1984,asseventypercentofallCostaRicans
531 wereforcedunderthepovertyline. Inruralareas,seventypercentofCostaRicanfarm

workersbecamelandless,whiletheprimearablelandownedbythewealthywaspollutedeven
532 morebytheresidueoffertilizersusedonagribusinesscoffeeandbananacrops. CostaRicafacedintensifiedlandlessnessandhomelessnessfromthisdestabilization,a

warrelated,enervatingconditionstrangetoitscultureandhistory.Between1985and1987, about600familiesand4,000individualsledlargeruralnonviolentstrugglesanddemonstrations
533 againstviolentevictionbythestatepolice. Theirstrugglewasjoinedbyahousingcoalition

that,forinstance,organizedademonstrationof20,000peopleinMarch1984,tomobilize
534 massivehungerstrikesagainstpoliceviolence. Thesestrugglesofthelandless(precaristas) 535 agitatedeasternandnorthernCostaRica.

OfficialCostaRicanpoliceresponsetothesenonviolentstrugglesinvokedtruncheonand deathbytorture.Thesestrugglesreachedthenationallegislature,wherealegislative commissionuncoveredanundergroundtortureroominthebasementoftheCostaRicanfederal

536 policebuildinginlateMarchof1989. Ninebyeighteenfeetandninefeethigh,thisdamp 537 roomcontainedemptysyringesandotherevidenceoftorture. Thetorturewasintendedto

530 ComentariodeOscarZamora,inCentroamrica

3ded.,9798.SeealsoTomBarryandDebPreusch, AIFLD inCentralAmerica (Albuquerque,NM:ResourceCenter,1986),46ff. 531 MercedesLynndeUriarte,CostaRicansWanttheContrasOut,Nation,3Nov.1984,44445andLezak Shallat,AIDandtheSecretParallelState,221227,plusCentralIntelligenceAgencyandStateDepartment Memoranda,1948,111114,inMarcEdelmanandJoanneKenen,eds., TheCostaRicanReader (NewYork: GroveWeidenfeld,1989). 532 RoyMay,LosPobresdelaTierra (SanJos:DepartamientoEcumnicodeInvestigacin,1986),78and38.In aninterviewinhishomebytheauthor(9April1989),Mayindicatedthattheincreasinggovernmentalpressureto growcashcropseventuallyforcedtheevictionofincreasingnumbersofsmallfarmers. 533 CODEHU,DerechosHumanos,7780. 534 ConcepcinPolticoIdeologicoyPracticadelosFrentesde[la]LuchaporViviendaenCostaRica(SanJos: CentrodeEstudiosparalaAccinSocial,1985),1. 535 BeatrizVillarealM., ElPrecarismoRuralenCostaRica,19601980,OrigenesyEvolucin (SanJos:Editorial Papiro,1983),2526,85,and9698. 536 PeterBrennan,CongressmenDenouncePolice`TortureChamber, TTS,31March1989,5.Themainfederal policefundingsourcethenwastheU.S.government. 537 CostaRica,TheDarkSideofDemocracy,CentralAmericanReport(Managua),28April1989,12.

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counterorchillnonviolentattacksonlandlessness,homelessness,remilitarization,and
538 destabilization.

Indesperation,CostaRicanleaderslikeOscarAriaspushedbypopularmandate struggledtomeetNicaraguahalfwaybynegotiatingapeaceplandespiteUnitedStatesviolence. Ariasrepeatedlyemphasizedtheinternationalbenefitsofnegotiatingsustainablepeacethrough development.Inresponse,DanielOrtegatriedtocallattentiontohowNicaraguaandCostaRica hadbothcompliedmorethantheotheristhmianstateswiththeinternationalpeacecommission, approvedbytheleadersoftheisthmustocarryouttheEsquipulasAgreementinAugustof

539 1987.

RegionalHumanNeedsandRightsintheContextofWar WhatweretheeffectsoftheAriasorEsquipulasIIpeaceplan?Therearevalidgrounds forassertingthat,in1988,theContraswouldhavereceivedanimmediate$270millionmorein UnitedStatesCongressionalaid,ifnotforthepeaceplaninitiatedbyOscarAriasandDaniel Ortega.InsideNicaragua,thepeaceplanendedemergencysecuritylawsandthespecial Somozatribunalsthathaddeniedtherightofhabeascorpus,whilesettingfixedtimelimitsfor

540 prisondetentionandrelease. However,theseimprovementsdidnotresolvetheconflictraised

bythearmsanddrugbusinessintheAndeancountries.Betweenaquarterandahalfofthe
541 AndeanIndianpopulationwouldcontinuetodiefromfamineandchronicmalnutrition.

WhileCostaRicawelcomedmuchUnitedStatesaidbeforethe1986peaceplans, NicaraguawasdevastatedbyaContrawar.EstimatesforCostaRicasthreehighestyearsofaid duringtheheightofthe1982to1985Contrawaranddestabilization aidconcentratedon violentconflictresolution,notondevelopment reachedabout$640milliondollars,muchof

538 RobertoAlvarezMiravalles,EnCostaRica,YaComenzaAparecerlaViolencia,UnoMasUno,19Dec.

1982,13,inCSPPCR,158.AmnestyInternationalreported120politicalprisonersin1982,apeakContrawaryear inCostaRica. 539 MarthaHoneyandMichaelEmery,ThePatchworkofPeacework,SomeViewsWithouttheWhiteHouse,Los AngelesTimes,24Jan.1988,OpinionSection,6. 540 AryehNeier,HasAriasMadeADifference?NewYorkReviewofBooks,17March1988,22. 541 WorldHealthOrganization[WHO]andPanAmericanHealthOrganization[PAHO],Produccin,Trficoy ConsumodeSubstanciasPsicoactivasenlosPasesdelaSubreginAndina:IndicacionesparaelAnlisisyDiseo delasPolticasyEstrategiasdePrevencinRegionaldelaFarmacodependencia,Mimeo,Washington,D.C.(Nov. 1988),56.

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thisfromtheUnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment.Incontrast,thethreehighest yearsofaidtoNicaraguaduring1979to1983,fromtheEuropeanCommunityandtheSoviet backedCouncilforMutualEconomicAssistance,reached$700milliondollars,essentially

542 aimedatsustainabledevelopmenttorecoverfromSomozarule.

UnitedNationsstatisticsindicatethatCostaRicanconsumerpriceinflationbetween1980 and1986stayedundertwentypercent,althoughitsearningpowerdeclinedoverfortypercentin 1982.Atthesametime,despiteSovietandEuropeandevelopmentaidinNicaragua,inflationin

543 Nicaraguarosefrom20to780percent. In1988,Nicaraguasinflationratealmosttopped 544 8,000percent. ThisinflationratewasaggravatedbythefactthatfewSandinistaleadershad 545 beenabletocompleteuniversity educationstopreparethemtocopewithsuchlethalpressure.

Nicaraguaspracticalproblems,asopposedtoCostaRicas,surfacedinmining, construction,andagriculturalproduction.Despiteinitialgrowthfrom1979to1984inhousing starts(oversixtypercent),pillagebytheContrasdamagedtheeconomyofNicaraguaaboveall inagriculturalproduction(downsixtyonepercent),andconstruction(downfourteenpercent). InterventionbytheContraproxiesshiftedconstructionprioritiesinNicaraguatowardbuilding bulkstorehousestohouseimportedaid,andalsorepressedbuildingstarts.Inaddition,the familiesofminersandsoldierssufferedabouthalfthetotaldeathscausedbywar,asNicaraguans triedtomeethardcurrencydemandsbothbydiggingforpreciousmineralsanddeterring

546 Contras. Still,by1982,productionofrice,corn,andbeans(upfifteenpercent)indicatedthat

landownershipreturnedtopeasantfarmerswasreflectedinhigherproductionoffoodstaples
542 JorgeMarioSalazar,

CrisisCentroamricanayPolticadelasSuperPotencias (SanJos:EditorialAlmaMater, 1987),61and93. 543 PreliminaryOverviewoftheLatinAmericanEconomy,NotasSobrelaEconomayelDesarrollo (CEPALor theU.N.EconomicCommissiononLatinAmerica),438/439(Dec.1986),15.ForCostaRicaninflation,seeJorge MarioSalazar, CrisisCentroamricana,82. 544 BalancePreliminardelaEconomaLatinoamricana,1988,NotasSobrelaEconomayelDesarrollo,470/471 (Dec.1988):45. 545 CarlosMelendezChaverriinhishome,(ProfessorofHistoryatTheNationalUniversity),Heredia,CostaRica, interviewbytheauthor,4April1989.AccordingtoMelendezChaverri,TomsBorgewasoneoftherare exceptions. 546 ComandanteCarlos...TheRevolutionAdvances, AgendaInternacional (FSLN),Mimeo,Nov.1986,3,7,11 13,and16.

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547 consumedinsideNicaragua. Inshort,Nicaraguawasreversingthetrendtolandlessnessand

feedingitsownpeople.ButinCostaRica,thistrendreversedin1984,withthedenationalization ofitsbanks. ConditionsintheisthmusagainrecallVietnam,includingintensewarrelatedpopulation pressuresinbothplaces.NeitherVietnamnorNicaraguacouldclaimthenearcomprehensive literacylevelsofCostaRicaafteritsrelativelynonviolent1940srevolution.Overninetypercent oftheNicaraguanandVietnamesepeoplewereilliteratebeforebeginningtheirindependence struggles.Educationalaidtothetwolattercountriesfromsocialistcountries,aswellasfrom

548 FranceandtheNetherlands,helpedraiseoverallliteracylevelsaftertheirliberationstruggles.

Atthesametime,neitherNicaraguanorCostaRicawouldexperiencethelargescalesocietal transformationaccompanyingVietnamesefarmlandredistribution,whentwentyfivepercentof
549 Vietnamsarablefarmlandwastransferredbacktoitssmallfarmers.

Inthechaptersahead,conflictresolutionwillbediscussedinrelationtoremilitarization,toevaluateCosta Ricanapproachesandmethodsforunarmeddiplomacy.Anonviolentorlessviolentapproach,asfollowedbyCosta Rica,shouldtendtoleadtolesskillinginwarfare,asmeasuredbytheserialviolenceindicator.ButCostaRicaalso existsinthecenterofaneyeofahurricaneofconflict,extendingovermanycenturies.Geopolitical counterinsurgency,asinfluencedfromtheoutsidebywayofthephenomenoncalledticketpunchingbytheKerry Commission,producedproblemsofviolencedifficultforCostaRicatoresolvenonviolently.Buildingonthe discussionsofar,ChaptersSixandSevenwillanalyzetheprevailingmethodsandtherelatedoutcomes, respectively,ofmilitarizationorremilitarizationintheWesternCaribbean,accompaniedbytheoutcomeorside effectsofanarmsanddrugbusiness.

547 FrancesMooreLappandJosephCollins,

NowWeCanSpeak,AJourneyThroughtheNewNicaragua (San Francisco:InstituteforFood&DevelopmentPolicy,1982),2and116.By1988,HurricaneJoandestroyed8095% oftheMiskitianvillagesseeWalkinPeace,JubileePartners(Comer,GA),flyer,25Oct.1988. 548 ScientificResearchandEducationinVietnam,ASpeechandInterviewwithDr.NguyenVanHieu, Sciencefor thePeople,JulyAugust1979,2729. 549 GrardChaliand, RevolutionintheThirdWorld(NewYork:Penguin,1981),139.ForrelatedVietnamesedata onmedicaldoctors,seeVuCan,VietnameseMedicineandItsOptions(Hanoi:VietnameseExperienceForeign LanguagesHouse,1984),10and1415.Inconclusive,yetchallengingemploymentdataisalsoavailablethrough theILO, EconomicallyActivePopulation,19502025,3ded.,6Vols.(Geneva:ILO,1986).ComparewithEllen Jamisonetal.,WorldPopulation(Washington,D.C.:U.S.GPOandBureauofCensus,1987),3943.

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Chapter6
ViolenceAndNonviolence
Thislastchapteronmethodwillopenwithabriefreiterationof thenonviolentmethods usedinCostaRica,beforeproceedingtoadiscussionofviolent,shorttermworldordermethods appliedfromoutside.Discussiononviolentremilitarization,aspartofthepublicmassmedia record,coversthecovertwarattemptedbytheUnitedStatesinnorthernCostaRica,andrelates sucharecordtotheserialviolenceindicator.Thethreebasicmethods,representingthethree approaches,arerepresentedhere:fromtheCostaRicannonviolentapproach,totheSandinistas antidependencyapproach,andtheimposedworldorderapproachrepresentedbytheUnited StatessuppliedContras.Thischapterendswithasummarydiscussionoftheapproachesand methodsusedtoresolveconflictinthecontextofCostaRica. Aswillbeshown,theContramilitaryfailuresandthefailuresofneighboring, revolutionary,antidependencyapproachesforresolvingconflictdogivesomecredencetothe hypothesisthatCostaRicamayhavechosenamoreadvantageous,longtermmethodtoresolve conflictthanitsantidependencymindedneighbors.IfCostaRicamanagestoresolvethe violenceimposedfromtheoutsidebyaworldorderapproach mainlyviaEuropeandthe UnitedStates thentheCostaRicanapproachmayonceagainprovetobethebestshort and longtermapproach.ThechapterbeginsbyexploringCostaRicanapproachestoconflict generatedbytheContraslittlepublicizedSouthernFrontforcovertwaragainstNicaragua. Discussionthenbroadenstoexploretherelativeinvolvementoftradeorarmsdealingby EuropeanandMiddleEasternplayersinthewarwaged(ofteninvoluntarily)fromCostaRica, suchasthegainsfromsuchtrade,viaEuropeanCommunitytrade,andthetradeoffsfromsuch armsdealing,viaIrani,Israeli,andSaudi armsdealing. Evaluationofashorttermcovertwarappliedfromoutsideshouldillustratehowthe violenceoftheContrawarmayhavepromotedsevere,traumaticdamagethatwillendanger
550 peace,security,anddevelopmentinCostaRicaforalongtime. DamagefromtheContrawar

550 Thediscussionwillconcentrateonthe1980s,althoughacasemightalsobemadeforsimilarnegativeeffects

throughviolent,shorttermcounterinsurgencyorcontratypewarfareinthe1960sand1970s.Alreadyintheearly

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wasapparentlyconcentratedintwooutcomes:intheimmediate,violenteffectsofanarmsfor drugbusiness,aresultofgeopoliticallyimposedcounterinsurgency(alreadydiscussedasticket punchinginChapterFiveandtobediscussedfurtherinChapterSeven),andinthelongterm tensionculminatinginthestructuralviolenceofinternationaldebt(tobediscussedinChapter Eight).

ConflictresolutioninCostaRicahasevolvedthroughacombinationofviolenceandnonviolence in demilitarization,intervention,destabilization,remilitarization,andequitableorinequitableinternationaltrade. ProxyContrawar,destabilization,andremilitarizationsetthepaceforviolentconflictresolution,asdiscussedin thischapter,whileunderminingCostaRicanattemptsatpeacefulconflictresolution.Violentproxyintervention promotedtheoutcomesofwarandinsecurityratherthanpeaceandsecurity(tobeevaluatedinchapterseven),and underdevelopmentratherthandevelopment(tobediscussedinchaptereight).

Tico,Contra,orSandinistaPeaceandCovertWar Inlate1978,SomozaagaintriedtoinvadeCostaRica,bybombingandshellingneutral
551 Ticos(anisthmiannicknameforCostaRicans). Inresponse,althoughnotchoosingto 552 remilitarizeitself,CostaRicaadmittedadvisorsinsecuritymattersfromChile and 553 Romania. ConservativeCostaRicansarguedthattheseadvisorsmightresolveagrowing

polarizationbetweenrichandpoor,heightenedbytheremilitarizationanddestabilization
554 associatedwithagrowingContrawar.

Nonviolentisthmianconflictresolutioncontrastedsharplywiththisremilitarization. Earlyin1978,forexample,fiveNicaraguansandaCostaRicancarriedoutalong,successful

1960s,fromSanJos,theSandinistashaddeclaredtheirintenttooverthrowtherulingSomozafamily,througha FrenteSandinistadeLiberacinNacional aspreviouslynotedinchapter3.Butthefocusofthisdissertationis nottheSandinistaRevolution. 551 FloriaCastroChvez,LaPolticaExteriordeCostaRicaHaciaNicaragua:19821986(Mexico: UNAM/FLACSO,1986),2and32.CastroChvezquotesstatementsbySomozaannouncinghisintentiontoinvade CostaRicaon27Dec.1978. 552 TomBarry,etal.,DollarsDictators,219. 553 FranciscoRojasAravena,CostaRica:EntrelaNeutralidadyelConflicto,inHectorMuoz,ed., Amrica LatinayelCaribe:PolticasExterioresParaSobrevivir(BuenosAires:PROSPEL,GrupoEditorLatinoamricano, 1988),303.AsaCMEAstatepoliticallyalignedattimeswithIsraelandtheU.S.,Romaniawasusingitssecurity forcestocurbinternaldissentovershortagesoffood,electricity,homeheating,andconsumergoods,plustheforced displacementofTransylvanianHungariansinsideRomaniaseeZbigniewBrezezinski, GrandFailure,13435. 554 LiliaBermdez,El`NuevoModelodeIntervencinNorteamricanaenCentroamrica:La`GuerradeBaja Intensidad, RelacionesInternacionales(Mexico)9 (Jan.April1987):1618.SeealsoH.G.Summers,PrinciplesofWarandLowIntensityConflict, Military Review 65(March1985):4546.

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555 hungerstrikefortherightsofsmallfarmersinfrontoftheUnitedNationsofficesinSanJos.

Then,inmid1984,arandomnationalopinionsurveyestablishedthateightythreepercentof CostaRicanadultsopposedanynationalmilitaryforce.Thispollwasreinforcedatthesame timebythe30,000peopleinSanJoswhodemonstratedagainsttheremilitarizationpromoted byCurtinWinsor,thenUnitedStatesAmbassadortoCostaRica.LuisMonge,presidentof CostaRica,eventriedseveraltimestoexpelEdenPastora,themainContraleaderfundedbythe

556 UnitedStatesinCostaRica. Butthisgrowingadvocacyofnonviolencewasmetbyredoubled

UnitedStateseffortsatremilitarization. NonviolencewasalsoappliedinNicaragua,wheretheSandinistasTomsBorgeand
557 MarcioJanzgainedpowerthroughhungerstrikesinAnastasioSomozasprisons. Their

hungerstrikesstimulatedinternationalpressureandinspired10,000studentstocloseovereighty percentofNicaraguastopcollegesanduniversitiesfornearlyamonthby ageneralstrike. SupportedfromCostaRica,thisnonviolent,general,academicledstrikebroketheabilityof

558 SomozatocontinueastheleaderofNicaragua. Studentscoordinatedthisnationalstrike,

buttressedbysitdownstrikesofvarioustradeunionsthroughoutthemajorcitiesofNicaragua, whichfinallyoverthrewSomozaandhisNationalGuard,fundedandtrainedbytheUnited
559 States.

CostaRicanandNicaraguannonviolencealsoworkedoninternationallevels.On6 August1985,suchcooperationledtoUnitedStatesCongressionalpressureforthereleaseof fiftysixmembersofaninternationalobserverteam,kidnappedandheldbyEdenPastoras

560 ContrasforfortyhoursalongtheSanJuanRiversoutheastofLakeNicaragua. Likewise,in

555 TomalaSededelaONU,NicaragunsesenHuelgadeHambre,

LaPrensaLibre,1Feb.1978,10.Fourofthe strikerswereNicaraguan(DanielAlbea,LeonardoAleman,MarioPalmaFlores,andEfranMedinaTorres).Oneof thestrikers,FelipeChvesAlvardo,wasCostaRican. 556 MercedesLynndeUriarte,CostaRicansWanttheContrasOut,Nation,3Nov.1984,44445.Foradefinition ofre/militarizationseechapter1. 557 ReosPolitcosTerminaronHuelgadeHambreenManagua, RPA,28April1978,4. 558 SomozaCediAntePrsionEstudiantil, RPA,30April1978,6.Forparallelstrikesatthe ManaguaOAS offices,seeEstudiantesOcuparanAyerSededeOEAenNicaragua,NCN,4April1979,A21.Theinternational pressurereferstooutsidepublicpressureintheformofparliamentaryandworldorganizationscondemningthe humanrightsabusesof theSomozaregimeandsupportingthenonviolentstrikes ascitedinthetwocitations aboveandinmuchoftheliteratureofthetime. 559 OcupanEdificiodelaOMSenManagua, RPA,21April1979,4.TheauthorisgratefultoMyronRios,Dean ofCostaRicasInternationalRelationsProgram,anditslibrary,foraccesstoclippingfilesregardingcitationsfor footnotes59seealsoAdolfoPrezEsquivel,ChristinaPoncho (Maryknoll,NY:Orbis,1983),3031. 560 KidnappedbytheContras,ThePeaceFlotillaontheRoSanJuan,Nicaragua[andCostaRica]August,1985 (Washington,D.C.:WitnessforPeaceDocumentationProject,1985),35,9,and12.Theteamwaskidnappedon

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1987,CostaRicantradeunionssent120oftheirtradeunionmembersasrepresentativesinforty canoestowardNicaragua,downtheSarapiquiRiver,asanonviolentprotestagainsttheContra
561 war. Thenin1988,NicaraguaandCostaRicabeganworkingwithUnitedStatesandvarious

nongovernmentalinternationalorganizationstodevelopnonviolentcivilianbaseddefenseplans,
562 andtoprepareforUnitedNationspeacekeepingconcerningtheirborderconflict. Allofthese

efforts,aswellasmanyotherscitedpreviously,wereinitiatedinCostaRica.

CostaRicasSouthernFrontforCovertWar But,dominatingviolentconflictresolutionintheisthmus,theUnitedStatesgovernment managedmuchproxyinterventioninsteadwithitsSouthernFrontinnorthernCostaRica. ThisproxyinterventionwasledbyEdenPastora,whohadrepudiatedatercerista(orthird) Sandinistacoalitionformedin1976tooverthrowSomoza.BesidesPastora,otherleadersofthis coalitionhadbeenVioletaChamorro,SergioRamrez,andtheOrtegabrothers(Danieland

563 Humberto). Fromlate1978,Pastorafollowedacheckeredcareerthatbeganwhenhe 564 engineeredahostageexchangebetweenSomozaandOscarTorrijosinPanama. Ayearlater, 565 PastoraledthecoalitionsarmedstruggleintheJuly 1979Revolution, butsoonafter,he

begantoleadUnitedStatesproxyintervention,workingthroughJohnHull. PastoradirectedantiSomozaContraattacksintoNicaragua,throughswampy,forested, andmountainousterrain,fromQuesadainCostaRica.HisproSomozacounterpartsfeigned attacksfrommorecomfortablecampsinHondurasandnorthwestCostaRica,undertighter CentralIntelligenceAgencyreins.ButtheproSomozaContras,morecomfortablydeployed, attractedlesspopularsupportinsideNicaraguathantheantiSomozaContrasledbyPastora.

itswaybackuptheSanJuanRiverfromLaPenca.AU.S.NBCtelevisioncrewwaspartofthekidnappedteam seeRebeccaGordon, LettersfromNicaragua (SanFrancisco:Spinsters/AuntKate,1986),216217.Theteam includedTicos,Nicaraguans,andU.S.citizens. 561 MiguelSobrado,ContrarevolucinenCostaRica:HistoriadeUnaGuerraOculta,inGabrielCoronado,etal., QuinQuiere,11and98. 562 MaryLink,CivilianbasedDefenseProjectUnderwayinNicaragua,CivilianBasedDefense5(Sept.Nov. 1988):78. 563 RalSohr, Centroamrica,13839and203.Thisthirdcoalitionformedasacompromisebetweentwofactions: aproCubanfactionledbyJaimeWheelockandaproPLOfactionledbyTomsBorge.VioletaChamorroleftthis thirdcoalitiontoassumeawidowrolesimilartothatofCorazonAquino,supportedbytheU.S. 564 RobertoBardini, EdenPastora,UnCeroenlaHistoria (MexicoCity:MexSur,1984?),3536and107.Pastora wasmarriedtoaCostaRicanwoman. 565 CharlesRoberts,`CommanderZeroResurfaces,inPeterRossetandJohnVandermeer,eds.,TheNicaragua Reader,DocumentsofaRevolutionunderFire(NewYork:GrovePress,1983),22022.

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TheCostaRicanpro andantiSomozaContragroupsbothreceivedWorldBank,International
566 MonetaryFund,CentralIntelligenceAgency,andAgencyforInternationalDevelopmentaid.

PastorasgroupoperatedfrombasesaroundHullsranches,dependingoncovertaidsentto
567 Quesada,connectedbyrailroadwithSanJosaboutsixtymilesfurthersouth.

TransitingnorthernCostaRicatoavoidantiaircraftfire,regularnightsupplyflightsfor theContrasfromHonduras,Panama,andElSalvadorglidedintoNicaraguafromtheSanJuan Riverjunglevalley.ParticipatingCostaRicanofficialsstreamlinedtheseContralogistical operationsthroughJohnHullsstrategicallylocated,multimilliondollarstringofranches.His centralranchnorthofQuesadacoordinatedarmsandsuppliesbetweentheSanCarlosand

568 Sarapiquirivers,whichbothfednorthintotheSanJuanRiver,andthencetoNicaragua. Arms

suppliedrangedfromtheM16totheRedEyemissile,aswellasmines,mortars,cannons, AK47s(orKalashnikovs),RPKs,RPG2s,andKatyushasoftencapturedinLebanonand
569 shippedbyIsrael. AFreeCostaRicanetworkfacilitatedthenightsupplyflightsforthese

Contralogistics.Thisparamilitarynetwork hadbeenstartedbyManuelArtime,theexCuban leaderofthefailedBayofPigsinvasionagainstCuba,whoafterwardsmovedmuchofhiscovert

570 warnetworktoCostaRica.

566 MiguelSobrado,ContrarevolucinenCostaRica:HistoriaDeUnaGuerraOculta,inGabrielCoronado,etal.,

QuinQuiere,24,4055,and6669.ForCIAaidchanneledviaCostaRicanofficials,seeJoelBrinkley,Costa RicanAidesSaidtoGetBribes,NYT,23April1984,A9. 567 JoseMelendez,PolicasdeCostaRica,CmplicesdelosAntisandinistas, Excelsior,22January1984,A2and 28.ThreelocalCostaRicanofficialsmanagedeventsinQuesada:GilbertoOrosco(theU.S.AIDfundedHuetar NorteZoneruralguarddirector),LuisAlfaro(lieutenant,SanCarlosruralguarddistrictdirector),andFernando Villalobos(captain,SanCarlosruralguarddepartmentdirector).MelendezbasedhisobservationsinQuesadaon photographs,eyewitnessaccounts,andcomplaintsfruitlesslyregisteredwithfederalsecurityoffices.Forthe ContrasTangoBasefieldhospitalrunnearbybyArnaldoPastora,brothertoEdenPastora,seealsoCharles Verpoortes,ConlosRebeldesenNicaragua, RPA,5April1984,13. 568 GregorioSelser,NuevasViolacionesdelaCIAalaNeutralidaddeCostaRica, ElDa,29April1984,12.See mapsinAppendixC. 569 EquipoCostaRica, LaContrarevolucinenCostaRica (SanJos:CRIESandCSUCA,1985),1718. 570 FortheCIAsGoldenBoyArtime,seePaulBethel, TheLosers(NewRochelle,NY:ArlingtonHouse,1969), 266andManuelArtimeBuesa,Traicin!Gritan20,000TumbasCubanas(MexicoCity:Ed.Jus.Mexico,1960). ForArtimeinCostaRica,seeMorrisMorley,ImperialStateandRevolution,TheUnitedStatesandCuba,1952 1986(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1987),155.ForArtimewiththeMiamiCIA,headedbyTheodore ShackleyatthecoreofafutureIranContrateam,seePeterDaleScott,TheSecretTeamBehindContragate, Nation,31January1987,114115.ForArtimespre1959Cubanmafiarole,befriendingJackRuby,LeeHarvey Oswald,andBebeRebozo(confidanttoRichardNixon),whileagodfatherforchiefWatergateburglarHoward HuntschildrenandHuntstopfundraiser,seePeterDaleScott,FromDallastoWatergate:TheLongestCover Up,inSteveWeissman,ed.,Intro.byNoamChomsky,BigBrotherandtheHoldingCompany,TheWorldBehind Watergate (PaloAlto,CA:RampartsPress,1974),12225orHoraceSutton,TheCuriousIntriguesofCuban Miami,inPeterDaleScott,etal.,TheAssassinations,DallasandBeyond AGuidetoCoverUpsand Investigations (NewYork:RandomHouse,1976),403404. ForthemultimilliondollareffectonLittleHavana,

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SponsoredbyCentralIntelligenceAgencyorganizationsinnorthernCostaRicasincethe
571 early1960s,thisnetworkhadillegallyinfluencedCostaRicanpoliticsforsometime. Among

thegroupsinthisareafirstusedbyManuelArtimeandlaterbyJohnHullwereadhocmilitary
572 groups suchastheReserve,theTridents,theBlueBerets,andthePatrioticUnion,andother

assortedconservativegroups.Thesegroupsexhibitedthesameirreverencefordomesticlawas
573 similarlynamedgroupsinLebanonalsoarmedbyIsraelandtheCentralIntelligenceAgency.

Beginninginthe1960s,theCentralIntelligenceAgencycoordinatedsuchgroupsvia thousandsofagentsfromthesoutherncampusoftheUniversityofMiami,throughafirmcalled ZenithTechnologicalServicesandnicknamedJM/WAVE.LedbyTheodoreShackleyandJohn Dyer,andfrontedby sixtyfictitiouscompanies,JM/WAVEcoordinatedwhatbecamethethird largestNavyinNorthAmerica.TheCentralIntelligenceAgencyusedthishemisphericnetwork

574 tosuppressdissidenceintheisthmusandtoattackCubafromallsides. InCostaRica,from

1982to1985,thenetworkemergedasafederalorganization(OPEN)contrivedbytheexCuban FelipeVidal,JohnHullsmainbodyguard,andbyBernalUrbinoPintofromtheWorld
575 AntiCommunistLeague,thenheadedbyJohnSinglaub. OneofFelipeVidalstaskswasto

counterattemptsatnonviolentconflictresolution,suchasthoseinitiatedbyJohnPaulLederach fromtheMoravianChurchandMennoniteCentralCommittee.Lederachbeganbymediating betweentheNicaraguangovernmentinManaguaandtheMiskitopeople,organizationallybased inSanJos,butlivingalongtheAtlanticCoastnearthemouthoftheSanJuanRiver.But Lederach,hiswife,andhisdaughterreceiveddangerousthreatsfromFelipeVidal,intendedto

576 forceLederachawayfromthenegotiations. Accordingtothreereporters,Vidalwasbackedin

Miami,seeKennaSimmons,NeighborlyPartner:CommunityProjectsLiketheManuelArtimeCenterReceive MiamisSupport,Horizon(NewYorkCity),April1988,24. 571 AlBurt,SecrecyHidSmugglinginCostaRica, MHD,13Dec.1964,A2.Theauthorisgratefultothe MHD (Miami)librarystaffformakingarticlefilesavailablehereandinfootnotes22and24following. 572 CostaRicaBootsAntiFidelCamps, MHD,5Dec.1964,A12.SeealsoAlBurtand DonBohning,MRR SaysExileShotatCamp,MiamiWidowLearns`Secret, MHD,4Dec.1964,A12. 573 AGuidetoCostaRicasRight, TheProgressive,Sept.1986inDCF (1986),3.ForIsraeliarms,seeJean Hopfensperger,CostaRica,SeedsofTerror,TheProgressive,Sept.1986,inDCF (1986),12. 574 WilliamAmlong,HowtheCIAOperatedinDade,MHD,9March1975,A16.SeealsoJohnM.Dyer, GuidelinestoOperatinginLatinAmerica (Miami:AcademyoftheArtsandSciencesoftheAmericas,1971). 575 ScottandJonLeeAnderson, InsidetheLeague (NewYork:Dodd,MeadandCompany,1986),24448. OPEN in Spanish: LaOrganizacinparalaEmergenciaNacionalorthefederalemergencyorganization. 576 AndyStone,OurManinManagua, SundayCameraMagazine (Boulder,Colorado),29May1988,10.Stone, althoughlivingintheBoulderarea,reportedontheseeventsashetravelledoveranextendedperiodoftimeinthis area.UnderthecontextofthepeacetalksinEsquipulas,LederachmediateddirectlybetweenBrooklynRivera (basedinSanJos)andTomsBorges(inManagua)toeffectaworkingarrangementforreconciliationbetweenthe

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histhreatsnotonlybyJohnHull,hisemployer,butalsobytheUnitedStatesEmbassiesinboth
577 CostaRicaandHonduras. TheUnitedStatesthususedviolentproxyinterventiontocurb

nonviolent,CostaRicanbasednegotiationsbetweentheNicaraguangovernmentandtheMiskito
578 Indianpeople.

OPEN,thefederalorganizationspurredbytheFreeCostaRicanetwork,concocted additional,multifariousmethodstosubvertCostaRicanneutrality.Toaccomplishthis,OPEN
579 advancedconservativeUnitedStatesbusinessinterestsinsideNicaraguaandCostaRica, and

reinforcedremilitarizationschemesbytheUnitedStates,throughaCostaRicanOrganizationof JudicialInvestigation,aSecurityIntelligenceDirectorate,andaNationalSecurityCouncil. TheseCostaRicanorganizationscorrespondedtotheUnitedStatesFederalBureauof Investigation,CentralIntelligenceAgency,andNationalSecurityCouncil,andwere accompaniedbyotherCostaRicanagenciesdealingwithdrugs,immigration,thepolice,and

580 antiterrorism.

SomozasformerranchinnorthwestCostaRica,ElMurcilago,servedasthebasefor CostaRicanremilitarization.Towardthisend,aCentralIntelligenceAgencycorporatefront renovatedMurcilagoanditsPotreroGrandeairbase,fifteenmilesfromthePacificOcean.

Indiangroup(YATAMA)andtheFSLN.AccordingtoLederach,theU.S.attemptstodisruptthenegotiations includedthemeddlingof aStateDepartmentofficial(includingwhatappearedtobebribes),aswellasreportsby theMiskitostoLederachthatFelipeVidalintendedtoharasshiswifeandkidnaphisdaughter.Afraidfortheir lives,Lederach,hiswife,hisdaughter,andhismotherinlawfledintohidingfromtheirSanJoshome,andthence outoftheisthmus.BrooklynRiverawasthenalsonotallowedtoenterHonduras,inordertotalkwithhispeople there.Finally,anambushkillingonepersonfollowedsoonafterinPuerto Cabezas,Nicaragua,neartheCostaRican border.ThekidnapandharassmentthreatswerereportedtotheAriasadministration.JohnPaulLederach, NicaraguanEastCoastMediation,MennoniteCentralCommittee[MCC],U.S.,Memo.,30Nov.1987,12.The authorisgratefultoDeltonFranz,directoroftheMCCofficesinWashington,D.C.,foraccesstothismemo. 577 Ibid.SeealsoMarthaHoneyandTonyAvirgan,ReaganDisruptsNicaraguanPeaceTalks,SanFranciscoBay Guardian,13Jan.1988,13,20,and36. CharlesHarringtonrepresentedtheU.S.CostaRicanEmbassy,while TimothyBrownandRichardChidesterrepresentedtheU.S.HonduranEmbassy.AdolfoPrezEsquivelfrom SERPAJ(Service,Peace,andJustice)thenjoinedLederachinhisnegotiationattempts.HoneyandAvirgan, workingforsuchperiodicalsas NewsweekandtheManchesterGuardian,livedinCostaRica. 578 TheauthorisgratefultoJohnPaulLederachforinputhereandconcerningtheprevioustwofootnotes.Pleasesee alsoJohnPaulLederach,OfNets,Nails,and Problemas(Ph.D.diss.,UniversityofColoradoatBoulder,1988), 263358.ThesepagesdescribethebasictermsemployedbyLederachformicrolevelnegotiations:e.g.,trust (confianzas),misinformation(chisme),impartiality(neutralidad),andplausibledenial(indirectas). 579 GregorioSelser,InquietantesSignosdeUnaCrecienteFaseMilitarista, ElDa(Mxico),14Jan.1983,in CSPPCR,9899. 580 CODEHU,DerechosHumanos,89.Forcompositionofthesevariousorganizations,seeCindyHawes,Costa RicaDeathSquadsSurface,PeoplesDailyWorld[PDW],19March1983,inDCF (1983),12.Foralistofthe CIAagentsinvolved,similartotheNeubergerandOpperskalskilistinchapter3,see36AgentesdelaCIAOperan enCostaRica,Libertad,1319Nov.1981,inCSPPCR,90andalsoLaMilitarizacindeCostaRica, ElDa (Mexico),25Feb.1983,15,inCSPPCR,108109.

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OliverNorth,RichardSecord,andAlbertHakim(fromIran)managedthebaseatMurcilago throughtheUdallResearchCorporationandtheStanfordTechnologyCorporation. Secord qualifiedforthispostbecauseofhisMiddleEastarmsdealsforRonaldReaganduringtheIsraeli invasionofLebanon.HakimsandSecordsexperienceinarmsdealingwithIranandIsrael, respectively,providedthemeansforcoordinatingtheflowofincomingcapturedweapons

581 fromLebanonbywayofIsrael(andIranimoney)toremilitarizeCostaRica.

LewisTambs,theUnitedStatesAmbassadortoCostaRica,pressuredLuisMongeto supportthisremilitarization.MurcilagoandPotreroGrandelaunchedbombingraidsonboth Managua(8Septemberand214October1983)andPuertoCorinto(9Septemberand214 October1983).OperativesfromMurcilagoalsocoordinatedmajorlandoffensiveslike OperationBlazingTooth,deployingoverathousandContrastoattackSanJuandelNortesoon

582 afterMongesneutralitydeclaration. ContrasweretrainedandoutfittedatMurcilagoby

UnitedStatesvigilantegroups,ledbyThomasPosey(CivilianMilitaryAssistance)andRobert Brown(OmegaForce),aswellasanagingHarryAderholtandEdwardLansdale(whodiedin
583 1981). Inmid1984thisremilitarizationreachedacriticalpoint,whenJosephFernndeztook 584 overastheCentralIntelligenceAgencystationchiefinCostaRica. Thecrisispassed,without

theinvasionfromCostaRicafearedbyNicaragua,whenPastorasantiSomozaforcefellapart
585 afteranassassinationattemptonPastora.

581 RobertoBardini,

Monjes,Mercenarios (Mexico:MexSur,1988),4142and153.ForrelatedtrainingofCosta RicancivilguardsbytheU.S.GreenBeretsSpecialForces,seeGregorioSelser,CostaRica:MsMilitarizacion delPasqueNoTienenEjercito,reproducedfromElDa(Mexico),4May1985,inCostaRica:EntreLas TenazasdelFMI,laAID,yelPentagono, LaParcial (Hamburg,WestGermanGreens)7(June1986):40. 582 RichardAlanWhite, TheMorass,UnitedStatesInterventioninCentralAmerica (NewYork:Harper&Row, 1984),6873. 583 TomBarry,etal.,TheNewRightHumanitarians (Albuquerque,NM:Resource Center,1986),1828. 584 Irangates`CostaRicaConnection,FPCN,Jan.Feb.1987,12.TambsreplacedCurtinWinsorastheU.S. AmbassadortoCostaRica.ForTambsgeopolitics,includingtheroleofSovietgeopoliticians(S.Gorshkov,P. Sokotlogsky,andG.M.Yegorov),seeLewisTambs,inFactoresGeopolticosenAmricaLatina,Geosur (Uruguay)2(1979):5andinElCaribe:UnMarCerrado, Geosur2(May1981):27.ForCostaRicancollusion, seeDavidJohnston,TestimonyonNorthMayBeUsedAgainstOthers, NYT,8May1989,B6. 585 CarlosL.MarnZ.,RelacionesEstadosUnidosCostaRica(19801986),CSUCAMimeo(1986),2122.The CIAsarmchairstyleassassinationofPastorawasintendedtoforceamergerofproandantiSomozaContras.

145

CostaRicanConflictResolutionNonviolenceinViolence Whilehandlingthiscrisis,CostaRicadodgedparticipationintheContadoraprocess
586 championedbyMexico. However,CostaRicasforeignministrystubbornlycontinuedto 587 defenditsclaimtoneutralityinordernottounderminetheContadoratalks. Then,in1986,

thecombinedeffectofOscarAriasSnchezelectionandtheIranContrascandalintheUnited Statesclearedawayforchange.Ariaspoliticaledgewasslim,sincehispartycontrolledonly twentynineoffiftysevenseatsinthenationallegislature.Togainpreciousmomentum,Arias immediatelytravelledtoEuropeforamonthofconsciousnessraising,hopingtoattract internationalsupportforhisplanstosolvethearms,debt,drug,andContracrisisoverwhelming

588 hiscountry. Byinitiatinganinternationalpeaceplanfortheisthmus,Ariasmanagedto

preemptRonaldReagansidiosyncraticworldordervision. AriasalsoundercutremilitarizationinsideCostaRica.AfterdismantlingPastoras
589 590 logisticalnetwork, heshutdownContramilitaryhospitalsandotherrelatedorganizations.

Hisobjectiveswereaceasefire,politicalamnesty,decreasedmilitaryaid,andaninternational
591 monitoringcommitteesupportedbyanisthmianparliament. BySeptember1986,healso

oversawtheevictionsofspecificmercenariesfromMurcilago,eachofwhomwassentencedto
592 fiveyearsinprison. Inresponsetotheseeffortsatdemilitarization,aidandloanstoCosta

RicawerereducedbytheWorldBank,theInternationalMonetaryFund,andtheUnitedStates

586 FranciscoRojasAravena,CostaRica:EntrelaNeutralidadyelConflicto,inHectorMuoz,ed.,

Amrica Latina,294300and308309.ForstillavailableCostaRicanwartimeconscriptionlaws(coveringages1850), consultAsbjrnEideandC.L.C.MubangaChipoya,QuestionofConscientiousObjectiontoMilitaryTraining (UNESCO)(E/CN.4/Sub.2/1983/30)27June1983,p.10,andAnnexIII,p.4. 587 QuienesAtacanlaNeutralidadQuierenUnaGuerraCostaRicaNicaragua,Solano, ElDa (Mexico),6July 1984,15. 588 LowellGudmundson,CostaRicasAriasatMidterm, CHY86(Dec.1987):417419.Fororiginallystrong doubtsaboutAriasasawolfinsheepsclothingbeforetheIranContrascandal,shieldingU.S.attackson ContadorasupportedbyMexico,seeLaPropuestadePazdeOscarArias:LoboVestidodeOveja?Opinin Poltica,April1987,CIDE(CentrodeDocenciaEconmica)NationalUniversityofMexico),Mimeo,n.p. 589 EnCostaRicaDesmantelaronlaRedLogsticadeARDE, ElDaInternacional (Mxico),27April1986,15. 590 AriasAcusaaAntisandinistasdeAbusardelDerechodeAsilo, NCN,29July1986,A8. 591 Fortheseobjectives,seeCentralAmericaIsReadyforAriasPeaceProposal,U.S.PolicyWillDetermine Success,FPCN,MayJune1987,2. 592 RichardJ. Walton,CostaRica:BackFromtheBrink? Nation,20Dec.1986,698.Thesespecificmercenaries werelateridentifiedasemployeesofJohnHullbyaCostaRicancongressionaldrugcommission,tobediscussedin chapter7.

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593 AgencyforInternationalDevelopment. Nevertheless,givenhiselectoralmandate,Ariashad

nopoliticalchoicebuttocontinuehisunarmeddiplomacyforpeace. Then,glidinginfromCostaRicaon6October1986,EugeneHasenfuswasshotdownby JosFernandoCanalesabouttwentyfivemilesnorthoftheSan JuanRiver.UnitedStatesplans crashedwithHasenfus,thefirstUnitedStatesprisonerofwarcapturedinNicaraguasincethe early1900s.CarryingUnitedStatesStateDepartmentauthorizationpapersasahighlypaid freightkicker,HasenfusjumpedfromaplaneownedbytheCentralIntelligenceAgencys SouthernAirTransportCompany.HispersonalpaperslinkedhimtoJohnHull,DanielQuayle, thefutureUnitedStatesVicepresidentunderGeorgeBush,andRobertOwen Quayles
594 formerstaffaidefrom HullshomestateofIndiana.

TheCentralIntelligenceAgencywouldcontinuetodirectproSomozaContrasfromboth
595 CostaRicaandHonduras. OnthemajornorthernlandroutefromHonduras,forexample,

OcotalwouldbetakenintransitforafewhourswhenContrastriedtoconquerEstel,amajor cityafewmilesnorthofManagua.ButtheseHonduranattemptswereevenlesssignificantthan
596 theseventytwohourCostaRicanbasedoccupationofthevillageofSanJuandelNorte.

RichardMelton,theUnitedStatesAmbassadortoNicaragua,stillworkedtopitHonduras againstthecooperativeNicaraguanandCostaRicanimplementationoftheisthmianpeace
597 plans inordertounderminethefirstmajorregionalagreementsincethe1960sAlliancefor

Progress.Asaresult,theHonduranswouldsignonlyifallthepeaceplanstipulationsadvanced
598 byCostaRicaweremetbyNicaragua. IncontrastwiththeContadoraAgreement,proposed

primarilybyMexico,thisAriasorEsquipulasIIpeaceplanemphasizedanonalignedisthmian peaceagreementfortheneedsandconcernsoftheisthmusarrangedbytheisthmiannations themselves.

593 StuartHirschfield,CostaRicaQuietlyReorientsEconomy,WashingtonReportontheHemisphere,23Nov.

1988,4. 594 RobertParryandBrianBarger,ReagansShadowCIA,NRC 195(24Nov.1986):23ff.ParryandBarger,a majormediateamcoveringthecrash,chargedthatGeorgeBushplayedaroleinmanagingthemidlevelexCuban operativeswhooversawtheContrasarmsanddrugbusiness. 595 InstitutoHistoricoCentroamricano,TheContra,inPeterRossetandJohnVandermeer,eds., Nicaraguan Reader,22627. 596 RalSohr, Centroamrica,145and205. 597 DanielOrtega,ConfiamosenlaPazyenOscarArias, SeminarioUniversidad(SanJos),22July1988,19.

147

Profit:EconomicorMilitary,GainsandTradeOffs EuropeandIsraelweresecondaryplayersintheinternationalresolutionofconflictinthe isthmus.Israelipresencedatedfromtheearly1950s,whenCostaRicancommunistschallenged

599 theUnitedFruitCompany. Europeancontacts,establishedbycolonialism,wereinterrupted

bytwoworldwarsanddidnotresumeuntil1968,whenanisthmianmissionlobbiedthe EuropeanEconomicCommunityinBrussels.Inthe1980s,Europebegantoshowaresolveto
600 supporttheContadoraprocessandplansforanisthmianparliament. ThisEuropeansupport

wassymbolizedbytheNobelPeacePrizegiven toOscarAriasSnchezforhisattemptsat internationalconflictresolution.EuropeansupportalsoreflectedthepoliticalfactthatEuropean peacemovementswerethreateningtoputpressureonbothNATOandtheconservativeruling Europeanpoliticalpartiesbymasscivildisobedience,ifsomethingtangiblewasnotdoneto

601 resolveisthmianconflict. AnalogousIsraelipeacemovementslackedthepowertopushfor

similarnonviolentconflictresolutionontheinternationallevel. EuropeanCommunityTradeProfitableGains Inthe1970s,emphasizingequitabletradeincommoditiesinsteadofarms,theEuropean EconomicCommunitypatterneditsreemergingisthmianinterestsuponanAndeanEuropean

602 arrangement,linkedbyotherarrangementstotradewithJapan. Preliminaryagreements

evolvedthroughaMay1976SocialistInternationalconferenceinCaracas,Venezuela,sponsored byRmuloBetancourt(Venezuela),WillyBrandt(WestGermany),LuisAlbertoMonge(Costa
598 LuisGuillermoSolsRivera,inhisYellowHouseofficeformanagingtheCostaRicanMinistryofForeign

Affairs,SanJos,interview bytheauthor(3April1989).SeealsoLuisGuillermoSolsRivera, Peaceandthe FutureofCentralAmerica:ACostaRicanViewpoint(Washington,D.C.:FriederichEbertStiftung,1987),15. 599 IsraeliarmsmayhavetransitedSwitzerlandlaterseeInternationalArmsTransferstoCentralAmericaSince 1969, CentralAmericanHistoricalInstituteUpdate,6July1984.AftertheCubanRevolutionin1959,Israel operatedthroughTiborRosenbaumsconnectionsinaGenevanBanquedeCrditInternationale,tofinanceitsarms dealsinSouthernAfricaandtheWesternCaribbean.ReputedlyusingMeyerLanskyslaunderedsyndicatemoney, RosenbaumalsocoordinatedtheIsraeliMOSSADbudgetaccordingtoR.T.Naylor, HotMoneyandthePoliticsof Debt (NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1987),23ff.and236ff.SeealsoIdalmaHernndezMuoz,LaPenetracin deIsraelenAmricaCentral(Ph.D.diss.,UniversityofHavana,1988),5570,andchapters78. 600 FranciscoRojasandEdelbertoTorresRvas,DocumentoBasedelaReunin:NuevoFormasdeCooperacion EuropaCentroamrica, CuadernosSemestralesdelCentrodelaInvestigacinylaDocenciaEconmica (CIDE) 18(1985):3439. 601 ElizabethPond,Europe:U.S.InterventioninCentralAmericaWouldHarmNATO, CSM,2April1985,19. SimilarmassivenonviolencebroughtdownseveralconservativeEastEuropeangovernmentsin1989. 602 BetsyBaker,LatinAmerica LinksWiththeCommunity, EuropeanStudies 21(1975):1.

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Rica),PorifirioMuozLedo(Mexico),andVictorRalHayadelaTorre(PeruandCostaRica). TheaimsofthisconferencewerestrengthenedbyaSanJos,CostaRica,meetinginJuly1978,
603 anda1979meetinginLisbon,Portugal.

FurthermeetingsoftheSocialistInternationalgaveRodrigoCarazo,presidentofCosta RicabeforeLuisMonge,thecouragetobargaindirectlyforhelpwiththeEuropeanEconomic Community.Thus,inJune1980,CarazowentfirsttoParis,thentoBrusselsformeetingswith RoyJenkins(presidentoftheEuropeanEconomicCommunity),andfinallytoLondon.Carazo

604 pleadedforaidtobothNicaraguaandCostaRica. Aidfollowed.In1984theEuropean

EconomicCommunityeventriedtopersuadeGeorgeShultznottoblockloanstoNicaragua
605 fromtheInterAmericanDevelopmentBank,partiallyfundedbytheEuropeanCommunity.

LeadershipfromSpainandWestGermanycoordinatedtheEuropeansupportforNicaraguaand CostaRica,primarilythroughaWestGermandevelopmentaidmodelusedbeforeinLaosand
606 Vietnam. After1979,theEuropeanEconomicCommunitycoordinatedisthmianaidandtrade 607 throughtheCentralAmericanIntegrationBank. Infiveyears,Europeanisthmianaidreached

over$360million,ofwhicheighteenpercentwenttoCostaRicaandfortysixpercentto
608 Nicaragua. OverninetypercentofthetotalsupportedHonduras,Nicaragua,andCosta

603 GregorioSelser,PresenciadelaInternacionalSocialistaenAmricaLatinayelCaribe,inCentroamrica,3d

ed.,270,283,28586,301,and305306.BettinoCraxi(Italy),AnkerJrgensen(Denmark),BrunoKreisky (Austria),GuillermoManuelUngo(ElSalvador),MarioSoares(Portugal),andUlpioTapiola(Finland)also attendedthisconference. 604 PlaidoyerpourunAccordC.E.E.AmriqueCentral, LeFigaro,11June1980,3.U.S.Nicaraguantradefellby halfandNicaraguanCentralAmericantradebyathird,asEuropeanNicaraguantradedoubledseeTheU.S.Trade EmbargoAgainstNicaragua:AFallaciousRationale,Mimeo,n.d.,2 senttotheauthorbyMarcosWheelock, theNicaraguanrepresentativetotheOAS,NicaraguanEmbassy,Washington,D.C.(March1987).Theauthoris gratefultotheEEC inWashington,D.C.,andinSanJos foraccesstoarticleclippingfilesforfootnotes51 68. 605 JimMorrell,RedliningNicaragua,HowtheU.S.PoliticizedtheInterAmericanBank, IPR (Dec.1985):56. 606 HildegardStrausberg,EECandCentralAmericanStatesinanHistoricAssignation,GermanTribune,26 August1984,2.ForinputfromSpain,seeMarioMorenoMelchor,LaPosibilidaddeUnAcuerdoPreferencial TipoLom,EntreLaCEEyCentroamrica, CuadernosSemestralesdelCentrodelaInvestigacinylaDocencia Econmica(CIDE,MexicoCity)18(1985):27071. 607 JointCommuniquoftheMinisterialMeetingofSanJos,CostaRica(2829Sept.1984), Delegationofthe CommissionoftheEuropeanCommunities,PressRelease,1Oct.1984,1ff. 608 DelegationoftheCommissionoftheEuropeanCommunities,ECAssistancetoCentralandLatinAmerica, 19781985,Mimeo,Washington,D.C.,n.d.,1and3.

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609 Rica. Duringthissameperiod,tradebetweentheisthmusandtheEuropeanCommunityrose

toover$4billionannually,halfofwhichaccountedforasixthofallCentralAmerican
610 exports. AidtotheisthmusfromtheEuropeanCommunity whichhadaveraged$60

millionperyearbefore1984wouldexceed$215millionperyearafter1984,ofwhichathird
611 wenttoNicaraguaandatenthtoCostaRica.

A1984SanJosconferenceanda1985meetinginLuxembourglaunchedplanstoinstall afiveyearisthmiandevelopmentpackage,underageneralizedpreferencesystemalreadyopen toBelize.Thesemeetingsalsoindirectlyimprovedtherelationsoftheisthmiannationswith othercountriesintheregionsuchasCuba.Mexico,Colombia,andVenezuela,asprotagonists forpeacethroughtheagreementssignedonContadoraIsland,wereincludedinthefiveyear

612 package. Aspartofthesedevelopments,Swedenandotherneutralstatesalsolobbiedfor 613 strongerCanadianandEuropeaneconomicrelationswiththeisthmus. Bymid1988,the

EuropeanCommunityincludedfullCubantradeanddiplomaticrelationsamongitsoverall
614 politicalobjectives.

TheseimprovedEuropeanWesternCaribbeanrelationsunderminedUnitedStates hegemonyintheWesternCaribbean,sincetheeconomicpoweroftheEuropeanEconomic
615 CommunitywassecondonlytoJapansinthecapitalistworld. SergioRamrez,Nicaraguas

vicepresident,optimisticallynotedthatimprovingEuropeanrelationscouldmakeitpossibleto

609 ComunidadEuropeaEconmica,AmricaLatinaylaC.E.[E.],CooperacinalDesarrollo,Brussels,Press

Release,n.d.[1985?],9. 610 MarcPierini,E.C.EyesNewTiesinCentralAmerica, Europe 246(Nov.Dec.1984):3031. 611 JorgeGillies,FirmadoAcuerdodeCooperacinEntrePasesCentroamricanosyEuropeas,Desarrolloy Cooperacin 1(1986):2124. 612 E.C.andCentralAmericaSignPoliticalandEconomicAgreements, EuropeanCommunityNews,19Nov. 1985,1ff.TheseplansfollowedthemodelestablishedinLome,Togo,forEECAfricantrade.Ananalogous relationshipdevelopedwithAngoladuring19731983.Angolaimported65%ofitsgoodsfromtheEEC(versus 15%fromtheCMEA)andexported55%ofitsgoodstotheEEC(versus15%totheCMEA)seePeterMeynes,O DesenvolvimentodaEconomiaAngolanaaPartirdaIndependencia:ProblemasdaReconstruaoNacional, Revista InternacionaldeEstudosAfricanos2(JuneDec.1984):140. 613 AidThatCounts,TheWesternContributiontoDevelopmentandSurvivalinNicaragua (Amsterdam,the Netherlands:TransnationalInstitute,andManagua:CRIES,1988),9,18,and98ff.From19791986,overafifthof NicaraguantradewaswiththeEECandCanada. 614 DiplomaticRelationsEstablishedBetweentheCommunityandCuba, EuropeanEconomicCommunityPress Release,Brussels(29Sept.1988)orOnRelationswiththeCountriesofCentralAmerica,IncludingCuba, EuropeanParliamentSessionDocuments(EN/RR/102143SeriesA,PE143.208fin[441.2/132]),10Jan.1991,1 19.Aspartoftheseefforts,theEECrecognizedtheCMEAin1985. 615 CorinnReinki,EuropeanCommunityandCentralAmericaConferinHamburg,GermanTribune,13March 1988,3.

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616 draftandimplementahealthandmedicalplanfortheentireisthmus. In1988,hopesforan 617 isthmianparliamentalsoimproved, asEuropeantraderosetooveraquarterofallexports

fromtheisthmus.IncreasingEuropeaneconomicinvolvementalsoledtogreaterpolitical
618 supportforLatinandEuropeanproposalsonUnitedNationspeacekeeping.

Irani,Israeli,andSaudiArmsShakyTradeOffs Iran,Israel,andSaudiArabiatookanotherapproachtoconflictresolutionintheisthmus. Insteadofinvolvementthroughtrade,thesenationsstressedmilitarysolutionsthroughproxy intervention.Aswillbeshowninthefollowingsectionandthesectionafteritregardingthe UnitedStates,Saudi(andBrunei)moneyfundedproxiessuchasIsraelforviolentUnitedStates conflictresolutionintheisthmus.Theseproxyfundsweresupplementedbycocaineprofits negotiatedinCostaRica,bywayofPanamaandColombia,throughexchangesengineeredby, forexample,ManuelAntonioNoriega,SarkisSoghanalian(Lebanese)andMichaelHarari (Israeli).Muchoftheisthmiandiplomaticcomplicityinthisarmsanddrugbusinesswasbased

619 inSanJos,espousedtherebyIsraeliinterestsleftoverfromtheSomozaera.

Israel,externallydependentonimportsforoverninetypercentofitsenergyresources, anduponLatinAmericaespeciallytheisthmusforitsThirdWorldarmsexports,unified planstoarmtheContrasbysellingIranweapons.Fromthe1950stotheKhomeiniRevolution in1979,IsraeliintelligencehaddonemorethantraintheShahssecretpolice,SAVAK,forsuch

620 clandestinedeals.OngoingIsraelidealsensuredthatKhomeini andproSomozagroups 621 continuedtorelyonIsraeliarms. Inthelate1970s,IsraelalsoplannedanelectronicCosta

616 NicaraguaProponeElaborarPlandeCooperacinenCentralAmrica,

RPA,20August1986,13.

617 MattijsvonBonzel,politicalattachintheNetherlandsEmbassytoCostaRica,inhisoffice,interviewbythe

author(19April1989). 618 J.D.Gannon,YouScratchMyBackAnd..., CSM,3March1989,4.Isthmiangovernmentsremained concernedoverwhatwouldhappentoEuropeantariffsandtermsoftrade,whenEuropewouldtransformasplanned intoasingleEuropeaneconomicsystem,includingEastGermany. 619 MarshallYurow,LegacyofthePledge:IsraelsInvolvementinNicaragua(MAnonthesisoption,The AmericanUniversity,1986),n.p.,Chapter3.ForSoghanaliansbusinesswithIsrael,alongwithhisyearly$2 billionarmssalesaverage includingIraq,EasternEurope,France,andArgentina(e.g.,theExocetssinking BritishwarshipsintheMalvinasWar),seeKnutRoyceandMiguelAcoca,BigTimeArmsManIndicted, Sunday TimesMirror(Albany,NewYork),28 Sept.1986,A7.ForHararisotherinterests,rangingfromnuclear technologytoPalestiniandeathsquads,seeJuanTamayo,NoriegaSupportedbyExSpy,MHD,19Jan.1988,A 4.TheauthorisgratefultojournalistKnutRoyce(Newsday Washington,D.C.,Bureau)foraccesstothesearticles, duringaninterviewbytheauthorinRoycesoffice,29Sept.1989.SomearmsalsocamefromTaiwanseeReuter CableL124(22Oct.1986).Seealsochapter7fortheresultantroleofdrugs. 620 MarianneVanLeeuwen, IsralenIranStrangeBedfellows?Transaktie 16(1987):197and199. 621 JaneHunter, IsraeliForeignPolicy,SouthAfricaandCentralAmerica (Boston:SouthEndPress,1987),14143.

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RicaNicaraguaborderfencepatternedafteritsNamibiaAngolaandIsraelPalestineborder
622 623 fences, whileprolongingSomozaslastbloodyyearinpower(mid1978tomid1979).

Understandably,somepeopledislikedtheseIsraeliarmsdeals.InManagua,massive nonviolenttradeuniondemonstrationsattheIsraeliEmbassycompelledDanielOrtegatobreak
624 diplomaticrelationswithIsrael. Insodoing,Ortegaalsodisclaimedarmsrelateddebtsto 625 IsraelandArgentina. ControversypersistedoverwhetherornotIsraelhadcoordinatedarms

soldtoIranin1979,precedingasimilar1984WilliamBuckleydealfordelayingthereleaseof UnitedStateshostages.The1979arrangementmayhavebeenresponsibleformakingRonald
626 Reaganpresident,insteadofJimmyCarter,whowasfavoredastheincumbent.

By1980,overfortypercentofIsraeliexportrevenuecamefromarmsdealswithLatin
627 AmericancountrieslikeCostaRica. ATurkfromLebanon SarkisSoghanalian

brokeredalargeshareofthesearmsdeals,usinghisarmsanddrugbusinessexperiencefrom warsstagedinIndoChina,IraqIran,andIsraelLebanon,bywayofhisofficesinIraq,Laos, Florida,Nicaragua,andSwitzerland.Duringthe1970s,throughUnitedStatesdiplomatic channels,SoghanalianhadsuppliedSomoza,theLebaneseKataeb,andMoamarKhadafiin

628 Libya. SuchinternationaldealingsdisgustedlawenforcementagentslikeRichardGregorie,

622 JanNederveenPieterse,

IsraelsRoleintheThirdWorld,ExportingWestBankExpertise (Amsterdam,the Netherlands:EmancipationResearch,1984),12. 623 MiltonJamail,IsraeliMilitaryInvolvementinCentralAmerica, MIM,May1985,1and56.U.S.lawsin1961 and1968forbadesuchproxyorthirdpartyarmssaleswithoutU.S.presidentialapprovalseeAnIsraeli Connection? Time,7May1984,75. 624 SindicalistasPedirnRompimientoconIsrael, LaPrensa,30June1979,4. 625 JuntaNacionalizAyerLaBancaenNicaragua, NCN,26July1979,A21. 626 BenBradleeandRichardHiggins,DidReagan,BushCutADeal? BostonGlobe,23Oct.1988,A25and27. ForuncertaintyoverGeorgeBushinthiscontroversy,voicedbyAlexanderHaigandStansfieldTurner,see80 `OctoberSurpriseDealProbed,FactsonFile,WorldNewsDigest (NEXIS)(4Nov.1988).Fora19841985deal arrangedbyRobertMcFarlaneandGeorgeCave,formerTeheranCIAstationchief,totradearmsagaintoIranin exchangeforWilliamBuckley withoutinformingOliverNorth,seeU.S.IranDealonBuckleyReported, Facts onFile,WorldNewsDigest (NEXIS),12June1987,424,F3.SeealsoRichardBacchus,ReaganBush80Arms DealwithIranCharged, CSM,21Oct.1988,6CarlCarlson,TheOctoberSurprise, Penthouse,Nov.1984,68 andBarbaraHonegger,TheOctoberSurprise (NewYork:Tudor,1989).TheauthorisgratefultoTheAmerican UniversityLawLibraryforaNEXISSearchhere. 627 IsraelShahak, IsraelsGlobalRole:WeaponsforRepression (Belmont,MA:AssociationofArabAmerican UniversityGraduates,1982),1517,43,and56.Israelfurnishedover80%ofGuatemalanandSalvadoreanarms imports,andfurnishedHonduraswiththemostadvancedisthmianairforce.SeealsoMiltonJamail,Israeli MilitaryInvolvementinCentralAmerica, MIM,May1985,1and56. 628 MichaelGillard,CIAIsAccusedinArmsFraudCase, Observer,8June1982,12.ForIndoChinaorigins,via AirAmericaandLaosairoperationsmanagementin19661974undertheU.S.StateDepartment,seeJames Cunningham,Directorresum forSoghanaliansrighthandmanandcompanyroots inPanAviation File,CivilAeronauticsBoard,U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,mimeo.TheauthorisgratefultoKnutRoyce

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whomayhaveresignedhisUnitedStatesAttorneypostintheSouthern(Miami)Districtof FloridabecausetraffickerslikeSoghanalianmadehisworkirrelevant.Gregoriediscovered otherslikeSoghanalianworkingfromthetopoffederalagenciessuchasthoseinCostaRica,

629 Peru,Israel,Lebanon,Bolivia,Colombia,andSouthAfrica. TothesouthofCostaRica,

anothersuchmajorinternationalarmsanddrugbusinessfigureMichaelHarari worked throughsimilarlyofficial,overlappingdiplomaticandintelligencechannels,whetherinIsrael, SouthAfrica,ortheUnitedStates,withsimilarhighleveldiplomaticprotection. IdentifiedasafounderandarmssupplieroftheContraproxyinterventionnetwork, MichaelHarariwasalsopartofthelogisticalnetworkfortheLebaneseKataebsofamiliarto Soghanalian.HararisnetworkhadsupplementedSoghanaliansdealsbyinductinga Panamanian,ManuelAntonioNoriega,intothearmsanddrugbusiness,andbyforging

630 Noriegaspersonalbodyguard. HararisnetworkfedarmstoCostaRicanContrasthrough 631 632 fellowexMossadagentslikeWilliamNorthrup, whoalsodealtarmstoIranafter1982.

GuardedbyNoriegasownpersonalaide,JosdeJess(ChuChu)Martnez,Hararihelped
633 NoriegatosheltertheShahofIranbeforehisdeathonContadoraIsland. Afterthe1989

UnitedStatesinterventioninPanama,HarariquietlyreturnedtoIsrael. A1981memorandumofunderstanding,arrangedbetweenIsraelandtheUnitedStatesby YaacovMeridor,authorizedIsraeltoserveasamilitaryproxyfortheUnitedStatesforsuch

foraccesstothisresuminhisNewsday(Washington,D.C.)Bureauoffice,duringaninterviewbytheauthor,29 Sept.1989. 629 RichardGregorieinhisKeyBiscayne,Floridahome,telephoneinterviewbytheauthor,30Oct.1989.Please note:theallegedroleofSoghanalian,confirmedbythefirsttelephoneinterviewwithGregoriefromhishome soonaftertheKerryCommissionhearings,waslaterdeniedbyGregoriefromhisMiamiofficeduringasecond telephoneinterviewbytheauthor(30Jan.1990).Seealso,KerryCommission, ForeignPolicy,123.ForIsraeliand EnglishmercenariesinColombia,seeEugeneRobinson,BogotaSecurityAllegesMercenaryAidtoCartels, WPT, 29August1989,A1and18.AccordingtoalongRadioMoscowshortwaveprogram(28August1989),South AfricansalsoworkedwiththeCIA,alongwithBritishandIsraelimercenaries,totrainColombiandrugsecurity squads. 630 UriDan,IsraeliPowerBehindNoriega, NewYorkPost,11July1988,2and14.Harariworkedfor30yearsas anIsraeliMossadcommander.ForHararisrisetopower,usinganarmedforce5timeslargerthanthearmyof OscarTorrijos,seeJaneHunter,CocaineandCutouts:IsraelsUnseenDiplomacy,Link,Jan.March1989,3and 5.TheauthorisgratefultoChristicInstituteforcitelocationshere. 631 MossadDefectorTellsofContraArmsCocaineNetwork, IFA4(June1988):3and7. 632 RichardRyan,AnIndependentReportShedsMoreLightThantheTowerCommission, ITT,11March1987,in DCF (1987),19.RyanstatesthatNorthrupusedtheR.R.C.Co.inNewJerseytoshiparmsdirectlytoIranafter 1982. 633 GregorioSelser, CanalPegado,22328.NoriegaslinktoHararisdrugbusinesswasusedtojustifyU.S. militaryinterventioninPanamainDec.1989.

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634 conflict,despitepaperobstaclesliketheBolandAmendment. Israelworkedwellasaproxyin

CostaRicabecauseantiSomozaContraslikeEdenPastorarefusedtodealwithformerSomoza
635 NationalGuardmembers. UnabletoforgetthattheSomozaNationalGuardhadkilledhis

father,PastorapreferredIsraelisuppliedarmsfromLebanon,regardlessofthecostto
636 Lebanon.

InarmsdebtContraexchangesinvolvingEdenPastoraandLuisMonge,Quesadaserved logisticallyastherailroaddepotforIsraeliarms,supplies,andtrainingmaterialscoordinatedby managerssuchasJohnHull.EachContrawaspaidaninitial$200andanother$100per

637 month, whileIsraeliContraadvisorsreceivedupto$10,000monthly.TheIsraelisemployed

IsraelDefenseForcetrainingmanualsandcataloguestoteachtheContrashowtousethe incomingshiploadsofarms,includingsurfacetoairmissilesfordestroyingSovietmade
638 helicopters.TheseshipmentsweresentbyIsraelthroughSanAntonio,Texas,fromLebanon.

InexchangeforbasingtheContrasinandaroundQuesada,andalsoforagreeingtoswitchthe CostaRicanEmbassyinIsraelfromTelAvivtoJerusalem,LuisMongedispassionately renegotiatedCostaRicasinternationaldebtwith170UnitedStatescommercialbanksaftera

639 shortmeetinginWashington,D.C.

InAugust1982,KarenOlson,thefirstwifeofJosFigueresandaUnitedStatescitizen, negotiatedanarms,debt,andContradealastheAmbassadorofCostaRicatoIsrael.She
640 completedthedealasIsraeloccupiedLebanon. BackinCostaRica,legislativequeriesover

thelegalityofthisdealwerebrushedaside,sinceIsraelhadsimilarlyarmedJapan,Taiwan,
641 Argentina,andSouthKorea. AnnualIsraeliLatinAmericantradeaccordinglymushroomed

from$250million,in 1981,toover$1billionafter1982.Meanwhile,thePalestineLiberation
634 JaneHunter,

NoSimpleProxy,IsraelinCentralAmerica(Washington,D.C.:WashingtonMiddleEast Associates,1987),iiiand79. 635 BenjaminBeitHallahmi,TheIsraeliConnection,WhoIsraelArmsandWhy (NewYork:PantheonBooks,1987), 90and92. 636 BryanSmith,IsraelandCentralAmericanArms, CanadianDimension 17(July1983):16.ForPastorasinitial stanceagainstIsrael,duetoarmsshippedbyIsraeltokeepSomozainpowerduringthelastyearbeforethe1979 Revolution,seealsoPorAyudaaSomozaAtacaaIsrael, LaPrensaLibre,6July1979,15. 637 BlanchePetrich,FinancianWashingtonyTelAvivalosContrarevolucionariosdeEdenPastora,UnoMas Uno,June1983 CODELIDEReprint.FortrainingoftheCostaRicanruralguardbyIsrael,seeAaronS. Kleiman, IsraelsGlobalReach,ArmsSalesasDiplomacy (NewYork:PergamonBrasseys,1985),135. 638 JonathanMarshall,etal., IranContra,14and98100. 639 JaneHunter,IsraelinCentralAmerica,ArmsMerchantandU.S.Proxy,NicaraguanPerspectives 7(Winter 1983):36. 640 GregorioSelser,CostaRica:ElTrasladodeEmbajadaaJerusaln, ElDa (Mexico),18Sept.1987,4.

154

OrganizationreciprocatedbycocoordinatingmilitarytraininginafourthoftheSandinista
642 militarybases.

On12January1983,the1981(Meridor)IsraeliUnitedStatesmemorandum of understandingwasformallymodifiedtoincludeCostaRica.The1981memorandummayhave hadaclausethatIsraelwouldattackCubaorNicaraguawiththeUnitedStatesifnecessary.But the1983memorandumincludedpledgescoveringIrani,Iraqi,Afghani,Lebanese,andSouth

643 Africanconflicttoo. TheforeignministerofCostaRica,AngelEdmundoSolano,travelledto

IsraelandmetwithArielSharon(GeneralinChief),ShimonPeres(LaborPartyleader),Yitzhak
644 Shamir(Chancellor),andMenachemBegin(President), inordertocosignthismemorandum 645 ofunderstanding. Needlesstosay,IsraeldidnotreciprocatebyrecognizingCostaRicas

claimstoneutralityandunarmeddiplomacy. Laterin1983,twootherIsraeliprojectsalsoemerged,beginningwith aTADIRAN contracttobuildthefirstisthmianarmsandmunitionsfactoryinGuatemala.Thisfactory standardizedsmallarmsproductionintheisthmianstatespoliticallyalignedwiththeUnited States,suchasCostaRica,whetherforpistols,rifles,andmachineguns,orforcomputerassisted

646 counterinsurgencytechnology. Secondly,IsraelandtheUnitedStatesAgencyfor

InternationalDevelopmentproposedajointprojectfornorthernCostaRica.Thissecondproject
647 constructedmilitarybarracksandotherrelatedbuildingsnorthofQuesada.

In1984theselongrangeIsraeliCostaRicanplanswerederailedbytheWilliamBuckley kidnappinginBeirut,Lebanon,andtheBolandAmendment.Inresponse,underWhiteHouse NationalSecurityCouncilDirective111,topIsraelicabinetofficialsmaneuveredtoretrieve

648 BuckleybyofferingIranmoreweapons. Meanwhile,SaudiArabiacontinuedproxy

interventionbyfundingbotharmsshipmentstoIranand(Israeli)Contramilitarytraining.Inthe nexttwoyears,Brunei,SaudiArabia,andprivatecitizensintheUnitedStatespubliclysentover

641 MiguelConcha,GendarmesNacionalesyRegionales,UnoMasUno,28Nov.1982,14inCSPPCR,94. 642 TheArabIsraeliContestforInfluenceinLatinAmerica, 643 JanNederveenPieterse,

BusinessWeek,3May1982,52. IsraelsRole,17and21. 644 Volio:NicaraguaDeseaEnsuciarla ImagenClara deCostaRica, ElDa,12Jan.1983,15inCPSPPCR,57. 645 Acuerdode`ColaboracinEntreIsraelyCostaRica, UnoMasUno,13Jan.1983,12,inCSPPCR,96. 646 IsraeliArmsFactoryOpensforBusiness, Guardian inDCF (16Nov.1983). 647 ElLibroBlancodeUnoAgresincontralaDemocracia,CostaRicaEntrelaNeutralidadylaGuerra(Madrid: IEPALA/CostaRicanSocialistParty,June1984),16and18. 648 JackColhoun,IsraeliHandwritingAllOverIranContraScandal, Guardian (NewYork),4Nov.1987,inDCF (1987),17.

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$250milliontotheContras,despitetheBolandAmendmentsbanonUnitedStatesfederal
649 fundingforsuchwarfare,fromOctober1984toOctober1986.

SuperpowerStalemateorNuclearWarAnUnstablePeace UnderneaththeproxyrolesofIsrael,CostaRica,andSaudiArabiawas,ofcourse,the UnitedStatesgeopoliticalprogramforhegemonyovertheisthmus.Thisprogramoriginated

650 fromaworldorderviewofgeopoliticalsecurity. Sincethe1940s,theUnitedStateshad

advancedlowintensitycounterinsurgencytacticsforgeopoliticalsecurity,withitsnuclearthreat
651 quietlyinthebackground. ThisprogramexplainswhyJosFigueres,theCostaRican

presidentwhoabolisheditsarmyin1948,stillhadtoconsiderUnitedStatesmilitarythreatsto
652 invadebyair,bysea,andbylandfromPanama.

CovertandOvertCostaRicanRemilitarization Fromtheearly1960s,UnitedStatesgeopoliticalprioritiesinCostaRicawerepatterned byorganizationsliketheFreeCostaRicanetwork,fundedbysmuggling,andusedtosuppress

653 proCubaandantidependencyorganizations. After1966,thisnetworkwasjoinedbythe

WorldAntiCommunistLeague,commonlycalledtheLeague.ThisLeaguestemmedfroman anticommunistcoalitionofFarEastAsian,Croatian,andRomanianexNazisympathizers,
654 previouslyledbyJohnSinglaubduringtheLaowar. TheLeaguesAsianexperience

distinguisheditfromtheMiddleEastoriented,exCubanFreeCostaRicanetwork. Surprisingly,atfirst,afearoftheSovietUnionitselfwasnotarecognizablepartofeither
649 Avarietyofsourcespointtothisinterpretationofevents:EdMagnuson,PursuingtheMoneyConnectionsThe

SupplyLinetotheContrasLedThroughAMazeof`CutoutsandMiddlemen, Time,15Dec.1986,23and29 FredBarnes,Water Torture, NRC(8June1987):11EdMagnuson,YetAnotherSaudiConnectionDidIllegalSupportGoTo AngolanRebelsAsWellAsContras? Time,29June1987,16DoyleMcManus,DatelineWashington: GipperDmmerung, FPY66(Spring1987):15767andRussellWatson,WhoKnew?CouldAYoungLieu tenantColonelWorkingOutoftheWhiteHouseBasementHaveRuntheIranContraArmsOperationOnHis Own?Newsweek,8Dec.1986,36. 650 Congress,SubcommitteeonWesternHemisphericAffairs,SenateCommitteeonForeignRelations, U.S.Military PoliciesandProgramsinLatinAmerica,Hearings,91stCongress,1stsess.(24June 8July1969),1ff.and15ff. 651 JanBlack,UnitedStatesSecurityPolicyandPenetration:TheCaseofBrazilintheSixties(Ph.D.diss.,The AmericanUniversity,1975),3536. 652 RalSohr, Centroamrica,202204.SeealsoSatishKumar, CIAandtheWorld,AStudyinCryptoDiplomacy (NewDelhi:VikasPublishingHouse,1981),6263. 653 PeterDaleScott,Cubainthe1960sandNicaraguaNow CIAsCovertWars SameMethods,SamePlayers,inPNS(21Oct.1986)in DCF (1987),6465.

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655 networksconcerns. However,bythe1970satatimewhenSovietThirdWorldexperts

begintoabandontheirviolentrevolutionaryrhetoricbecausesuchtacticshadfailedUnited Statestrainingmanualsusedbysuchgroupswerebeginningtoadoptlowintensity counterinsurgencytacticsagainstallwhowereallegedtobecommunists,nonviolentor

656 otherwise.

After1976,whathadbeenconsideredtobeabackwaterUnitedStatesmilitarymissionin
657 CostaRicawasupgradedinstatus. StingingembarassmentsinLebanon whereapro

Cubangovernmentalmosttookpowerin1976 andtheequallypungentIndoChinesedefeatin
658 1975mayhavemotivated thismilitarizationofCostaRica. Atthetime,thearmsanddrug

businessinIndoChinahadended,thoughsurplusfundsfromthatbusinessanditsPhoenix
659 ProjecthadbeentransferredtotheNuganHandBankinAustraliaandMiami,Florida. Inany

case,JimmyCartersambassadortoCostaRica,FrankMcNeill,andtwoCentralIntelligence Agency(isthmian)CovertOperationsTaskForcedirectors,DeweyClaridgeandAlanFiers,
660 begantomusterLebanonizationtacticsfortherestoftheisthmusfromthismilitarymission.

Inthewakeofthe1979SandinistaRevolution,manyeventsmotivatedcovert interference.ProandantirevolutionaryorganizationssprunguprapidlyinNicaraguaandCosta Rica.InspiredbytheNicaraguanRevolution,smallfarmerorpeasantguerrillaorganizations sproutedfromhiddenbasecommunitiesinPanama,Honduras,andElSalvador.Manyofthese

654 ScottandJonLeeAnderson,League,xvii,7,1229,and35ff. 655 JorgeDominquez,U.S.,Soviet,andCubanPoliciesTowardLatinAmerica,inMarshallD.Shulman,ed.,

East WindTensionsintheThirdWorld(NewYork:W.W.Norton&Co.,1986),5466.Soviettendenciestorecommend electoralchangegrewundertheperestroikaapproachof MikhailGorbachev,throughtheinfluenceofSovietLatin AmericanscholarslikeKivaMaidanik,SergoMikoyan,YuriKuriolov,andTatianaVorozheikina.SeeKiva MaidanikandTatianaVorozheikina,TeorayPracticadelaLuchadeLiberacin,inAmricaLatina:Estudiosde CientficosSovieticos,AmricaCentral:LuchaLiberadoraylaPolticadeEE.UU. (Moscow:CienciasSociales Contemporneas,1987),13046.VorozheikinawrotethisarticleasaPh.D.studentintheUniversityofMoscow. 656 See LowIntensityConflict(Washington,D.C.:U.S.ArmyFieldManual,10020,1971/1980) MilitaryReview 59(Feb.1989)orIsabelJaramillo, LowIntensityConflict:APuzzleforAssembling (Havana:AmericanStudy Center,24,n.d.),73. 657 IlianaCruzAlfaroandRonaldSaborioSoto,LaSeguridadExternadeCostaRica,FrentealaCrisis Centroamricana(LL.D.thesis,UniversityofCostaRica,1986),17577. 658 DanielE.Rosenbaum,ChiefofCIACovertOperations,CriticizedinIranAffair,Resigns, NYT,26Nov.1987, A2. ForaLebaneseviewoftheCIAs$250millionarmsanddrugbusinessleverage,seeKamalJumblatt, ISpeak forLebanon,trans.byMichaelPollisandrecordedbyPhilippeLapousterle(London:ZedPress,1982),7. 659 LaurenandWilliamChambliss,Crimesof State,IranandtheContras,CanadianDimension 21(Sept.1987): 3538orInsidetheShadowGovernment (Washington,D.C.:ChristicInstitute,1988),1826. 660 FrankMcNeill, War&PeaceinCentralAmerica (NewYork:CharlesScribnersSons,1988),11ff.and37.For thiskindofcovertstrategymanagement,seeCharlesMaechling,Jr.,ImprovingtheIntelligenceSystem,Foreign ServiceJournal57(June1980):1013.Forintelligencesupport,seeGeorgeChurchandJayPeterzell,TheSecret Army,Time,31August1987,1214.

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smallfarmeruprisingsweresuppressedbyrapidlydeployed,UnitedStatesfundedisthmian
661 militarypower. Also,after1979,Caribbeanindependencemovementsflexedtheirmusclesin

theDominicanandGrenadianrevolutionsandthecounterrevolutionsthatechoedinHaitiand Guyana.ForthefirsttimeintheCaribbeansince1959,Cubabegantoestablishadroittrade
662 relationswithBelize,Grenada,Guyana,Jamaica,Surinam,andNicaragua.

WilliamCasey,themainUnitedStatesspookoverseeingproxyinterventioninstates likeCostaRica,proceededunderProjectVeil.Hehadastrongpersonalandprofessional
663 exampletofollowinhismentorandsurrogatefather,theaforementionedWilliamDonovan. 664 Casey,forexample,oversawBruneianandSaudiArabianmoneytransfers. Operatingas

moneylaundries,hisofficesalsohandledStateDepartmentfundschanneleddirectlytoCosta RicanContrasthroughtheStateDepartmentsInternationalBusinessCommunications
665 enterprise. ThisproxyinterventionwasaimedatbothCostaRicaandNicaragua,asmanaged

bytheparallelstatecripplingCostaRicaneconomicdevelopment.JohnBiehllaterreviledits
666 disastrouseffectontheCostaRicanpeople.

ButCaseysCostaRicanproxyinterventionwasalsodivertedbytheBuckley kidnapping,andthenderailedbythebombingdeathsoftopCentralIntelligenceAgencyagents
667 intendingtovisitBeirut. Atfirst,CaseytriedtoleadthesearchforBuckleyhimself,since 668 BuckleyhadheadedalltheCentralIntelligenceAgencycovertoperations. Thatistosay,

661 GabrielAguileraandEdelbertoTorrasRvas,

ParaEntenderCentroamrica,LosHechosqueFormaronla Crisis(SanJos:CRIES/ICADIS,1986),11,62,8386,and107108.FortheU.S.armsforsuchcovert interference,sentfromTexas (Beaumont,Houston,orCorpusChristi),Florida(McDill)andCalifornia(Concord, Oakland,orFortWorth),seeUpInArms,U.S.MilitaryShipmentstoCentralAmerica,AGuideforActivists, AFSCMimeo,n.d.,45. 662 JorgeRodrguezBeruff,PolticaMilitar,113114. 663 BobWoodward,Veil,TheSecretWarsoftheCIA,19811987(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1987),5152and 15253.ProjectVeilsobjectiveshavenotbeenmadepublicmuchbeyondthisbook,certainlynotconcerning CaseyandCostaRica,asinitiatedbyWilliamDonovan.Thesetopicswerebrieflyexploredinchapter3. 664 JohnKelly,CovertoCover:RewaldsCIAStory,Counterspy(JuneAugust1984):1012and5052.Seealso DavidCoetzee,Angolaand`Irangate, Africasia (March1987)inDCF (1987):3536. 665 R.SpencerOliverandBertHammond,U.S.HouseCommitteeonForeignAffairs,StaffReport,State DepartmentandIntelligenceCommunityInvolvementinDomesticActivitiesRelatedtotheIran/ContraAffair, Mimeo,n.p.(7Sept.1988).AuthorisgratefultotheChristicInstituteforcitationlocationhelphere. 666 LezakShallat,Biehls`ParallelState:DuplicationofEfforts,TTS,22July1988,13and15. 667 EdwardJ.Dobbins,TheBuckleyAffair:AnatomyofAnIntelligenceDisaster, CAIB,Summer1988,4950. 668 StevenEmerson,SecretWarriors,InsidetheCovertOperationsoftheReaganEra (NewYork:G.P.Putnams Sons,1988),19899.Buckleywaskidnappedinearly1984anddiedinlate1985.HeoccupiedaCIApost analogoustothatofFrankWisner,earlieracovertmanagerofRichardHelms,WilliamCaseyhimself,andReinhard Gehlen(HitlersformerEasternFrontspymaster),allrecruitedbyWilliamDonovaninthe1940sseeChristopher Simpson, Blowback,AmericasRecruitmentofNazisand ItsEffectontheColdWar(NewYork:Weidenfeld& Nicholson,1988),4043.

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besideshisworkagainstoperativessuspectedofcollaborationinBeirutwithstateslikeCubaor SandinistaNicaragua,BuckleyandTheodoreShackleyhadalsotrainedtheleadersofManuel Artimesnetwork,ending,afterthe19591961BayofPigsfiasco,intheCostaRicannetwork

669 alreadymentionedaswellasinthePhoenixnetworkinLaosandVietnam. Revelations

abouttheseomnivorousnetworkscouldbeembarrassing,personallyanddiplomatically. TheArmsandDrugBusiness Emergencyplansweremadetorestraintherepercussionsexpectedintheisthmus.Some oftheseplanswereprivatelysuccessfulinjumpstartingtheContraswithdrugmoney,through ColombiancocainetraffickerslinkedtoUnitedStatesdrugdealers(seeChapterSeven).Still otherpoliticalplans,suchasGeorgeBushsinternmentplan,metstrongpublicoppositioninside theUnitedStates.(Bushtriedtoauthorizeanationalplanforimprisoning400,000peopleinside UnitedStatesinternmentcamps,ifandwhentheUnitedStatesdecidedtoinvadeNicaragua,but

670 theplanwasshelvedquietlywhenpublicoppositionsurfaced.)

AfterCaseysdeath,thetaskofresolvingtheemergencyfelltoClairGeorge,alsoa
671 formerCentralIntelligenceAgencystationchiefinLebanon. GeorgeappointedAlanFiersas

hisliaisontotheisthmus,especiallyforJosephFernndez,inchargeoftheCentralIntelligence AgencystationinSanJossinceBuckleyskidnapping.FernndezredesignedtheUnitedStates strategyawayfromtheeconomicdestabilizationplansusedunderJamesAnderson,last

669 MarkPerry,TheSecretLifeofAnAmericanSpy,

Regardies,February1989,81,83,9096,and99.Formore onBuckley,seeFarzadBazoftandSimondeBruxelles,IranDealonBetrayedCIARing,Observer(London),3 May1987,1and15.Forajournalisticaccountofthetorturetechniquesused,seeGordonThomas, JourneyInto Madness (NewYork:Bantam,1989).SeealsoTonyAvirgan,MarthaHoney,Plaintiffs,v.JohnHull,Rene Corbo, etal.,DefendantsandTonyAvirgan,MarthaHoney,Plaintiffs,v.FelipeVidalSantiago,RaulVillaverdeetal. Defendants SouthernDistrictFederalCourtofFlorida,1988,24,7071,and26972.Theauthorisgratefulfor citationlocationhelp herefromTheChristicInstitute.FortheapparentirrelevancetoNorth,Reagan,and McFarlaneofhostagesotherthanBuckley forexample,BenWeir,amissionarykidnappedatthesametimeas Buckley seeJohnV.Loudan,HostageinLebanon, PublishersWeekly,6March1987,3840. 670 BushandNorthHowCloseWastheRelationship? PacificNewsService (26Jan.1988)inDCF,1988,6. Forspecificsontheinternmentplan,calledREX84orReadinessExercise1984,referGuns,Drugs,andthe Contras,BringingItAllBackHome,(SpeechesofDanielSheehanandAmbroseLane), WPFWRadioShow Special (1August1989).ForBushsroleintheisthmianContrawar,seeAllanNairn,TheBushConnection, Progressive,May1987,1920andChuckIdelson,UncoveringAConspirator,GeorgeBushandtheIranContra Scandal, PeoplesDailyWorld,inDCF (1987),8.ForBushsroleinIraniarms,seeAllanNairn,GeorgeBushs SecretWar,Progressive,March1988,2225. 671 DanielRosenbaum,ChiefofCIACovertOperations,CriticizedinIranAffair,Resigns, NYT,26Nov.1987,A 2.RosenbaumdescribesClairGeorgeasthetopCIAagentinBeirutuntil1975,beforegoingtoAthensasthetop CIAagentthere,inordertofundtheChristianPhalangebackinLebanon. Forthe170CIAagentsinAthens activelyfundingtheChristianPhalange,whothushelpedindirectlytoarmtheCostaRicanContras,seeDavid Tonge,CIA`KindledBeirutWar,Guardian (Manchester),19April1976,2.

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mentionedinchapterthree.Obviously,sucheconomicdestabilizationhadnotkeptCostaRica awayfromthenegotiationtablewithNicaragua.SomethingelsewasneededtofundtheContras anddeterCostaRicapossiblyeconomicdestabilizationbyanarmsanddrugbusiness,likethe onethatflourishedopenlyinCubabefore1959? AidedbytheLebaneseexpertiseofClairGeorge,JosephFernndezbegantocoordinate

672 theContrasdespitethe1984BolandAmendment. Fernndezhelpedtocoordinateattackson

NicaraguaandtoputpressureonMexicotostopsellingoiltoNicaraguaandCostaRica.This pressureforcedOrtegatoMoscowforoil,andintimidatedtheUnitedStatesCongressinto
673 doublingitsaidtotheContrasjustbeforeitpassedtheBolandAmendment, whileCostaRican

humanneedsfellbetweenthecracks.However,theextenttowhichanarmsanddrugbusiness replacedaChileandestabilizationstrategyinCostaRicawouldremainhazyinmostpublicly availablehistoricalaccounts. FernndezcoordinatedUnitedStatesattacksonNicaraguafromSanJos.Heused NationalSecurityAgencyKL43communicationsscramblermachinestokeepintouchwith allegedarmsanddrugContraleaderslikeOliverNorth,RobertDutton,RichardSecord,and

674 RafaelQuintero. Inaddition,FernndezmetforundisclosedreasonswithsuchContraleaders

asJohnHullandRobertOwen,onthenightoftheLaPencabombing,andcontinuedtoadvise
675 HullonhowtoavoidprosecutionbyOscarAriasforillicitlyfundingtheContras.

IntheUnitedStates,hisuseofNationalSecurityAgencyKL43devicesleftrecordsthat wereinternallyauditedbytheCentralIntelligenceAgency,becauseoftheBolandAmendment (PL98473,12October1984).Duringaprobinginvestigation,whichinalllikelihoodstumbled overhisarmsanddrugbusiness,FernndezliedtotheinternalinvestigatorsofboththeCentral IntelligenceAgencyandtheTowerCommission.In1987,thrownintoanearpanicover

672 ContrasCIALinkDisclosed,Guardian(Manchester),2June1987,10.ForthedateofFernndezpostingto

CostaRica,July1984,see ReportoftheCongressionalCommitteesInvestigatingtheIranContraAffair,100th Cong.1stsess.,AppendixB:Vol.3, Depositions (1987),7.ForGeorgesAsianexperience,seeClairE.George, BiographicRegister(Washington,D.C.:StateDepartment,1973),134. 673 PeterCalvert,U.S.DecisionMakingandCentralAmerica:TheReaganAdministration,inShearmanand Williams,eds., Superpowers,7and914.CalvertpointsoutthattheReaganadministrationwasthefirstU.S. administrationtocomputerizeelectoralandforeigninterventionscenarios,thusmakingfast,farreachingdecisions forviolentconflictresolutionthroughcomputerimagingprocesses. 674 GovernmentsMemorandumofPointsandAuthoritiesinOppositiontoDefendantsMotiontoExcludeKL43 Messages(ByRespondingtoDefendantsPretrialMotionNo.29),UnitedStatesofAmericav.JosephF. Fernndez,Defendant,UnitedStatesDistrictCourtfortheEasternDistrictofVirginia,AlexandriaDivision(10July 1989),CriminalNo.89150A,13. 675 PeterBrennan,RancherContinuesLoveHateRelationship,TTS,21March1989,9.

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revelationsfromtheunravellingarmsanddrugbusinessinCostaRicathatthreateneditsown
676 677 clandestinelegitimacy, theCentralIntelligenceAgencyfiredFernndez. Inmid1989he

wasindictedforthesearmsanddrugdealingsbythesixmonthDrugCommissionoftheCosta RicanNationalLegislature.LikehiscolleaguesNorthandSecord,hewasbarredbythisDrug
678 CommissionfromreturningtoCostaRica.

InnorthernCostaRica,coordinatingtheContrasontheground,JohnHullhadcontinued tomanagehismultimilliondollarstringofranches.Buton30May1984inLaPencaabout thetimeofBuckleyskidnappingthingsunravelledforHullaswell,whenPastoraavoided assassination.PastoraimmediatelyaccusedHullandOwenofplanningthebombing

679 assassinationattempt. OwenwasaContrafundraiserandleaderoftheproSomozaContras, 680 whometHullwhileworkingforDanielQuayle. Consequently,theCentralIntelligence

AgencyandtheUnitedStatesEmbassyinCostaRicaobstructedinvestigationsbytheUnited StatesCustomsandUnitedStatesCongressionalaidesintoHullsactivitiesdespitefederal
681 ordersintheUnitedStatestoinvestigatehisallegeduseofdrugstofinanceContraarms 682 whilemercenariesworkingforhimreadilydiscussedhisbusiness.

676 CIAOfficialinCostaRicaLosingJobOverContraAid,

AtlantaConstitution,2Feb.1987,A4.Forthetiming ofFernndezactionsinrelationtotheBolandAmendment,seeIndictment,April1989Term AtAlexandria, UnitedStatesofAmericav.JosephF.Fernndez,UnitedStatesDistrictofVirginia,AlexandriaDivision,Criminal No.CR8900150A(24April1989),15. 677 GovernmentsMemoranduminOppositiontoDefendantsSupplementalMotionforDisclosureofBrady Material(RespondingtoDefendantsPretrialMotionNo.22),UnitedStatesofAmericav.JosephF.Fernndez, Defendant,CriminalNo.89150A(8June1989),36.FortheoriginalgovernmentscaseagainstFernndez,see TranscriptofStatusHearingBeforetheHonorableAubreyE.Robinson,Jr.,UnitedStatesofAmerica,Plaintiffs,v. JosephF.Fernndez,Defendant,CaseNo.CR88236(Washington,D.C.,6Oct.1988). 678 AsambleaLegislativa,ComisinEspecialNombradaParaInvestigarlosHechosDenunciadosSobre Narcotrfico,Expediente10.684,InformeFinal,SanJos(20July1989),5767.Seechapter7fordiscussionofthis commission.TheU.S.CongressappearsnottohavemadeanyreplytotheCostaRicanLegislatureoverthisDrug Commissionreport,whichallegedtheverythingsthattheU.S.CongresspresidedoverbyDanielInouye(Senator, HI)refusedtoallowintopublichearings. 679 JonathanKwitny,RancherinCostaRicaWasBigHelptoU.S.AgainsttheSandinistas, WSJ,21May1987,1 and10.Threeofthenewsreportersattendingthe30May1984LaPencapressconferenceassassinationattempt werekilledandotherswoundedbythebombaimedatPastora.ForHullsstringof10ranchesand6airstrips,30 milessouthofNicaragua,surroundedbyCIAbodyguards describedbyajournalistattendingtheweddingof Hullscommonlawmarriagedaughter seeRonArias,JohnHull,OnceOliverNorthsManinCostaRica,Is NowAccusedofRunningGunsandDrugs, People,1May1989,5354and57.The18,000acresmanagedbyHull stretchedacrossnorthernCostaRica,basedfromQuesadacityseeBrianDonovanandSandraPeddie,HeWent forAdventure, Newsday,10May1987,4.ForHullsdefianceoftheBolandAmendment,seeSandraPeddieand BrianDonovan,ThePrivateWarofJohnHull, Newsday,10May1987,4. 680 JonathanKwitny,RancherinCostaRicaWasBigHelptoU.S.AgainsttheSandinistas, WSJ,21May1987,1 and16. 681 KerryCommission, ForeignPolicy,5556.InadditiontodeniedaccessforSenateinvestigatorsworkingfor JohnKerry,JosephRobertKelso,anundercoverU.S.customsagenttryingtomeetHull,claimedtohavenarrowly

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Finally,inNovember1986,aBeirutnewspaper,AlShira,brokethesocalledIranContra
683 story. ConsequentUnitedStatesCongressionalinvestigationsmanagedtoisolateonlyone

manwhoclaimedtobehonesttohimself,RobertMacFarlane,almostamanwithoutacountry
684 afterhisattemptedsuicideovertheIranContrahearings. But,anothermanwithoutacountry,

JohnBiehl,wasnotaskedtotestifybeforetheCongress.TheUnitedStatesCongressmayhave beenasunabletorelatetothenonviolentCostaRicancouragerepresentedbyBiehl aChilean

685 whofoundrefugeinCostaRicaafter1973asweretheReaganandBushadministrations.

Enigmatically,theSovietKremlinleadershipbelittledtheIranContraeventasadiversionto
686 discredititsRejkyaviknegotiationsandperestroika(reconstruction)strategy. Atthesame

time,UnitedStatesSpecialForceswereagaindeployedtointerveneoncemore,thistimein PanamafromsouthwestCostaRica,tenmonthsbeforethepublicizedinvasioninDecember
687 1989. Meanwhile,thearmsanddrugbusinesscontinuedunabated,diplomaticallyprotected 688 byanticommunistrhetoric, inazoneofconflictthattheUnitedStatesconsideredpartofits

legitimatesphereofinfluence.

escapeddeathatthehandsofunfriendlyHullemployeesandlocalpoliceseePeterShinkleandDennisBernstein, ReportLinksNationalSecurityCouncilwithCostaRicaDrugMystery,Guardian,2Dec.1987,5.Theauthoris gratefultoDavidMacMichaelandtotheChristicInstituteforcomputerassistedhelponthisissueoflegal jurisdiction. 682 MercenariesReleased, U.S.CitizensinCostaRicaforPeaceNewsletter,March1988,3ChristicLawsuit ExposesU.S.Drugand TerrorNetwork, WitnessforPeaceNewsletter,MayJune1987,67andPeterBrennan, HullBlamesCommunists,DrugDealers, TTS,21March1989,4. 683 MariannevanLeeuwen,IsralenIranStrangeBedfellows?Transaktie 16(1987):191. 684 BrockBrower,BudMcFarlane,SemperFi, NYTMagazine,22Jan.1989,28. 685 StephenKinzerandRobertPear,U.S.TriestoHinderArias, NYT,7August1988,12.BushinsteadsentRoger Ailes,thetopRepublicanPartypresidentialcampaignorganizer,todefeatthesocialdemocraticpoliticalparty (PLN)ofMonge,Arias,andCarazo. 686 Z.M.Quraishi,MilitaryIndustrialComplexandPowerOrthodoxy,inV.D.Chopra,ed., Disarmamentand Development,TheirRelationship (NewDelhi:InternationalInstituteforSouthernAsiaPacificStudies,1988),63. 687 U.S.TroopsMakePresenceFeltinRemoteOsaArea,FPCN,MarchApril1989,45.Thesespecialists preparedforthefullDecember1989invasion. 688 Forexample,accordingtovarioussources,ArturoCruzwasinvolvedinthearmsanddrugbusinesstosupplyhis Contraforces.ButhewasprotecteddiplomaticallybothasaninternationalrelationsprofessorintheUniversityof MiamiandasaloverofFawnHall,secretarytoOliverNorth.SeePrensaLatina(Cuba)CablePL015,overFrida Modak,Lasdela`Contra:FamiliasMuyCarasdeMantener(5March1987).Suchshieldingoftenboomeranged as,e.g.,whenLouisTortorella,inchargeofsecurityplanningandoperationsforFortMcNair,homeoftheU.S. NationalandLatinAmericanmilitarycollegesinWashington,D.C.,waschargedfordealingcocainethroughoutthe U.S.armedforces.SeeJuanMarrero,LasDrogas,UnNegocioCriminalconlasPuertasAbiertasenEstados Unidos, CubaSocialista 32(MarchApril1988):99.TheauthorisgratefultotheISRIlibrariansforcomputer assistedhelponthistopic.

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AChronologyofExamplesRegardingApproachesandMeansfromChaptersOnetoSix Primarytrendsandissues,suchastheabovefocusonthearmsanddrugsbusiness(inthe 1970sand1980s),complicatedbylongtermdebt,willcarryoverfromtheforegoingdiscussion (PartsOneandTwo)intotheconcludingdiscussionoveroutcome(PartThree)whichfollows next.Aprimary,remainingquestionmaybewhetherornotCostaRicamaystillbewhatsome authorshavecalledtheprimeinternationalcandidatefor transarmament,thatisachangeover

689 towardcivilianasopposedtomilitarybaseddefense. Answerstosuchaquestionwill

dependonthepostContrawarperformanceofCostaRica,asmitigatedbytheshortterm problemsofthearmsanddrugbusinessandthelongtermproblemsofinternationaldebt. Abrieftableandchronologyordatelinetorecapitulatetheshorttermandlongterm trendsorissuesinChaptersOnetoSixshouldbehelpfulbeforeproceedingtothelastPartofthe dissertationonoutcomes.Thisdatelinehighlightstheapproachesandmethodsofnonviolent conflictresolutionpracticedbyCostaRica,asraisedbyitsrecoursetotheruleoflawand ecologicallysustainabledevelopment.PleasenotethatTable2belowisintendedtoillustrate nonviolentconflictresolutionwithinthenationstatesystem fromtheviewpointofastate suchasCostaRica.Tothisend,nonviolentconflictresolutionhasbeendefinedasthestudyand useofpowertowardmutualchangeformutualbenefit.JohnRuskin,oneofthefewoutstanding economiststoanalyzesuchnonviolence,haslikewisecharacterizedsuchnonviolentapproaches andmethodsasthosebefittingecologicallysustainableproduction,distribution,consumption, andpreservationofusefulandpleasurablelifestylesandcommodities.AccordingtoRuskin, violentconflictresolution,ontheotherhand,inchoosingpowerasthedeploymentofviolence
689 GeneSharpandBruceJenkinsdescribeCostaRicaasthemostlikelymodelforstatetransarmamentofallthe

statesinthenationstatesystem.Civilianbaseddefenseconcerns nonmilitary,nonviolentprotectionand preservation(defense)thatcandeter,prevent,andrestrainforeignhostileoraggressivefeintsandattacks.A transarmamenttendencyisalsoemerginginsidesuchstatesasDenmark,Finland,Norway,Sweden,Austria,and possibly,Iceland.SeeGeneSharpandBruceJenkins, CivilianBasedDefense:APostMilitaryWeaponsSystem (Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1990),3879passim,12832,and140GeneSharp, MakingEurope Unconquerable:ThePotentialof CivilianBasedDeterrenceandDefense (Cambridge,MA:Ballinger,1985),57 124passimand,fordefinitions,GeneSharp, NationalSecurityThroughCivilianBasedDefense (Omaha,NB: AssociationforTransarmamentStudies,1985),4752.InCivilianBasedDefense,SharpandJenkinsalsomention thenonviolentstrugglesin176575oftheU.S.againsttheEnglish,the18981905Finnishstruggleagainstthe Soviets,a19191922KoreanstruggleagainstJapan,anda1978struggleofBoliviansagainstU.S.funded oppositionamongsimilarstrugglestoresistforeignwars,espionage,andcounterinsurgency.Atypicalarticleabout sucheventsmightbe:EstherFein,UnshackledCzechWorkersDeclareTheirIndependence, NYT,28Nov.1989, A1andA12 overa2hournationwidestrike,capping10daysofprotest,whichleftonlyessentialhospitals,food stores,andnursinghomesopenandended40yearsofCommunistrule fromastrikecoveredbytheCzechand UnitedStatesmassmediaalike.

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towardconquestforcontrol,resultsintheusurpationofthewealthofthepoor.Toaccomplish suchviolence,youths(soldiers)mustkillotherpeople.Killingpeople,however,maximizes
690 inefficiency initselfbeingthemostunproductivelaborpossible.

Suchamaximizationoroptimizationofinefficiency,withinacontextofmilitarization,of course,mayresultfromoneoftwoapproaches:theoptimisticworldorderapproachfora militarilyefficientfreemarketortheenthusiasticantidependencyapproachforrevolutionary equalityandefficiency.Bothapproachesmayfailtoproduceorrestoreequityorefficiency, though,ifkillingorbrutalizingpeopleisstillconsideredaskillfulartorscienceandif peacemakingisstillbelittledasanimpracticalnegationofwar.Inotherwords,killingor brutalizingpeopleproducesnotonlyeconomicwasteandinefficiency,butalsocostlyeconomic shadowandopportunitylossesinanhistoricalprocessassummarizedinthetablebelow.

690 Forfurtherdefinitionsofaviolentandnonviolentpoliticaleconomy,seeE.T.CookandAlexanderWedderburn,

eds.,Vol.XVII,UntoThisLast [London:Smith,ElderandCo.,1862],inTheWorksofJohnRuskin(London: GeorgeAllen,1905,44,46,75,and97104.Pleaseseealsothe definitionsofviolenceandnonviolencein Sarvodaya,ItsPrinciplesandProgramme (Ahmedabad:NavajivanPublishingHouse,1951),3and910. MohandasGandhicommonlyattributedhistheoryaboutabelovedcommunity,oracommunityinwhicheach individualsgoodorvalueispartofthecommongood,whetherforanurse,doctor,housewife,lawyer,farmer,or commonlaborer themosthumbleofwhichmaybenefitsocietythemost totheabovecitationsfromJohn Ruskin.

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Table2 AConciseDatelineInTheWesternCaribbean:AFoundationForTransarmament?

1821

CostaRicangainsIndependencefromSpain.CostaRicantradingand neutralitytreaties1822(Spainandtheisthmus),1848(Hanseatic League),1850s(EnglandandtheUnitedStates)and1983(international). TheMonroeDoctrinebecomestheUnitedStatesAmericanpolicy(1823), asopposedtotheunarmedneutralityofCostaRica. BilateralmeetingsconveneonCubaIsland,LakeNicaragua,over ecologicallysustainableuseoftheresourcesoftheSanJuanRiverborder rainforestbetweenNicaraguaandCostaRicadespitecolonialwars.

1840s

19071916 TheworldsfirstInternationalCourtconvenesinSanJos,CostaRica calledtheInterAmericanCourtofJustice.Endsina1916International CourtdecisionfavoringCostaRicaandUnitedStateswithdrawalfromthe Court.AnInternationalCourtofJusticeformsintheHague,the Netherlands,basedontheCostaRicanmodel(1921). 19141984 CostaRicannationalizesitsbankingsystem.TheUnitedStateswilltryto dothemuchthesamein1933withitsGlassSteagallAct. 19341948 CostaRicapioneersincreatingopeningsforSovietAmericandiplomacy andabolishesitsownmilitarypower. 1942 Turrialba,CostaRica,hoststhefirstinternationalteachingcenterfor appliedecologyregardingsustainabledevelopment(anddisarmament). (Laterin1987,itwillhostpioneerexperimentsforregeneratingtropical rainforestsregardingpioneermatrixtreesthatrestoreandimprove appropriatesoilandforestcanopyconditions.) BrazosCadosorgeneralstrikeinCostaRicastopsUnitedStatesand Nicaraguaninvasion,halfwaybetweenNicaraguaandSanJos.

1955

19601990sCostaRicaoffersitsneutralgoodofficesfornonalignedattemptsto normalizerelationsbetweenCuba,theUnitedStates,andtheOrganization ofAmericanStatesasin1960(whenCubanationalizesitsbanking system),1982,1983,and1991. 1970s NicaragualeadstheworldinDDTcontaminationofmothersbreastmilk fromwithinLakeNicaragua(SanJuanRiverecosystem),thesourceof theCostaRicanwaterecosystem.SporadicstrikesthroughoutNicaragua andCostaRicaledbystudents,tradeunions,andsmallfarmerunions leadtowardthe1979SandinistaRevolution.

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1974

FirstAmericanGreenParty(CostaRican PartidoEcologico)organizesto stopaUnitedStatesfundedcrosscountryoilpipeline. UnitedNationsUniversityofPeace(UPAZ)formsinCostaRicaasthefirst suchThirdWorld,conflictoriented,degreegranting,academicpeaceand conflictresolutionresearchprogram(established19781982).NoUnited Nationsfunding.Littlefundingbydevelopedstates. August CostaRicabecomesthefirstAmericanstatetodefaultonits debt.EdenPastora(formermilitaryleaderoftheSandinistasinCostaRica) beginstoreachforLebanesearmssupplied,viaIsrael,bytheUnited StatesCentralIntelligenceAgency.TheUnitedStatesbeginsatraining centerinitsSmithsonianInstituteforapplied,ecologicallysustainable development,asbegunearlierinCostaRica(in1942). FirstGandhianstylepeacearmydeploysintheAmericasfromToronto, Canada,andCostaRica.

1980s

1981

1983

19841988 TheUnitedStatesfostersaparallelstateinsideCostaRica. 1986 AWorldCourtdecisionfavorsNicaraguaandCostaRicaandendsin UnitedStateswithdrawalfromthatCourtindefianceofthatCourt againconcerningtheSanJuanRiverborderarea.U.S.CongressionalIran ContraHearings. August AriasorEsquipulasPeaceAccords.SeptemberUnited NationsGeneralAssemblyholdsitshistoric,threeweekDisarmamentand DevelopmentDebateinNewYorkCity.DecemberINFor IntermediateNuclearForceSovietUnitedStatesTreaty. ONUCAformasthefirstUnitedNationsAmericanPeacekeeping operation.DecembertheUnitedStatesinvadesPanama

1987

1989

ABriefSummationofNonviolenceAsAttemptedinCostaRica ThisdatelineabovecanalsobeillustratedbrieflybyreferringtoChaptersOnetoSix.To beginwith,between1914and1984,asdeterminedinChapterOne,CostaRicahasavoidedthe

691 dominantinstitutionalizingtrendstowardapermanentwareconomy. Inthe1860sandthe

1980sCosta Ricaalsotriedtomobilizeinternationalopinionsinitsfavorformediatingisthmian
691 Overall,fromtheearly1940sto1985,CostaRicaalsodevotedmoreofitspercapitagrossnationalproduct

(GNP)toeducationandotherhumanneedsthandiditsneighboringisthmianstates.ItwasdemonstratedinChapter ThreethatCostaRicaspentunderatwelfthoftheannualmilitaryallocationsspentbyitsneighboringstates.

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conflict.SuchmediationwouldeventuallyinviteunprecedentedUnitedNationspeacekeepingin
692 theAmericas.

Itwasfurtherargued,inChapterTwo,thattheMonroeDoctrinecouldnotbe
693 significantlychallengeduntilthe1980sAriaspeaceplan. Intruedemocraticfashion,Costa

Ricanscontinuedduringthistimetovotefarmers,lawyers,writers,andteachers(unskilledin militaryconflictresolution)overgeneralsintotheirleadershipposts.Theseleaders promotedmethodsforfinanciallyselfreliantdevelopmentandestablishedthefirstUnited NationsassociatedUniversityforPeace. Furthermore,asnotedinChapterThree,sincethe1920s,instrugglesforselfrelianceand againstmilitarization,CostaRicantradeunionsledLatinAmericanattemptstocontrolnational

694 OngoingColdWartensionwasallayedby railroad,telephone,andelectricpowercompanies.

anonviolentbrazoscados,orgeneralnationwidestrikeinthemid1950s,aswellasby studentpeacedemonstrationsinthemid1960sand1970s.Bythe1980s,suchmethodsfor
695 isthmiannonviolencegrewtoincludeecology,pacifism,andgenderparitypriorities. In

ChapterFour,itwasascertainedthatCostaRicahasreliedonecologicalsustainabilityandthe ruleoflawaimedatpeacefulnegotiation.CostaRicatwiceopposedtheUnitedStates
696 successfullyinaninternationalcourtoflaw(in1916and1986). Meanwhile,ongoing

692 ThisneutralitywasguidedtofruitionbyJosNstorMoureloAguilar.Pleaserefertochapter1forthesmall

circleofacademicandpoliticalfigureswhobroughtthisneutralityintofocusforashorttime.Guatemala(in1984 and1986)andNicaragua(inthelate1980s)wouldalsoleantowardarmedneutrality. 693 Alongtheway,inthe1940s,CostaRicabackedanonviolentcoupinElSalvador,hostedoneofthefirst socialistledcoalitionstogovernanAmericanstate,grantedfemalesuffragesignificantlybeforeitsneighbors,and hostedOASnegotiationstorecognizeCubaafter1960.Later,inthe1970s,MexicoandCostaRicadonatedmore humanitarianaidtotheSandinistasthantheCubansandtheSoviets. 694 ParallelliberationorantidependencystruggleseruptedthroughtheAmericas,between1933and1936.In1944, whilemaintainingitsfriendlyrelationshipswiththeU.S.(thenenteringalongColdWar),CostaRicaconsequently becamethefirstisthmiannationtoopendiplomaticlinkswiththeSoviets. 695 TheseeventsgeneratedpoliticalpressureforU.N.peacekeeping.Finally,JavierPrezdeCuellarvisitedCosta Ricainlate1986.HisvisitwouldinitiatethefirstinstanceofU.N.peacekeepingintheAmericas. 696 SuchecologicalsensitivityfoundexpressionintheU.S.throughconcernsforbetterlanduse,aswellasformore emphasisonbotanicalandzoologicalissues.SeeGerardoBudowski,ClosingAddressAStrategyforSaving WildPlants:ExperiencefromCentralAmerica,inGhilleanPrance[Dir.oftheInstituteofEconomicBotany,New YorkBotanicalGarden]andThomasElias,eds., ExtinctionisForever,ThreatenedandEndangeredSpeciesof PlantsintheAmericasandTheirSignificanceinEcosystemsTodayandintheFuture(1113May1976U.S.Bi CentennialCelebrationSymposium)(NewYork:NewYorkBotanicalGarden,1977),36972.

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initiativesin 1950,1959,1974,1978,and1980reinforcedrelatedUnitedNationsdebateover disarmamentanddevelopment.Whenturningtoserial,longterm,quantitativeproofofthe advantagesofnonviolence(introducedandtestedinChapter5),itwasestablishedthatCosta Ricahassurvivedatthegeostrategiccenteroffiercepreandpost1945serialviolence.Despite highserialviolence,sincethe1850s,toitsnorthinNicaraguaanditssouthinPanama,Costa Ricawouldrankrespectablylowinsuchserialviolence.CostaRicassocialindicatorsalso continuedtoreflectalessviolentstandardofliving,untiltheUnitedStatesbegantoremilitarize

697 it.

Then,inChapterSix,itwasnotedthatCostaRicannonviolencewasexemplifiedinsuch actionsasnonviolenthungerstrikesfortherightsofsmallfarmersinfrontoftheUnitedNations officesinSanJos.Bymid1984,arandomnationalopinionsurveyestablishedthateightythree percentofCostaRicanadultsstillopposedanynationalmilitaryforce. Thispollwasreinforced atthesametimeby30,000peopleinSanJos,whodemonstratedagainsttheremilitarization promotedbyCurtinWinsorandOliverTambs.Suchnonviolencewouldalsopersuadethe UnitedStatesCongresstodemandthereleaseoffiftysixmembersofanonviolentinternational

698 observerteam,kidnappednotfarfromJohnHullsranches.

But,asalsonotedinChaptersOnetoSix,CostaRicanlivingstandardsbegantodrop significantlywhenCurtinWinsorandOliverTambs,theUnitedStatesAmbassadorstoCosta
699 Rica,pushedtoprivatizeitseconomy(aspartofanefforttobuildaContrainfrastructure). By

697 WilliamAscherandAnnHubbard,eds.,

CentralAmericanRecoveryandDevelopment,TaskForcetothe InternationalCommission forCentralAmericanRecoveryandDevelopment (Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress, 1989),220221.AscherandHubbardnotethat...the[isthmianwarrelated]crisisofthemid1980splacedsevere strainontheresourcesoftheCostaRicanmedicalsystem...(p.221). 698 InitialmeetingsoftheSocialistInternationalwouldalsogiveRodrigoCarazo(CostaRica)themomentumto startbargainingdirectlywiththeEuropeanEconomicCommunity.Bytheearly1980s,Europewouldresolveto supportboththeContadoraprocessandplansforanisthmianparliament.A1984SanJosconferencethen launchedplanstoinstalla5yearisthmiandevelopmentpackage. 699 Asnotedinchapter1.Inlate1984,toavoidamilitaryconfrontation bytheContrasorU.S.invasionary troopsaimedatNicaragua andtosofteneconomicdevastationfromthedebtsrelatedtosuchaconfrontation, CostaRicamodifieditsbanksforfreeenterprisewhichfavoredU.S.businessesvisvisCostaRicasownbanks andthoseofothercountries.Atthesametime,JohnBiehl,economicadvisertoOscarAriasandtheforemost architectoftheAriaspeaceplan,wasforcedintoexilebydeaththreatswhenhevoicedoppositiontosuchcovert U.S.coercion.

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the1980s,theUnitedStatesStateDepartmentandNationalSecurityCouncilthreatenedtocutall economicaidtoCostaRicaifitwouldnotsupporttheContrawaragainstNicaragua.Under suchviolentpressure,theCostaRicangovernmentveeredtowardaantidependencyviewpoint

700 andcondemnedtheUnitedStatesinterventioninGrenada.

Meanwhile,CostaRicaspathwascomplicatedbyclashingpolicypriorities.CostaRica waspressuredtoexploititsfreshwatersurplus,inordertomeetUnitedStatesconditionsfor foreignaid(andremilitarization).Hydroelectricpowerandcashagribusinessexportcrops replacedbasicfoodcropsforlocalconsumptionasapriority.Agribusinessrelatedpesticide poisoningcasesbegintorise,asdeforestationmultiplied.CostaRicabecameapotentglobal symbolofthedisappearingrainforest,adisappearancethatthreatensabouthalfoftheworlds

701 germplasm,thatis,theDNAbuildingblocksofalllivingcells.

InternationalconflictintheSanJuanRiverregionhasproducedsomeofthehighest
702 serialviolencedatainworldhistory. Inthe1980sCostaRicanserialviolenceinchedcloserto

thatintheGrenadianorMalvinaswars.Meanwhile,whattheKerryCommissioncalledticket punching,ordiplomaticprotection,alongtermconditionexacerbatedbywarsinSoutheastAsia (theGoldenTriangle)andtheMiddleEast(theGoldenCrescent),begantocharacterizethe isthmianbusinessofwar.Asadiplomaticshieldtoavoidprosecution,atthehighestfederal levels,ticketpunchingproducedanarcoticsprosecutorsnightmareinMiami,HoustonandLos

703 Angeles.

700 Asnotedinchapter3. 701 Asnotedinchapter4. 702 See

TheReportoftheInternationalCommissionforCentralAmericanRecoveryandDevelopment,Poverty, Conflict,andHope,ATurningPowerinCentralAmerica(Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,1989),78and23 46. 703 Asnotedinchapter5.Landless(precarista)strugglesconsequentlyagitatedeasternandnorthernCostaRica itsgeopoliticalfacetowardtheoutsideworld andstormedthenationallegislature,wherealegislative commissionuncoveredandcloseddownanundergroundtortureroominthebasementoftheCostaRicanfederal policebuilding,thenlargelyfundedbytheU.S.Inthissense,itmightbenotedthatthenonviolentoppositionof CostaRica withinternationalopiniononitsside wasmoredifficulttosuppressthanoutrightviolence (representedbyanantidependencyapproach).Thiswouldseemtobeamajorreasonwhycovertorganizations werefosteredbytheU.S.andprivatelyfundedbyacovertarmsanddrugbusiness.

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CostaRicathusstruggledagainstacovertwarorganization,muchofwhichwas supplementedbycocaineprofitsnegotiatedthroughCostaRica,viaPanamaandColombia.Asa result,coordinatingtheContrasonthegroundfromnorthernCostaRica,JohnHulltriedto dodgeofficialallegationsofaninternationalContracocainenetwork.Finally,asnotedin chapter6,theultimatecosttotheUnitedStateswasitsinfamousconstitutionalIranContracrisis acrisisrootedtoalargedegreeintheUnitedStatescovertandovertmilitarizationofboth Israelandtheisthmus.

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PartIII

Outcome

Chapter7 BarrierstoSecurity:DrugsandMilitarization
Thischapterinitiatingthefinalpartofthedissertation ontheoutcomeofthemeans andapproachesalreadymentionedforresolvingconflictbeginswithabriefevaluationofthe costandoutcomeofmilitarization.TheremilitarizationofCostaRicainthe1980sgrewfrom militaryinterventionimposedfromtheoutside.NonviolentCostaRicanapproachesand methodstocountersuchviolentoutsideinterventionhavesometimessucceededandsometimes failedundersuchoutsidepressure. ThenonviolentmethodshistoricallyfavoredbyCostaRicaforpromotingpeacemaystill provetobeitsgreateststrengthinthefuture.Aspresupposedbysomeresearchersintothe futurepotentialforeconomicconversion,fromacustomarywareconomytoapeaceful economy,peacemaywellbemoreprofitablethanwar.Forexample,itwillbeshownthatCosta Ricahasprofitedfromitsattractivenesstogiftedyoungrefugeesfleeingtheotheristhmianstates atwar.However,suchapeacefulfutureisstillanomalousinthenationstatesystem,where statesstilloptforaworldorderviewofreality andtheiryouthwhoareunwillingtokillfora nation stateatwarmustusuallyfaceexileorprisonintimeofwar. Variousconsequencesofdebt,drugs,andlandmisusewillbeusedtoevaluatethe outcomeofviolentinterventioninCostaRica.Thecocainetradehasbeenamajorproblem,with moreimmediateconsequencesofarmedviolenceandthethreatofarmedviolencethanthatfrom debtorlanduseissuesrelatedtomalnutritionordeforestation.Asanarmsfordrugbusiness, brieflyintroducedinChapterSix,thecocainetradegainedinternationalattentionwiththeContra warinNicaragua.Inordertoplacethisarmsfordrugtradeinitspropercontext,thediscussion ofthistradewillwidentocoverthepracticesofinternational(frequentlyexCuban)armsfor drugbusinessentrepreneurs.Thisdiscussionshouldpreparethewayforaneconomicevaluation inChapter8ofthelongtermoutcomesfromtheviolentconflictresolutionexternallyimposed

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onCostaRicatobedescribedasthetensionsofunmethumanneedsandthemisuseofland, within thecontextofanunpayableinternationaldebt.

TheoutcomesofinternationalconflictresolutioninCostaRicapresentanunusualopportunityfor evaluatingtheanomalyofastatethatclaimstohaveabolisheditsmilitarypower.InChapterSeven,therefore,it shouldbecomecleartowhatdegreechangingoutcomesofdevelopment resultingfromcooperativeconflict resolutionenhancedbyneutrality contrastwithunderdevelopmentresultingfromviolentconflictresolution.As willbeshown,cooperative conflictresolution,inthecontextsofneutralandnonalignedstatessuchasCostaRica, mayhavethusadvancedpeace,security,anddevelopment.Asaconsequence,thisconcludingpartofthe dissertationwillinvestigateshortrangeoutcomesfromanarmsanddrugbusinessandlongtermoutcomesfroman internationaldebt,inChaptersSevenandEight,respectively.

Givensuchoutcomes,atleastasearlyas1986,OscarAriasandDanielOrtegabegan tryingtonegotiateconflictinamorecooperativemannerthanthemilitaryinterventionadvanced bytheUnitedStates.Accordingly,AriasandOrtegaprivatelyapproachedeachoftheisthmian leadersbeforepublicnegotiationsbegan.TheseprivatepreparationspresentedtheUnitedStates

704 withapeaceagreementitprivatelyopposed. Tohaveitshandinwhatitconsidereditssphere

ofinfluence,theUnitedStatesthendidallitcouldtoopposetheContadoraandEsquipulas
705 peaceplans,eitherovertlyorcovertly. Theextenttowhichcooperativeisthmianconflict

resolutiontopromotesustainablepeaceanddevelopmentwithoutdependingonmilitary power wouldbeovercomebyUnitedStatesfundedcovertorovertwarandmilitarizationwill besummarizedbrieflyinwhatfollows. ItmaybehelpfulatthispointtokeepinmindthatfewstatesotherthanCostaRicahave beenabletorejectanationalmilitarycomplexwithinanareawherewarsarehistorically

706 commonplace. Beforethelate1800s,CostaRicaitselfdedicatedatleastathirdofitsbudget

704 MikhailBaklanov,CentralAmerica:FromPlantationstoNations (Moscow:Novost,1989),4647,50,and56

57.AnunnamedbrotherofAriaspilotedasmallplane(2 or4seater)carryingJohnBiehltoeachoftheisthmian presidentsfortheseprivatenegotiations.Ontheotherhand,thedevelopmentofcocaineprofitstofinancearmed violence,asashorttermoutcomeorepiphenomenonofsocially,politically,andeconomicallyviolentinternational conflictresolution,haslongplaguedpeaceintheWesternCaribbean,accordingtoOscarGarcaCubasandCarlos AlzugarayTreto,RectorandViceRector(ofresearch),respectively,intheCubanGraduateInstituteofInternational Relations(ISRI),Havana,conversationswiththeauthor(2and5Feb.1990).SeealsoHaynesJohnson, SleepwalkingThroughHistory,America intheReaganYears(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1991),245477passim. 705 NoamChomsky,NecessaryIllusions,ThoughtControlinDemocraticSocieties(Boston:SouthEndPress,1989), 89and22332.GerardoTrejosSalas,viceforeignaffairsministerofCostaRica,observedthatcovertopposition wasmountedespeciallythroughHondurasandElSalvador. 706 CouncilofEurope, ConscientiousObjectiontoMilitaryServiceinEurope(Brussels:QuakerCouncilfor EuropeanAffairs,1981),37,66,and82.Onepossibleexception,Iceland,doescountenancewhatNATOclaimsare nuclearfreeforcesandanearlywarning(DEW)system,althoughIcelandhasalsomanagedtopreservetheoldest continuouselectoraldemocracyamongtheEuropeanstates.Otherstates,likeBarbadosorVanuatuinthePacific Ocean,whereconflictishistoricallyinfrequent,havesimplydeniedanyneedforamilitaryorformilitary conscription,despitetremendouslossesfromdiseasefollowingEuropeancolonialism.

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707 708 toitsmilitia. Afterthattime,itbeganreducingitsbureaucraciesforconscription and 709 industrialwarproduction. Becauseofthishistoricaltrendtowardabolishingitsmilitary

power,CostaRicastillfailstodisplayotherwisecommonnationstatebehavior,suchas economicorpoliticalmilitaryservice,pervasivesuppressionofdissentagainstsuch
710 service, andinteractiononthelevelofdefensiveoroffensivetreatieswiththemilitariesof 711 otherstatestojustifyabalanceofpowerbasedonviolence.

TheCostandOutcomeofMilitarization CostaRicalieswithinaglobalconflictzonewhereconflictresolutionhassteadilygrown moremilitarizedinthelastthreedecades.From1963to1982,allmilitaryspendingwithinthe WesternCaribbean rose5300percent,overfourtimesmorerapidlythanmilitaryspending

712 withintheMiddleEastduringthesameperiod,whichincreased1200percent. CostaRican

remilitarizationhadbeeninitiatedduringthe1940s,whentheUnitedStatesconstructedmilitary roadsfromthecentralinteriorplateautothecityofQuesada,halfwaytowardtheNicaraguan borderfromSanJos.

707 AnaLuisaCerdasAlbertazziandGerardoA.VargasCambronero,LaAbolicindelEjrcitoenCostaRica,Hito

deUnCaminodeDemocraciayPaz(SanJos:ComisinNacionalde[las]ConmemoracionesHistricasyJunta AdministrativadelaImprentaNacional,1988),1924. 708 Noconstitutionalorinternationallegalinstrumentsexistforgaugingobjectiontomilitaryconscription.See DorotheaWoods,TestsofConscienceandConvictionsasRegardsConscientiousObjectiontoWarandMilitary Service,Mimeo,QuakerU.N.Office,Geneva(October1982),112KathleenLonsdale, IsPeacePossible? (Baltimore:Penguin,1957),96andKarlLiebknecht, MilitarismandAntiMilitarism,trans.byAlexanderSirnis (NewYork:DoverPublications,1972),v,2,and33. 709 LikeTaiwan,CostaRicadoesattractcivilianelectronicsindustriesbasedontransistorchipprocessing civilian spilloversto militaryproductionseeMarekThee,RecoveringResearchandScience,inKenCoates,ed., Perestroika:GlobalChallenge,OurCommonChallenge (Nottingham,England:Spokesman,1988),100. 710 AlthoughmilitaryserviceisnotmandatedbytheU.S.Constitution,conscriptionwithoutlegalorstandardized instrumentstojudgepoliticalorreligiousobjectionbecamelawintheU.S.duringwarinthe1860sseeRobert Wright,ed.,Kneedleretal.v.Lane,etal., PennsylvaniaStateReportsXLV(Philadelphia:Kay&Bros.,1864):241 42andArverv.theUnitedStates,UnitedStatesReports 245(Oct.Term1917)(NewYork:BanksLaw,1918): 36667.VladimirLeninalsoauthorizedconscriptionwithoutconstitutionalprecedentintheSovietUnion. 711 Incontrast,seeRichardSecord,UnconventionalWarfare/CovertOperationsasanInstrumentofUnitedStates ForeignPolicy(MSthesis,U.S.NavalWarCollege[Newport,RI],1972)andPaulBlackstock, Strategyof Subversion,ManipulatingthePoliticsofOtherNations(Chicago:Quadrangle,1964)orPaulBlackstock,Covert PoliticalWarfare,2vols.(Ph.D.diss.,TheAmericanUniversity,1954).ComparetheTicosituationalsowiththe ongoingwarsandinvasionsinPanamaandNicaragua. 712 JuditBalzs,DieVolkswirtschaftlichenAuswirkungdesWetrstesaufdieLnderSchwarzAfrikas, Jahrbuch frSoziologieundSozialpolitik(1986):107.TheauthorisgratefultoBalzsforthisarticlefromherBudapest worldeconomydoctorateprograminpeaceandconflictresolution.Thesezonesofconflicthavealsobeencalled spheresofinfluence.

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ButfollowingCostaRicasabolitionofitsmilitarypowerin1948,militarization proceededslowlyuntilthe1980s,whentheUnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment
713 alonespent$350milliontoarmCostaRicasnorthernborderarea. By1986,theproportionof

militaryaidinUnitedStatesdevelopmentaidasawholeaveragedtenpercenthigherforCosta Ricathanfortheotherstatesoftheisthmus.AlthoughawellequippedUnitedStatesbasewas establishedinMurcilago,thecenterofthisremilitarization,withfivemilitarytrainingschools,

714 theprocessoccurredreluctantlyinCostaRica.

MilitarizationAlliedwithIntervention CostaRicahasgenerallyavoidedthewarsthathaveplagueditsneighborsintheisthmus, anareahauntedbygeopoliticalwarandmilitarization.Forexample,forPanamaandNicaragua, DanielOrtegacalculatedanaverageofonewareveryfiveyearssincethe1850s,frequentlyin

715 theformofaUnitedStatesmilitaryintervention. AccordingtowriterssuchasFox,Szentes,

andDuboff,asprofessorsattheuniversitiesofColumbia,Budapest,andBrynMawr, respectively,suchserialviolencehascharacteristicallypromotedunderdevelopmentinthose
716 statespronetoconflict. Untilthe1960sMissileCrisis,linkedtosuchunderdevelopment,

LatinAmericanstatesboughtfromtheUnitedStatesseventypercentofthearmstheyusedto resolvetheirinternaldisturbancesmilitarily.Whereupon,asCubasurvivedrepeated interventionattemptsoverthenexttwodecades,bothdirectandproxy,LatinAmericanstates independentlyshiftedabouthalfoftheirarmsimportbusinesstootherstates,particularlyIsrael

713 CarlosGranadosandLilianaQuezada,LosInteresesGeopolticosyElDesarrollodelaZonaNorAtlantica

Costarricense,inCoordinadoraparalaDefensadelasLibertadesDemocrticasenCostaRica(CODELIDE), MexicoCity,Pamphlet,n.d.,2426and36.On15April1940,theU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineersnegotiatedan interimwartimeagreementwithNicaraguaand CostaRicaovercanalbuildingandtheSanJuanRiver.See ImmanuelKlette, FromAtlantictoPacific,ANewInteroceanCanal (NewYork:Harper&Row/CouncilonForeign Relations,1967),103.For1940sideologiesonsuchgeostrategicissues,seeNoraWaln, ReachingfortheStars (London:CressetPress,1939),114and116. 714 CODEHU,DerechosHumanos (1987),1215. 715 DanielOrtega,ThirtySixthUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyStatement,(1981),inCombatiendoporLaPaz (MexicoCity:SigloXXI,1988),3840. ForadditionalcovertexamplesnotincludedinOrtegascount,likethe SwordorWellBeingprojects,seeLiliaBermdez,EstadosUnidosCentroamricaEntreElIrangatey EsquipulasII, CuadernosSemestralesdelCentrolaInvestigacinyDocenciaEconmica (CIDE)22(1987):38 46orMichaelKlareandPeterKornbluh,eds., LowIntensityWarfareCounterinsurgency,ProinsurgencyandAnti TerrorismintheEighties (NewYork:PantheonBooks,1988). 716 TamsSzentes,EconomicEffectsofGlobalMilitarization, DPH4(Spring1983):24027AnnetteFox, InternationalOrganizationforColonialDevelopment, WPS3(195051):341and348orRichardDuBoff, ConvertingMilitarySpendingtoSocialWelfare:TheRealObstacle,QuarterlyReviewofEconomicsand Business12(1972):13ff.

174

andtheSovietUnion.Europeansarmsdealers,assuch,werestillexcludedtosomedegreeby
717 thelongreachingMonroeDoctrine.

Meanwhile,CostaRicatriedtoavoidisthmianwars,whilestillappearingtofollowthe securitymandatesoftheMonroeDoctrine.In1963,thesemandatestooktheformofaUnited StatessecurityorganizationtransplantedintoCostaRicaandcopiedelsewhereintheisthmusas

718 amodelintendedtocounterallegedCubansubversion. Intheearly1970s,thisUnitedStates

securityorganizationsucceededinarmingCostaRicanpoliceandparamilitaryforceswithM16
719 riflesand81millimetermachineguns. However,thiswellarmedorganizationdidnothingto

calmtheapprehensionofCostaRicancitizensoverregionalmilitarization,heightenedafterthe 1979NicaraguaRevolution.Itwascleartothesecitizensthatdrugrelatedviolencehad multiplied,increasingtheimpactofthearmsanddrugbusinessinBrazil,Chile,andtheAndean

720 states.

NonviolentResponsetoMilitarization Asnotedabove,theUnitedStateshasusedviolentinterventiontofurtheritsgeopolitical goalsintheisthmussincethe1850s.Asalsonoted,severaloftheCentralIntelligenceAgency veteransassignedtoCostaRicahadwiderangingexperienceinthekindofviolenceassociated withthearmsanddrugbusiness.Duringthe1950s,thatexperiencehadbeenfocusedinCuba, Vietnam,andLebanonduringthe1960sand1970s,inCuba,Laos,Brazil,Vietnam,Lebanon, andKampucheaandlater,inthe1980s,intheWesternCaribbeanandtheEastern MediterraneanbyProjectVeil.Theseseasonedveteransusedtheirinternationalexpertiseto

717 PyotrYakovlev,etal.,

LatinAmerica:ArmsBuildupandDisarmament (Moscow:ScientificResearchCouncil onPeaceandDisarmamentandNauka,1983),1116.TheU.S.shareofarmssalesinLatinAmericadroppedfrom 70%(1962)to15%(1980s)whenLatinAmericabegantoabsorbupto60%ofIsraeliarmsexports. 718 IlianaCruzAlfaroandRonaldSaborioSoto,LaSeguridadExternadeCostaRica,FrentealaCrisis Centroamricana(LL.D.thesis,UniversityofCostaRica,SanJose,1986), 13032.In1985,thissecurityagency wasrenamedtheDireccindeInteligenciaySeguridad,orDIS.Seealso LaPolicadeCostaRica,Informe PreparadoparaElEstudioSectorialSobreJusticiaenCostaRica (Miami:InternationalUniversityofFlorida, JusticeAdministrationCenter,1986),89. 719 RodrigoJauberthRojas,MilitarizacinyModificacinSustantivadelEstadoCostarricense, LaJornada,27 February1987,2122. 720 LiliaBermdezandAntonioCavalla, EstrategiadeReagan,HacialaRevolucinCentroamricana (Mexico:Ed. NuestroTiempo,1982),56.ForBrazil,seeBrazilVendiArmasSomoza, RPA,57July1979,6andIsaac Caro, RelacionesMilitaresInterlatinoAmricanasCaribeasyVinculosconAfricaSubsahariana(Santiago,Chile: FLACSO,No.308,1986),8384.ForAndeanarms,seeJulioSuol, InsurreccinNicaragua,LaHistoriaNo Contada (SanJos:Ed.CostaRica,1981),164.

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counterresistancetotheworldordergeopoliticsoftheUnitedStates,especiallyinCuba,Iran, Laos,Vietnam,Lebanon,Nicaragua,andCostaRica. WithintheUnitedStates,awarenessoftheintensityofthisviolencearrivedwiththe floodsofisthmianexilesandrefugeesfleeingserialviolenceandseekingsanctuaryintheUnited States.Onceintroduced,thisawarenessmobilizedgroupsinsidetheUnitedStatesagainstthe actionsoftheirgovernmentintheisthmus.Legalattacksagainstsuchantiwargroupsbythe UnitedStatesgovernmenteventuallyfragmentedinthesocalledIranContrascandal,as participationinthearmsfordrugsbusinesswasuncoveredatthehighestlevelsofUnitedStates

721 leadershipanddiplomacy. Theensuingcollisionofprivateandpublicconsciousness

sensitizedantiwarorganizationstotheviolentrootsofisthmianintervention. BoththeUnitedNationsHighCommissioneronRefugeesandtheUnitedStatesrefugee organizationsobservedthatmanyoftheisthmianrefugeesofthe1980sweremenfleeingformal

722 orinformalconscriptionandwomenorchildrenfleeingthetraumaofwar. From 1980to

1985,forexample,20,000peoplefledNicaraguatoavoidmilitaryimpressmentand
723 conscription. Thislossofpopulation,roughlyequaltothenumberoftheSandinistasmilitary

wardeadnumberinthesameperiod,hurtNicaraguaatleastasmuch astheContrasweapons. CostaRicaclaimedthat3,000oftheseNicaraguanssoughtresidency,notmerelyrefuge,in

724 CostaRica. Similarstatisticshavenotbeenmadeavailablefortheotheristhmianstates,but

demographicprojectionsfromthisCostaRicanclaimwouldindicatethataround300,000 politicalexilesalsofledGuatemala,ElSalvador,andHonduras.StudiesonElSalvadorwhich doexistsupportthissimpleprojection,indicatingthatbetweenfiveandtenpercent,or100,000, ofabouttheonemillionSalvadoreansinexile,forexample,hadlefttoavoidmilitary conscriptionengenderedbyUnitedStatesaid.Fleeingtheircountryratherthandyingorkilling

721 Legalcaseswerecoordinatedbysanctuaryorganizations,byminorityrefugeelawcenterslikeCARECEN,by

organizationsliketheCenterforConstitutionalRightsinNewYorkCity,andbytheChristicInstitute with variousbranchesthroughouttheU.S. concentratingespeciallyoneventsinCostaRica. 722 U.S.ComptrollerGeneral, CentralAmericanRefugees:RegionalConditionsandProspectsandPotentialImpact ontheUnitedStates(Washington,D.C.:GeneralAccountingOffice/NSAID84106,20July1984),iiand32. 723 WarResistersInternationalNewsletter(London),JulyAugust1985.SeealsoPatriciaSchafferandDavid Weissbrodt,ConscientiousObjectiontoMilitaryServiceasaHumanRight,TheReviewoftheInternational CommissionofJurists9(Dec.1972):3364.Brazil,Paraguay,andSwitzerlandconstitutionallyexemptwomen. 724 DorotheaWoods,Nicaragua, ConscientiousObjectiontoWarandMilitaryServiceNewsletter [COWM, Geneva],Feb.1987,2.MennonitesremainedinsideNicaragua,preferringtostartserviceprojectstoalleviate MiskitiantensionneartheCostaRicaborder.FewQuakersactuallylivedinNicaraguaseeDorotheaWoods, Nicaragua, COWM,Sept.1985,1.TheauthorspersonalexperiencewithU.S.whitecollarprofessionalsin

176

forit,theseexilesrepresentedatremendoushumanlosstotheisthmusanditsfuture developmentpotential. InCostaRica,asinCanadaduringtheUnitedStatesIndoChinaWar,thesepolitical exilesincludedtheirhomestatessmosteducatedpeople.Forexample,twothirdsofthe Salvadoreanexileswerebusinessorwhitecollarpeople,arepresentationfarlargerthanintheir

725 societybackhome. FewcitizensfledfromCostaRica,sinceitdidnotlevymilitary

conscription.Instead,CostaRicagainedfromtheskills,ideas,andwillingnesstoworkofthe newimmigrants.Theirpresencealsoopenedvariedpossibilitiesforeconomicandpolitical growthinCostaRica.Inretrospect,giventhefindingsofexpertsoneconomicconversioninthe

726 UnitedNationsdebateondisarmamentanddevelopmentexpertslikeIngaThorsson this

flowofrefugeesintoCostaRicamayhavebeentheprimaryeconomiccounterforcetoits
727 remilitarizationbytheUnitedStates.

CanadaduringtheU.S.IndoChinawarwouldindicatethatlessthanathirdofsuchexiledprofessionalsreturnto theircountryoforigin. 725 SegundoMontesMozoandJuanJosGarcaVasquez,SalvadoreanMigrationtotheUnitedStates:An ExploratoryStudy,(Washington,D.C.:GeorgetownUniversityHemisphericMigrationProject,1989),13and34. Unfortunatelythissurvey failedtodistinguishbetweenantidependencyandnonviolentapproachestointernational conflictresolution.SeealsoU.N., WorldPopulationProspects,EstimatesandProjectionsasAssessedin1984 (NewYork:U.N.,1986)forderivationofpopulationprojections.Nostudiesareknowntohavebeendoneonthe internationaleffectsofthehundredsofthousandsofsuchbusinessorwhitecollar(middleandupperclass)refugee youth(menandwomen)lostbytheU.S.toEurope,Canada,andelsewhereduringthe U.S.SoutheastAsianWar whomayhaveevenshiftedthenationalpoliticaldirectionsoftheiradoptedandtheirrejectedhomecountries. 726 Thorsson,describedfromchapter1onwardasoneoftheoriginatorsoftheU.N.debateondisarmamentand development,inanarticulateandwelldocumentedstudyofeconomicconversionpotential,hasnotedthatthe largestandmostimmediatefinancialgainstobeexpectedfromtheabolitionofmilitarypowerrelatetotheformer (abolished)militarylaborbase.Thatistosay,theabolitionofmilitarypowerinstategovernancewillproducethe greatesteconomicbenefitsbycuttingtheeconomicactuarialandshadoworopportunitycostslostthroughanations militaryservice,especiallyitsconscriptiveprocesswhethereconomicallydrivenorlegallymandated.See IngaThorsson, InPursuitofDisarmament,ConversionfromMilitarytoCivilProductioninSweden,Vol.1A, Background,Facts,Analysis (Stockholm:AllmnnaFrlaget,1984),185210passim. 727 Ibid.Thorssonbasedherfindingsonthestudyofwhatitwouldtaketorealizeeconomicconversion,notonthe traditionalcomparisonsofgunsandbutter(asfoundinsuchauthorsasSeymourMelman).Inotherwords, Thorssonnotedthattheprimarycostofmilitarization,andthustheprimarystrengthofCostaRica,concerned militaryconscription.Shearguedthatconscription,whethereconomicorpolitical,offeredtheclearestdistinction betweenbudgetaryoutlaysandsocialcostintheentiredefensesector. Ibid.,180.Thusconscriptionwasthemost costlybarriertononviolentconflictresolution,ordisarmamentanddevelopment,becauseofshadowand opportunitycosts.ItsvalueaddedperemployeecostsinSwedenalone,asevaluatedfortheFiscalYearof1984 1985,shortenedboththeaverageworkinglifespanandthelifetimeincome,perworker,andcosttheSwedish economyabout$770,000thatsamefiscalyear.Inaddition,thismilitarylaborbasegeneratedjustificationfor shadowandopportunitycostsinlostrentandlandrevenues,alongwiththehoardingorstockpilingofstrategicoil andpetroleumproductsinparticular,aswellasthehardtomeasurelongtermsocial,cultural,andpsychological costsoftrainingpeopletokill.Ibid.18185and200201.Seealso,inLinusPauling,ErvinLaszlo,andJongYoul You,eds., WorldEncyclopediaofPeace,Vol.2(Oxford/NewYork:PergamonPress,1986),s.v.IngaThorsson [46162]byAbdulAzizSaidandPaulHubers.Inotherwords,CostaRicanotonlyavoidedsuchhiddencostsof conscription,butbenefitedfromthelaborofmanywarrefugeeswhofledtoit.

177

Flighttoavoidconscriptionisonenonviolentapproachtowardconflictresolution.The individualphysicallywithdrawsasmuchsupportaspossiblefromanoffendingstate.However, penaltiesforsuchselfexilearegenerallyharsh.Internationalaswellasnationalsecurityand intelligenceagenciesmobilizeagainstsuchanexile.Evenstatesclaimingtobeneutral,suchas Costa Rica,arereluctanttochallengethetraditionalnotionsaboutsuchexilesforfearof internationalrepercussions.TheEuropeanneutralstateshaveyettoreachconsensusonthis issue.Austriahasestablisheduniqueconstitutionalguaranteestocareforsuchpoliticalexilesin

728 flightasrefugees,whomaylegallyreceiveaidandshelterfromitsstategovernment. But,in

the1980s,thirtyimprisonedSwissresisterswereforcedintoaneighteenmonthpolitical(relay)
729 fasttodefendeventheirrighttorefusetokillforthenationstate. Someneutralstatesstill

remainhostiletothoseapproachestoconflictresolutionthatrejectthepowerofthestatetolevy militaryconscription. Variousprisonpenaltiescriminalizethiskindofnonviolence,eveninneutralstateslike CostaRica.ConscientiousobjectorsmightreceivefourmonthprisontermsinSweden, repeatablesixmonthtermsinAustria,orayearinFinland.ASwisswarresistermightbe subjectedtoacatandmousegameofreleaseandimprisonmentuntiltheageofretirement,or agesixtyfive.Similarformalorinformalpenaltiesalsoholdforthenonalignedstates,like Cuba,Libya,Honduras,Mexico,Syria,Guatemala,andElSalvador,wherethesuperpowers

730 precedentsobtainininternationalcriminallaw.

Beginninginthe1960s,asanoutcomeoftheirprogressivepositionsoninternational conflictresolution,however,Austria,CostaRica,andtheNetherlandshadledaninternational campaignbeforetheUnitedNationsHumanRightsCommissiontodecriminalizerefusaltokill

731 forthenationstate. On10March1987theirlobbyingresultedinapioneerresolutiontothis

728 PeterJohanvanKrieken,

Deserteurs,Dienstweigeraars,enAsielrecht (Amsterdam:VanGorcumandAssen, 1976),29395. 729 DorotheaWoods,COWM,MayJune1988,12.ThisarticlenotesthatSwedenislaxinapplyingitsprison penalties. 730 AsbjrnEideandC.L.C.MubangaChipoya,QuestionofConscientiousObjectiontoMilitaryService,U.N. ECOSOCSubCommitteeonProtectionofMinorities,36thSession,Item6(27June1983), (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1983/30),AnnexI,29and3034.Inearly1989,morepeoplewereimprisonedforrefusing conscriptioninFinlandthaninIsraelseeDorotheaWoods,COWM,June1989,1,3,and5.Forrelatively analogouspenalties intheU.S.andtheUSSR,seeKarinSchmid, KriegdienstverweigerunginSozialistischen Staaten (Cologne:BundesinstitutsfrstwissenschaftlicheundInternationaleStudien,1972),7. 731 J.DuncanWood,TheQuestionofConscientiousObjectiontoMilitary ServiceBeforetheCommissionon HumanRights,NationalInterreligiousServiceBoardofConscientiousObjectorsMimeo,1973.Seealsothe1967 Resolution337oftheConsultativeAssemblyoftheCouncilofEurope,inSeanMacBride,ed., TheRighttoRefuse

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732 effectapprovedintheUnitedNationsbygeneralconsensus. On8March1989,CostaRica

andafewotherstates,includingHungary,reintroducedthisresolutiontoencourageothersto
733 decriminalizewarresistancewithintheirindividuallegalsystems. Inthisway,CostaRicahas

appliedthelessonsithaslearnedfromwarintheisthmusforthebenefitofallthestatesinthe nationstatesystem. HumanCostBeyondSerialViolence StructuralviolenceexistsinCostaRica,despiteitslowlevelofserialviolence.Ithas triedtomeasureandreducetheeconomicdisparitybywhich,forexample,lessthantenpercent

734 oftheisthmianpopulationownshalfoftheisthmianwealth. In1987CostaRicanresearchers

issuedacriticalstudyofisthmianincomedisparityfrom1960to1978,whichnotedthatthe annualwagesforthebottomseventypercentofallisthmianwageearnersincreasedsevendollars
735 (to$82),whiletheannualincomeofthetopthreepercentdoubled(to$15,000). Accordingto

aUnitedStatesCongressionalStudyCommission,thiswarrelatedpovertystruckthreeinevery
736 fourruralCostaRicansby1982,upfromoneintwoin1980. Theseeconomicchanges

presagedpoliticalremilitarizationin1984.

toKill,ANewGuidetoConscientiousObjectionandServiceRefusal(Geneva:InternationalPeaceBureau,1971),7 ff. 732 HumanRightsCommissionActsonConscientiousObjection,QuakerU.N.Office[QUNO](Geneva)Press ReleaseonRes.E/CN4/1987/L73,13March1987,1.SeealsoMensenrechten:GewetensbezwarentegenMilitaire Dienst,TheHague,theNetherlandsMinistryofForeignAffairs(1985),Mimeo. 733 U.N.CommissiononHumanRights(1989),ConscientiousObjectiontoMilitaryService,[QUNOPress ReleaseonU.N.]Res.E/CN.4/1989/L69. 734 LisaNorth,ed.,NegotiationsforPeace,AConferenceReport,ProceedingsoftheRoundtableonNegotiationsfor PeaceinCentralAmerica(2728September1985) (Ottawa:CanadianInstituteforInternationalPeaceand Security, ReportNo.1,1986),3and44. 735 JorgeArturoReina, AnlisisdelosConflictosenAmricaCentral (Heredia:CentrodeEstudiosDemocrticosen AmricaLatina,1987),10and35.TheSandinistasinNicaraguaredistributed1,500,000hectaresor3,706,500acres ofland,seventimesmoreacresthanintheU.S.assistedHonduranlandreforms(218,000hectaresor538,678 acres).ThisresearchcamefromthePLNpartyofMongeandArias. 736 Congress,House,ReportofACongressionalStudyMissiontoHonduras,CostaRica,Nicaragua,andEl Salvador(27August8Sept.1983),CommitteeonForeignAffairs,CentralAmerica:TheDeepeningConflict,98th Congress,2dsess.,1984.Oneplacewheresuchviolencehastakenplaceinsocalleddevelopedstateshasbeenon theformerEastWestfrontlineinWesternGermany,whereoneofeveryeightchildrenhasbeenhandicappedby pollutionfromdrugsorradiation.SeePetraKelly,FightingforHope,trans.byMarianneHowarth(London:Chatto &Windus,1984),6,98,and106.Formoreoninternationalmilitarizationandcancer,seetheintroductionby DietrichNiethammertoPetraKelly,ed., VielLiebeGegenSchmerzen,KrebsbeiKindern(Hamburg:Rowahlt, 1986),910.

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RegionalTrendsAffectingCostaRica:MalnutritionandDeforestation IsthmianstateslikeCostaRicamayfacehighdeathtollsandunderdevelopmentcaused byviolence.In1984,forexample,oneineveryfiftyisthmianpeopleweredisplacedbywar, whilechildmalnutritionrangedfromeightypercentinHondurastothirtyninepercentinCosta

737 Rica. Duringthisremilitarization,inadditiontowideninginternaleconomicdisparity,Costa

Ricaalsofacedecologicaldamage,concentratedinitsmangroveswampsfacingtheCaribbean,
738 andstructuraladjustmentregulationsharsherthanthoseimposedontheotheristhmianstates.

ThiswasnotthefirsttimethatCostaRicafacedbiasedconditionswhenittriedtoresolve conflictwithlessviolentconflictresolution.Forexample,in1954,itsparkedhigherdemands throughoutthewholeisthmusforbettertermsonthebananacrop.Thesedemandsweremeta

739 yearlaterbyaninvasionofSomozasforces. Atthesametime,despiteaCostaRican

preferenceforsmallscalehorticulture,whichbefore1979couldemploy100smallfarmersto everyonebeeffarmerpersquaremileofNicaraguanorCostaRicanfarmland,deforestationfor beeffarminghadturnedthesetwostatesintothetwolargestisthmianbeefexporterstothe

740 UnitedStates. After1979,CostaRicaovertookNicaraguainbeefexports,inordertomeetits

demandsforhardcurrency.Overall,from1961to1986,thesetwostatestogetherfurnishedone
741 halftotwothirdsofallisthmianexportbeef. Butthechemicalsusedforbeeffarmingbegan 742 topollutetheSanJuanRiverecosystemofboththesestates. Alongwithremilitarizationand

737 PriorityHealthNeedsinCentralAmericaandPanama,

ExecutiveSummary (PAHO),(CD30/19Annex),(June 1984),34. 738 ColinDanby,AidingCentralAmerica,AnAlternativeforEquitableandSustainableDevelopment,Policy AlternativesfortheCaribbeanandCentralAmerica,Pamphlet,Washington,D.C.1989, 36.Sucheconomic problemswerelessenedbefore1979byaCentralAmericanCommonMarket,datingfromaU.N.1950initiative, whichbeganin1960andwasjoinedbyCostaRicain1963.ItfellapartunderU.S.pressureinthe1979Revolution afterreachinga$6billionGNP.Inthe1970stheisthmushadacombinedGNPaboutthesizeofNewHampshires. GNPnumbersfrom1979to1990werenotproportionatelyreliable.SeeFrancisGannon,NicaraguasAgony,The CentralAmericanContext, Americas,Sept.1977,4.GannonwrotethisarticleasanAIFLDconsultant. 739 ElenadelaSouchre,CostaRica:CitadelofDemocracy,MRW 7(May1955):58and6264. 740 CatherineCaufield,IntheRainforest (NewYork:AlfredKnopf,1985),7879and110111.Caufieldnotes that therearestillmanyunknownsinhowfasttropicaltreesnormallygrowandhowlongtheylive,sincetheydonot formannualgrowthrings.Eventheidentificationofthespeciesdiverseplantsandanimalsisdifficultintropical rainforestresearch.Estimatesalsovaryforhowlargeeachrainforestmustbetostayhealthy,rangingfrom 125,000to500,000acres. 741 H.JeffreyLeonard, NaturalResourcesandEconomicDevelopmentinCentralAmerica (NewBrunswick,NJ: InternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment,1987),216217. 742 Thispollutionfirsttroubledbothstatesafterintensiveinsecticideapplicationtoplantsgrownforcottonandbeef fodderseeDavidPimentel,EnvironmentalAspectsofWorldPestControl,inDavidPimentel,ed.,WorldFood, PestLossandtheEnvironment(Boulder,CO:WestviewPressandAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementof

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decliningtermsoftrade, thisenvironmentalcrisiscontributedtoapolarizationofCostaRican societyoverlanduse. CostaRicaandOtherStatesAtWarImpactandResistance Remilitarizationpressureincreasedpreciselywherethetwopivotalinternationallaw casesconcerningCostaRicaandtheUnitedStatesunderWoodrowWilsonandRonaldReagan haveoccurred,asdiscussedinchapterfour.Inthe1980s,northernCostaRicanremilitarization bytheUnitedStatesmultipliedCostaRicasownarmsandsecurityspendinglevelsbyafactor of100.TheconditionsforreceivingUnitedStatesaidpromotedmorestructuralviolenceby

743 curbingordenyingsocialservices. Militarizationalsopromotedtheabuseofhumanrights,an

arms&drugbusiness,andtheecologicalproblemsthatfollowedontheheelsofwar. CostaRicansresistedindifferentways.InSeptember1987,forexample,about4,000 smallfarmersparticipatedinahungerstrikeagainstthedenialoffarmcredit,ecologicaldamage totheirland,andtheContrasarmsanddrugbusiness.Thestruggleofthesefarmersbecamea

744 symbolofresistanceforanother118,000CostaRicanfamiliesinneedofhousing, andsparked 745 massiveproteststhroughoutCostaRicaagainstecologicaldamageinthenorth. Bytheendof

the1980s,atthetopoftheSanJuanRiverecosystem,similarprotestsaroseoverecological damageinNicaragua,aseventhepollutedcitywaterinManaguawascutofffortwodaysa
746 week. CostaRicadidnotundergodesertificationontheheelsofwarlikethedamagedoneto

Science,1978),16668.Thepollutionspreadupthefoodchainthroughtheriversystems,includingGuatemalas seeFranciscoAguirreBatresandJ.FernandoMazariegos,InPlaceofPesticides,Mazingira34(1977):9396. Forwarrelatedeffectsonbiomass,bioticandabioticecosystems,andconcomitantgeocidepromotinglaterite desertification,seeJulianPerryRobinson,TheEffects ofWeaponsonEcosystems (LondonandNewYork: PergamonPress,1979),2829,37,and46.Forfurtherinternationalimplications,e.g.,nonalignmentandalternative energy,seePartidoVerde, PropostasdeEcologaPoltica (RiodeJaneiro:EditoraAnima,1986),5253. 743 CostaRicanNeutralityEndangered, FCNL,June1986,1. 744 CostaRica:ExportaSuDemocracia? CoyunturaCentroamricana(1987):11. 745 SucheventswerestudiedinauniversityprogramrelocatedinCostaRicafromNicaraguaafter1979,modelled uponHarvardUniversitysschoolsofbusinessandgovernmentseeSpecialReport:TrainingManagersforCentral America,FordFoundationLetter,1Feb.1986,inDCF (1986),99.Forpollutants,seeRachelLouiseCarson, SilentSpring(Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1962),2061and22135orNormanE.Borlag,EcologyFever, Ceres (FAO)5(Jan.Feb.1972):21and23.IntheU.S.,suchdesertificationhasbeenconcentratedontheNavajoIndian Reservation,thehomeofthelargestU.S.IndiannationseeDavidSheridan,OvergrazedandUndermanaged, Environment 23(May1981):1516. 746 EduardoGaleano,DefensadeNicaragua,Poltica,Teora,yAccin (SantoDomingo)8(March1987):1718. Theeffectsofserialwarandnonviolenceontheseprofoundlevelsarestillunknowntomostsocialresearchers.To explorethesephenomenainareasofintenseconflictlikethatofVietnamandNicaraguawouldrequireatleasttwo changes:1)TheendofU.S.blockadeslikethoseagainstCubaandVietnamand2)Renewalof theexchangeof

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747 sixtypercentofthepotentialfarmlandintheMiddleEast andsixtysevenpercentofthe 748 potentialfarmlandinSouthAfrica, butthenationwasdamagedenvironmentallyby

remilitarization,intensifiedbyanarmsanddrugbusinessalongitsborderwithNicaragua. Becausethiswarremainedlargelycovert,thisecologicaldestructiondidnothavethesamekind ofpoliticalimpactinsidetheUnitedStatesasdidthatwhichoccurredduringtheVietnam

749 War.

Drugs:PayingforWartheHardWay Theexchangeofdrugsforarmsinordertopayforisthmianwarhasproducedviolent outcomesthat,likedeforestation,haveobstructeddiplomaticconflictresolutionandeconomic activityforthecommongood.But,asexplainedbelow,theisthmianarmsanddrugbusiness becamegeopoliticallylinkedtoisthmianwar,justasoilwaslinkedtoLevantinewarinthe MiddleEast.Thatistosay,theisthmianstateswithoutindigenouscocaineandtheLevantine stateswithoutindigenousoilbothservedasbrokersforworldbusinessesthatinvolvedveryhigh stakes,withtheirsuccessfrequentlydeterminedbyviolence.Aswillbeshown,brokeredprofits fromthisarmsanddrugbusinesscreatedeconomicintereststhatobstructedcooperativeconflict resolution. Theseeconomicinterestsbecamevitaltoabusinessprojectednorthwardfromthe Andeanstatesandmixedwiththeviolenceofgeopolitics.
qualifiedresearch,e.g.,betweenuniversityinternationalrelationsprogramsinHanoi,Havana,Moscow, Washington,D.C.,andNewYorkCity. 747 FidelCastro,TheWorldEconomicandSocialCrisis,TheReporttotheSeventhSummitofNonAligned Countries(Havana:StatePublishingCo.,1983),115andthe(Brundtland)ReportoftheWorldCommissionon EnvironmentandDevelopment,DevelopmentandInternationalEconomicCooperation (U.N.GeneralAssembly, 2dsess.),(4August1987),(A/42/427), 19,65,and130.Forthepossiblyrelatedincidenceofblindnessinthe MiddleEast,fivetimeshigherthantheworldaverage,seeY.F.Maichuk,EpidemiologyofBlindnessinthe MiddleEast, RevueInternationaleduTrachomeetdePathologieOculaireTropicale 4(1980):22and25. 748 GrardChaliand, OVaLAfriqueduSud?(Paris:CalmannLvy,1987),5556.Underdevelopmentincreased whenSouthAfricanIsraelimilitarizationacceleratedafter1979,asSouthAfricaandIsraelexplodedatomicbombs andmobilizedforisthmianContrawar.SeePeterKrner, SdAfrikaZwischenIsolationundKooperation, konomische,Politische,undMilitrischeZusammenarbeitdesApartheidstaatesmitSubmetropolen(Brasilien, Argentinien,Iran,Israel,Taiwan,SdKorea) (Hamburg:InstitutfrAfrikaKunde,1981),77fforGavinCawthra, BrutalForce,TheApartheidWarMachine (London:InternationalDefense&AidFundforSouthernAfrica,1986), 62,73,and98.ForlessviolentoutcomesinSouthernAfricadevelopment,seeMarionKeeneyPreheim,SendUs YoungMenWithoutGuns,CanadianMennonite,22August1969,6. 749 FormoreonNorthandSouthVietnam,thecommonbordersofwhichwerepockmarkedby400poundsofmetal bombfragmentspersquareyard,seeNgoVinhLong,Vietnam:ConventionalWarandtheUseofNuclear Threats,inTheDeadlyConnection:NuclearWarandUnitedStatesIntervention (Cambridge,MA:AFSC,1982), 54.InsteadofthesocalledlowintensityContrawarfare,thisborderbombingconcentratedatonnage estimatedat 57timesthetotalweightofbombsdroppedduringthe1940ssee TheVietnamesePeoplesStruggleinthe

182

ThegeopoliticaloutcomesofthisarmsanddrugbusinessinCostaRicacanbebroughtto lightbyexaminingcocainespathtothenorth.Historically,themajornorthboundcocaine routeshavetransitedtheisthmusortheCaribbeanIslandsfromtheAndestowardEuropeandthe UnitedStates.Theseisthmianandislandroutes,overtheCaribbean,laidthecolonial foundationsforeventheAsianherointraderoutesinothertropicalstates.Intime,theprofits involvedgrewsolargethatviolenceseemedessentialtosafeguardthemtheregionscouldno

750 longeraffordpeace.

Thecocainethattransitedtheseroutesbecamethecashcropmostdesiredbytheso calleddevelopedworldfromthesocalledunderdevelopedworld.Bythelate20thcentury, cocainepaidnineteentimesmoreprofitthanordinaryagriculturalcrops,withaneconomicmark

751 upofthreehundredtimes(30,000percent)fromthegrowertotheconsumer. IntheUnited

States,from1981to1989 demonstrablyinsyncwithisthmianContrawar aformof cocainerefinedforsmokingandintravenoususeknownascrackcocainebecamethemost profitableofalldrugs.Thepurityofthecracksoldonthestreetincreasedthreetimes,tobecome

752 Worldwide,moremoneywasspentannuallyfor almost100percentpureinthoseyears.

illicitdrugs(aboveallcocaine)thanforfood,clothes,housing,education,andmedicalcare.The growingeconomicvalueoftheaddictivedrugtradecametoequalonehalfofthevalueofthe
753 globalarmstrade.

InternationalContext (Hanoi:InstituteofInternationalRelationsandForeignLanguages,1986),9andThe Disabled:TheirRighttoLife,VietnameseStudies64(1981):190. 750 Colonialgovernments,aswellasaMediterraneanorganizationcalledtheMafia,dominatedthecocaineand herointrade.Theword Mafia isacontractionofacolloquialArabicphraseexpressingeconomicexigency,ma feeshfluss.ItmeanssomethinglikeaintnootheralternativeorImbroke,accordingtotheauthorsArabic travelexperienceintheMiddleEastandNorthernAfrica(late1970s). 751 CommissionofEuropeanCommunities,RecommendationforACouncilDecisiononCommunityParticipation inthePreparatoryWorkandtheInternationalConferenceonDrugAbuseandIllicitTrafficking,EECMimeo (EEC,COM[86]457final,Brussels)(5August1986),23.TheseareEuropeanstatistics,sincepubliclyavailable U.S.datacannotbebrokendownbyspecificdrugs,suchascocaineseeRobertSwezey,EstimatingDrugCrime Relationships, InternationalJournaloftheAddictions 8(1973):701722andtheNationalInstituteonDrugAbuse (NIDA)andResearchTriangleInstitute,DrugUseandCrime,ReportofthePanelonDrugUseandCriminal Behaviour,Mimeo,Sept.1976,112pp. 752 U.S.AttorneysandtheAttorneyGeneraloftheU.S.,DrugTrafficking,AReporttothePresidentoftheUnited States,NIDAMimeo,3August 1989,79. 753 JamesMills, TheUndergroundEmpire,WhereCrimeandGovernmentsEmbrace (NewYork:Doubleday,1986), 3.Millsnotedthatthesheerphysicalbulkofthe$0.5trillionspenteachyearonillicitdrugsweighsmorethanall thepeoplelivinginWashington,D.C.ThisamountisalsotripletheamountofU.S.currencyincirculation.Butthe amountearnedbydrugdealersnotpoliticallywellconnectedwaslowerthanthesocalledminimumwageseeGina Kolata,DespiteItsPromiseofRiches,TheCrackTradeSeldomPays,NYT,26Nov.1989,A1and42.

183

Thefirstinternationallegalstructureserectedtocombatthisarmsanddrugbusinesswere basedattheInterAmericanCourtin CostaRica.Earlyinthe1900s,followingtheprecedentof thisinternationalcourt,theHagueWorldCourtdraftedthefirstinternationallyaccepted

754 conventionsagainstdrugslikeopiumandcocaine. Theseconventionswereaimedat

impedingthecriticaldrugroutesthroughCubaandtheisthmus,alreadyseenasthefoundations foraglobalarmsanddrugbusiness,thatcarriedAsianandWesternCaribbeantrafficunder
755 activeUnitedStatesgovernmentintervention. AftertheCubanRevolutionandtheBayof

PigsfiascointheWesternCaribbean,thisviolentbusinessveeredtowardMiami,Nicaragua,and CostaRica,asdescribedbelow. ColonialCocaine:CubaandIsrael Thephysicalbasisofthearmsanddrugproblemisthecocatree,ashrubundereightfeet

756 highharvestedthreeorfourtimesayearinmountainousregionssuchastheAndes.

ExploitingninetypercentoftheremainingLatinAmericanIndianswhohadsurvivedthe
757 onslaughtoftheEuropeaninvasionsbyretreatingtotheAndeanstates, thecocainetrade

754 BertilRenborg,

InternationalDrugControl,AStudyofInternationalAdministrationByandThroughtheLeague ofNations(Washington,D.C.:CarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace,1947),45,18, and24143.In1914 theU.S.enactedtheHarrisonNarcoticsActtotax,notoutlaw,profitsfromsuchdrugs.Thistaxapplieduntilthe turbulent1960sseeRufusKing, TheDrugHangUp,AmericasFiftyYearFolly(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1972), 21. 755 HarryAnslinger(U.S.CommissionerofNarcotics)andWillOursler,TheMurderers(NewYork:Farrar,Straus, andCudahy,1966),106.InexchangeforCubanandU.S.lawenforcementdiscretioninCuba,theU.S.woulduse drugdealersbasedinCubatooustEuropean(especiallyFrench)socialistsfrompower,accordingtoJonathan Kwitny,TheCrimesofPatriots,ATrueTaleofDope,DirtyMoney,andtheCIA(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1987), 2223.ForattemptsbyaCIAfundednationaluniversitystudentassociationtocensorpublishingonthissubject, seeAlfredMcCoy,ACorrespondencewiththeCIA, NewYorkReviewofBooks,21Sept.1972,2635.McCoy endedupteachinghistoryattheUniversityofNewSouthWalesinKensington,Australia. 756 ReportDrawnUpOnBehalfoftheCommitteeoftheInquiryintotheDrugProblemintheMemberStatesofthe Community,EuropeanParliamentWorkingDocument (A2114/86/Corr.),2Oct.1986,25.Cocainewasdesigned inthe1850sbyAlbertNiemanandFrederichGaedeckeseeRonaldSiegel,NewPatternsofCocaineUse: ChangingDosesandRoutes,inNicholasKozelandEdgarAdams,eds., CocaineUseinAmerica:Epidemicologic andClinicalPerspectives (Washington,D.C.:HealthandHumanServices,NIDAResearchMonograph61,1985), 204.Some40yearslater,heroinwasdesignedandsoldbyBayer(Germany)andParkeDavis(U.S.)asacough medicineseeD.F.Musto,TheHistoryofLegislativeControlOverOpium,CocaineandTheirDerivatives,in RonaldHamowy,ed.,DealingwithDrugs,ConsequencesofGovernmentControl (Lexington,MA:Lexington Books,1987),5961. 757 FranoiseMorn,IndianidadyEstado,inIndianidad,Etnocidio,IndgenismoenAmricaLatina (MexicoCity: InstitutoIndgenistaInteramricano,1988),346.CostaRicaisonly1%Indian,incomparisontoNicaragua(5%)or Guatemala(42%),withmajorityIndianpercentagesintheAndeanstatesseeMassimoAmadio,Polticas EducativoCultivalesyPrincipalesAccionesEntrelosGruposIndgenasdeCentroAmricayPanam,in MadeleineZuiga,etal., EducacinenPoblacionesIndgenes,PolticasyEstrategiasenAmricaLatina(Santiago,

184

managedbytheconquistadorsinleaguewithcorruptofficialsworkingintheRomanCatholic Churchgrewfromtheconditionsoflocalwarandslaverytoencompassstatesandcorporations
758 aswellasorganizedcrime. Thisfair,honorable,andlegitimatetrade,asitwascalledby

WarrenDelanoII grandfatherofFranklinDelanoRooseveltandaseniorUnitedStatestrader
759 inChineseopiumbyclippershipwouldeventuallyamasstremendousmomentum.

UnitedStateswarandinterventionpunctuated theearlygrowthofthearmsanddrug businessintheWesternCaribbean,throughtheleadershipofpeoplelikeFranklinRoosevelt,and later,WilliamDonovan.RooseveltbeganhispubliccareerintheUnitedStatesNavy,

760 overseeingCaribbeanoperationsundertheWoodrowWilsonadministration. Accordingto

CubannationalistslikeRicardoVillares,however,duringthe27June1932DemocraticParty ConventioninChicago,RooseveltwashelpedtowintheUnitedStatespresidencybytwomen whosoontookcentralrolesinsyndicatingthearmsanddrugbusiness,especiallythecocaine trade:MeyerLanskyandSalvatore(CharlesorLucky)Luciano.Lanskyincorporatedhis

761 conservativesyndicatedenterpriseinmid1933,soonafterRooseveltbecamepresident. At

thesametime,accordingtotheCubannationalistsRobertoAlvarezQuionesandRalRoa Kouri,RooseveltsentSumnerWellesashisAmbassadortoCubatoadvancetheinterestsof
762 Lansky,Luciano,andotherpoliticallyconservativebusinessmen. Despiteitsfailuretowin

Chile:UNESCO,1987),37and4748.SeealsoMerrillCollett,TheMythofthe`NarcoGuerrilla, Nation,1320 August1988,13034. 758 EduardoGaleano, OpenVeins,5960.SeealsoFernandoOrtz,ed.byDianaIznaga, LosNegrosCurros (Havana:EditorialdeCienciasSociales,1986),192208.TheauthorisgratefultoastudentofFernandoOrtz,Julio LeRiverendBrusone,thepost1959founderoftheNationalArchivesandLibraryofCuba,forhelpandinsighthere throughaninterviewbytheauthorwithhiminhishome,Feb.1990. 759 GeoffreyWard, BeforetheTrumpet,YoungFranklinRoosevelt,18821905 (NewYork:Harper&Row,1985), 6397and352.Asnotedearlier,cocainewassynthesized(intheU.S.)atleast40yearsbeforeheroin(inGermany), withglobalcocaandcocaineroutesprecedingopiumandherointraderoutes. 760 RobertoAlvarezQuiones,MitoyRealidaddelaPoltica ExteriordeFranklinD.Roosevelt,Granma ResumenSemanal,4July1976,2.AlvarezwasthepresidentoftheinternationalrelationssectionoftheUnionof CubanJournalistsforsometimesee DirectoryofOfficialsoftheRepublicofCuba (Washington,D.C.:C.I.A. DirectorateofIntelligence,1984),16and218.TheauthorisindebtedtothestaffoftheNationalJosMartLibrary ofCubaandJulioLeRiverendBrusoneforadvicehereandforlocatingrelevantinformationcitations. 761 RicardoVillares,ElGansterismo,BrazoArmadodelImperialismo, Bohemio,21May1976,5ff.Frank CostelloalsoattendedtheConventionwithLanskyandLuciano,buthedidnotsharetheirinterestindrugs. CostellodominatedorganizedcrimeinManhattan(Rooseveltspowerbase)from19361946,F.D.R.sprimeyears inpower,accordingtoEleanoraSchoenebaumandMichaelLevine,eds.,Costello,Frank, PoliticalProfiles,The EisenhowerYears(NewYork:FactsonFile,1977),124.RooseveltguidedtheU.S.repealofitsprohibitionof alcoholicbeverages. 762 RobertoAlvarezQuiones,MitoyRealidaddelaPolticaExteriordeFranklinD.Roosevelt,Granma ResumenSemanal,4July1976,2.Wellesstruggledtosuppress1930sstudentledantiwardemonstrationsin solidarity withantiwarstruggleselsewhere,suchastheU.S.andCostaRica.SeeRalRoaKouri, LaRevolucin Del30SeFueABolina (Havana:EditorialdeCienciasSociales,1976),150.WelleswascreditedintheU.S.with

185

theU.S.presidency,theRepublicanPartypursuedsimilarintereststhroughLuciano,Legs
763 Diamond,andThomasDewey.

Indevelopingthisarmsanddrugbusiness,nurturedbydiplomaticprotectioninthe1930s and1940s,LanskyandLucianoproceededmuchlikethearchitectsofanysecurityminded transnationalcorporation.TheirsyndicatewasfoundeduponacombinationofMafiaandrogue

764 intelligenceoperativesfromtheUnitedStates. Meanwhile,WilliamDonovansoughtthehelp

ofpeoplelikeLanskyandLucianotoadvancethecovertobjectivesoffederalintelligence initiatedduringthe1940s.Followingthe1940swar,Donovanwantedleadersabletoimplement
765 covertactionandtocontinuethearmsanddrugbusinessaspartoftheColdWar.

Until1959,asanoutcomeofsuchisthmianinterventionbyarmedviolence,syndicate cocainecompromisedtheintegrityofCubanleadership.Cocainebecamethehabitualdrugof
766 leisure,especiallyfortheyoungpseudoaristocracyofCuba. Butgravitatingaroundthe

MafiaandrogueintelligenceoperationinHavana,establishedin1937bypeoplelikeMeyer LanskyintheNationalHotelofCuba,thiscocainesyndicatewasultimatelyaimedatUnited Statesconsumers.LanskysplitthesyndicateprofitswithCubanleaderslikeFulgencioBatista andwithhisinternationalcontacts,whilehoistingsyndicateprofitswithluxurious,highrise

767 casinohotels,basedonarevolvingenterpriseofarms,cocaine,gambling,andprostitution.

authoringthegoodneighborpolicy. AfterDec.1933hewasrepresentedbyJeffreyCaffreyinCuba.See SumnerWelles,69,Diplomat,IsDead, NYT,25Sept.1961,A 1and33. 763 LaMafiaenlaPolticadelosEstadosUnidos, Moncada,Nov.1973,36.ThoseinterestsgrewfromLegs Diamond andLuckyLuciano,throughThomasDewey,theheadofanationalcrimecommissionthatwassupposed toinvestigateandimprisonLuciano.DeweyworkedthenwithCharlesMitchell,anexpresidentoftheNational CityBankofNewYork,withhegemonicbanking investmentsinCuba. 764 BernardFensterwald(defenseattorneyforJamesEarlRay),CoincidenceorConspiracy (NewYork:Zebra, 1977),176.Inthe1930sand1940s,theMafiaandU.S.governmentintelligenceagencieshadworkedtogetherto cleantheU.S.waterfrontofNaziintervention.SeealsoDanMoldea,TheHoffaWars,Teamsters,Rebels,and Politicians(NewYorkandLondon:PaddingtonPress,1978),41and86.Costellowasalmostkilledand temporarilyreplacedbyVitoGenovese(aprodrugganglord). FortheU.S.SenatesEstesKefauverCommission findingsonCostello,seeFrankCostelloDiesofaCoronaryat82,NYT,19Feb.1973,A21.Theauthoris gratefultoLouisWolfforcomputerassistedhelpinthisarea. 765 RobertAnson, TheyveKilledthe President (NewYork:Bantam,1975),29192and306313. 766 EnriquedelaOsa,CuandolaMafiaseHospedabaenlaHabana, GranmaResumenSemanal,21June1987,2. Amongillicitdrugs,cocainecorneredthemarketat20pesospergram,versus1to5pesospergramforheroinor morphine,whilemarijuanacigarettesbecametheordinarychoiceoflesswealthypeople. 767 NorbertoFuentes,LaMafiaenCuba, CubaInternacional 10(Aug.1979):6064.Afewofthesesteel reinforced,concrete,highrisehotels,once numberinginthehundreds,stillstandtwentystoriesandhigher,e.g.: SansSouci,HotelCapri,HotelDeauville,HotelPlaza,HotelComodoro,HotelRiviera,HotelSaintJohn,Hotel VaraderoInternational,andtheHavanaHiltonHotel(nowHavanaLibre) builtparalleltotheHotelTropicana inLasVegasortheHotelCopacabanainNewYorkCity(namedforaRiodeJaneiro,Brazil,beach).Lanskys lieutenants,SantoTrafficante,Sr.,andJr.,fromTampa,FL,workedrepeatedlywithRobertKennedyin assassinationattemptsonFidelandRalCastroafter1959toregainthisbusiness.

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DiagonallyfacingtheU.S.S.MaineMonument dedicatedtoTeddyRooseveltsRough RidersoveraprimeplazacenteredinthebusinesssectionofHavana theNationalHotel

768 offeredfastpaced,highstakesgamingandgambling,crownedbycocaine. Soon,inits

rhythmicallianceswithmilitaryinterventionintheisthmus,thisbusinesssyndicatewouldalso
769 begintoboostfinancingforfascismandMussolini. Tocoordinateallthisillegalcapital

worldwide,syndicateplansemergedforacentralundergroundbunkeroverlookingthe waterfrontindowntownHavana.Thebunkerplanswereinterruptedin1959,however,andthe foundationsforthebunkerinsteadbecamethefoundationsforCubasmostmedicallyadvanced

770 hospital.

AsamanagementmodelfortheincipientisthmianandCaribbeanarmsanddrug business,thissyndicatebasedinCubadependedonthemilitarypowerofFulgencioBatista, especiallyinHavanaandVaraderoBeach,afewmileseastofHavana.MeyerLanskymanaged itsprofits,concentratedintheHavanaFlamingo,National,andRivieraHotels.AsLucky Lucianostreasurer,LanskymanagedLucianosarms,drugs,gambling,andprostitutionprofits,

771 aswellastheBahamiancasinosdelegatedtohimbyLuciano. Notsurprisingly,related

VaraderofinancialinterestswerecontrolledatthattimebyaUnitedStatesarmsmagnate,Irenee
772 duPont. After1959,LanskylaunderedhisexCubanandBahamiansyndicateprofitsthrough

hisshiftingpropertiesinMiamiandTelAviv,bywayofaSwissbankaccountmanagedby
773 TiborRosenbauminGeneva.

768 TheNationalHotelofCuba(NewYork:NationalHotelofCuba,n.d.),211.TheHotelalsoofferedaccessto

gamesofgolf,hazzard,baccarat,jaialai,horseracing,andchemindefer.Suchgamesandpleasuresalsocameto roostinSanJosinthe1980s. 769 LaMafiaEntreRejas,Moncada,Oct.1971,4546. 770 TheauthortouredthishospitalinearlyFebruary1990.Similarplansforconcentratingillegalorsemiillegal funds resultedinthebuildingofsimilarbunkerlikevaultstofinancesimilarlyconservativepoliticsinMonteCarlo, nearItaly,andinJounieh,theLebaneseKataebfortressnorthofBeirut.ThevaultinJouniehwasbrokenupin 1976,accordingtoSouheilKhouwli,cofounderoftheLebanesePeaceMovement(alMuntalikun) lateran employeeoftheQatarrepresentationtotheU.N.inNewYorkCity whosefatherhelpedtocoordinatesecurity fortheJouniehCasino.ConversationswiththeauthorinToronto,Canada,19741976. 771 MartinGoschandRichardHammer, TheLastTestamentofLuckyLuciano(Boston:Little,Brown&Co.,1975), 229,232,283,367,and421.SeealsoLeagueofNations,TrafficinOpiumandOtherDangerousDrugs,Annual ReportsByGovernmentsfor1942,inConfidentialUnitedStatesStateDepartmentFiles,Cuba,InternalAffairs andForeignAffairs,19451949(Frederick,MD:UniversityMicroformPublicationsofAmerica,1986),Reel7: 0356(C.46.M.46,1945.XI),2. 772 JaneMcManus, GettingtoKnowCuba,ATravelGuide (NewYork:St.MartinsPress,1989),98.TheduPont Varaderoestatewascalled Xanadu,namedafterthemythicalpalaceinKubla(i)Khan,theopiumladenpoem fragmentbySamuelTaylorColeridge. 773 DennisEisenberg,UriDan,and EliLandau, MeyerLansky,MoguloftheMob (LondonandNewYork: PaddingtonPress,1979),2339,25360,and27078.RosenbaumwasthentreasureroftheWorldJewishCongress.

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CostaRicabegantogetinvolvedinthebusinessthen.Thesyndicatehadtorelocateits cocaineandheroinroutestopreviouslyperipheralstatessuchasLaos,Vietnam,andCostaRica followingthe1950swarsandrevolutionsinCuba,Lebanon,andtheisthmus.Thesyndicates retrenchment,expeditedbyFrenchandUnitedStatesintelligenceoperations,waspatronizedby theabovementionedCostaRicannetwork,organizedCorsicanandSiciliancrimefamiliesin

774 ParisandMarseilles, andAngloEuropeancompanyinterestsinBeirutandVientienne 775 (Laos). InBeirut,accordingtoR.T.Naylor,professorofeconomicsattheUniversityof

Montreal,YousefBeidastendedtheAsianrootsofthebusiness.Beidasinvestedhisprofitsin thecontrolof IntraBank,theBeirutPortAuthority,theMiddleEastAirlines,andoneofthe

776 worldslargestcasinosinJounieh,asmallportcitynorthofBeirut.

JouniehbecametheurbanheartoftheLebaneseChristianPhalange(Fascist)Partyand itsmilitia,theKataeb,whileSamiElKhoury,anassociateofBeidas,extendedthesyndicate
777 businesstoSoutheastAsia. Bythe1960s,thisbusinessenvelopedSoutheastAsiainwar,

undertheUnitedStatessupportedNguyenCaoKy,theheadofSouthVietnamsAirForceand
778 themostextremeopponentoftheBuddhistandRomanCatholicVietnamesepeacemovement.

Atthesametime,throughagentslikeAhmedYousefWehbe,ElKhourywouldcontinueto

ForLanskyspost1959Bahamasoperations,seeJimHougan, Spooks(NewYork:Bantam,1979),37880or IsraelBars3IdentifiedbyInterpolasCriminals, NYT,7June1971,A8. 774 RichardWest,VictoryinVietnam(London:PrivateEye,1974),3437.TheFrenchconnectionwasmade possiblebyoustingsocialistsfrompoliticalpower. 775 ForthisallegedCIAapplepiediplomacyinBeirutafter1958,seeWilburCraneEveland, RopesofSand, AmericasFailureintheMiddleEast (NewYork:W.W.Norton,1980),12152,16380,234,and249306. AccordingtoDavidMacMichael,whovisitedEvelandduringthelastdaysofaterminalillness(telephoneinterview withtheauthor,Dec.1989),EvelandsprivatepapersregardingtheisthmushavebeentiedupbytheCIA. 776 R.T.Naylor, HotMoneyandthePoliticsofDebt (NewYork:Simon&Schuster, 1987),3436. 777 AlfredW.McCoy,ThePoliticsofHeroininSoutheastAsia(NewYork:Harper&Row,1972),2427.The KataebhadsomerootsinCuba,evidenced,e.g.,throughaperiodical, CercanoOriente,datingfromthe1930s foundingoftheKataeb.See TefiloHaded,CubayLbano(Havana:?,1957),8,6162,and117118. 778 ThiswasconfirmedbyaU.S.SenateSubcommitteeonForeignAidExpenditures,accordingtoDavidFeingold, OpiumandPoliticsinLaos,inNinaAdamsandAlfredMcCoy,eds.,Laos:WarandRevolution (NewYork: Harper&Row,1970),324.After1975,whentheU.S.leftLaosandVietnam,CIAarmsanddrugprofitswere depositedinAustraliasNuganHandBankundertheCIAstationchiefinAustralia,JohnWalker,formerlythe IsraeliCIAstationchiefseeJonathanKwitny,TrueTale,116117and12829.Seealso CommonwealthNewSouth Wales,Joint TaskForceonDrugTraffickingReport,Vols.1and2(Canberra:AustralianParliamentandAustralianGovernment PublishingService,1982)Admirals,Generals,ExCIAMenTookProminentRolesinNuganHandBank, WSJ, 24August1982,3andBanksLinkstoExCIAMenDetailed, WSJ,17August1983,26.

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coordinatethissyndicatebusiness,financingdealsthroughtheNuganHandBankinAustralia
779 tradingAfghaniheroinforarmssenttoAfghaniContras.

InCostaRica,asbrieflymentionedinthelastchapter,theisthmianarmsanddrugprofits weremanagedbyexCubanslikeManuelArtime,andlaterbySarkisSoghanalianandMichael
780 Harari. ManuelArtimebegantofinancesuchcriminalsmugglingdeals,workingwith

AnastasioSomozathroughtheFreeCostaRicanetwork.Inbuildingthisbusiness,Artime workedprimarilywithHowardHunt,thenMiamiCentralIntelligenceAgencystationchief. UnderHuntsdirection,Artimealsoselectivelyassassinatedtopcompetingdrugdealersnot diplomaticallyalignedwiththeUnitedStatesapproachtoconflictresolution.Hethus consolidatedtheeconomicandpoliticalfoundationsforanisthmianarmsanddrugbusiness,

781 helpingthesyndicatecoveritslossesfromthe1959CubanRevolution. InCuba,theprofitsof

thisbusinesshadexceeded$100millionperyearforthegamblingsidealone.Thenetprofits
782 fromitsdrugsyndicateremainundisclosed.

Artimeestablishedthebusinessfinancially.Forthis,hemobilizedfundsfrom Colombianarmsanddrugcartels,andpossiblyalsofromIsrael,throughwhatwaslatercalled theHararinetwork.MichaelHarari,anexMossadexecutive,didbusinesswithmenlike ArtimeandManuelAntonioNoriegainPanama.AfterArtimesdeathin1977,Hararimanaged thebusiness,drawingoninformationfromtheCentralIntelligenceAgencyaswellasonhispast

783 experienceinfacilitatingthe1981IsraelibombingofanIraqinuclearreactor. Money

laundererstrainedbyArtime,suchasRamonMilianRodrguez,usedtheirskillstoadvancethe
784 Contraarmsanddrugbusiness. WhileemployingfriendsofArtimelikeFelixRodrguezfor

779 HenrikKruger,StrangeTalesofNuganHandDrugClients,

CAIB,Sept.1987,910.TheNuganHandBankin Australiawas,asmentionedinthefootnoteabove,acentralbankfortheCIAinitsSoutheastAsiaendeavors.The authorisgratefultoLouisWolfforcomputerassistedhelponthispoint.Syria,Pakistan,andAfghanistanhave beenalsoaccusedofdrugtraffickinginrecenttimes. 780 JeffMackler,BehindtheCoverUp:ContragatesHiddenHistory,SocialistAction,July1987,inDCF (1987), 1821.DiplomatslikeKarenOlson,alsomentionedabove,werehelpfulhereinprovidingdiplomaticprotectionor ticketpunchingforisthmianLevantinelinks. 781 DEA,CrimeandthePressToday,LobsterMagazine (Hull,England),1986,8.Accordingtothisarticle, ArtimeworkedespeciallywithexCubanslikeOrlandoBoschandFelixRodrguez. 782 HowardKohn, TheHughesNixonLanskyConnection:TheSecretAlliancesoftheCIAFromWorldWarIIto Watergate, RollingStone,20May1976,4050and7792. 783 Nicaragua:TheHarariNetwork&MOSSADsBenOr, Intelligence/Parapolitics (Paris,France),August 1988, 7.TheCIAprovidedHarariwiththesatellitephotographsheneededtolocatetheIraqireactor,thusstarting anexchangerelationshipthatcontinuedintheisthmus. 784 KnutRoyce,DrugFigureNoriegaGiven$350M, Newsday,12Feb.1988,4and30.MilianRodrguez admittedmoving$3billionseeDennisVolman,MoneyCourierTellsofServicesforCIA, CSM,16July1987,3.

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785 thearmsandcommunicationsnetworkscenteredinCostaRica, thebusinesstransshipped 786 Andeancocainenorthwardinexchangeforcontraarms. Meanwhile,IsraelisfromtheHod

Hahanit(HebrewforSpearhead)companydevisedbusinesssecurityandtrainingsystemsin
787 Colombia,intheUnitedStates,andbeyond.

ThePrivateBenefactorsoftheArmsandDrugBusiness AsanoutcomeoftheprivatizedarmsanddrugsmarketthatfinancedtheContras, cocainestreamedthroughCostaRica.Intheearly1980s,itspoliceestimatedtheamountof

788 cocainetransitingitoverlandatfifteentonseachyear. Thisconservativepoliceestimatemay

haveequalledasmuchasfortypercent,or$50billionworth,ofthecocainesoldannuallyon
789 UnitedStatesstreets. NumerousFrenchandMexicanprivatebenefactorsmovedtoSan

Ofcourse,thearmsanddrugtradealsoinvolvedAfghanistan,asNorwegiandetectivesdiscoveredin1988see Bush,Drugs,andPakistan, Nation,14Nov.1988,492.ButthoseeventsneartheMiddleEastweremorecritical toU.S.policyforthetricontinentalregionofAsia,Africa,andEurope,militarilybasedintheislandofDiego GarciaseeV.D.Chopra, PentagonShadow,88,14358,and209ff. 785 RodrguezworkedwithArtimeineventsliketheBayofPigsfiascoanddirectedArtimesarmsand communicationsnetworkcenteredinCostaRicaforantiCubanhostilitiesseeFelixRodrguezandJohnWeisman, ShadowWarrior(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1989),116. 786 JaneHunter,TheIsraeliConnection, MiddleEastInternational 14May1988,1617.Forthetrainingof Noriegasbodyguardsandhissecuritysystem,linkedtobothFelixRodrguezandthesecurityadvisorofthenU.S. VicePresidentGeorgeBush,seealsoDavidTeacher,IsraelsEdwinWilson, LobsterMagazine,1988,21. 787 Colombia:IsraelisTrainDrugLords,IntelligenceNewsletter(Paris,France),30August1989,1.Thisarticle notesthat HodHahanit,gainingcounterinsurgencyexperienceinLebanon,wasdirectedbyYairKlein,withaboard ofdirectorsincludingHarari,MosheSpector(anarmoredcorpscommander),AvrahamTzedaka(aretired paratroopergrouphead),andYaakovBiran(ahelicopterpilot). HodHahanitwasoneof800internationalIsraeli armsandsecuritytrainingorganizations.SouthAfricanswerealsopartofthisarmsanddrugsecuritytraining program.SeealsoJaneHunter,TheIsraeliConnection:IsraeliInvolvementinParamilitaryTraininginColombia (Washington,D.C.:ArabAmericanInstitute,1989).JosGonzaloRodrguezGachaandotherColombians headingdrugcartelsecurityforcesemployedKlein.SeeEdMagnuson,TheIsraeliConnection, Time,11Sept. 1989,26.ArielAfek,oneofKleinsmeninColombia,receivedU.S.asylumandaU.S.passportinexchangefor informationonhisworkinColombiashortlybeforeGeorgeBushpreparedtotraveltherein1989.However,inlate Jan.1990,shortlyafterhispreliminaryinterrogationbyU.S. SecretServiceagents,Afekwasfounddecomposingin acartrunkattheMiamiInternationalAirport.SeeACoverupofIsraeliDrugConnections? Palestine Perspectives,MarchApril1990,11.KleinreturnedtoIsrael. 788 GuillermoFernndezR.,CocanaHundesuGarraenelPais, NCN,23Nov.1986,8.Comparewith15million U.S.cocaineusersseeRonaldSiegel,Cocaine AClinicalView, SanFrancisco,June1982,52.Theactualtonnageisprobablyhigher.Forinstance,asingle policeactionseized atonofcocaineinlate1989atthePuertoLimnAirportseeCokeNabbed,TTS,3Nov. 1989,1.RonaldReaganandGeorgeBushusedthephraseprivatebenefactorsforentrepreneurssupportingthe Contras,whileaccusingCubaandNicaraguaoftraffickingdrugsforarms.However,academicpublicationshave yettoconfirmsuchaccusationsorinsinuations. 789 S.Cohen,RecentDevelopmentsintheAbuseofCocaine, BulletinOnNarcotics(U.N.)36(AprilJune1984): 6.Cohenestimatedtheannualworldcocainetradeatbetween80and130tons.SincetheUSAusesanestimated 5070%oftheworldsillicitdrugs,fifteentonsofcocainetransitingCostaRicawouldequal1540%oftheU.S. cocainemarketorupto$50billioninstreetvalueeveryyear.Otherestimatesofcocainetradetrendsplacethecost

190

Jostohelpfloodthemarket.RicardoAlemLen,thetopfundraiserforOscarAriaspolitical
790 party,alsojoinedthebusiness. ButthosetryingtofundtheantiSandinistaContras,themajor

privatebenefactorsbehindthisarmsanddrugbusiness,operatedfromtheUnitedStatesEmbassy inCostaRicathroughpeoplelikeJohnHull,asdescribedbelow. WhileserialviolenceragedinNicaragua,wavesofcocainetransitingCostaRicaandthe CaribbeanbegantooverwhelmEuropeanandUnitedStatescities.AccordingtoPenny Lernouxs1984research,Citibank,theBankofMiami,theContinentalNationalBankinMiami, andvariousgluttedflybynightmoneychangingstallsprocessedtheprofitsbyweight,rather

791 thanbyfacevalue,inordertostayaheadofthefloodingbonanzaofcash. In1985,inthe

midstofthebonanza,randomforensicUnitedStatespapermoneystudiescametotheconclusion thatanyoneusingpapermoneyanywhereintheUnitedStatesforanyreasoncouldnotavoid
792 touchingcocaineingrainedontothepapercurrencyfromthisbusiness.

Between1978and1985,astheContrawarwaxedandwanedinCostaRica,cocaine
793 replacedheroinasthemostprofitableillicitdrugintheUnitedStates. ExCubanspersonally

lowerbutthetonnagehigher,andtheseestimatesalsocontainantiprohibitionpleasbyconservativeBritishTories (MargaretThatchersparty)forthelegalizationofcocaineitselfseeDrugs,ItDoesntHaveToBeLikeThis, Economist,2Sept.1989,21. 790 JacquelineSharkey,ContraDrugTradeOff,CommonCause,Sept.Oct.1988,33. 791 PennyLernoux,TheProfitablePartnershipofBanksandDrugDealers, MedicalEconomics61(25June1984): 158and16077.CitibankwashistoricallylinkedtotheJ.P.Morganbankholdingcompany,andtheContinental NationalBanktoconservativegroupsinLittleHavana,Miami.Lernouxfoundthat300poundsof$20billsadded upto$3.6million.In1982,apeakyearintheContrawarandcocainewave,Floridasfederalbanksshowedprofits morethandoublethoseofallotherU.S.federalbanksputtogether.Forbankinghistory,seeRonChernow,The HouseofMorgan,AnAmericanBankingDynastyandtheRiseofModernFinance (NewYork:Morgan Entrekin/AtlanticMonthly,1990),9091,12028,15056,237,289,and638andWarrenHinckleandWilliam Turner, TheFishisRed,TheStoryoftheSecretWarAgainstCastro (NewYork:HarperandRow,1981),314. 792 CocaineTracesFoundonCirculatingCash, OaklandTribune,14Dec.1987,5CashandCarryCocaine: DrugTracesFoundbyChemistsonMostU.S.Bills,TheSun,7April1986,3andDrugMoney,Economist,15 April1989,32.LeeHearnsandTerryHall,Miamitoxicologists,madethesestudies confirmedbyU.S.Customs andDrugEnforcementAdministrationforensicscientists.ForsuchaforensicstudyinWashington,D.C.,seeRoger AaronandPeytonLewis,TechnicalArticle:CocaineResiduesOnMoney,CrimeLaboratoryDigest (FBI),Jan. 1987,18.TheauthorisgratefultoDEAforensicspecialistshereforinsight(Winter1989).TheDEA/FBIarticles weresentanonymouslybyindividualstotheauthoraftertelephonesearchesinWashington,D.C.,19881990.No directcontactwaspossiblewiththeseoffices,whetherDEA,FBI,oreventheU.S.branchofInterpol inspite ofrepeatedattempts.Allsuchlibrarieswereofflimits. 793 NarcoticsTraffic:ADossier, LawEnforcement7(Feb.1980),20andCharlesFrost,Drug Trafficking, OrganizedCrimeandTerrorism:TheInternationalCashConnection,inHydraofCarnage,TheInternational LinkagesofTerrorismandOtherLowIntensityOperations,TheWitnessesSpeak (Lexington,MA:Lexington Books,1986),190.

191

taughtbyArtimelikeRafaelChiChiQuintero,whohadarmedSomozacontinuedto
794 armtheContrasprivatelyinHondurasandCostaRica. Thebusinessalsocontinuedtoexpand

witharmsfromSarkisSoghanalianandhisfriends,suchasEdWilson,andvariousrenegade
795 UnitedStatesSpecialForcesoperatives.

ThecocainecrossingtheisthmusandtheCaribbeanwaspurifiedalongthewayfor smokingorintravenoususe.Thisseventyfivetoninetypercentpurecrackcocainefirst appearedonHouston,SanDiego,andLosAngelesstreetsin19811982duringtheinitiationof theContraarmsanddrugbusiness.Theuseofcrackcocainemultipliedcocainerelateddeaths

796 fromsuffocationandheartattacks. INTERPOLinEuropefoundthatonlyPanamathen 797 rivalledCostaRicaintransshipmentsofcocaine, whichthenrippledoutwardfromMiami, 798 Houston,andLosAngeles. CostaRicabecameaninternationalcrossroadsfordrugdealsto 799 financetheContras,bringingthesyndicatesbusinessbacktoitspre1959strength.

Accordingtomanysources,JohnHullwasthefocalUnitedStatesCentralIntelligence AgencyfieldagentforthebusinessinnorthernCostaRica.HeestablishedhimselfinCostaRica withaFordFoundationgrant,underanassignmenttooverseethebuildingofroadsandairstrips

800 alongCostaRicasnorthernborder. Heusedtheseroadsandsixairstripstomanagehis

business,linkingwiththecriticalSarapiquiRiverandSanCarlosRivertributariesnearby,which
801 fednorthwardintotheSanJuanRiver. HeconnectedtheAndeandrugcartelswiththeUnited

StatesdrugdealersinexchangeformilitarysupplyflightstotheContrasinCostaRicaand

794 InsidetheShadowGovernment 795 Miscellaneous,

(Washington,D.C.:ChristicInstitute,1988),4143. Parapolitics/USA,1March1983,34.FortheroleofEdWilson,exU.S.GreenBerets,andex U.S.Navy(apparentlySEAL)specialiststrainingdeathsquadsinNicaragua andCostaRica,seealso Miscellaneous, Parapolitics/USA,31March1982,6. 796 DrugEnforcementAdministrationBriefingBook,U.S.DepartmentofJustice,DrugEnforcement Administration,Mimeo,n.d.[1989?] 797 RobertoBardini, Monjes,Mercenarios,39. 798 ThomasRisks,InsideDope:TheCocaineBusiness:BigRisksandProfits,HighLaborTurnover,WSJ,30June 1986,1and16. 799 TinaRosenberg,MiamiSouth, NRC(14April1986),inDCF (1986):2. 800 StephenHodges,U.S.FarmerinCostaRicaStirsControversy,MHD,11July1987,I4ff. 801 LeslieCockburn,AmericasSecretWar:GunsforDrugs, Granta22(Autumn1987):155.

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802 Honduras. EdenPastora,MarcoAguado,andJosCheponRebelo,topContraleaders,were

implicatedinthisarmsanddrugtradethroughHullbymeansofcrashedorinterceptedContra
803 airforceflightstransportingAndeancocainenorthward.

Meanwhile,intheUnitedStatesfederalcourts,thecoverofnationalsecuritywasusedto thwartattemptsbythepublictounderstandandcombatthisarmsanddrugbusiness.Legislative andintelligenceofficialstriedtohushlinkagesbetweenfederalemployeessuchasGeorgeBush, AlanFiers,ClairGeorge,WilliamBuckley,andWilliamCasey.Politicalfalloutfrom associationwiththissyndicatebusinesscouldbeaverydifferentpoliticalmatterthanthemore difficulttoproveeconomicdestabilizationofNicaraguanandCostaRicannationalsovereignty. TheUnitedStatesCentralIntelligenceAgencyandDrugEnforcementAgencydeclinedeventhe privateinvitationsbyCharlesRangel chairingtheappropriateHouseofRepresentatives

804 committeeoncrimeanddrugstoattendclosedhearingsundertightsecurity. Joseph

Fernndez,acentralfigureafter1984inthedestabilizationaccomplishedbymeansofthearms anddrugbusiness,escapedtrialintheUnitedStatesaltogetherbyallegationsfromhislawyer thatnationalsecuritywasatrisk. However,inordertoprotectCostaRicasownnationalsecurity,theDrugCommissionof CostaRicasNationalLegislature(itscongressionalbody)rejectedlegislativeattemptstohide thiscovertbusiness.Meetingforsixmonthsearlyin1989,theCostaRicanDrugCommission decidedtopenalizeJohnHullandtodeporthimpermanently,butHullsecretlyfledthecountry, stillrefusingtodefendhimselfbeforethisfederalcommission.HullandManuelAntonio Noriegareceivedspecialcensure,whiletheotherIranContraarmsanddrugbusinessleaders werejudgedandsentencedinabsentiabythisnationallegislativecommission.

802 AChristicInstituteSpecialReport:TheContraDrugConnection,

ChristicInstituteNewsletter,Nov.1987,1 12.Theselinksincludedthe crashedHasenfusflight,plusothercrashes,andinterceptionsinvestigatedbytheCosta RicaNationalLegislatureDrugCommission. 803 KerryCommission, ForeignPolicy,3842and4950.SeealsoJonathanMarshall,etal.,IranContra,13637. 804 U.S.,House,SelectCommitteeonNarcoticsAbuseandControl, AnnualReportfortheYear1987,Report100 1108,100thCongress,2dsess.(1988).Hearingon21July1987.

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TheCostaRicanDrugCommissionfoundOliverNorth,LewisTambs,RichardSecord, JosephFernndez,andJohnPoindexterallworkingunderGeorgeBushduringthetimein question tobeguiltyofmanagingan armsanddrugbusinessinCostaRica.TheCommission permanentlybarredalloftheIranContradefendants exceptGeorgeBushandRonaldReagan fromreturningtoCostaRica.Inaddition,theDrugCommissionpenalizedtheCostaRican officialsfoundguiltyofparticipatinginthisarmsanddrugbusiness,suchasBenjaminPizaand RicardoAlemLen,aswellasvariousmanagersoftheCostaRicanfederalbank,civilaviation authority,andattorneygeneralsofficestaff.Thesestateemployeeswerefiredandexcluded fromfuturepublicemployment.ThroughnewregulationsontheCostaRicanbanks,the Commissionalsoreservedtheauthoritytoprobetheisthmianarmsanddrugbusinessagain. Thisoversightpower,heldinreserve,couldwarnthecountryif thebusinessagainthreatened
805 CostaRicanneutralityorsecurity.

TheimmenseentangledprofitsofthisbusinessinCostaRicamayhavebeenatleast partlyresponsibleforthemercurialshiftsofCostaRicanopinionsforandagainsttheSandinista governmentinNicaragua.However,theendproductdamagedthesocietalfabricoftheUnited Statesinadeepersense.Between1980and1985,eachcocaineuserspentanaverageof$19,000 peryear,comparedwith$16,000peryearforanaverageheroinuser,on hisorherpersonal addiction.Simplymultiplyingthe$19,000costpercocaineuserbythealleged15to30million cocaineuserswouldindicateasocialcostbetween$285and$570billionperyearintheUnited

806 Statesalonenotcountinganotherestimated$8billionannuallyfromheroin. In 805 AsambleaLegislativa,ComisinEspecialNombradaParaInvestigarlosHechosDenunciadosSobre

Narcotrfico,Expediente10.684,InformeFinal,SanJos,CostaRica(1989).AroughdraftofapartialEnglish translation(bytheauthor)ofthecommissionshearingconcerningHull,Noriega,andtheIranContrafiguresmay beavailablefromTheChristic Institute.PublicCostaRicanactiondifferedfromtheinconsequentialU.S.court trials,aswellasfromthefiringsquadreactionofCubancourtstothearmsanddrugentrepreneurs.ForanEnglish summaryofthishearing,seePeterBrennan,ProbeRipsU.S.,LocalOfficials,TTS,21July1989,1and5.Fora Spanishsummary,seeRecomendacionesdelInformeSobreelNarcotrfico, RPA,21July1989,A8.Theauthor isgratefultoMoiraKennyandRobRitchieoftheChristicInstituteforinsightinto problemsthatmayalsoinfluence eventsinthe1990s.DespiteCostaRicastoughstance,otheristhmianstates,suchasHondurasandGuatemala,in particular,havebeguntoexperienceproblemswithcocaineheadingnorth.Nicaraguamayalsofacesuchproblems inthe1990s. 806 JamesCollins,etal.,ExpensiveDrugUseandIllegalIncome:ATestofExplanatoryHypotheses,Criminology 23(1985):743and75859.Thisstudyusedregressionanalysison3,500individualsrandomlyselectedfrom1979

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comparison,thesocietaldamageexperiencedfromabuseofthelegaldrugofalcohol,oftenused
807 withtobacco,reached$117billionannuallyintheUnitedStates.

Cocaineuseclimbedrapidly.Byearlyin1982,a thirdofallUnitedStatesyouthaged eighteentotwentyfive,andseventeenpercentofUnitedStatesadolescents,hadtriedcocaineat leastonce,accordingtotheU.S.News&WorldReport.Notsurprisingly,from19771982 beforethefullscaleoutbreakofcrackcocaine,drugclinicadmissionsmultipliedby300percent intheUnitedStates.Annualcocaineprofitsclimbedover$32billion,morethantwicethe

808 combinedprofitsofthelargesttransnationalUnitedStatesoilcorporations. Thissyndicate

businessthusovershadowedcommercialtransactionsonmanylevels. AnotherfactorthatspurredthecocainetrafficintotheUnitedStateswascocainesstrong appealforcareerwomenandotherurbandwellers.Therecentlyengineeredpreparationsof

809 cocaine,unlikeotheraddictivedrugs,addictedmenandwomeninequalnumbers. Moreover, 810 culturalandskincolorvariablesdidnotaffectthechancesofcocaineaddiction. Ineffect,

duringtheisthmianContrawar,cocainefloodedallthemajorUnitedStatesmetropolitancenters,

to1985toproveacorrelationbetweendrugabuseandcrime,aswellastoestimatethecostofcocaineandheroin habits.Comparewiththe15millionU.S.cocaineusersidentifiedbyaseniorinvestigatoroftheUniversityof CaliforniaseeRonaldSiegel,Cocaine AClinicalView, SanFrancisco,June1982,52.ButofficialU.S.militarydataindicates30millioncocaine users,500,000heroinusers,and30millionmarijuanausersintheU.S.seeGeorgesFauriol,SocialandEconomic ChallengestoHemisphericSecurity,inGeorgesFauriol,ed.,SecurityintheAmericas(Washington,D.C.:National DefenseUniversityPress,1989),9.ForthefirstU.S.Congressionalstudywhichindicated2.2millionhardcore (homeless,imprisoned,etc.)cocaineusers,withthe highestratesinWashington,D.C.,NewYork,andNevada 1 ofevery3045residents seeCongress,Senate,JudiciaryCommittee,HardCoreAddicts:Measuring And Fighting TheEpidemic,101stCong.,2dsess.(10May1990)S.Prt.1016,iiiivand89. 807 JoanHurleyandJanetHorowitz, AlcoholandHealth (NewYork:HemispherePublishingCorp.,1990),xx (preface).In1971,U.S.alcoholabusecostshadtotalledabout$1.9billioneachyearseeRalphBerryandJames Boland, TheEconomicCostofAlcoholAbuse (NewYork:FreePress,1977),173. 808 CocaineSpreadsItsDeadlyNet,USNWR,22March1982,27.Likewise,anationalNIDAhouseholdsurvey foundthat9%or1in11ofallemployedU.S.malesaged1834usecocaineatleastoncepermonthseeFacts AboutDrugsIntheWorkplace, NIDACapsules(Nov.1988),1.Cocaineorheroinplayeddecisiverolesin55%of allteenageemergencyroomdeathsbythelate1980s,accordingtoCharlesSchuster,ConsequencesofTeenage DrugUse,Challenge(U.S.DepartmentofEducation),MarchApril1989,5. 809 MaureenOrth,WomenandCocaine,Vogue,Nov.1984,240and244.Thisarticlenotednationalestimatesthat 7080%ofcocaineaddictsarealsoalcoholics.Atypicalwomancocaineaddictwasmarriedandearned$25,000per year. 810 NIDA,NationalHouseholdSurveyonDrugAbuse:MainFindings,1985(Washington,D.C.:HealthandHuman Services,1988),44and50.

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inagripwithmoreimmediatepotentialforviolencethanthatofanybusinessenterpriseexcept
811 thePentagonortheU.S.DepartmentofDefenseitself.

Inshort,itcanbeassertedwithsignificantassurancethatviolentconflictresolution imposedfromoutsideonCostaRicahashurtitspotentialforpeace,security,anddevelopmentin animmediatesense.Insteadofvictoryovercommunism,thearmsanddrugbusinessemergedas aglobalsymbolofviolentoutsideintervention.Thelongrangeoutcomeofsuchviolencewill beexplorednext.

811 NIDA,

AnnualData1987 (Washington,D.C.:HealthandHumanServices,Series1(7),1988):iiivi.In Washington,D.C.,duringthe1980s,cocainewasencounteredinabout70%ofadultand20%ofadolescentcriminal arrests.Ifapersonunderarresttestedpositiveforadrug,thatdrugwascocaine94%ofthetime.Furthermore, whileAIDSwasestimatedtocost$1billionperyearintheU.S.asawhole,LosAngelespolicealoneseizedover $1.6billionincocainein1986,thefirstyearoftheIranContraHearings.SeeCongress,House,SelectCommittee onNarcoticsAbuseandControl,FederalLawEnforcementRoleinNarcoticsControlinSouthernCalifornia,100th Congress,2dsess.,ReportSCNAC10028,(1989),158and170.Forfurtherreadingintothehistoryofthearms anddrugbusiness,anoutgrowthoforganizedwhitecollarcrime,traditionallyrootedinthemilitarizationofU.S. society andsingularlyinvestigatedoncebytheU.S.Congressduringthe20thCenturyinits1930sNye MunitionsHearings seeEdwinSutherland,WhiteCollarCrime,TheUncutVersion (NewHaven,CN:Yale UniversityPress,1983),175and22729aswellasRuth&MarshallClinardandPeterYeager, CorporateCrime (NewYork:FreePress,1980),15586.Forthepivotal,intermediateroleofMiamifortheundergroundeconomy ofthiswhitecollarcrime,seeCongress,Senate,SubcommitteeonInvestigations,CommitteeofGovernmental Affairs,StaffStudyofCrimeandSecrecy:TheUseofOffshoreBanksandCompanies,98thCongress,1stsess.,Feb. 1983,S.Prt.9821,16ff.,35,95126,and207.TheauthorisgratefultoDavidSaari,ProfessorofJustice,[Law, andSociety],TheAmericanUniversity,forcollegialdiscussionsintroducingthelastthreecitations(Fall1990).

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Chapter8 DebtandCredit
Inordertofocusalongrangeviewofdebtasanoutcomeofviolentconflictresolutionin CostaRica,thischapterbeginswithasummationofthatnationsassumedpotentialforpeace counterbalancedwithasummationofitsassumedpotentialforwar.Inotherwords,its equitable,nonviolentdistributionofwealthandcooperativeuseofpowerwillbecontrastedwith itsnationalstrainandtensionoverlanduse,includingdeforestation,smallfarmerevictions,and afuturebordercanal.ThiscontrastofthepeaceandwarpotentialinCostaRicaisusedto illustratetheseriousnessofitsinternationaldebt,adebtwhichindicatesthehardpriceCosta Ricamayhavehadtopayforitspioneerattemptsatthepeacetable.Aswillbeshown,every possibleattemptappearstohavebeenmadetoforceCostaRicatopaydisproportionatelyfor whatithasborrowedorhasbeenforcedtoborrowfromtheoutsidemuchof whichwentto theContrasinsteadoftheCostaRicansthemselves. Bythiscostlycommitmenttononviolence,theCostaRicanshavealsoavoidedthehigh serialviolenceandstructuralviolenceinflictedupontheotherstatesintheWesternCaribbean. DiscussioninthischapterofsuchlongtermmatterswillfinishwithacomparisonofCostaRica andCuba,anotherlogicaltargetforcripplingandclandestineviolentconflictresolution.This comparisonculminatesinacontrastoftheanalogousconflictresolutionoutcomesandliving conditionsofbothstates. Negotiatingforpeaceinvariousways,CostaRicahastriedtoturnitsborderwith Nicaraguaintoapeacepark,whileencouragingpioneerpeacekeepinginterventionbytheUnited NationsintheAmericas.ThequalifiedneutralityofCostaRicahasfacilitatedsuchnegotiations, producinglessviolentoutcomesthantheseriesofbrokenceasefires,truces,andarmisticesin stateslikeLebanonandNicaragua.Becauseoftheseoutcomes,leadingthroughnegotiation insteadofwartowardpeace,security,anddevelopment,thecentralhypothesisofthis dissertationdoesreflecttherealityofCostaRicasclaimthatithasexercisedunarmed diplomacy.

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Withoutmilitarypower,CostaRicawasabletoactonitshighregardforliteracy, communicationskills,electoraldemocracy,andtheruleoflaw,allofwhichcontributetothe maintenanceofpeace.ItremainsdifficulttodecideifCostaRicasexperimentinunarmed

812 diplomacyhassurvivedthedebtandContracrisisthatculminatedpoliticallyin1984.

Althoughitrecentlyevictedmanyagentsofthearmsanddrugbusiness,CostaRicastillfaces seriouseconomicdestabilizationfromthedebtandecologicalproblemswhichwillbeevaluated inthischapter. Asnotedinchapterfour,thefirstchapteronmethod,the19141916eventsinthe internationalcourtbasedinCostaRicahavehadexemplarysignificance.Thesepioneering peacenegotiationsinitiatedseventyyearsofpeaceandprosperityinCostaRica,especially notablewhencomparedwiththehistoriesofitsneighboringstates.Thehistoricalgrowthof consensusandcooperationininternationallawwasimpelledbyeventslikethecourtdecisionof 1916,inwhichaninternationalcourtchosetheapproachofCostaRicaoverthatofWoodrow Wilsonforresolvingconflict.Atthesametime,internationalistsliketheRepublicanEdgar
813 BorahbegantoechoCostaRicasapproachtowardpeaceintheUnitedStatesCongress.

Evokingasemblanceofmultilateral coherenceintheisthmus,theseeventsbasedinCostaRica
814 gavetheworldthehopethatitneededtofoundtheHagueWorldCourtin1921.

Throughoutthe20thcentury,theresultingisthmiancoherenceandrelianceon internationallawcontinuedtohelpCostaRicaresolveitsconflicts,despiteoutsideintervention frommilitarilypowerfulstates.Suchchoicesbasedontheruleoflawratherthanonwagingwar tomeethumanneedsandtoresolveconflictwillbeexplorednext.Equitableeducation,asone oftheseneeds,wouldappeartobeastrongindicationoftheoutcomesofsuchpeacefulconflict resolution.

812 DespiteamodestGNPpercapita,CostaRicathushadscoredashigh(inthe1970s,beforeits1980s

remilitarization)asstateswithahighGNPsuchastheU.S.orSaudiArabiaontheU.N. humandevelopmentindex (mentionedpreviouslyinchapter2),acompositeindicatorofsustainabledevelopmentderivingfromequitable distributionofwealth,littleornomilitaryspending,andaconscioustargetingoftheprovisionofspecificnecessities (health,housing,education,andemployment).SeeU.N.DevelopmentProgram,HumanDevelopmentReport1990 (NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1990),914,1920,30,4546, 5053,7678,12829[HDIranking],and185. TheU.S.scoredatthebottomofthemajorWesternindustrializedstatesonthissameindexseealsoJamesRupert, GNPDisputedasDevelopmentIndex, WPT,25May1990,A16. 813 LaudelinoMoreno,HistoriadelasRelacionesInterestatualesdeCentroamrica,2ded.(Madrid:Compaa IberoAmrica,1928),21532. 814 CarlosJosGutirrezGutirrez,LaObradelaCortedeJusticiaCentroamricana(Lawlic.,Universityof CostaRica,1949),159.

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CostaRicanPotentialforPeace AsnotedinTable1,2Aand2C,CostaRicahastargetedfundsoneducationandelected officialssuchasteacherstomakeanoutcomeofhighliteracypossible.Thisemphasison

815 comprehensiveliteracy hasmeantthatoverninetypercentofCostaRicansareliterateandhalf

ofitsuniversitygraduatesarefemale.Thisachievementmakespossiblecompetitivepolitical
816 817 elections forcivilian,ratherthanmilitaryleadership. Evencommonlyoverlookedthings

suchasthelabelsforurbanstreetsinCostaRica oddnumbersforeastweststreetsandeven numbersfornorthsouthstreets,insteadofthenamesofmilitary heroesunderscorethis nationspreferenceforreasoningcooperatively. InternalStrengthsforPeaceinMeetingNeeds CostaRicasrelativelynonviolentconflictresolutionhasprovenjustaspowerfulasthe generalstrikeinHavanathathurtledFidelCastrointooffice.LiketheCubanRevolutionover twodecadeslater,theCostaRicanRevolutionthatbeganin1934wasfollowedbygeneral strikesthroughoutLatinAmerica.Fromthe1940stothepresent,aspreviouslyillustratedin ChaptersFour,Six,andSeven,NicaraguansexiledtoCostaRicawhetherContraor SandinistalearnedthereforhowNicaraguanconflictscouldberesolvedthroughnonviolent methods.Thesemethodsincludedfasting,generalstrikes,andcompetitiveelections.By1989, evenstatesfarremovedfromtheisthmus,suchasthoseinEasternEurope,wouldusenonviolent methodstocreatechangeformutualbenefitandresponsibledemocracy.
815 Comparativeworldliteracyrates(75%ofapopulation,onaverage),werelowerforunderdevelopednationsother

thanCostaRica(50%),andmuchlowerforAfricanwomen(25%)seeUNESCO,Literacy&Illiteracy,1982 (Paris:EducationalStudies&Documents,No.42,1982),7. In1980,theworldsspendingoneducationwasonly $33percapitaseeUNESCO,InternationalCooperationinEducationinthe31LeastDevelopedCountriesA StatisticalAnalysis,MeetingontheLeastDevelopingCountriesNeedsandPrioritiesinRegardto Education (Paris,2024Sept.1982),(ED82/WS/73)(July1982),1.Theauthorisgratefulforinsightonthispointfrom DarrellRandallandNicholasOnuf. 816 Despiteforeignintervention,competitiveelectionsmuchlikethoseinCanada,Australia,theUnitedStates,and WesternEuropehavedistinguishedCostaRicafromtheotheristhmianstatessincethe1850s.After1979, Nicaraguabegantoadoptdemocraticmeasures.SeeMitchellSeligsonandMiguelGmezB.,OrdinaryElections inExtraordinaryTimes, ThePoliticalEconomyofVotinginCostaRica,inJohnBoothandMitchellSeligson,eds., ElectionsandDemocracyinCentralAmerica(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,1989),15878. 817 CostaRica,DemocraciaDesarmada (SanJos:ImprentaNacional,1983),9,19,2326,41,and46.Despite surroundingisthmianwars,genderparityinCostaRicanliteracybeganinthe1840sseeMaraClotildeObregon, CostaRica,RelacionesExterioresdeUnaRepblicaenFormacin,18471849 (SanJos:Ed.CostaRica,1984), 3437.FortheresultsinCostaRicanbasedU.N.peaceresearch,seeCapitacineInvestigaciones:Universidad ParaLaPaz,(5Dec.1980)A/RES/35/55orUniversidadParaLaPaz, InstalacindelConsejodelaUniversidad ParalaPaz:DocumentosBasicos,PrimeraSesiondeTrabajo(SanJos:ImprentaNacional,1982),3738.

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In1974,duringaconferenceinSanJos,CostaRicacalledfornewrespect,cooperation, andsensitivityinitsecologicalplanstoturnitsNicaraguanborderintoapioneerinternational peacepark.Atthesametime,CostaRicaestablishedlegislativeprecedentsintheAmericasfor

818 conservationandrespectforIndianrights. Thiscallcameoveradecadebeforetherenowned

1987Brundtlandreportonworldecology,basedontheUnitedNationstriadofdisarmament, development,andpeace.Thereportofa1987conferenceinManagua,paralleltothe
819 Brundtlandreport,repeatedtheseobjectives. Asaresult,promotedbynongovernmental

organizations,theseinternationalcallsresoundedthroughmanylevelsofgovernment. Ecologicalrespectandsensitivityfortheunparalleleddiversityandefficiencyofthe tropicalrainforestecosystemgainedadditionalimpetusfromtheworkofprivatelyfunded researchscientists.DanielJanzen,forexample,fundedbyaUnitedStatesMacArthur FoundationgrantforresearchusingCostaRicaasamodel,triedtoarousescientificinterestin howpeoplemightrebuildtropicalrainforeststhroughcarefulplanningoverthenextthree

820 centuries. AppropriatingmuchoftheMurcilagomilitarybasewhereOliverNorthhad 821 personallythreatenedOscarAriasoverContraairpower, Janzenalsosetconcretegoalsfor 822 reversingtheglobalwarmingeffect. Otherresearchersfromnongovernmentalorganizations

discoveredthattropicalrainforests,astypifiedbythoseinCostaRica,holdfifteenpercentofthe
823 worldspotentialanticarcinogenicdrugs. Suchcallsforecologicalsensitivityslowlybegan

tochangetheworldsunderstandingofnonmilitarythreatstosecurity.
818 CraigMacFarland,etal.,Establishment,Planning,andImplementationofaNationalWildlandsSysteminCosta

Rica,inJeffreyMcNeeleyandKentonMiller,eds.,NationalParks,ConservationandDevelopment,TheRoleof ProtectedAreasinSustainingSociety(Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitution,1984),59295.Forborderparks, see ActasdelaReuninCentroamricanaSobreManejodeRecursosNaturalesyCulturales (Morges,Switzerland: IUCN,1976),14345.ForU.S.Europeangreenpolitics,see:BrianTokar, TheGreenAlternative,CreatingAn EcologicalFuture(SanPedro:R.&E.Miles,1987),2,2735,and73CharleneSpretnak,AGreenParty It CanHappenHere,Nation,21April1984,472and475andFritjofCapraandCharleneSpretnak, GreenPolitics (NewYork:E.P.Dutton,1984),45and236.Muchofthisdebategrewfromissuesintroducedinchapter4. 819 BillHall,CentralAmericansConfrontEnvironmentalCrisis, EIJ(Summer1987)inDCF (1987):96. 820 ConstanceHolden,RegrowingaDryTropicalForest, Science,14Nov.1986,809. 821 JudHarwood,NatureSwaps,TaxInternational,15Feb.1988,45. 822 Forrelateddeforestationfactors,seeGeorgeWoodwell,TheCarbonDioxideQuestion, ScientificAmerican, January1978,3443. 823 CatherineCaufield,TheRainforest,221and228.CaufieldaddsafindingfromtheU.S.StateDepartment:that theworldismoredependentuponchemicalgermplasm(focusedinrainforests)thanitisuponoil.Forexample, therainforestsinChina,India,Mexico,andCostaRicafurnishdiosgenin,thebasicchemicalinthepillforhuman fertilitycontrolseeNormanApplezweig,Dioscorea ThePillCrop,inDavidSeigler,ed.,CropResources (NewYork:Loudon,1977),15559.Otherresearchershavededucedthatexistingrainforestsgeneratehalftheir ownrainfallseeThomasLovejoyandEneasSalati,PrecipitatingChangeinAmazonia,inEmilioMoran,ed., The DilemmaofAmazonianDevelopment (Boulder,CO:WestviewPress,1983),214.Foritsnorthernborderrainfall,

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OverallStrengthsforPeaceinCooperativePower Inrecentyears,peaceinitiativeshavebeguntorestorethestabilitythattheworldneedsto respecthumanrightsandmeethumanneeds.EsquipulasII,forinstance,calledforbyOscar AriasandDanielOrtega,concentratedontheprioritiesoffreespeech,competitiveelections,and

824 openinternationaldialogue. Needlesstosay,thesesamehuman rightswereinterpreted

differentlybytheUnitedStates,whichsawEsquipulasIIasblockingtheUnitedStatesmilitary
825 containmentofNicaraguaandhamperingtheplannedfutureofContraaid. Continuingto

molditsunarmeddiplomacytowardtheprioritiesofmutualchangeformutualbenefit,however, CostaRicadidwhatitcouldtobecomeabridgebuilderbetweenadversariesinsteadofmerelya bridgeforthetrafficofcocaine.Suchcallsforinternationalnegotiationsupportedprogressat thepeacetableandservedasagatewayforabetterinternationalunderstandingofthetropical

826 rainforest.

Inaddition,CostaRicausedunarmeddiplomacytoadvancebilateralcooperation betweenPanamaandNicaragua.Thecredibilityofthisdiplomacyrestedonthefactthat,since 1934,CostaRicahadbeenmovingtowardsitsheight(achievedintheearly1980s)ofspending twelvetimesmoreforsocietalwellbeingsuchashealth,housing,education,andemployment

827 thanforthemilitary. Althoughtheisthmuscontinuedtohavethehighestbirthanddeath

ratesinLatinAmericaasawhole,NicaraguaandCostaRicabothmanagedtoprovidesome

over20inchespermonthseeLuisFornierOriggi, EcologayDesarrolloenCostaRica (SanJos:Ed.Universidad EstatalaDistancia,1985),49.ForbirdspecieswhichsummerintheU.S.butotherwiseliveinCostaRica,see JamesBarborak,HearingonEnvironmentallySustainableDevelopmentinCentralAmerica,Senate,Testimony forCommitteeonForeignRelations,SubcommitteeofInternationalEconomicPolicy,Trade,Oceans,andthe Environment,(27April1988),Mimeo,1. 824 NinaM.Serafino,DatelineManagua:DefiningDemocracy,FPY70(Spring1988):166and17879. 825 J.BryanHehir,TheAriasPlan,`FramingOurChoices, Commonweal114(25September1987):522. These eventsforcedCostaRicatoactmorelikeotherneutrals,suchasFinlandorLebanon,whichhavesparkedSALTand otherbridgebuildinginitiativesaspartoftheirattempttoprovideconflictresolutionservicesunavailablefromother statessee EfraimKarsh,GeographicalDeterminism:FinnishNeutralityRevisited, CooperationandConflict21 (1986):4354orRaimoVyrynen,ProspectsforArmsLimitationTalks:Negotiations,Asymmetries,andNeutral Countries, CoExistence9(March1972):12 and1015. 826 CRPatrullajeFronterizoGeneraPolmica, CentroamricaHoy (CSUCAPAXUCRNewsletter),17Jan.1989, 8.Thisdiplomacyincludedcooperationina24Nov.1988borderpatrolagreementsignedbyHernanGarronand TomsBorgeinSanJuandelSur,Nicaragua,nearnorthwestCostaRica. 827 LeonardoMata,InvestinginEducationandHealthversusMilitarism:TheCaseofCostaRica, IPPNWReport (Oct.1984):2225.Capitalpunishmentandmanyinfectiousdiseaseswereabolishedinthe1800s.

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828 economicsecurityfortheirpeople. Suchsharedsocialservicegoalswerealsoevidentin

CostaRicasguaranteeofthecivilrightsofcommunists,eventhoughcommunistshad
829 historicallysupportedinvasionsledbytheSomozafamilyintoCostaRica.

During19781979,SandinistasupplyoperationsinPanamaroutedthroughCostaRicaby EduardoContreras,theoriginalCommanderZerobeforeEdenPastora,didstrainthe creditabilityofCostaRicanneutrality.ContrerasworkedwithRodrigoCarazo,thenPresidentof

830 CostaRica,tofurnisharmsandsocalledhumanitarianaid. Inotherwords,revertingmainly

toanantidependencyapproach,forcesledbyCarazoandContreraswithinthethreeisthmian
831 nationscooperativelystalledaninvasionofNicaraguabytheUnitedStates.

But,usingitsecologicalstrengths,CostaRicaofficiallycontinuedtogenerateneutral cooperation,suchasthatwithNicaraguathroughtheTortugueroRookery,atthemouthofthe SanJuanRiver.ThisbeachrookerysupportslargegreenseaturtlesnativetoNicaraguaand CostaRica.BusyfromJulytoSeptembereachyear,Tortugueroisthelastofthemanylargesea turtlerookeriesoncecommonthroughouttheCaribbean.RookeriesintheBermudas,Trinidad, AltaVela,theDryTortugas,andtheCaymanIslandsdisappearedinthe1800s.Thegreensea

832 turtlesbornonCostaRicanbeachesliveintheseaoff thecoastofNicaragua.

828 Richard

Garfield,HealthandDevelopmentinCentralAmerica,inHealthCareintheCaribbean,Studiesin ThirdWorldSocieties30[Williamsburg,VA,CollegeofWilliamandMary](Dec.1984):109,116,and120. Honduras,Guatemala,andElSalvador,preferringto followtheU.S.worldorderapproach insteadofthe approachesforresolvingconflictfromeitherNicaraguaorCostaRica havesufferedmorerapidlydeteriorating conditionsofpoverty,accordingtothisreport. 829 JuanManuelYglesias,CentroAmricayCostaRicaenlosPeriodosInternacionales, COPAN 1(1983):56and 61. 830 GregorioSelser, CanalPegado,107,19297,200,218,and247.PanamacontinuedtoworkwithEdenPastora, whoreplacedContreraswhenhediedintheconflictoverthecontrolofManagua.After1979,despitethe mysteriousdeathofitspresident,OscarTorrijos,PanamaalsogaveMiguelDEscotoaplacefromwhichto representNicaraguaintheOAS. 831 JohnSwomley,TrueandFalseAboutNicaragua,TheChurchman,October1987,inDCF (1987),9798.In fact,theU.S.wasbreakingitsownNeutralityAct,OAStreaties,andtheU.N.charterinitsattacksagainstacountry offourmillionNicaraguanpeople halfofwhomwereunderagefifteen.Nicaraguaofferedrepeatedlytoendits incomingforeignmilitaryaidiftheU.S.wouldendContraaid. 832 BernardNietschmann, CaribbeanEdge,TheComingofModernTimestoIsolatedPeopleandWildlife (IndianapolisandNewYork:BobbsMerrillCo.,1979),19697.TheU.S.marineecologyrecordwasquite different,accounting,e.g.,throughitsnavalforces,from19451988,foralmosttwothirdsofthenearly1,300major internationalaccidentsatsea,and7ofthe8mostdangerousaccidents,dumpingnuclearreactorsandweaponson theoceanfloor. Theseaccidentsincludedmanyinstancesofcollisions(atleast10),fieryexplosions(atleast another10),andasunkensubmarine:aroundCuba,nearthePanamaCanal,andoffthecoastofVietnam involvingshipsthattheU.S.Navywouldneitherconfirmnordenywerenucleararmedornuclearpoweredsee WilliamArkinandJoshuaHandler, NavalAccidents,19451988(Washington,D.C.:GreenpeaceandtheInstitute forPolicyStudies,NeptunePaperNo.3,1989),12,16,18,21,27,3237,43,49,67,and 80.

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Otherexamplesofnonviolentproblemsolvinghavebeenlinkedtotheisthmusand influencedbytheexampleofCostaRica.InsolidaritywithCostaRicanandNicaraguan demonstrationsandhungerstrikes,aspreviouslynotedbrieflyinbothChaptersSixandSeven, peacemovementsacrosstheUnitedStatespledgedsimilaractionstodeescalatetheUnited

833 StatesthreattoinvadeNicaragua. UnarmedpatrolswerealsosentfromtheUnitedStatesinto 834 ElSalvadortoguardSalvadorean politicalleaderstargetedfordeathsquadexecution. These

interrelatedactionsmultipliedoutcomesfromcooperativeconflictresolutionbeyondthe
835 836 837 Americas,inLaosandVietnam, IndonesiaandAustralia, IsraelandPalestine.

CostaRicanPotentialforWar Despitesuchbeneficialoutcomes,thepotentialforviolentconflictresolutioninCosta RicasuchasthepreviouslymentionedincomingarmsshipmentsslatedforeithertheContras orSandinistasisneverfaraway.DiplomaticprotectionfortheUnitedStatesremilitarization ofCostaRica,focusedinthearmsanddrugbusinessinMurcilago,quicklydestabilizedCosta Ricanneutrality.IntryingtofitCostaRicabackintothestatusquoofthenationstatesystem, theUnitedStatesimposeditsapproachforconflictresolutionbymilitaryviolence.Beyondthe immediatethreatofthearmsanddrugbusiness,thisremilitarizationpushedCostaRicatoward destabilizationinfourmajorareas:(1)plansforaninteroceanicbordercanal,whichexacerbated conflict,(2)tropicalrainforestdeforestation,whichimpoverishedthesoil,(3)theevictionof

833 KenButigan,ThePledgeStepsUpEfforttoStoptheWar,

PledgeofResistanceNewsletter,Fall1987,1.See alsoJerryGenesio,NicaraguaReport, 1987,VeteransforPeace,CentralAmericaDelegationReport (Portland, ME:VFP,1987),2325andJohnLamperti, WhatAreWeAfraidOf?(Philadelphia,PA:NARMIC,1989),3445. 834 VeteransPeaceActionTeams,FundraisingLetter,(Feb.1989),Mimeo,1.Forlegislativelobbying,seealso JohnLindsayPoland,ElSalvadorTeamReport, PBI,June1989,2. 835 NaturalconservationandecologyeffortsinVietnamdatedfromaparkin1960seeEgbertPfeiffer,The ConservationofNatureinVietnam, EnvironmentalConservation 11(Autumn1984):217221.Forrelatedconflict resolutionbybusinesswomenscooperatives,seeBusinessinHoChiMinhCity,WorldPressReview,Oct.1982, 18. 836 InQueensland,Australia,WatersideWorkersorWharfieslaidthetradeunionfoundationfortheAustralian peacemovementbyboycottingDutchshipsheadedforIndonesiaseeVictorWilliams,TheYearsofBigJim (VictoriaPark,WestAustralia:LoneHandPress,1975),62orRupertLockwood,BlackArmada,Australia,andthe StruggleforIndonesianIndependence(Marrickville,NSW,Australia:HaleandIremonger,1982). 837 OutcomesfromtheIntifadahaveincludeddemonstrations,taxresistance,generalcommercialstrikes,andwork orproduceboycotts,despiteIsraelishootings,imprisonment,anddemolitionseeKhalilMahshi(Principal,Boys School,Ramallah),DilemmaintheMiddleEast,ThePalestinianUprisingandtheFriendsSchoolinRamallah, QuakerLife 30(June1989):2021.ForIsraelisupportoftheintifadabyKibbutzKeremShalom,seeUNRWA ReceivesDonationsofCashandFoodstuffsfromLocalGroups, U.N.PressRelease,26Jan.1988,1.

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smallfarmerstomakewayfortheexpansionofagribusiness,and(4)aninternationaldebt acquiredtopayfortheremilitarization. Eachofthesefourmajorareasofconflictanddestabilization tiedtoabordercanal, ecologicaldamage,landstruggles,andinternationaldebt threatensCostaRicanneutrality. Thesethreatsaredifficulttocomprehendandtoresolvethroughtheworldorderapproach,with itsbeliefthattherecanbeonlyonevictorafteraconflict.ButfromtheCostaRicanpointof view,alreadynoticeableearlyinthe20thCentury asnotedpreviouslyinChaptersTwoand Four the1916courtcasewhichitwonagainstWoodrowWilsonwasnotaonedimensional victory.CostaRicansviewedthiseventasanalogoustothenonviolentstruggleagainstthe RussianCzarduring1905,whichhadalreadychangedthroughnonviolencewhattheviolent
838 1917SovietRevolutiononlypretendedtochange. FromaCostaRicanviewpoint,boththe

1916and1986InternationalCourtverdictspreparedawayformutuallybeneficialchangenot dependentonviolence,despitelatercounterrevolutionsthatusedviolencetoreinstate structurallyviolentconditions. Fromabout1920tothemid1940s,fourperiodicalsinCostaRicabegantoelaborate uponsuchoutcomesofcooperativechangeundernascentdiscussionsofPanAmericanism andthepropertreatmentofissuessuchasanisthmiancanal.Thecooperativeapproach prevailedforthelongesttimein ReportorioAmricano,editedbyJoaqunGarcaMonge.Until hisforcedexiletoMexicoafter1948,VicenteSanz Liberacincomplementedtheworkof GarcaMongewitharticlesontheantidependencyapproach. Twootherperiodicals,ElHatikva andElLbano,discussedmutualisthmianandLevantineconcernsforcooperationincultural growthandconflictresolution.Emergingasafocalpointforthetheoretical,methodical,and practicalfoundationsofPanAmericanism,theneutralityofCostaRicasynthesizedbythe contributorstothesefourperiodicalswouldlinkthatnationtootherselfproclaimedneutral statesintheThirdWorld,likeLebanon.ContributorstotheseperiodicalsincludedDiegoRivera (Mexico),WilliamSaroyan(UnitedStates),LeilaNeffa(Uruguay),andBenedictoChuaqui
839 (Chile).

838 JosSilvano,ElDesarmeyTolstoy,RAO3(2Jan.1922):256. 839 Ibid.Becauseoftheirfragilecondition,copiesof

ElHatikva and ElLbanowereunavailableforresearchin CostaRica.ButJoaqunGarcaMongediscussedthecontentoftheseperiodicalsinhis ObrasEscogidas (SanJos: Ed.Universitaria,EDUCA,1974),813,17078,and25963.SeealsoRobertoBrenesMesn,AutoresyLibros PoticaVozdelLbano:KahlilGibran, RAO 40(1943):131.

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DuringthisperiodofemergingneutralityandPanAmericanism,themostdifficult conflicttoresolvecooperativelywasdisagreementoverasealevelbordercanal.Local remilitarizationwasonlyasuperficialdangerinthisconflict.Asealevelcanalwouldbethe cheapestinteroceanicwaterwaytobuild.But,ashasbeendiscoveredbyintensiveresearch,the PacificOcean nineincheshigherthantheAtlanticsCaribbeanSea,wheretidesvarybyless thanafoothastidesthatvarytwentyfeet.WithanettransferofcolderPacificOceanwater totheCarribbeanSea,insuchasealevelcanal,tidalcurrentsswishingbackandfortheverysix

840 hourscouldreach 4.5(nautical)knots. Followingtheconstructionofsuchacanal,raincycles

intheUnitedStateswheatbeltandMexicanurbanareascouldbedisruptedbythecoolingofthe
841 Caribbean,tenorfifteenyearsaftertheconstructionofasealevelcanal. Ensuing

internationalstrugglewouldchallengethehemisphericstatusquo,anddemandcooperative
842 conflictresolutiononascalebeyondourpresenthistoricalexperience.

Whileconflictsimmersoverthefutureofabordercanal asresolvedpeacefully bythe ruleoflawin1916and1986,theotherthreeareasofconflictmentionedabovestilltroubleCosta Ricadirectly.Forexample,atleasttwothirdsofCostaRicasprimaryforesthasbeencutdown

843 sincetheearly1940s. LandlessnessineasternCostaRica(alongtheAtlanticcoast),in

tandemwithpotentialracialconflict,hasalsobecomeevenmorepressingthaninthe1920s.At thattime,OmarDengoandJoaqunGarcaMongehadcarefullymanagedtoresolvesuch conflictnonviolently personallyinterveningtodefuseandredresstroubledsituationsbefore

840 JohnBriggs,TheSeaLevelPanamaCanal:PotentialBiologicalCatastrophe,

BioScience,19(Jan.1969),45 46.Acommonscenariowasthat6,000AtlanticspecieswouldrelocateinthePacific,and4,000Pacificspeciesin theAtlantic.AggressiveCaribbeanmarinespecieswouldeliminate(unnamed)AtlanticOceanmarinespecies as wellasthestarfishnotedinchapter4.SeealsoJohnBriggsFishesofWorldwide(Circumtropical)Distribution, Copeia3(1960):17180andThomasCarrollandAnnRudolph,eds.,PossibleEffectsofASeaLevelCanalonthe MarineEcologyoftheAmericanIsthmianRegion,Vol.1Index,Vol.2 Abstracts,Vol.3andThesaurus (Colombus,OH:BattelleMemorialInstitute,1969). 841 SonofSeaLevelCanal, Audubon 82(May1980):137.ThisarticledescribesaprivateSmithsonianstudy predictinga1or2degreeCaribbeanSeatemperaturedropthatwouldlowerU.S.rainfallvolume,especiallyinthe wheatbelt.ClimaticchangeswouldalsocoolMexicoCity,theworldslargestcity,alreadyhighabovesealevel. StudieshavenotyetbeenmadepubliconwhetherthissealevelcanalwouldsalinizetributariesoftheSanJuan RiverinCostaRica causinggroundwatersalinizationthatwouldthreatenitswatersuppliesandthatof Nicaragua. 842 Thepresentscaleof peacefulconflictresolutiononthehighseashasbeenparticularlyobstructedbytheU.S., England,andtheSovietUnionwhichhaverefusedtoparticipatedirectlyintherelevantU.N.dialogue.SeeU.N., CurbingtheNavalArmsRace:LimitationandReductionofNavalArmamentsandExtensionofConfidence BuildingMeasurestoSeasandOceans (A/39/419,SecretaryGeneralReportfromtheU.N.40thSess.A/RES/40/94 [I,pp.14749]),(1984),119.

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844 suchsituationscouldbecomefullfledgedraceorlandriots. Theseconflictswillbeaddressed

throughouttherestofthischapter,endingwithadiscussionofCostaRicasinternationaldebt. NationalStrainandTensionOverLandUse LocatedbygeopoliticalfateinanareathatfascinatedtheoristslikeAlfredThayerMahan, CostaRicahasexperiencedmorethanitsshareofworldconflict.Inattemptingtopractice diplomacywithoutmilitarypower,CostaRicahasalsosufferedthefeedbackfromwarinother globalconflictzones.AlthoughCostaRicanspridedthemselvesontheirhistoric,cooperative approachestoconflictresolution asdemonstratedinChaptersFourtoSixbytheirrelianceon theruleoflawandecologicalsensitivitytoresolveconflict theirownremilitarizationstill polarizedopinionsonviolenceandnonviolence. ThispolarizationwasvividlydemonstratedinmidDecember,1985.Agroupof internationalpeacemarchersattemptedtowalkfromPanamatoMexicoinsupportofpeace negotiations.ThepeacemarchersweredeniedentryintoHonduras,Guatemala,andElSalvador, buthadlittletroublewalkinginPanama,Mexico,andNicaragua.Whenthemarchersstayed overnightintheTorumaYouthHostelofSanJos,however,thelocalpoliceandtheFreeCosta
845 Ricanetworkattackedthemarcherswithrocks,glassbottles,andteargas. Despitestrong

protestsfromJosFigueresandnationalcongressionalleadersinCostaRica,Denmark,Norway, Australia,andtheUnitedStates,all250oftheinternationalmarchersnineofwhomwere seriouslyinjuredwerefirstquarantinedandthenshippedunderstringentpolicecustodytothe

846 Nicaraguanborder.

Suchconflictandpolarizationhaditsrootsintheearlierremilitarizationalongtheborder withNicaraguaduringtheContrawarsupportedbytheUnitedStates.Fromtheearly1980sto 1988,forexample,theareaproposedbybothNicaraguaandCostaRicaasaSia[la]PazPark wasrifewithCostaRicabasedContras.Evenwithanarmedescort,Nicaraguanscientists

843 ValBarzetti,DespairandHopeinManzanillo,NotManApart,Jan.Feb.1986,12.Barzettinotesthat

conservationcombinedwithhorticultureorbutterflyfarmingwouldbeupto50timesmoreprofitablethanthe presentclearcuttingofforestsforbeefexportfarming. 844 OmarDengo,BienvenidosLosNegros, EscritosyDiscursos,ed.MaraEugeniaDengodeVargas,Vol.1(San Jos:Ed.AntonioLehmann,1961),23031.Conflictinthe1920salsoemergedinPuertoLimn. 845 ElizabethPantke,TwoMoreViewsofthePeaceMarch,TTS,14Feb.1986,15.Anticommunistslogans characterizedtheseviolentattacks. 846 CoordinadoraDemocrticaporlaPaz(CODEPAZ),LaMarchaPorlaPazyelAtaquedelaExtremaDerecha, NCN,22Dec.1985,A29.

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wantingtoresearchconditionsofriverineecologycouldnottraveldowntheSanJuanRiverto SanJuandelNorteuntilMay1989.Bythen,whatwasleftofthevillageofSanJuandelNorte
847 hadalmostdisappearedunderneathswarmingjunglefoliage.

Asillustratedalreadyinthehistoryofthelongstandingborderproblemsconnectedto thepossibilityofinvasionsfromNicaraguaandabordercanalacrosstheisthmus,thedifferent rootsofborderconflicthavelongaggravateddeforestationaswellinthisarea.Asalludedto previouslyinChapterFour,overathirdoftherainforestdisappearedbecauseofdeforestation bywarandclearcuttingalongthisborder, between1950andthemid1970s,despitethefactthat ninetypercentoftherainforesttreesremaininginthesetwostateshaveyettobebotanically

848 identified. From1979to1984,accordingtotheUnitedStatesAgencyforInternational

Development,CostaRicasmostdenseremainingrainforestsdecreasedbyanotherforty
849 percent. TheseareasofformerrainforestcutclearofgrowthandreseededinAfrican 850 grassesforexportbeef areexhaustedinfiveyears. Bythelate1980s,eightyfivepercent

ofCostaRicasarablelandhadbecomepastureforexportbeef.Theresultingsoilerosion, chieflybybordermilitarizationandbeefgrazingchieflyonitsPacificcoast hasforced

851 CostaRicatoimportwoodtomeetdomesticneeds.

BehindCostaRicascallforecologicalconservationdatingfromthemid1970sisthe brutalrealityofanationthatislosingitsforestsandpromotingsoilerosionmorerapidlythan
847 DavidDudenhoeffer,LastingPeaceNeededforRiverParkProject,TTS,18August1989,15.Thisofficial

groupcontainedscientistsawareofJapaneseplanstoproposeacanalagainthatmonth. 848 RuthNorris,TheSilentForest, Backpacker,Sept.1986,2324.DeforestationclusteredaroundMurcilagoin the1940s1950s,andnorthofJohnHullsranchtotheborderbetweentheSarapiquiandSanCarlosRivers(and nearSanJuandelNorte)inthe1980s,bothareasmilitarizedbytheU.S.SeestudyfundedbyNASAEarthSciences andApplicationDivision,TerrestrialProgramRTOP6772701:StevenA.SaderandArmandT.Joyce, DeforestationRatesandTrendsinCostaRica,19401983, Biotropica 20(March1988):13(mapimage)and17. 849 JeanPease,WaterProjectDocumentation,(WaterandSanitationforHealthProject/WASH,Bureaufor ScienceandTechnology),U.S.AIDComputerService,Redmond,ST/DIU,Rm.105,SA18,Project5150145,FY 19791984,ProjectofNaturalResourcesConservation $8million,1984[?],Mimeo,n.p.CostaRicaslossesin themid1970stothemid1980scorrespondedwithsimilarpercentagelossesinLaos,Vietnam,andMalaysia, accordingtoWalterCorson,ed., CitizensGuidetoGlobalIssues(Washington,D.C.:GlobalTomorrowCoalition, 1985),6466. 850 SandraKaiser,CostaRica:FromBananatoHamburgerRepublic,NotManApart,May1985,inDCF (1985),1 2. 851 U.S.AID/CostaRica,NaturalResourceManagementinCostaRica:AStrategyforUSAID,USAIDMimeo, Washington,D.C.(Dec.1987),6,89,and1213.Forrelatedglobalwarmingproblems,aggravatedby deforestationandfossilfuelburningseeJanetRaloff,CO :HowWillWeSpellRelief?ScienceNews,2431 2 Dec.1988,411412.TheU.S.causesafourthoftheworlds5.5billionmetrictons(btm)ofcarbondioxide pollution.WesternEuropeandJapancause anotherfourth,andtheSovietUnionathird.SeealsoJessicaTuchman Mathews,(WorldResourcesInstitute),NationalSecurity,GlobalSurvival,OpeningAddress,Committeefor NationalSecuritysFifthWomensLeadershipConference(25June1987),Mimeo,68.

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anyotherLatinAmericanstate.Soilerosionhasreachedcriticallevelsonfortypercentofits
852 arableland. SubsequentsedimentationanddeforestationlossesintheareasoftheCashiand 853 ArenalLakehydroelectricdamshaveproduceddamagesestimatedatover$300million.

Hydroelectricplansfortheremainingmajorwaterfallsandwaterwayscontinuetocomplicate
854 thesedeforestationanderosionproblems. Contributingtobothdeforestationandhealth 855 problems,pesticideabusealsothreatensCostaRicanagriculturalworkers.

ProblemsgeneratedelsewhereintheSanJuanRiverecosystem alsoaffectCostaRica. SomeoftheseproblemsoriginatedinPosoltega,Nicaragua,usedbefore1979asaWestGerman

856 andUnitedStatespesticidelaboratory. OtherproblemsmultipliedduringtheContrawar,as

thewarunderminedmosquitocontrolprogramsandunleashedmalariainNicaragua.In1985, denguefever,transmittedbymosquitoes,asismalaria,infected600,000Nicaraguans,orafifth
857 ofthepopulation. Finally,mercurypollution,abyproductofchloralkalipesticidesproduced

bytheUnitedStatesPennwaltCompanyforfarmersgrowingcottonandcattlefodder,has
858 continuedtopolluteLakeNicaraguaatthetopoftheSanJuanRiverecosystem.

Conflict,deforestation,andmisuseofthelandhavecombinedinCostaRicatopromote
859 hungerandpovertyinsteadofpeaceanddevelopment. After1979,thedisparitybetween

852 JoanneOmang,IntheTropics,StillRollingBacktheRainForestPrimeval,

Smithsonian,March1987,60. Annuallossinthe1980s:CostaRica,7%,NicaraguaandElSalvador,3%,Brazil,Ecuador,Honduras,Colombia, andGuatemala,2%,Belize,Peru,andMexico,1%.See WorldResources199091,AReport(NewYorkand Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1990),42. 853 JamesNationsandH.JeffreyLeonard,GroundsofConflictinCentralAmerica,inAndrewMacquireandJanet WelshBrown,eds., BorderingonTrouble,ResourcesinLatinAmerica(Bethesda,MD:AdlerandAdler,1986),81. Thissamestudydiscovereda25footthicklayerofsiltcloggingamajorlakefeedingthePanamacanal. 854 CostaRicasTallestWaterfallinDangerofGoingDowntheTubes, RainforestActionNetwork,ActionAlert No.27,July1988,12. 855 MarcFrank,CostaRicanWorkersSueDowChemicalandShellOil,PDW,26Sept.1986,inDCF (1986),1. CostaRicanforestswerejeopardizedbyparathion,60timesmorelethalthanDDT,inadditiontoDBCP,chlordane, paraquat,andagentorangeseeDavidWeirandMarkSchapiro,CircleofPoison,PesticidesandPeopleina HungryWorld,(SanFrancisco:InstituteforFoodandDevelopmentPolicy,1981),13,32,and77. 856 SeanL.Swezey,etal.,NicaraguasRevolutioninPesticidePolicy,Environment,28(Jan.Feb.1986):89and 31.In19781979,cottonharvestcostsexceededcottonexportrevenuesaspestsgrewimmunetopesticides.After 1979,acheckerboardstyleofpesticideapplicationwasusedinsteadseePeterDowns,KillingPestsWithLess Pesticide,TechnologyReview 86(Nov.Dec.1983):88. 857 PaulaBravemanandDavidSiegel,Nicaragua:AHealthSystemDevelopingUnderConditionsofWar,IJHS 17(1987):176.Leishmaniasis(elephantsfoot)alsotookaseveretollamongSandinistaspatrollingtheSanJuan river. 858 EgbertPfeiffer,NicaraguasEnvironmentalProblems,Policies,andProgrammes, EnvironmentalConservation 13(Summer1986):13738. 859 FrancesMooreLapp,etal., AidasObstacle,TwentyQuestionsAboutOurForeignAidandtheHungry (San FranciscoforFood&DevelopmentPolicy,1980),10.Theauthorisgratefulforinsighthereandinthefollowing

208

wealthandpovertyexacerbatedopenconflictbetweenevictedsmallfarmersandlarge landowners,especiallyinfoodriotsandlandstrikesaroundPuertoLimn,mainlypopulatedby
860 BlackandIndianpeople. Thisconflictoverlanddistribution,hunger,andpovertyledtoangry

warningsfromCostaRicanlegislatorslikeEricArdontoRonaldReagan whenReagan
861 visitedCostaRicathatpeacecannotbenegotiable. Inbrief,duringthe1980s,

remilitarizationofCostaRicaexacerbatedproblemsofdeforestationandsmallfarmerland evictions,duringaheatedbattleovertheborderwithNicaragua.Theeconomiclossesfrom theseconflictiveproblemsledCostaRicaintothelargestdebtinitshistory,andseverely

862 threateneditscenturyandahalfoldtraditionofdemocracyandneutrality.

TheInternationalDebtAHighCostforPeace Undergirdedbyremilitarizationandthearmsanddrugbusiness,anunpayable internationaldebtovershadowedthedestabilizationofCostaRicaasawholethroughhunger, poverty,deforestation,andlandconflict.Bylimitingnationalsovereigntyandself determination,thisinternationaldebtfueledpotentialformoreconflictandabuseofpowerby violence,violencewhichreboundedinthenearbreakdownofthenationaleconomy.Brisk depreciationofCostaRicasmonetaryunit,thecolon,wasanearlywarningsignofthis breakdown.Between1980and1983,beforethepoliticaldenationalizationoftheCostaRican

sectionondebttoSteveArnold,CoralieBryant,FantuCheru,DarrellRandall,andotherpeopleconnectedatone timeoranothertotheDebttoDevelopmentinterestgroupofWashington,D.C. 860 OscarFallasBaldi,LasEleccionesenCostaRica,DeMongeaArias:UnContinuismoConservador,1986 1990,(Mexico:CoordinadoraporlaDefensadelasLibertadesDemocrticasdeCostaRica,n.d.),45,813,and31 ff.TheNationalAgrarianUnion,composedoftheFederacinSindicalAgrariaNacional,FESIAN,Uninde PequeosAgricultores,UPANA,andCOPANcallednationalstrikes,relatedtoincidentsaroundPuertoLimn.For analogousU.S.situations,e.g.,whenlongprisonsentencesweredealttocivilrightsworkerswhorefusedto participateintheU.S.IndoChinaWar,seeRussellDowdy,MartinLutherKing,Jr.,4344.Foranalogous contextsinwarandracialconditionsinsouthernAfrica,regardingthosewhooriginallyownedthelandwherethe Namibianminescametobe,seeRobertGordon,PrimitiveAccumulationandBushmenPolicyinSouthWest Africa,inCarmelSchrireandRobertGordon,eds.,TheFutureofFormerForagersinAustraliaandSouthern Africa (Cambridge,MA:CulturalSurvival,No.18,1985),26and35. 861 LaSoberanadeCA,Innegociable:UnDiputadoDijo,UltimasdeExcelsior,4Dec.1982,1,inCSPPCR,83. 862 FrankJ.Kendrick,TheNonMilitaryNeutralityofCostaRica,UniversityofAkron,OH,Mimeo,n.d.,89and 39.ViewedinthesmalllibraryoftheFriendsofPeaceCenterinSanJos.

209

banksin1984,thecoloncrashedfromsixcolonesperUnitedStatesdollartosixtycolonesper
863 dollar,whilethenationaldebtrosefrom$800millionto$3billion.

CostaRicandebtproblemsreflectedtheviolenceofthisinternationaldebtstrainingthe entireisthmus.Between1973and1983,theisthmiandebtattainedsignificanceasthemost onerousandeconomicallybiasedpartoftheLatinAmericandebt,whichconstitutedthelargest

864 singlepartoftheThirdWorlddebt. CostaRicabeganborrowingheavilyintheearly1980sto

meetrisingoilcostsandplungingcoffeeprices.Butasaidbecameincreasinglytiedtobuilding aContrainfrastructure,theproblemsassociatedwiththedebtworsened. From19811983,duringthebeginningoftheContrawar,CostaRicapaidthehighest debtserviceratesplusthehighestdebttoGNPratios ofanynationintheisthmus,and sufferedaGNPratelossdoublethatofHonduras,Guatemala,andElSalvadorinthesame

865 period. In1983,thepercapitadebtoftheisthmiannationsalonereachedapointtwiceashigh

asthatoftheLatinAmericannationsoverall,whenviewedinproportiontotheaggregategross
866 nationalproductsofbothgroups. LuisMonge,asnotedinChapterSix,whilethePresidentof 867 CostaRica,triedtorescheduleCostaRicasdebtinexchangeforUnitedStatesaid. The

destabilizingaidtiedtotheContrainfrastructurereacheditsheightsbetween1982and1987. AccordingtoLezakShallat,MedeaBenjamin,PhillipBerryman,andKevinDanaher,between 7580percentofthisincomingaid,largelyfromtheUnitedStatesAgencyforInternational

863 RichardWhite,TheMorass,215.Steepfallsincoffeepricesandsteeprisesinoilenergycostsaccompaniedthis

depreciation,andcoincidedwithahighconcentrationofveteranCIAagentsassignedtoCostaRicafrom19801983 asopposedtotherestoftheWesternCaribbeanstates previouslydescribedinchapter1. 864 ILO,ReporttoaSymposiumonEmployment,Trade,AdjustmentandNorthSouthCooperation,(14Oct. 1985inGeneva),May1987,Mimeo,212. 865 CostaRicasnegativeGNPratewas8.3% versusHonduras,Guatemala,andElSalvador,eachatabout4%. TheTicodebttoGNPratiowas142%,versusthenexthighest Nicaraguaat96%.SeeR.L.Chawla,Central America,PangsofRevolution,WorldFocus (NewDelhi)6(April1985):45.Thedebtservicingpercentages were:CostaRica,91%,Honduras,Guatemala,andElSalvador,between3647%,andNicaragua,5% according toCentroamrica:CrisisyPolticasdeAjuste,19791986,(CEPAL/UN,LC/Mex/L.81),(15July1988),62and 66. 866 DebtCrisisNetwork,FromDebt,7. 867 ThefirstofthedebtagreementssignedbyMongeinSept.1983coveredalittleoverathirdoftheCostaRican debt($706millionforcommercialloansand$351millionformultilateralloans,plus$202millioninnewlongterm money orabout$1.2billion).AsecondagreementsignedbyMongeinMay1985coveredanotherrescheduling of$721million,ofwhich$470millionconcernedcommercialbankssee WorldDebtTables,198990,External DebtofDevelopingCountries,Vol.1, AnalysisandSummaryTables (Washington,D.C.:WorldBank,1989),6364.

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Development,wassecurityassistance.Thiswillbeshowninthetablesthatfollowshortlyaftera
868 briefdescriptionofthetablescontents.

Thelefthandcolumnsinthefollowingtablesonsecurity(andmilitary)aid,disbursedby theAgencyforInternationalDevelopment,comedirectlyfromthatAgencysdataforthe disbursementofsuchmilitaryaidandrelatedeconomicsupportfunds. Itmaybehelpfultonote aswellthatUnitedStatesarmssaleswerenotascommoninCostaRicaasintheotheristhmian states.Inaddition,scatteredarticlesappearingintheliteratureindicateabruptlyfallingratesof aidafter1988. Between1982and1988,thetotaloffundsfromtheAgencyforInternational

869 Developmentreachedabout$1.2billion. Thedisbursementofthissecurityaidcanbeseenin

thetableswhichfollowonaidtoCostaRica(19461988) withtheirthreecolumns, comparing:1)SecuritymilitaryaidmeasuredasapercentofallUnitedStatesAgencyfor InternationalDevelopmentaid2)Allsuchaidmeasuredinmillionsand3)Allotheraid measuredinmillionsasrecordedbythe1989WorldDevelopmentReport oftheWorldBank. Suchallotheraiddoesnotmeasurethecovertmilitaryorsecurity(Contra)contentofall otheraid,nordoesitincludeillicitfundsfromthearmsanddrugbusiness. ThethreetablesonaidtoCostaRicawhichfollowwillillustratemilitary,security,and thecombinationofmilitaryandsecuritysupportfundsdefinedaseconomicsupportfundsby theUnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopmentandthePentagonorDepartmentof

868 LezakShallat,USAidtoC.R.

TheStoryBehindtheUproar,TTS,15July1988,1.Shallatreportsthatthe interestchargedwas21%,mostofwhichwentintoaspecialaccount,thatbypassedtheCostaRicanCentralBank, andwasusedtofundthesocalledparallelstatecriticizedbyJohnBiehl.SeealsoKevinDanaher,Phillip Berryman,andMedeaBenjamin,HelporHindrance?UnitedStatesEconomicAidinCentralAmerica (San Francisco:FoodFirstDevelopmentReportNo.1,Sept.1987),23,810,49,and84.Characterizedassecurity assistance,militaryassistance,andeconomicsupportfunds(ESF)byU.S.AID,thiskindofaidformilitarization rosefrom13%in1980to68%in1986fortheentireisthmus comparedwiththe7580%levelinCostaRica itself(Table3) proppinguponlythosegovernmentswillingtomilitarizeinagreementwiththeU.S.military aimsintheisthmus.Tocomparewiththerestoftheisthmus,seealsoInvasion,AGuidetoU.S.MilitaryPresence inCentralAmerica(Philadelphia:NARMIC/AFSC,1985),4. 869 CameronDuncan,CostaRica:ConditionalityandtheAdjustmentPoliciesofUSAIDintheEighties,Paperfor LatinAmericanStudiesAssociation,Miami,FL(Dec.1989),1225.Duncanusedthesamekindsoffederalsources asused inthetableofaid.AccordingtoDuncan,someoftheseAIDfundsusedintheContrainfrastructurewere reportedduringtheOliverNorthtrial.

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870 Defense. Table3liststheofficialfiguresformilitary loansandgrants,Table4theofficial

figuresforeconomicsupportfunds(loansorgrants),andTable5thetotalofmilitaryand economicsupportloansorgrants.Assuch,thethreetablesalsoofferagraphicviewofthethree approaches. Table3onmilitaryanddevelopmentaidrepresentstheofficialUnitedStatesdataon militaryanddevelopmentaidtoCostaRica.Themilitarynumbersalonearerelativelylow,and givetheimpressionofsuchaidbeingratherinexpensiveandcosteffective.Thesenumbersalso representtheviolentmeansusedforviolentendstoensurehegemonicpowerinwhatis consideredazoneofconflictorsphereofinfluence theUnitedStatesbeingthehegemonic

871 stateinthiscontext. ItmightbehelpfultokeepinmindthattheproposedUnitedStatesaidto 872 CostaRicafor1990,afterelectoralchangesinNicaragua,wouldplungeto$57million.

Themilitaryaidnumbersrepresenttheeconomicvaluearticulatedbyaworldorder approachtoconflictresolutionintermsofthecostofmilitaryaidandtechnology.These
870 ThebestoverallsourceforsuchofficialU.S.governmentdataisthatoftheGreenBook,anannualreportfrom

U.S.AIDpreparedinthePentagonandintheStateDepartment:U.S.OverseasLoansandGrantsandAssistance fromInternationalOrganizations (statebystate,from1945tothecurrentfiscalyear,updatedeachfiscalyear as citedundereachofthe 3tables).ThePentagonpreparesitsownversionofthisannualreport,reversingthe prioritiesofmilitaryandeconomicassistancedatainitsstatebystatetables.Apparentlythebasicsfortheannual reportarecustomarilyworkedoutfirstinthePentagonwithteamsfromtheStateDepartment,althoughwhich versionisbasedontheotherisnotavailableinprintinthepublicdomain.ForthePentagonsversionsee CongressionalPresentationforSecurityAssistancePrograms,FiscalYear...[Especiallyfor19881991].Jointly PreparedbyTheDepartmentofStateandtheDefenseSecurityAssistanceAgency.ThisPentagonversionhas acknowledgedaCostaRicanprohibitionofaprofessionalarmywhileclaiminganeedtorepelhostileactionfrom PanamaandNicaragua.Inaddition,AIDmustalsofileafullreportofitsjustificationforsuchallocations world rankings,statebystaterankings,andregionalrankingsforAfricaforEurope,Asia,and[the]NearEastandfor LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean inanannualreportbythedirectorofAID(attheStateDepartment)toboththe HouseForeignAffairsCommitteeandSenateForeignRelationscommitteechairpersons.Thisreport,calledthe ImplementationofSection620(s)oftheForeignAssistanceActof1961,asAmended,hasfocuseduponsuchdataas thepercentageofthegrossnationalproductspentonmilitarization,thepercentageofthecentralgovernmental expendituresspentonmilitarization,andthepercentageofmilitarilyrelatedimportstototalimports.Itisnot knownifthePentagonhasasimilarchecklistforcovertandovertexpenditures.Suchreportsseldomreport allocationstoanystatesuchasChileorNicaraguawhileactivelyledbywhatmightbecalledanantidependency approach.TheauthorisgratefultoanonymouspeopleintheStateDepartmentandtheCenterforDefense InformationinWashington,D.C.,forprovidingaccesstotheabovedocuments. 871 Forfurtherofficialdiscussionsonsuchdata,seeHouse,CommitteeonForeignAffairs, ReportoftheTaskForce onForeignAssistance,101stCong.1stsess.,Doc.10132(Washington,D.C.:GPO,1989)andforanofficial bibliographyonsuch data,seeHouse,CommitteeonForeignAffairs, BackgroundMaterialsonForeignAssistance,101stCong.,1stsess, CommitteePrint(Washington,D.C.:GPO,1989). 872 BushsTriptoCostaRicaDrawingFireFromLefttoRightasPoorDiplomacy,WSJ,27Oct.1989,B6B.

212

militaryallocationsaretargetedagainstarmedoppositiontohegemonicinfluence,whetherthis oppositionisarmedbyanotherhegemonicstate,suchastheSovietUnion,orbyotherstates capableofsuchaid.Therepresentativesoftheworldorderapproachregardtheantidependency approachasrepresentingathreatfromanotherhegemonicstate,andthenonviolentapproachas

873 anirrationalapproachtosolvingarmedthreatsfromanotherhegemonicstate. Pleasenotethat

thenumbersinthelefthandcolumnofTable3andTable4maynotadduptototalthoseinthe lefthandcolumninTable5.Thesenumbersshouldaddup,butdonotnecessarilydosobecause oftheinconsistentwaythatthenumbers,fromwhichthepercentagesaretaken,arereportedasa percentageoftotaleconomicandmilitaryloansandgrants. Table3 MilitaryandDevelopmentAidtoCostaRica(19461988)

MilitaryAssistanceAid (inpercent) 19461961 19621981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 0 3 4 2 5 5 2 1 0 0

AllAIDAid (inmillions)

AllOtherAid (inmillions)

58NotReported 237NotReported 123 26 219 33 179 39 231 49 165 31 183 45 121NotYetReported 122 NotYetReported

Sources:Forthelefthandandmiddlecolumns(19461985),seeU.S.OverseasLoans andGrantsandAssistancefromInternationalOrganizations(Washington,D.C.:U.S. AID,BureauforProgramandPolicyCoordination,OfficeofPlanningandBudgeting,

873 ThemainoppositiononCapitolHilltosuchmilitarilydominatedallocationsandexpenditures,bylobbyistsfrom

churches,tradeunions,andvariouscommunitybasedorganizations,hasbeencoordinatedbysuchorganizationsas theInterreligiousTaskforceonU.S.FoodPolicy.Thistaskforcecriticizedtheconcentrationofmilitarizationin theisthmusandtheMiddleEast,bywayofmilitaryassistanceandeconomicsupportfunds aimedduringthe 1970sand1980satEgypt,Laos,Turkey,(South)Vietnam,andIsraelforabout70%ofsuchfunds.SeeSecurity AssistanceandthePoor:TheRecastingoftheUSForeignAidProgram, Hunger(UnitedMethodistIMPACT Program,No.32),March1983orU.S.ForeignAid:RivalVisionsof`Security,Prepare(Impact),Dec.1988.

213

1985),45.For19861989,seeIbid.(1989),45.But1982officialAIDreportdata differssignificantlyfromoutsidesourceswhichareusedforthisyearinsteadsee Invasion,AGuidetoU.S.MilitaryPresenceinCentralAmerica(Philadelphia: NARMIC/AFSC,1985),4.Fortherighthandcolumnonallotheraidi.e.,total OverseasDevelopmentAssistance(ODA)disbursedfromallsourcesseeWorld DevelopmentReport1989(Washington,D.C.:WorldBank/OxfordUniversityPress, June1989),Table20,203.OtherthanAIDaidinpercentoftotalaid:1982(33%), 1983(13%),1984(19%),1985(18%),1987(16%),and1988(20%). Table4onmilitaryanddevelopmentaidrepresentstheofficialUnitedStatesaidintended tosupportmilitaryassistancewithouttechnicallyfunctioningasmilitaryequipment.Thisaid maybeusedtacticallyinamilitarycapacityorstrategy.Sucheconomicsupportfundsare considerablymoreexpensivethantheofficialmilitarysupport,butstilllesscostlythanthetotal fundsallocated.Thesenumbersfrequentlyrepresentviolentmeansusedforviolentendsto ensurehegemonicpowerinwhatisconsideredaconflictzoneorsphereofinfluencethe
874 UnitedStatesbeingthehegemonicstateinthiscontext.

Antidependencycriticsfrequentlycriticizeeconomicsupportfundsbecauseoftheway inwhichsuchfundsmayfunctionrepressively.Officialmilitaryanddevelopmentorganizations mayalsousesuchfundstohidethefullextentofmilitaryinterventionfrompublicscrutiny. Thesemilitarilyorientedallocationsarefrequentlytargetedagainstarmedoppositionto hegemonicinfluence,whetherthisoppositionisarmedbyanotherhegemonicstateorbyother statescapableofsuchaid.Criticsofsuchsupportfundsmaynotopposetherelativelysmall allocationsrepresentedbymeremilitaryaid(Table3),andoftenfailaswelltocriticizeother armssuppliers,whetherhegemonicornot.Representativesoftheantidependencyapproach oftenregardtheworldorderapproachasunnecessarilyharsh,legalistic,orrepressiveandthe nonviolentapproachastooslowornaive.Aninterestingexampleofsuchanagendawas

874 Foroneofthemostextensiveanalysesofsuchhegemonyanddependencyinanisthmiancontext,seeTomBarry

andDebPreusch, TheSoftWar,TheUsesandAbusesofU.S.EconomicAidinCentralAmerica (NewYork:Grove Press,1988),443and84103.TheauthorshighlightthecomplementarityofAIDandPentagonfunding (p.23)and theconvergenceofthesetwofundingsourcesinwhatthePentagonandStateDepartmentcalledlowintensity conflict imitatingcounterinsurgencystrategiesusedpreviouslyinSoutheastAsia particularlyin Guatemala,Nicaragua,andEl Salvador(pp.8590)underOliverNorthandJohnSinglaub.Foranexampleofwhat suchanantidependencyapproachmightcalldestabilization,concerningincreasedarmslogistics,capitalflight, paramilitarydisruption,hoardingofgoods,anddisinformationtodiscourageincomingtourists,seeMichael Kaufman, JamaicaUnderManley,DilemmasofSocialismandDemocracy (London:ZedandLawrenceHill,1985), 118122,18793,and200201.

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875 providedinCongressionalHearingsbyStephenHellinger. Forsuchanantidependency

influencedviewofaidtoCostaRica,seeTable4below: Table4 SecurityandDevelopmentAidtoCostaRica(19461988)

EconomicSupportFundsSecurity Aid(inpercent) 19461961 19621981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 0 3 37 72 73 73 76 78 75 77

AllAIDAid (inmillions)

AllOtherAid (inmillions)

58NotReported 237NotReported 123 26 219 33 179 39 231 49 165 31 183 45 121NotYetReported 122 NotYetReported

Sources:Forthelefthandandmiddlecolumns(19461985),seeU.S.OverseasLoans andGrantsandAssistancefromInternationalOrganizations(Washington,D.C.:U.S. AID,BureauforProgramandPolicyCoordination,OfficeofPlanningandBudgeting, 1985),45.For19861989,seeIbid.(1989),45.But1982officialAIDreportdata differssignificantlyfromoutsidesourceswhichareusedforthisyearinsteadsee Invasion,AGuidetoU.S.MilitaryPresenceinCentralAmerica(Philadelphia: NARMIC/AFSC,1985),4.Fortherighthandcolumnonallotheraidi.e.,total OverseasDevelopmentAssistance(ODA)disbursedfromallsourcesseeWorld DevelopmentReport1989(Washington,D.C.:WorldBankOxfordUniversityPress, June1989),Table20,203.OtherthanAIDaidinpercentoftotalaid:1982(33%), 1983(13%),1984(19%),1985(18%),1987(16%),and1988(20%). Thethirdtable,Table5,onmilitaryanddevelopmentaid,representsthetotalofficial UnitedStatesaidtoCostaRica.Thesenumbersgivethetotalsforviolentandpossiblynotso violentaiddeliveredtoCostaRica.Thesenumbersalsorepresenttheviolentmeansusedfor
875 Congress,Senate,CommitteeonForeignRelations,StatementofStephenHellinger,Codirector,Development

GroupforAlternativePolicies,Washington,D.C.,ForeignAssistanceAuthorizationsforFiscalYear1990,101st Cong.,1stsess.,28May1989,(S.Hrg.101293),(Washington,D.C.:GPO,1989),96141.Hellingerco sponsoredabillfortheDevelopmentCooperationActof1990,advocatingashiftindevelopmentprioritiestoward meetinghumanneedsandrightsandawayfromthejuxtapositionofmilitaryandsecuritysupport.SeealsoSteve

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violentendstoensurehegemonicpowerinwhatisconsideredaconflictzoneorsphereof influencetheUnitedStatesbeingthehegemonicstateinthiscontext. Nonviolentcriticsofmilitaryinterventionmaytendtoclumpthefirsttwocategoriesof militaryandsecurityaidtogetherbecauseneithercanclearlybedistinguishedfromtheother boththemeansandtheendsforthesecategoriesbeingviolentratherthannonviolentasawhole. Suchnonviolenceopposestheuseofviolentmeanstoachievewhatareallegedtobepeaceful endsasviolencewieldedbyahegemonicstate,aparallelnationalsecurityapparatus,oran undergroundguerrillacadrenetwork.Therepresentativesofthenonviolentapproachregard theworldorderapproachasmereviolenceratherthanchange,andtheantidependencyapproach asstillleadingeconomicallytoanarmsdependencyrelationship. Table5 Military,Security,andDevelopmentAidtoCostaRica(19461988) SecurityandMilitary Aid(inpercent) 19461961 19621981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 2 3 75 74 78 78 78 79 75 77 AllAIDAid (inmillions) AllOtherAid (inmillions)

58NotReported 237NotReported 123 26 219 33 179 39 231 49 165 31 183 45 121NotYetReported 122 NotYetReported

Sources:Forthelefthandandmiddlecolumns(19461985),seeU.S.OverseasLoans andGrantsandAssistancefromInternationalOrganizations(Washington,D.C.: U.S. AID,BureauforProgramandPolicyCoordination,OfficeofPlanningandBudgeting, 1985),45.For19861989,seeIbid.(1989),45.But1982officialAIDreportdatadiffers significantlyfromoutsidesourceswhichareusedforthisyearinsteadseeInvasion, AGuidetoU.S.MilitaryPresenceinCentralAmerica(Philadelphia:NARMIC/AFSC, 1985),4.Fortherighthandcolumnonallotheraidi.e.,totalOverseasDevelopment Assistance(ODA)disbursedfromallsourcesseeWorldDevelopmentReport1989 (Washington,D.C.:WorldBank/OxfordUniversityPress,June1989),Table20,203.
Hellinger,etal., AidforJustDevelopment:ReportontheFutureofForeignAssistance (Boulder:L.Rienner,1988), 2728,4954,164,and178.

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OtherthanAIDaidinpercentoftotalaid:1982(33%),1983(13%),1984(19%),1985 (18%),1987(16%),and1988(20%). From1980to1988,duetothedeterioratingeconomicconditionsinCostaRicaas associatedwithits(re)militarizationaccordingtosuchorganizationsastheUnitedNations wageandproductionlevelsinCostaRicadroppedseverely.Forinstance,from1980to1982,as inflationpushedbythedeterioratingeconomicconditionsinCostaRicaassociatedwithits(re) militarizationroseeightypercent,CostaRicanindustrialandagriculturalproductionfellten

876 percentandaveragewagelevelsdroppedthirtysixpercent(inrealvalue,1980=constant).

Inthenextfiveyears,from1983tomid1988,realwageswouldfallanotherfortytwopercent (inrealvalue,1983=constant),asCostaRica,astateformerlyselfsufficientinfoodcrops, hadtoimportfoodandfeltcompelledtohidetheexactlevelofitsinternationaldebtasastate

877 secret. By1985,itsdebthadrisentoseventyfivepercentoftheincomefromitsnational 878 879 exports, representingatotalestimatedfrom$4.5to$6billion.

With140,000peopleunemployedandatotal fiscaldeficitof$16billion,conditionsin CostaRicabegantoresemblethedebtdependencyrelationshipofoneothermajorUnitedStates

880 clientstate:Israel. NicaraguatriedtoadviseCostaRicatofightforpoliticalindependence 881 fromtheUnitedStates. Instead,inexchangeforapromisetoreduceitsdebt,CostaRica

876 UNDP,FourthCountryProgrammeforCostaRica

(CountryandIntercountryProgrammesandProjects),34th Sess.(26May 19June1987),NewYorkCity,Item5(6),(DP/CP/COS/4),(24March1987),2. 877 ThetermsofU.S.aidtoCostaRicamadeCostaRicadependentontheU.S.foreconomicsurvival,butU.S. objectives,asnotedinchapters56,wereremilitarizationofCostaRicaandbuildingaContrainfrastructure not CostaRicanpeace,security,anddevelopment.SeeNoamChomsky,NecessaryIllusions,26869and398n12. 878 HoracioCastellanosMoya,EntreProtestasdeNeutralidad,AriasSnchezenlaLneadeReagan,Reproduced fromProceso,MexicoCity,1986,inCostaRica:EntrelasTenazasdelFMI,LaAIDyelPentgano, LaParcial (HamburgGreens)7(June1986):3536.SeealsoAlvaroUmana,CostaRicaSwapsDebtforTrees, WSJ,6 March1987,31. 879 RichardWalton,CostaRica:BackFrom theBrink? Nation,20Dec.1986,698.U.S.AIDwithheldaquarterof the1986U.S.aiduntilCostaRicaagreedtodenationalizeitsprivatesectorinawayfavoringthecontras. 880 JosMauelFortuny,CostaRica,LaAcadiaPerdida,UnoMasUno,9Dec.1982,15,inCSPPCR,13.For Israelidebt,at77%ofitsGNP,with42%ofitsexportsgoingtotheUSAand26%ofitsimportscomingfromthe U.S.seeU.S.AID, CongressionalPresentation,FY1989,AnnexII, AsiaandNearEast (Washington,D.C.:GPO, 1988),180.ForIsraels$25billiondebt,seeInBrief,PalestinePerspectives,MarchApril1987,5.Compare alsowithSaigon,whichdependedontheU.S.for80%ofitsbudgetseeEarlMartin, ReachingtheOtherSide,The JournalofAnAmericanWhoStayedtoWitnessVietnamsPostwarTransition(NewYork:CrownPublishers, 1978),271.Inotherwords,lowintensitydisinformation,covertaction,andthebusinessofarmsanddrugs replacedsaturationbombing,andoffsetthedemonstrationeffectofsustainablemodelsforselfreliantdevelopment inCostaRicaandNicaragua. 881 CostaRica:BetweenDignityandSubmission, Envo (Managua)7(April1988):59.Seealso:CODELIDE ApoyalasLuchasCampesinasCostarricenses,UnoMasUno(6June1984),15.AbouttwothirdsofCostaRicas importandexportdealingswerewiththeU.S.,withaboutaquarterofCostaRicasGNPandlaborforceoccupied

217

chosetosurrenderpartofitsterritorialsovereigntytoUnitedStatesconservationorganizations
882 underadebtfornatureswap.

Ofallthestatesintheisthmus,CostaRicaandNicaraguahavehadthemosttrouble payingtheirinternationaldebtdueatleastingreatpart,accordingtoUnitedNationsreports, totheisthmianwarconcentratedinthesetwocountries.Toresolvethisproblem,theUnited Nationsadvancedseveralrecommendations,alldependentinonedegreeoranotheruponthe cessationofhostilities,forexample,renegotiabledebtfinancing,highertariffsthrough somethinglikeanotherCentralAmericanCommonMarket,andcessationbytheUnitedStatesof

883 itsembargoonNicaragua. However,theserecommendationsdidnotaddressthebiaseddebt

servicingratioenduredbyCostaRica,whichwasaboutdoublethatofHonduras,Guatemala,
884 andElSalvador. Giventheongoingchronologyofevents,regardingtheroleoftheContra

warandtheUnitedStateschangeinitsdebtnegotiationpolicyafterthepeaceoverturesof OscarArias(mentionedespeciallyinChapterSix),CostaRicaspropeacepositionappearedto havebeenaverycostlypositionattheinternationaldebtnegotiationtable. Paralleldebtservicingrecommendationsfromnongovernmentalorganizationsandthe nonalignedmovementstressedtheneedtoreversetheunfairtermsofdebtservicingandtheneed forspecialdrawingrights,andrecommendedtheformation ofadebtorscarteltoboycottthe

885 debt. TheUnitedNationsUniversity,sensitivetotheeconomicvulnerabilityoftheisthmus,

advancedrecommendationstorescheduleorcanceltheinternationaldebtbecauseoftheThird

inagriculturalproductionseeU.S.AID,CostaRica EconomicIndicators, CongressionalPresentation,FY 1989,AnnexII, LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean (Washington,D.C.:GPO,1988),6263. 882 DebtforNatureSwaps,BackgroundMimeo,NatureConservancy,Washington,D.C.,(April1988),1.The U.S.FleetNationalBankinRhodeIslandforgave$254,000indebtthroughsuchaswap.SeealsoJudHarwood, NatureSwaps, TaxInternational,15Feb.1988,7andTreasuryAgreestoConstrueRevenueRulingonDebt forNatureSwapsLiberally,TaxNotes 18April1988,307308.Formoreonsuchdebtswapping,seethe testimonyofSheldonAnnis(OverseasDevelopmentCouncil),inCongress,Senate,SubcommitteeonInternational EconomicPolicy,Trade,OceansandEnvironment,CommitteeonForeignRelations,U.S.DevelopmentAssistance andEnvironmentallySustainableDevelopment,100thCong.2dsess.,S.Hrg.,10097,1988,5659and35874. 883 U.N.,ECOSOC, Centroamrica:BasesdeUnaPolticadeReactivacinyDesarrollo (LC/Mex/G.1/Rev.1),(20 May1985),31and65.SeealsoU.N.,ECOSOC, Centroamrica:ElFinanciamientoExternoenlaEvolucin Econmica,19501983 (LC/Mex/L.2),(4March1985). 884 Centroamrica:CrisisyPolticasdeAjuste,19791986(CEPAL/UN,LC/Mex/L.81),(15July1988),62and 66.Thedebtservicingpercentageswere:CostaRica,91%,Honduras,Guatemala, andElSalvador,between36 47%,andNicaragua,5%.Seealsofootnote53. 885 DebtCrisisNetwork,FromDebt,3555.SeealsoFidelCastro,HowLatinAmericasandtheThirdWorlds UnpayableDebtCanandShouldBeCanceledandthePressingNeedfortheNIEO (Havana:EditoraPoltica, 1985),34.

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886 Worldsinabilitytopay. Nevertheless,accordingtoabusinessprofessoroftheUniversityof

CaliforniaatBerkeley,theUnitedStatescriteriafordebtnegotiations(forsuchstatesasCosta Rica)continuedtomandateprofitmanagement,technicalassistancethroughprivatization,and increasedmilitarizationtocooptelectoralorextraparliamentaryoppositiontoprivatizationby bothneutralityandnationalism.ThebottomlineappearstobesimplythatCostaRicamaybe

887 caughtinadebtsqueezethatitcannotescape.

AnalogousCostaRicanandCubanOutcomes Afterthedramatic,relativelynonviolentchangesofworldcommunismin19891990,in theSovietUnion,EasternEurope,andtheAmericas,itmaybehighlyrelevanttocomparethe nonviolenceofCostaRicasapproachwith Cubasantidependencyapproach.Becauseofthese changesandthedissolutionofwhatusedtobetheSovieteconomythatundergirdedit,Cuba maywellbetheprimarytargetintheAmericasforviolentcovertactionbytheUnitedStatesin thefuture.ButviolentcovertactionmayormaynotworkinCuba.Itdidnotworkwellin CostaRica,which,upuntilthe1980s,atleast,hasservedasanAmericanneutralgroundfor mediatingconflictbetweenCubaandtheUnitedStates. Since1959and1948,respectively,CubaandCostaRicahavetriedtofollowwhatcanbe calledanantidependencyandanonviolentapproach,respectively.AlthoughCostaRicahas triedtoholdontoitsneutrality,itreceivedaboutasmuchaidpercapitaattheheightofthe ContrawarfromtheUnitedStatesasCubahadreceivedpercapitafromtheSovietUnion
888 neithernationlaggingfarbehindthepercapitaaidgivenIsraelbytheUnitedStates. Both

CubaandCostaRicahavebeenabletousesuchaidinsomeconstructivewaysforexample,

886 WIDERNews,GovernanceoftheWorldEconomy,UNUUpdate

44(May1986):45.SeealsoLal Jayawardena,AWIDERView..., UNUWorkinProgress 9(July1985):6. 887 PeterJones[DirectoroftheBusinessConsortium attheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley],TheRoleof ForeignDirectInvestmentintheDebtCrisisoftheDevelopingNationsandItsRelationtoUnitedStatesGrowth, U.S.,Senate,CommitteeofForeignRelations,SubcommitteeonInternationalEconomic Policy,Oceansand EnvironmentHearings, UnitedStatesEconomicGrowthandTheThirdWorldDebt,99thCongress,1stsess.(910 Oct1985,SanFrancisco),1986,S.Hrg.99455. 888 TinaRosenberg,MiamiSouth, NRC(14April1986),inDCF(1986):4.Rosenbergalsonotesthatthedrug trafficker,RafaelCaro,accusedofkillingaDEAagent,EnriqueCamerena,hidinCostaRicawithakidnapped17 yearoldMexicangirl,SarahCosio,beforebeingdeportedbacktoMexico.

219

researchershavenotedthatCubaandCostaRicasharetheleadintheAmericasforthehighest
889 percentageofwomeninpoliticallysignificantemployment.

Aswillbediscussedbelow,CubaandCostaRicahavetriedtominimizethenumberof poorpeopleintheirsocieties.Itmightbeprofitabletocomparetheresultsoftheirattemptsto preventandtoresolveconflictbyimprovingaccesstothehumannecessitiesofhousing,health

890 care,education,andemployment. Bothstateshavetriedtoemployrelativelylessviolent

conflictresolutionthanthatfavoredbytheUnitedStates.Atthesametime,asmeasuredbya serialviolenceindicator(ChapterFive),bothstateshaveexperiencedaboutthesamelevelsof wardeathsunderonepercent,despitewarinAngola.Bothstatesalsohavedangerousforeign debts. Historically,CubaandCostaRicahavesimilarethnicroots,bothboundtoanarchistand socialistCatalua,aprovinceinnortheastSpain.Asfarbackasthe1800s,leadersofCubaand CostaRicahavedescendedfromCatalanimmigrants.Uptothepresent,CubaandCostaRica havealsodependedtoagreatdegreeoncooperativeorganizationsliketheenterprising cooperativesandtradeunionsstillfunctioningintheSpanishprovincesof Aragon,Catalua,and
891 Valencia,aswellasamongtheBasquepeople. BothcountriesalsohavesizeableAfroLatin

populations,throughoutCubaandontheeastcoastofCostaRica.BothCubaandCostaRica havetriedtomeethumanneedsdespiteexternallyintroducedwarsorfrequentviolent

889 JoAnnFagotAviel,PoliticalParticipationofWomeninLatinAmerica,WesternPoliticalQuarterly

34(March 1981):158,16768,and17172.Intheearly1980s,CostaRicanwomenconstitutedonefourthofthepresidential cabinetleadershipandhelpedtoleadthenationallegislature.CubaswomeninleadershipincludedCeliaSnchez Manduley,statecouncilsecretaryfrom1959untilherdeathinJan.1980.TheauthorisgratefultoAvielfor correspondenceonthispoint(Feb.1990). 890 KarlWagenheim(ed.of CaribbeanUpdate),LettertotheEditor, NYT,10Feb.1990,A34.Wagenheimpoints outthatCubacannotbeeasilycomparedwiththeEasternEuropeannationssurroundedbytherelativeaffluenceof WesternEurope.TheeconomicconditionsinCubaaremorelikethoseofIsraelorNewZealand atleastas measuredbyonefrequentlyusedeconomicdevelopmentindicator,theinfantmortalityrate.Inthesethree countries,itstandsatabout11per1,000livebirths.ComparewithCubasneighboringstatesofGuatemala, Honduras,ElSalvadorandtheDominicanRepublic(6070/1,000),andHaiti(118/1,000).Theauthorisalso gratefultoWilliamLeoGrande,professorofgovernment,TheAmericanUniversity,forcorrespondencein comparingCubaandCostaRica(7March1990). 891 SheldonLiss, RootsofRevolution,RadicalThoughtinCuba (Lincoln,NB:UniversityofNebraska,1987),623. ForintellectualBasque,Galician,Catalan,andValencianrootsofCostaRicarefertochapterone.Thislessviolent preferencewasdemonstratedfrequentlyinthe1930s,whenCubaandCostaRicabothstruggledforchangesee PatriciaParkman,InsurrectionWithout,5,811,1314,1820,3031,3638,153,and195.InCuba,thiscultural traditionisreferredtoasGallego atermfornorthernSpaniards(from,e.g.,Galicia) assymbolizedbyamajor artisanandculturalcenterintheoldpartofHavanaknownastheGallegoTheater.Thistheaterhousedthe formationofartisantradeunions.ForfurtherdiscussionofsuchCatalanprioritiesinmeetinghumanneeds,seealso GeorgeOrwell,HomagetoCatalonia (NewYork:Harcourt,Brace,1952),47and4757.

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intervention throughorganizingforsocialgoals,suchasprimaryhealthcare,insteadof
892 amassingnuclearweaponsfordefense.

AnalogousConflictResolutionOutcomes LatetwentiethcenturypatternsforresolvingconflictintheWesternCaribbean, characterizedbytheOrganizationofAmericanStatesaversiontodisagreementwiththeUnited

893 Allthistime,asnoted States,werefrequentlyinitiatedbymeetingsconvenedinCostaRica.

alreadyinChapterOne,theUnitedStatesbasednucleararmedforcesinCubaandPuertoRico,
894 whilesendingsuchforcesthroughthePanamaCanal. ThroughoutAugust1960,forexample,

inordertoresolveaCubaUnitedStatescrisisthatwoulddevelopintothe1962worldmissile crisis,LatinAmericanforeignministersmetnumeroustimesinSanJostodiscussthe implicationsoftheircommonsovereigntywithoutdirectmentionofCuba.InOctober1960, despitethesepeacenegotiationsinCostaRica,theUnitedStatesresolvedtheconflictby violentlyblockadingCuba.InJanuary1961,theUnitedStatesbrokediplomaticrelationswith

895 Cuba, andthendiplomaticallymuzzledoppositiontomilitaryattacksagainstCuba,connected

892 WhatevermissilesCubamayhavehadupuntilthe1962CubanSovietU.S.MissileCrisisweretakenoutof

CubainexchangeforatacitU.S.agreementnottoinvadeCuba.Whatkindof(orif)nucleararmedmissileswere actuallystationedinCubamaystillbeunderfiercedebate,asmoreinformationaboutthateventbecomespublic. Forthisfiercedebate,e.g.,betweenRaymondGarthoff,RobertMcNamara,andSergoMikoyan,ontheliteral absenceorpresenceofwarheads,seeJamesBlightandDavidWelch[InternationalAffairsprofessorsatHarvard University],eds., OntheBrink,AmericansandSovietsReexaminetheCubanMissileCrisis(NewYork:Hill& Wang,1989),45,9091,113,12629,and27476.Atthetime,theSovietspossessedonlyeither4or6landbased, nucleararmedICBMs notthekindofscarceweaponlikelytobestationedthatfarawayinCuba.SeeSeymour Melman,TheDemilitarizedSociety,DisarmamentandConversion (Montreal:HarvestHouse,1988/1990),102103 and118120.ForcomparisonsofhealthinCubaandCostaRica,seePriscillaRivas,PrimaryHealthCareand PlanninginCubaandCostaRica(Ph.D.diss.,CornellUniversity,1988).Notwithstanding,ofcourse,Cubahas alsofoughtlongandcostlywarsinAngolaandEthiopia. 893 AidaLuisaLevin, TheOrganizationofAmericanStatesandtheUnitedNations:RelationsinthePeaceand SecurityField (NewYork:UNITAR,1974),2326,3639,4462,and7073. 894 DanielWood,ArmedForcesinCentralandSouthAmerica (London:InstituteforStrategicStudies,No.34, 1967),7.GuantnamoBayinCubahasoperatedastheU.S.Gibraltar withabayof14squaremiles,little troublesomerainyweatherorshipcongestion,andaprecipitousdropto900ft.directlyoutsidetheharbor accordingtoMartinScheina(MA,InternationalAffairs,TheAmericanUniversity),TheU.S.Presencein Guantanamo, StrategicReview 4(Spring1976):8586.CalledGitmobyits6,000personnel,thesprawlingbase withitstwoairfieldsislocatedon19,625acresofland(735acresofwhicharemined),andhasfunctionedasa trainingbasefortheentireAtlanticfleet.Annualrent:about$4,100peryear.SeeTheodoreMason, Acrossthe CactusCurtain,TheStoryofGuantanamoBay(NewYork:Dodd,Mead,1984),1112,3637,and49).Meanwhile, usingU.N.Res.2105(20Dec.1965)andU.N.Res.2344(19Dec.1967),theU.N.GeneralAssemblyhascontinued tochallengethe U.S.legalrighttooccupythisbase,accordingtoGilbertoTosteBallart, Guantnamo:U.S.A.al Desnudo (Havana:EditorialdeCienciasSociales,1983),89. 895 AidaLuisaLevin,RegionalismandtheUnitedNationsinAmericanForeignPolicy:ThePeacekeeping ExperienceoftheOrganizationofAmericanStates(Ph.D.diss.,ColumbiaUniversity,1971),110115.

221

tothepre1959Cubanarmsanddrugbusiness.ThesemilitaryattacksagainstCuba,beforeit becamecommunist,werelaunchedfromNicaragua,Venezuela,CostaRica,andtheDominican
896 Republic.

Despiteapreferenceforanonviolentapproach,CostaRicanreactionstowardsuch conflictintheWesternCaribbean haveconsequentlyreflectedboththeinfluenceoftheCuban antidependencyapproachandtheimpositionoftheUnitedStatesworldorderapproach.In 1981,forexample,temporarilyadoptingaworldorderapproach,CostaRicabrokeformal consularrelationswithCubaunderpressurefromtheUnitedStates,followinga1976convention

897 ofexCubanconservativesinCostaRicatohonorManuelArtime. Ontheotherhand,in1982

and1983,despitepossiblebacklashfromtheUnitedStates,CostaRicaemployeditstraditionsof unarmeddiplomacytoforwardtwoCubanpeaceproposalsfornormalizingdiplomaticrelations withtheUnitedStatestoWashington,D.C.BothoftheCubanproposalswererelayedbyCosta RicaduringsevereContrahostilities,andbothproposalswerethensummarilyrefusedbythe

898 UnitedStates.

TheremilitarizationofCostaRicainthe1980s,aspreviouslynotedinChapterTwo (regardingeconomicissues)orChapterSix(regardingmilitaryissues),promotedviolenceand underdevelopmentlikethatwhichexistedinpre1959Cuba.ThiskindofmilitarizationofCuba (before1959),andCostaRica(inthe1980s)wasspearheadedbytheAirAmericaCorporationof theCentralIntelligenceAgency.AccordingtoPeterDaleScott,AirAmericaenteredthearms anddrugbusinessduringthe1930sinAsiaunderthecorporateleadershipofWilliamPawley chiefexecutiveofthePanAmtransnationalcorporation bypromotingChinese,Laotian,and

896 A.Bocourt,

CIAObjective:ToDestroytheCubanandLatinAmericanRevolutions (NewDelhi:NewAge PrintingPress,1967[?]),59.Forongoingattempts tokillFidelCastro,aslateasOct.1972 justbeforethe MissileCrisis seeSamuelFromtz,OpenSecrets,WhattheGovernmentSeekstoConcealtheNationalSecurity ArchiveWorksHardtoPutontheRecord, Columbia[University]JournalismReview (MarchApril):34.Seealso JamesHershberg,WastheKennedyAdministrationMovingTowardaMilitaryAttackonCubaintheFallof1962 BeforeItDiscoveredSovietStrategicMissilesontheIsland?DiplomaticHistory 14(Spring1990):16398. 897 GrinevichandGvozdariov,WashingtonContra,47,22930and250.TheFreeCostaRicanetworkwasformed atthesametimeintheearly1960s. 898 MorrisMorley,ImperialState,333.CostaRicanswhowelcomedU.S.remilitarizationinterpretedNicaragua throughU.S.viewpointsonCubaseeRodrigoJauberthRojas,CostaRica:LaVulneribilidaddeSuSoberna, El DaInternacional,5 Feb.1985,16.Atthesametime,the$10billioninwardamageinflictedonNicaraguaandCostaRicabytheUnited StatesimpededdialoguefornonviolentisthmianconflictresolutionseeLarryBoyd,NewNicaraguaLivesA Decade,Guardian(NewYork),(NicaraguaAnniversarySupplement),July1989,14.

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899 VietnamesearmsanddrugbusinessleaderssuchasChiangKaiChek. ButPawleyfailedto 900 keepleaderslikeFulgencioBatistainline, thusforcingBatistaandMeyerLanskytofleea

pre1959Cubawhereoneandahalfpercentofthelandownersownedfortysixpercentofthe
901 bestarableland.

After1959,livingconditionsinCubachangedtoresemblethemorehumaneliving conditionsinCostaRicabeforeremilitarization.Atthesametime,urbanrentsdroppedfrom
902 thirtytofiftypercentintheworstoftheslumsorcuarterasindowntownHavana. Toputit

differently,militarization(asdefinedinChapterOne)inCostaRicaafter1984beginto reproduceconditionsofhungerandpovertysimilartothosewhichdroveCubaintoarevolution toevictitsarmsanddrugtraffickers. LivingConditionsandPossibilities In responsetosuchchangesafter1959,urgingcounterinsurgency,DwightEisenhower putanembargooncashcropimportsfromCuba.RonaldReaganandGeorgeBushwoulddothe sameovertwodecadeslatertobothNicaraguaandCostaRica,curbingorhaltingimportsovera differenceofopinionabouthowtoresolveconflict.StillthedeathtollinrevolutionaryCuba

903 rosenohigherthanthetollofthe1948CostaRicanRevolution.

Forobviousreasons,thepeopleofbothCubaandCostaRicapreferredhavingtheirneeds
904 mettobeingprotectedfromCommunismbytheUnitedStates. Forexample,the

malnutritionthathadaffectedathirdoftheurbanandtwothirdsoftheruralCubanpopulation
899 PeterDaleScott,AirAmerica:FlyingtheUnitedStatesIntoLaos,

Ramparts,Feb.1970,39.Seealsothework ofAlfredMcCoy. 900 E.GrinevichandB.Gvozdariov,WashingtonContra,5860. 901 RalRoaKouri,UnAodelaRevolucinCubana,CAS 3(MayJune1960):45and47.Thosepre1959land ownershipfiguresresembledCostaRicanprecarista landownershippatternsafterthe1980s. 902 JillHamberg,HousingPolicyinRevolutionaryCuba(NewYork:CenterforCubanStudies,1986),3and9. 903 WilliamApplemanWilliams, TheUnitedStates,Cuba,andCastro(NewYork:MonthlyReviewPress,1962), 14344.TocomparewithserialviolenceinVietnam,seeGrardChaliand, RevolutionintheThirdWorld,trans.by DianaGoldstoneandforewordbyImmanuelWallerstein(NewYork:Penguin,1981),41,6465,9697,and13435. SeealsoAppendixB.EisenhowerusedLincolnGordontosuppressthefirstcontinentalcongressinsolidaritywith Cuba,heldinBrazilseeScottNearing, CubaandLatinAmerica (NewYork:NewCentury,1963),6,1011,2122, 2728,and95.About90%ofthecongressionaldelegatescame fromBrazilandArgentina. 904 LatinAmericansexpressedthispreferenceatthePuntedelEste,Uruguay(1961)ConferenceseeJohnGerassi, TheGreatFearinLatinAmerica(NewYork:CollierBooks,1965),25161and412444orEduardoGaleano,The AllianceforProgress, MRW 15(Nov.1963):36566.ForCubanopinions,seeRalRoa[Ada]Kouri, Cubaenla ONU[U.N.](Havana:ImprentaNacionaldeCuba,1961),3134and70.Itwasbecausetheyvaluedprogramsto meethumanneedsthatCubansalsosupportedbothPatriceLumumbaandU.N.peacekeepingintheCongo.

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905 declinedtostatisticalinsignificanceby1982. Bythemid1980s,literacyandadequate 906 housingwereallegedtobealmostuniversalinCuba, anditsunemploymentrateapparently

droppedtotwopercentinapopulationcoveredbyasocialandeconomicsecurityplanincluding
907 comprehensivemedicalcoverage. Asaresult,despitewarfareintheWesternCaribbean,

whetherfromanonviolentorantidependencyapproach,statisticsforbothnationslife expectancypercapita(aboutseventyfiveyears)andforliteracypercapita(overninetypercent) closelyrivaledthesamestatisticsintheUnitedStatesatleastaccordingtothefederalreports

908 onworlddevelopmentfromWestGermany.

Furtherresearchintosimilaritiesintheoutcomesofthetwoexperiments,bothcountered byviolencefromtheUnitedStates,mayfurtherclarifyoptionsfornonviolentconflictresolution. Forinstance,thedollarvalueoftheCubandebtisstillmuchhigherthanthatoftheCostaRican debt.In1986,aftertheendoftheCostaRicanContrawar,analystsputtheCubandebtatalmost $15billion:$4.7billionowedtotheWestand$10billionowedtotheCMEA.However,Cubas percapitadebtstoodat$1,400,underthepercapitadebtsofVenezuelaat$2,000orCostaRica

909 at$1,800. Atthesametime,asanalyzedandevaluatedbya1984RandStudy,UnitedStates

restrictionsontraveltoCubabetween1960and1981costCuba$9billion.Accordingtothat Randstudy,thesetravelrestrictionsdamagedCubaseconomyseverely:muchthesame,it wouldappear,asthearmsanddrugbusinesshaddamagedCostaRicasseverely.Withoutthese

905 JosephCollinsandMedeaBenjamin,CubasFoodDistributionSystem,inSandorHalebskyandJohnKirk,

eds.,Cuba:TwentyFiveYearsofRevolution,19591984 (NewYork:Praeger,1985),63. 906 JosLuisRodrguezandGeorgeCarrazoMoreno,ErradicacindelaPobrezaenCuba(Havana:Ed.deCiencias Sociales,1987),2122and28,110,128,and141.Thenumberreportedformedicaldoctorstripledaswell.See alsoJosL.Luzon,HousinginSocialist Cuba:AnAnalysisUsingCubanCensusesofPopulationandHousing, CubanStudies 18(Pittsburgh:UniversityofPittsburghPress,1988):68orJosLuzon, Economa,Poblacinen Cuba(19001983) (Madrid:InstitutodeCooperacinIberoamricana,1987). 907 ClaesBrundenius,GrowthwithEquity:TheCubanExperience(19591980),WDV 9(1981):108586.See alsotheearly1980sPQLIlevelsforCubainJohnSewell,etal.[OverseasDevelopmentCouncil], U.S.Foreign PolicyandTheThirdWorld:Agenda19851986(NewBrunswick,NJ:TransactionBooks,1985),22024. 908 StatistikdesAuslandes, LnderberichtKuba,1987 (Wiesbaden,WestGermany:FederalStatisticalOffice,1988), 1314.Thenumberofhospitalbedspercapita:CostaRica,300,Cuba,220,andtheU.S.,170butHaiti,1260,and Mexico,1070. 909 AndrewZimbalist,CubasExternalEconomy:ReflectionsonExportDependence,SovietAidandForeign Debt,ComparativeEconomicStudies30(Summer1988):4043.In1982,theU.S.triedtohalttraveltoCuba whenCubaaskedfordebtrescheduling.Therawsugarpricedroppedfrom$0.29(1980)to$0.04(1985).

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910 restrictions,Cubasdebtmightnothavemountedsohigh. Inresponsetothisembargo,Cuba 911 alsobeganbuildinganuclearpowerplant(withthepotentialformakingatomicweapons).

Since1959,becauseofitsviolentresolutionofitspre1959problems,Cubahassuffered thelossoftenpercentofitspeopletoVenezuelaandtheUnitedStatesalosssomewhat analogoustoCostaRicasinthe1850s,Polandsinthe1940s,andLaosandVietnamsinthe 1960sand1970s,asillustratedinchapterfiveontopofanongoingconflictwiththeUnited

912 States. FleeingespeciallytoMiamiandCaracas,refugeesfromCubawhocontinuetoimitate

theexampleofManuelArtimeonlyprolongthepseudoaristocraticnostalgiafortheprofitsof thearmsanddrugbusinessbefore1959.Buttheseprofitswillnotreturnbecauseofaclaimto
913 diplomaticprotectionbasedongeopoliticalanticommunism. Anticommunism,however

910 DonaldHenry,etal.,

AnAnalysisofCubanDebt(SantaMonica,CA:RandR3120USDP,May1984),vand1. TheU.S.hasconstrainedexchangewithCubathroughuseofsectionsofitsTradingwiththeEnemyAct.With tenmillionpeople,CubahasapopulationroughlythreetimeslargerthanCostaRicas.Since1960,theU.S. embargoalsocosttheU.S.between$0.6to$1.2billioneachyearinlostsales.SeeKirbyJonesandDonnaRich, et al.,OpportunitiesforU.S.CubanTrade,AStudybytheCubanStudiesProgramoftheJohnsHopkinsUniversity SchoolofAdvancedInternationalStudies,Mimeo,June1988,12,8,and14. 911 LineamientosEconmicosySocialesParaElQuinquenio(19861990) (Havana:EditoraPoltica,1986),63.Due totheU.S.blockadeofCuba,fuelmakesup40%ofitstotalimportsseeCongress,House,CommitteeonForeign Affairs,SpecialStudyMissiontoJamaica,Cuba,theDominicanRepublic,andtheGuantanamoNavalBase, CarribbeanNations:AssessmentsofConditionsandU.S.Influence (Washington,D.C.:GPO,1979),21.For growingoppositiontoanynuclearnavalforce,especiallyinIceland,Palau,Vanuatu,andtheSolomonIslands,see NuclearFreeSeas (Washington,D.C.:Greenpeace,1989),1415.Thesestates aswellasneutralCostaRica opposeportentrybynucleararmedships,whetherfromFrance,theU.S.,China,England,ortheSovietUnionsee JoshuaHandlerandWilliamArkin, NuclearWarshipsandNavalNuclearWeapons:ACompleteInventory (Washington,D.C.:GreenpeaceandtheInstituteforPolicyStudies,1988). 912 JonBeckwith,CubaReport:ScienceandSocietyAreInseparable, ScienceforthePeople,Sept.Oct.1985,22 23. 913 JohnSpicerNichols,ThePoweroftheAntiFidelLobby, Nation,24Oct.1988,38990.Thisarticleidentifies, forexample,ananticommunistCubanAmericanNationalFoundationbasedonIsraeliPACs(1981),ledbyJorge MasCanosawiththehelpofDanteFascell(thenHouseForeignAffairsCommitteeChairperson),aswellasGeorge Bush,JesseHelms,DanQuayle,LloydBensen,PaulaHawkins,ErnestHollings,ClaudePepper,andRonald Reagan.ButlikeArtimeinthe1960sand1970s,ArnaldoOchoaSnchez(formerlyaCubanmilitarygeneralin Angola)alsoseverelythreatenedCubainthe1980s becauseofthearmsanddrugbusiness.Inotherwords, militaryinterventioninAngolabyCubaatAngolasrequest,similartoU.S.interventioninRussiaandEurope inthe 1940s,resultedinfurtheruseofVaraderoBeachbytraffickerslikeOchoa,reminiscentoftheLanskyandLuciano syndicatecocaineroutes.InsteadofshunningtraffickerslikeNorth,Ochoa,Tambs,Secord,Singlaub,Fernandez, andPoindexter,asdidCostaRica alsosufferingfromunwantedU.S.covertaction theCubangovernment executedOchoaandhisfellowCubantraffickersbyfiringsquad.See Causa1/89,FindelaConexinCubana (Havana:EditorialJosMart,1989),1415and322.Seealso FranciscoLpezSegrera, DeEisenhoweraReagan (Havana:Ed.deCienciasSociales,1987)andFranciscoLpezSegrera, ElConflicto,CubaEstadosUnidosyla CrisisCentroamricana(19591984) (MexicoCity:EditorialNuestroTiempo,1985).LpezSegrera isaprofessor atISRIinHavana.

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carriedon,isstillthreateningstatessuchasCostaRica,destabilizingitsdebtriddeneconomy,
914 andunderminingitspeaceanddemocracy.

Ifviolentmilitarization includingtheoldarmsanddrugbusinessisagainapplied toCubafromtheoutside,asitwastoCostaRica,avictoryovercommunismisnotthemost likelyscenario.Muchmorelikely,ifCanada,Europe,andtheUnitedStatesdonotinterfere directlyorthroughUnitedNationsrelatedpeacekeeping,isadescentintoaconflictthatwill polarizeCubawiththekindofbitterviolencenowparalyzingLebanon.Unless,ofcourse, atomicweaponsaimedattheUnitedStatesbecomepartoftheCubanarsenalinthefuture.The Sovietreactionmaybe,atbest,uncertain,ifnotalsoviolent,towardsuchaconflict.Asafer courseclosetotheunarmeddiplomacyofCostaRicawouldseemthebetterchoiceforpeace, security,anddevelopmentintheWesternCaribbean.Themostnonviolentapproachpossible wouldalsoappear,therefore,theleastlikelytoexacerbatethealreadyhighlevelsoffear,anger, apprehension,andmilitarization representativeoftheantidependencyapproachofCubaand oftheworldorderapproachoftheUnitedStates.

914 ForongoingCubanresearchintomodificationsofnationalsecurity,armsanddrugissues,andinternational

relations,concerning,e.g.,exCubanpeopleconcentratedinFloridaandVenezuela,seeMercedesArceRodrguez, ElCentrodeEstudiosdeAlternativasPoliticas(CEAP)ySusLineasInvestigativas,Mimeo,Universityof Havana,1990.Since22June1989CEAPhaspublishedvariousthings,includingaperiodicalissuedthreetimesa yearfromtheUniversityofHavanaandthroughtheUniversityoftheYucatan,Mxico.

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Chapter9
ResolvingFutureConflict Conclusion Suppositions,NotableTrends,andFutureOptions Thisfinalchapterreconsidersthecentralreasonsforthelessviolentresolutionofconflict andthesalienceofsuchlessviolentattemptsforresolvingconflictintheCostaRican experience.Thefocusforthesereasonsappearstobetheneedforeffectiveinternationalconflict resolutionthatwilldealwithboththeimmediateviolenceofthearmsfordrugsbusinessandthe longtermdamagefrominternationaldebt.Someprogresshasbeenmadeintheunprecedented
915 peacekeepingattemptsbytheONUCA forceoftheUnitedNations,aswellasby

nongovernmentalorganizations.LessprogressseemslikelyfromsuchattemptsastheGeorge Bushplanfordealingwithdruganddebtdamage.Theoutcomesofintenseconflictwillbecome evendeadlierinthefutureif thecurrentmethodsoffightingfire(violence)withmorefire (violence)arenotchangedforlessviolentmethods. Thedissertationconcludeswithadiscussionofwhatmightbestbecalledsurprisesto expectinthefuture.Hopefully,futurewritersmaybeabletoprogressbeyondtheserialviolence indicator asledgehammerlikeindicatorofdeathtollstowardmoreprecise,surgical instruments.TheanomalousstatesofIceland,Barbados,Vanuatu,andCostaRicawiththeir attemptstodealwithoutsideviolenceinnonviolentwaysaswellassuchstatesasCuba, Laos,Vietnam,Angola,Lebanon,andNicaragua(withtheirconflictriddenhistories),willhave muchtoteachusaboutconflictresolution.Insum,furtherresearchintothelinksamong militarization,serialviolence,andstructuralviolence,aswellasintothelinksamongpeace, security,development,andnonviolence,maywellprovecriticalforcreating,encouraging,and maintainingwhatwehopewillbeanecologicallysustainablefuture.
915 InSpanish,ONUCAstandsforLaOrganizacindelasNacionesUnidasdeCentroamrica

theU.N.

[Peacekeeping]OrganizationinCentralAmerica.

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Contrastingviolencewithnonviolence,thisdissertationhastriedtobreaknewgroundin theslowlyemergingfieldofinternationalconflictresolution,andtointroducerelevantAmerican experienceandliterature.Thediscussionofwar,peace,andjusticeinthecontextofCostaRica hasrevolvedaroundtheinternationaluseofpower,whetherforviolence(war)ornonviolence (peace).Theuseofpowerinthetheoryandpracticeofconflictresolutionwithininternational

916 relationsremainsentangledinsuchancientethicalissuesasthedefinitionofjustwar. In

lookingatthefuture,however,scholarsmustbeboldandimpartialenoughtoconsiderthe
917 outcomesofbothviolentandnonviolentconflictresolution.

OutcomesoftheStruggleOverDebtandDrugs Thefollowingdiscussionwillbrieflyreiteratethesummaryofapproachesandmethodsat theendofChapterSix,andthensummarizethemainpointsofChaptersSevenandEight.This summarywillconcludetheanalytictaskofthedissertation andallowroomforspeculationon thefutureofresearchintopeaceandconflictresolution.Backgroundinformationwillalso strengthenthesefinalobservations. Between1914and1984CostaRicadidavoidthedominantinternational institutionalizingtrendstowardapermanentwareconomy.Throughpeacefuldialoguefor peace,itwouldalsoleadisthmianattemptstoinviteunprecedentedUnitedNationspeacekeeping participationintheAmericas.Bythe1980s,itsemphasisonunarmedneutralitywouldinclude theprioritiesofecology,nonviolence,andgenderparity.Itreliedonthemethodsofecological sustainabilityandtheruleoflawaimedatpeacefulnegotiation,twiceopposingtheUnitedStates successfullyinaninternationalcourtoflaw(in1916and1986).Survivingatthegeostrategic
916 TheclaimofpowerinwarstillechoesfromGrecoRomanbeliefs.ButIreneorEirene

daughterof Zeus/Jupiter(godofwar,godofgods)andThemis(goddessofjusticeandtheoracles) wasworshippedasthe goddessofpeace,enforceroflaw,andguardianofthegatesofOlympus(Heaven).SeeThomasCarr, AManualof ClassicalMythology (London:SimpkinMarshall,1846),1926,117,and140. 917 BertrandRussell, JusticeinWarTime (ChicagoandLondon:OpenCourtPublishingCo.,1916),2.This potentialconcernsnotionsoftruthseeJamesRing,TheNotionofTruthinthePhilosophyofBertrandRussell: 19051918(Ph.D.diss.,St.MarysUniversity,Halifax,N.S.,Canada,1968),629and4763.Beforethe1970s, whenmilitarizationwasconsideredgoodfor[U.S.]business,academiclimitscontravenedantiwarevidenceof thetyperaisedbythiscurrentdissertation.Doctoraldissertationsoninternationalconflictresolutionstill concentrateontheviolentresolutionofconflict,forexample,inIsraelandLebanon,ratherthanonthenonviolent

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centeroffiercepreandpost1945serialviolence,itssocialindicatorsalsocontinuedtoreflecta lessviolentstandardofliving,untiltheUnitedStatesbegantoremilitarizeit. CostaRicannonviolencewasexemplifiedinsucheventsasnonviolenthungerstrikes, randomnationalopinionsurveys,andmasspeacedemonstrationsinthestreetsofSanJos.But itspathwascomplicatedbyclashingpolicypriorities,conditionedbyforeignaidand remilitarization.Meanwhile,whattheKerrySenateCommissioncalledticketpunching,or diplomaticprotection,alongtermconditionmorefrequentlyidentifiedwiththeongoingwarsin SoutheastAsia(theGoldenTriangle)andtheMiddleEast(theGoldenCrescent),beganto characterizetheisthmianbusinessofwar,arms,anddrugs.TheultimatecosttotheUnited StateswasitsinfamousIranContraconstitutionalcrisisacrisisrootedtoalargedegreeinthe UnitedStatescovertandovertmilitarizationofboth Israelandtheisthmus. WhatwerethesignificantoutcomesforCostaRica?Ultimately,themostsignificant longtermoutcomeofwarintheisthmusforCostaRicawasthatisthmianwarrefugeesfled towardratherthanawayfromCostaRicaduringtheisthmianwarinthe1980s.Giventhe findingsofexpertsoneconomicconversionfortheUnitedNationsdebateondisarmamentand developmentsuchasIngaThorsson thisflowofantiwarrefugeesintoCostaRica(astate withoutmilitaryconscription)mayhavebeenthemajoreconomiccounterforcetoits remilitarizationbytheUnitedStates.On10March1987,Dutch,Austrian,andCostaRican lobbyingalsoresultedinapioneerUnitedNationsresolutiontodecriminalizetherighttorefuse tokill. InSeptember1987about4,000CostaRicansmallfarmerslikewiseparticipatedina hungerstrikeagainstthedenialoffarmcredit,ecologicaldamagetotheirland,andtheContras armsanddrugbusiness.Thestruggleofthesefarmersalsosymbolizedantiwarresistancefor manyCostaRicanfamiliesstrugglingforhousing.Together,suchprotestsparkednational protestsagainstwarandecologicaldamage. Suchpeacefulattemptswerecounterbalancedbytheexchangeofdrugsforarmsinorder topayforisthmian war,which,likedeforestation,obstructedpeacefulconflictresolutionand economicactivityforthecommongood.Theisthmianstates,withoutindigenouscocaine,and theLevantinestates,withoutindigenousoil,bothservedasbrokersforriskyworldbusinesses,

conflictresolutionattemptedinstateslikeCostaRica.SeeappropriatekeywordsinUniversityMicrofilms International,Diss.AbstractsOndisc,18611991.

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withsuccessfrequentlydeterminedbyviolence.Isthmianroutesandislandroutes,overthe Caribbean,laidthecolonialfoundationsforthelaterAsianherointraderoutes.Worldwide, moremoneywouldbespentannuallyforillicitdrugs(especiallycocaine)thanforfood,clothes, housing,education,andmedicalcare.Thegrowingeconomicvalueoftheaddictivedrugtrade cametoequalonehalfofthevalueoftheglobalarmstrade. Thefirstinternationallegalstructureserectedtocombatthisarmsanddrugbusinesswere basedattheInterAmericanCourtofJusticeinCostaRica,andlaterattheHague.These conventionswereaimedatimpedingthecriticaldrugroutesoverCubaandthroughtheisthmus, identifiedasthefoundationsforaglobalarmsanddrugbusiness.AftertheCubanRevolution andtheBayofPigsfiasco,theworldroutesforthisviolentbusinessveeredtowardMiami, Nicaragua,andCostaRica. InCostaRicatheisthmianarmsanddrugprofitsweremanagedbyexCubanssuch as ManuelArtime(primarilywithHowardHuntandAnastasioSomoza),andlaterbywayof others,suchasSarkisSoghanalianandMichaelHarari.Post1959effortsbeganwithArtimein NicaraguaandCostaRica,throughColombianarmsanddrugcartelsaswellastheHarari network.MoneylaundererstrainedbyArtime,suchasRamonMilianRodrguez(under ManuelAntonioNoriegainPanama),furtheradvancedaContraarmsanddrugbusiness.Bythe early1980s,CostaRicanpoliceestimatedtheamountofcocainetransitingCostaRicaoverland atfifteentonsperyear.Thisconservativepoliceestimatemayhaveequaledasmuchasforty percent,or$50billionworth,ofthecocainereachingUnitedStatesstreets. Between1978and1985,astheContrawarwaxedandwanedinCostaRica,cocaine replacedheroinasthemostcostlyandprofitableillicitdrugintheUnitedStates.Accordingto manysources,JohnHullwasthefocalUnitedStatesCentralIntelligenceAgencyfieldagentfor thebusinessinnorthernCostaRica.HeallegedlyconnectedtheAndeandrugcartelswiththe UnitedStatesinexchangeformilitarysupplyflightstotheContrasinCostaRicaandHonduras. EdenPastoraandothertopContraleadersallegedlyworkedwithHull,asindicatedbymeansof wreckedorinterceptedContraairforceflightstransportingAndeancocainenorthward.The allegedtopleadersofthisbusiness,includingmajordefendantsintheU.S.IranContraHearings (andJohnHull),werefoundguiltyandbannedfromreturningtoCostaRicabyitsCongressional DrugCommissioninmid1989.

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AsaresultofaseriesofintensewarsfocusedaroundLakeNicaraguaintheisthmus betweenthe1850sandthe1980s,tenpercentoftheisthmianpeoplewouldownhalfofthe isthmianwealth.In1987CostaRicanresearchersnotedthat,for1960to1978,theannualwages forthebottomseventypercentofallisthmianwageearnersincreasedsevendollars(to$82), whiletheannualincomeofthetopthreepercentdoubled(to$15,000).Thiswarrelatedpoverty struckthreeineveryfourruralCostaRicansby1982,upfromoneintwoin1980.By1984one ineveryfiftyisthmianpeopleweredisplacedbywar,whilechildmalnutritionrangedfrom eightypercentinHondurastothirtyninepercentinCostaRica. Deforestation,begunundermilitarizationinthe1850sinnorthwesternCostaRica intensifiedinthe1940sformilitarybases,inthe1960sforantiCubanwars,inthe1970sfor antiSandinistawars,andthen,inthe1980s,throughoutnorthern CostaRicaforaContra infrastructure clearedawaythepreviouslycommonrainforest.From1961to1986,beef farmingforexportintheclearedareaswouldmakeNicaraguaandCostaRicaintothetwo largestisthmianbeefexporterstotheUnitedStates. Butthechemicalsusedforbeeffarming begantopollutetheSanJuanRiverecosystemofboththesestates.LongtermCostaRican ecologicaldamagewasconcentratedinthelossoffortypercentofitsmangroveswampsfacing theCaribbean. CostaRicadidnotundergodesertificationontheheelsofwar,suchastheaftereffectsof wardamagefoundinsixtypercentofthepotentialfarmlandintheMiddleEastandsixtyseven percentofthepotentialfarmlandinSouthAfrica,butthenationwasdamagedenvironmentally byaContrawaralongitsborderwithNicaragua.Becausethiswarremainedlargelycovert,this ecologicaldestructiondidnothavethesamekindofpoliticalandecologicalimpactinsidethe UnitedStatesasdidthatwhichoccurredduringtheUnitedStatesSoutheastAsianWar. Since1934CostaRicahadmovedtowardsitsheight(achievedintheearly1980s)of spendingtwelvetimesmoreforsocietalwellbeingsuchasgoodhealth,housing,education, andemployment thanforthemilitary. AlthoughtheisthmuscontinuedtohaveLatin Americashighestbirthanddeathrates,NicaraguaandCostaRicabothmanagedtoprovide someeconomicsecurityfortheirpeople.AsaresultofCostaRicasemphasison comprehensiveliteracy,overninetypercentofCostaRicanswereliterate,andhalfofits universitygraduateswerefemale.Suchachievementssustainedcompetitivepoliticalelections forcivilian,ratherthanmilitaryleadership.Evencommonlyoverlookedthingssuchasthelabels

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forurban streetsinCostaRicausuallylabeledwithoddnumbersforeastweststreetsand evennumbersfornorthsouthstreets,ratherthanthenamesofmilitaryheroesunderscored thisnationspreferenceforreasoningcooperatively. CostaRicaalsogeneratedneutralcooperation,suchasthatwithNicaraguathroughthe TortugueroRookery,atthemouthoftheSanJuanRiver.In1974,duringaconferenceinSan Jos,CostaRicacalledfornewrespect,cooperation,andsensitivityinitsplanstoturnits Nicaraguanborderintoapioneerinternationalpeacepark.Thiscallcameoveradecadebefore therenowned1987Brundtlandreportonworldecology,basedontheUnitedNationstriadof disarmament,development,andpeace,oraparallel1987conferenceinManagua. Atthesametime,privatelyfundedresearchscientists,suchasDanielJanzen,aroused scientificinterestinhowpeoplemightrebuildtropicalrainforeststhroughcarefulplanningover thenextthreecenturies.AppropriatingmuchoftheMurcilagomilitarybasewhereOliver NorthhadpersonallythreatenedOscarAriasoverContraairpower,Janzentriedtosetconcrete goalsforreversingtheglobalwarmingeffect.Otherresearchersestimatedthattropical rainforests,astypifiedbythoseinCostaRica,holdfifteenpercentoftheworldspotentialanti carcinogenicdrugs.Suchcallsforecologicalsensitivityslowlybegantochangetheworlds understandingofnonmilitarythreatstosecurity. Withoutmilitarypower,CostaRicawasabletoact onitshighregardforliteracy, communicationskills,electoraldemocracy,andtheruleoflaw,aimedatnegotiationforand maintenanceofpeace.ItremainsdifficulttodecideifCostaRicasexperimentinunarmed diplomacywillsurvivethedebtandContracrisisthatculminatedpoliticallyin1984.The1914 1916and19851986eventsintwointernationalcourtsdidhavebeneficialinternationaleffects, includingthereinforcementofinternationalsolidarityagainstwarintheisthmus.Thissolidarity wasarticulatedbydemonstrations,hungerstrikes,andfoodcaravans.Internationalpeace movementsalsopledgedrelatedactionstoderailanydirectUnitedStatesthreattoinvade Nicaragua,whileunarmedpatrolsweresentintoElSalvadortoguardSalvadoreanpolitical leaderstargetedfordeathsquadexecution. EsquipulasII,initiatedbyOscarAriasandDanielOrtega,concentratedonthehuman rightsstandardsoffreespeech,competitiveelections,andopeninternationaldialogueforpeace. Continuingtomolditsunarmeddiplomacytowardtheprioritiesofmutualchangeformutual benefit,CostaRicathusdidwhatitcouldtobecomeabridgebuilderbetweenwarring

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adversariesinsteadofmerelybeinganunwillingbridgeforthetrafficofarmsandcocaine. SuchcallsasEsquipulasIIforinternationalnegotiationsupportedprogressatthepeacetableand servedasagatewayforabetterinternationalunderstandingofthetropicalrainforest. CostaRicaspoliticalunarmedneutralitycontrastedwithitseconomicstrainand tensionoverlanduse,includingdeforestation,smallfarmerevictions,andafuturebordercanal. EverypossibleattemptappearstohavebeenmadetoforceCostaRicatopaydisproportionately forwhatitborrowedfromtheoutsidemuchofwhichwenttoarmtheContrasrathertohelp theCostaRicansthemselves.ThisContraremilitarizationpushedCostaRicatowardconflictin fourmajorareas:(1)plansforaninteroceanicbordercanal,whichexacerbatedconflict,(2) tropicalrainforestdeforestation,whichdamagedtheecosystem,(3)theevictionofsmall farmers,despitestruggleoverland,tomakewayfortheexpansionofagribusiness,and(4)an internationaldebtacquiredtopayfortheremilitarization.Meanwhile,fromtheearly1980sto 1988,theareaproposedbybothNicaraguaandCostaRicaasaYestoPeace(Sia[la]Paz) ParkwasrifewithCostaRicabasedContras. BehindCostaRicascallforecologicalconservationdatingfromthemid1970swasthe brutal realityofanationthatwaslosingitsforestsandpromotingsoilerosionmorerapidlythan anyotherLatinAmericanstate.Thisbrutalrealitywascomplicatedbyproblemsofmalaria, denguefever,andmercurypollution,(abyproductofchloralkalipesticidesinLakeNicaragua, atthetopoftheSanJuanRiverecosystem)andundergirdedbydebtincurredbecauseof remilitarizationandthearmsanddrugbusiness.Bylimitingnationalsovereigntyandself determination,thisinternationaldebtfueledpotentialformoreconflictandtheabuseofpower byviolence.Between1973and1983,theisthmiandebtattainedsignificanceasthemost economicallybiasedpartoftheLatinAmericandebt,whichinturnconstitutedthelargestsingle partoftheThirdWorlddebt.With140,000peopleunemployedandatotalfiscaldeficitof$16 billion,conditionsinCostaRicabegantoresemblethedebtdependencyrelationshipofoneother majorUnitedStatesclientstate:Israel. UnitedStatesintervention,whichmultipliedinthe1980s,didnotappeartobenefitCosta Rica.AnalogousSovietinterventioninCubasince1960alsoproducedaUnitedStates economicblockadeorembargoofCubadamagingbothCubaandtheUnitedStates.Because ofthedramatic,relativelynonviolentchangesinworldcommunismin19891990(intheSoviet UnionandEasternEurope),andthechangesinorthedissolutionofwhatusedtobetheSoviet

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economythatundergirdedit,CubamaywellbetheprimarytargetintheAmericasforviolent covertactionbytheUnitedStatesinthefuture aswasCostaRicainthe1980s. ButviolentcovertactionmayormaynotworkinCuba.ItdidnotworkwellinCosta Rica,which,upuntilthe1980s,atleast,servedasaneutralAmericanstateformediatingconflict betweenCuba,theSovietUnion,andtheUnitedStates.Asafercourseclosetotheunarmed diplomacyofCostaRicawouldseemthebetterchoiceforpeace,security,anddevelopmentin theWesternCaribbean.ThemostnonviolentapproachpossibleasintendedbyCostaRica wouldalsoappear,therefore,theleastlikelytoexacerbatethealreadyhighlevelsoffear,anger, apprehension,andmilitarization(reflectedinboththeantidependencyapproachpreferredby CubaandtheworldorderapproachpreferredbytheUnitedStates). TrendsandOptionsforWarandPeace Overthelastfewdecades,CostaRicahasexcelledinpreventingconflictthrough sustainabledevelopmentandeducation,planningprogramsofpeaceandteachingconflict resolutionskillsforthefuturedespitesurroundingisthmianconflict.Thesepedagogical programshaveresultedfromtheCostaRicanemphasisonallocatingitsmeagerresourcesto meettheneedsofhealth,housing,education,andemployment,ratherthantomeetthedemands ofuncontrolledmilitarization(atleastuntilthe1980s).BeguninSanJosundertheLatin AmericanFacultyofSocialSciences(FLACSO),thesepowerfulprogramsforpeaceandconflict resolutionhavepermeatedNorthSouthdebateondisarmament,development,andconflict resolution.FromCostaRica,theideasofFLACSOhavespreadtosimilarcentersinMexico
918 City,Lima(Peru),Quito(Ecuador),Santiago(Chile),andtheUnitedStates. These

918 FelipeE.MacGregor,MilitarySpendinginLatinAmerica,

UNIDIRNewsletter (Geneva,U.N.),June1989,8. FLACSOFacultadLatinoamricanadeCienciasSociales spinoffshavesurfacedasLatinAmericanInstitutes forTransnationalStudies.FLACSOsworkcanbecomparedtothatoftheU.NassociatedUniversityofPeacein CostaRica,CRIESinManagua,andrelatedinternationalrelationsdepartmentsoftheHebrewUniversity (Jerusalem),HanoiUniversity,theUniversityofHavana,andtheUniversityofZimbabwe(Harare).Othersuch programs:thePalestineCenterfortheStudyofNonviolence(Jerusalem),theGandhiPeaceFoundation(Delhi, India),thePeaceStudiesCenterintheMindanao(Philippines)StateUniversity,andProyectoCaribeoPazy Justicia(PuertoRico).Foranalogousmovementsincitizendiplomacy,suchassanctuaryforisthmianrefugeesand divestmentinSouthAfrica,practicedbyover65majorU.S.cities,seeLouisFreedberg,SanctuaryandDivestment ANewPeoplesDiplomacyTakesOffinU.S.Cities, PNS(9July1986)inDCF (1986),99orMichael Shuman,DatelineMainStreet:LocalForeignPolicies, FPY65(Winter1986):154174.Orconsultthe Bulletinof MunicipalForeignPolicy,startedbyamayorofIrvine,CA,LarryAgran,andlinkedtotheU.S.Conferenceof Mayors.Foranalogousattemptsatmilitarycivilian(1980s)dialogueintheAmericas,seeLouisW.Goodman, CivilMilitaryRelations, InternationalReview (MayJune1986):13.

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educationalcentersandprogramshaveprospereddespitetheintenseserialandstructural violenceclusteredintheisthmussincethe1850s. TheseAmericancentershavehadtodealwithincreasingdemographicpressure complicatedbypoverty,whichenhancesthepotentialforconflictinthishemisphere.Froma 1970spopulationsimilarinnumberstothatofrapidlyagingNorthAmerica,LatinAmericawill havegrownproportionately especiallyinthegeopoliticallycriticalisthmustoapopulation

919 twicethatofNorthAmericabytheearlytwentyfirstcentury. Atthesametime,intheeastern

hemisphere,theLevantanareaasgeopoliticallycriticaltotheSovietUnionastheisthmusis
920 totheUnitedStatesisprojectedtoseeMuslimdemographicgrowthonasimilarscale. In

the1950s,awarenessofthesetrendsandtheneedforpreventiveconflictresolutionmotivated
921 thefirst(worldorderoriented)SovietarmsdealswithEgypt,Syria,andlaterLebanon.

NeitherSovietnorUnitedStatesworldorderapproacheshavegivenmuchconsiderationyet, however,tothepotentialofnonviolentconflictresolutioninencouragingchangeformutual benefitundervolatiledemographicconditions. ManyobserversbelievethatpopularmovementsfordemocracyinChina,Europe,the UnitedStates,andtheSovietUnionmaysoonreducetheworldsdependencyonviolentpower. Thisoptimisticpredictionisbasedontheprecariousnotionthattheebbinglevelofviolence betweenthenucleararmedsuperpowersshouldtrickledownintogeneraldisarmamentand

922 eventually washawayconventional(serial)violence. Giventheworldswideningpoverty

919 S.PaulEhrlich,Jr.,andJorgeLitvak,ElEnvejecimientoylosPasesenDesarrollodelaRegindelas

Amricas, BoletindelaOficinaSanitariaPanamricana91(1981):513.ThisbulletinisapublicationofPAHO,a branchoftheU.N.WHOorganization. LatinAmerica hereincludesMxico,theisthmusandtheCaribbean. 920 ForSovietAsian(mostly)Muslimpopulationprojectionsinthe21stcentury,seeBatukGathani,WorldBeat SovietMoslems, Atlas,April1979,10.FordemographicprojectionsontheMiddleEaststates,someofwhichare projectedtomultiplywithratesashighas85times(19502020),duetoimmigrationandpopulationgrowth unhamperedbyformerdiseases,seeEllenJamison,etal.,WorldPopulationProfile:1989 (Washington,D.C.:U.S. BureauofCensus,1989),35. 921 WilliamZimmerman,SovietPerspectivesonInternationalRelations,19561967(Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1969),3741.IMEMO,theInstituteoftheWorldEconomyandInternationalRelations,began duringthefirstSoviet(Levantine)internationalarmsdeals.ForrelatedSovietclassificationsofconflictresolution over[serial]violenceoftheoppressorortheoppressedandstructuralviolence(underdevelopment),seeVladimir Gantman[afounderofIMEMO],TypenInternationaleKonflikte,inDanielFrei,ed., Theoriender InternationalenBeziehungen(Munich:R.Piper&Co.,1973),8083.Fortheory,factors,methods,andmechanisms ofconflictresolutioninEuropeanstates,seealso.[V.I.GantmaninRussian, ContemporaryInternationalConflict] (Moscow:IzdvoNauka,1983)orDjermenGvishiani,ScientificTechnicalProgressandtheSocialGoalsof Science,ImpactofScienceOnSociety 29(JulySept.1979),216.FortraditionalmilitarystructuresintheMiddle East,seeRodericDavison, Turkey (EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1968):3957. 922 Seetherepresentativecallforcomplete(unilateral?)disarmamentbythedeanorrectorofthecentral internationalrelationsprogram(InstitutfrInternationalePolitikundWirtschaft,Potsdam,asuburbofEastern

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gap,though,itislikelythatadvocatesofviolentpowerwilltrytoretrenchgeopoliticallyata timewheninternationalrelationsareburdenedbyfewerBerlinWallsandfewerlongrange
923 SuchintentionsmayexplaintheactionsofstateslikeIraq. intercontinentalballisticmissiles.

Whatformthisgeopoliticalretrenchmentwilltakehasbeguntoattractspeculationin
924 internationalrelationsliterature,eveninIsraelandtheUnitedStates.

Onetrendthatshouldlessenglobalviolence,however,istheincreasingpoliticalpower
925 ofwomenusedtohumanizeinternationalconflictresolution. Thistrendcanbeseenin 926 927 Modifiedbymorefemale Lebanon, CostaRica,andotherstrategicareasofconflict.

politicalparticipationthaninthepast,nonviolentpowerappliedtoconflictresolutionshould
928 promoteandreinforcehealthiertrendstowardtradeandcooperation.

Berlin)inwhatwasEastGermanyuntil1990 MaxSchmidt,VollstndigesVerbotvonKernwaffenNotwendig, VortragSymposiumd.DDRKom inWegeindenFrieden,PanoramaDDR 6VI2/3.2(1986):217,listedas no.916(p.86)inWissenschaftlicherRatfrFriedensforschung,ZentrumfrFriedensforschung[ScientificCouncil forPeaceResearch],ZentrumfrGesellschaftswissenschaftlicheInformation,ed., FriedensforschunginderDDR, Ergebnisseder80erJahre (Berlin:AkademiederWissenschaftenderDDR,1988),1875citations,195pp.U.S. viewsonthiscanbefoundinrenewedattentiontoregionalconflict,suchaslegislationbyU.S.Rep.DaveNagle (DIA)orconferencesintheU.S.InstituteofPeaceseeRegionalConflicts:ARoleforU.S.SovietCooperation? InBrief17(May1990):13.TheauthorisgratefultoMaryLiepoldfornotingthistrend,atrendalsoanticipatedin shortwavebroadcastsfromstateslikeCzechoslovakiaandtheSovietUnion. 923 Panama:SolisPalmaInterviewedon`CrisiswiththeUSA,SummaryofWorldBroadcasts(BBC,8April 1988),(NEXIS),Part4,ME/0120/D/1.SolisPalmarepresentedoppositiontoManuelNoriega.Suchretrenchment isreflectedbytheU.S.taxdollar,ofwhich2%goestodomestichousingneedsand45%toThirdWorld militarization accordingtotheinternationalrelationsconsultantoftheRainbowCoalition,JackODell see TheHumanCostsoftheColdWar,DialogueinAlabama,AWorkshopledbyJackODell,(Birmingham,AL: SoutheastProjectonHumanNeedsandPeace,SouthernOrganizingCommittee[RainbowCoalition],1988),2,23, and32. 924 SaulCohen, TheGeopoliticsofIsraelsBorderQuestion (Boulder,CO:WestviewandJerusalem:Jerusalem Post,1986),30.The1958and1976warsinLebanonhaveyettobediscussedatlengthinIsraeliinternational relationsliteratureseealsoGeorgeRishmaniandMichaelOpperskalski,Palstina,UnterdrckungundWiderstand (Cologne,WestGermany:Mediapro,1982),34. 925 Womenhaveoftenbecomeknownasbetterdefenseleadersthanmeninthenonviolentapproachtointernational conflictresolutionseeMohandasGandhi, WomenandSocialInjustice(Ahmedabad,India:Navijan,1954),1819 and99ff. 926 YollaPolitySharara,WomenandPoliticsinLebanon, Khamsin6(1978):614.Lebanesewomenhaveledthe Lebanesestruggletomeethumanneeds. 927 NancyHartsock,TheBarracksCommunityinWesternPoliticalThought:ProlegomenatoaFeministCritiqueof WarandPolitics, WomensStudiesInternationalForum5(1982):28384.HartsockmocksMachiavellisbelief thatonecanconquerfortune(feminine)bywar.Nonviolentpowerforpeacehaslongbeenaconcernforantiwar figureslikeMargaretSanger,whohavetriedtoprovethatwarstemsfrom,e.g.,poorfamilyplanningorthedenial ofaccesstobasicnecessitiesseeMargaretSanger, WomanandtheNewRace (New York:Truth,1922),1158 passim. 928 BarbaraNelson,WomenandKnowledgeinPoliticalScience:Texts,HistoriesandEpistemologies, Women& Politics9(1989):2.NelsonnotesthatMarx,Hegel,Rousseau,andJ.S.Millbelievedthatwomenwhogained internationalpowerwouldruinthestate,abeliefalsofoundintheprototypicalU.S.politicalscienceprogrambegun bythejustwarpioneerFrancisLieber,atColumbiaUniversity.But80%ofmilitaryjobsarelogisticaland noncombativejobsthatmenandwomencanbothdo.SeeKathleenJones,DividingtheRanks,Womenandthe

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Thepowerforbeneficialchangeinherentineconomictradeshouldalsobeconsideredin thepreventionofserialandstructuralviolence.From19451977,forexample,UnitedStatesand EuropeanEconomicCommunitycapitalinfluencedbetweenonehalfandthreequartersofthe foreignindustrialinvestmentsinLatinAmerica.Thesenationsinfluencedonlytentotwenty

929 percentofthecorrespondingforeignindustrialinvestmentsintheMiddleEast. Inother

words,whiletheUnitedStatesandtheEuropeanEconomicCommunityinfluencedoutsidetrade withtheisthmus,asameansforprovidingaccesstohumannecessitiesandpreventingconflict, theLevantdependedmuchmoreonAsian,African,andAustraliantrade.Thenetresultsin worldtradeunderminedUnitedStatesinterestsduringtheinternationaldebtanddrugcrisis, muchofwhichhasbeenunfavorablyattributedtotheUnitedStates(theworldslargestdebtor anditslargestconsumerofillicitdrugs). Withouttheuseofequitableinternationaltradetopreventconflict,violentintervention canhaveunexpectedoutcomes,especiallywhenconfrontedbythecooperativeconflict resolutionofstatessuchasCostaRica.CentralIntelligenceAgencyarmsanddrugoperationsin Cuba,Laos,Vietnam,Lebanon,andCostaRica,forexample,havehurtlongtermUnitedStates corporateinterests.OnlysixofthesixhundredUnitedStatesfirmsregisteredwiththeUnited
930 StatesEmbassyinLebanonmanagedtosurvivethe1976war. UnitedStatescorporationshad

toleavetheWesternCaribbeantoowhentheUnitedStatesarmsanddrugbusinessundercut isthmiancorporateinterests.Atthesametime,todeterthearmsanddrugbusinessinCosta

Draft, Women&Politics4(Winter1984):7577and85.ForIsraeliquandariesoverconscriptingwomen,see DorotheaWoods,ResearchNote:TheConscriptionofWomenforNationalDefense,TheMilitarizationofWomen, AndSomeEthicalPerspectivesonWomensInvolvementintheMilitary,CurrentResearchonPeaceand Violence 8(1985):14955.ForthedisarmamentroleofAndrewYounginproposingUNIFIL,seeMarianne Heiberg,ObservationsonUnitedNationsPeaceKeepinginLebanon, NUPINotat305(Sept.1984):3.Seealso LeilaNeffa,Lbano,HilvanesParaUnaResea(Montevideo,Uruguay:?,1943),5156,[viewedintheUniversity ofMiamiLibrary]forliteraturelinkingthemesfromCharlesCorm,EliasFarhat,MaryZiade,andFrancisco VillaespesaontheWesternCaribbeanandtheEasternMediterranean. 929 RobertoAliboni,InternationalInvestmentsintheMediterraneanArea, LoSpettatoreInternazionale12(April June,1977):9192.Thismeansthat,dependingontradeandproductionvariables,U.S.andEuropeanindustrial investmentswere3to7timesheavierintheWesternCaribbeanthanintheMiddleEast.Japaneseinvolvementhas growninBrazil,Israel,andPanama.Nevertheless, U.S.oilcorporationsinHouston,TXandtheSanFrancisco basedBechtelCorpdonatedmuchoftheprivateContrafundsseeJohnGerassi,Nicaragua, Shmate13(Fall 1985):26. 930 AndrLiebich,Lebanon,OneYearAfter, InternationalPerspectives(Ottawa) (Jan.Feb.1978):911.In1985 PLOattacksexceededpre1982levels.SeeTerroristActsBacktoHighLevel,WashingtonJewishWeek,27Dec. 1984,11.DespitethefactthatIsraelisoldierspreferredLebanesedutytointifadaduty,YitzhakRabinfoundthat3 yearsinLebanonhadcostmoreIsraelideadthan30yearsoffightingPalestiniansinIsraelseeRabinSaysNo `ShortCutinIntifada,ButSoldiersDislikeDuty,WAFANews,26Oct.1989,lastpage.

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Rica,theDrugCommissionofitsNationalLegislaturerespondedbypubliclybanningallthe majorUnitedStatespoliticalofficialsinvolvedexceptGeorgeBush. Bypursuingviolentconflictresolutionintheisthmus,theUnitedStatescreatedand nurturedatransnationalarmsanddrugbusiness.Thisviolencealienatedthemajorcountry remaininginLatinAmericawithstronglydemocratic,proUnitedStatessentiments:Costa

931 Rica. Itfollowsthat,givenenoughtime,suchviolencewillalsoalienatetheUnitedStates 932 mainallyintheMiddleEast,Israel. Israelisarestronglycognizantofthefactthattheirnation

willhavelessmilitaryrelevancethantheislandofDiegoGarciatotheUnitedStatesoncetheoil runsout.Asdiscussedinthetwopreviouschapters,thesecuritythreatsofdebt,drugs,and remilitarizationreinforcedCostaRicasdeterminationtoovercometheviolentpowerofthis

933 transnationalarms,debt,anddrugbusinessbyunarmeddiplomacy.

EffectiveInternationalConflictResolution WhiletheNicaraguanContrawardestabilizedCostaRica,cocainetradeprofitssurging throughPanamaandColombiapromotedCostaRicanviolenceandunderdevelopment.This underdevelopmentresultedfromtheinterventionofdiplomatsandtraffickersinarmsordrugs suchasKarenOlson,MichaelHarari,andSarkisSoghanalian,asIsraelpreparedtoinvade LebanonandtosupplytheContraswithLebanesearms.Giventhesedismaloutcomesoftheuse ofviolentpower,onemustsurmisethatcooperativeapproachesflexibleenoughtofittheneeds

931 EvencursoryacquaintancewithProjectCamelots1964failureincounterinsurgentdestabilizationmighthave

avoidedthisoutcomeseeFrancisMannoandRichardBednarcik,ElProyectoCamelot,ForoInternacional (Mexico)9(Oct.Dec.1968):206208andGeorgeLowe,TheCamelotAffair, Bulletin oftheAtomicScientists 22(April1966),44orLeonardSchwartz,SocialScienceandtheFurtheranceofPeaceResearch, American BehavioralScientist 9(March1977):2428.ProjectCamelottriedtoresearchconflictcausesandindicatorsfor23 conflicts.ItwasthenfinanciallythelargestU.S.socialscienceresearchproject,howeveritdiscountedapproaches toconflictresolutionotherthantheworldorderapproach.LatinAmericanuniversitiesthusrejecteditsee TheodoreVallance,ProjectCamelot:AnInterimPostlude, AmericanPsychologist 21(May1966):441444. VallancedirectedTheAmericanUniversitySpecialOperationsResearchOfficewhichmanagedProjectCamelot. 932 Alessviolentsolutionmightincluderegionalrelief,reconstruction,andreconciliationwhichdealswithboth IsraeliPalestinian(Arab)andtheGulf(Iran,Iraq)wars,asdescribedbyobserverssuchasZbigniewBrzezinski, ThreeRsfortheMiddleEast, NYT,21April1991,E17.TheauthorisgratefultoDarrellRandallforaccessto thisarticle. 933 InterviewsbytheauthorintheMiddleEastin1976andintheWesternCaribbeanin19891990indicatedthatthe 1976warmerelyshifteddrugroutestoHaifaandTelAvivinIsrael,bypassingBeirut,whilethe1959Cuban RevolutionandexCubancounterrevolutionshifteddrugroutestotheisthmusandtheBahamas.Thesesame interviewsalsorevealedanundertoneofantiSovietandantiU.S.resentmentforusingpeopleasguineapigs,inthe testingandmarketingofthelatestinventionsofwarandespionageinCuba,Israel,Lebanon,Nicaragua,andCosta Rica.

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ofthoseconcernedwouldbemoreeffectivethanviolentapproachesforpeacefullyresolving
934 severe,longtermconflict.

Intheisthmiancontext,effectiveconflictresolutionattemptsemergedintheEsquipulas
935 IIAgreementthatfacilitatedUnitedNationspeacekeeping. Thissecondagreementobtained

inEsquipulas,sometimescalledtheAriasPlan,strengthenedtheconfidencebuildingmeasures
936 necessaryfordeescalatingisthmianconflict. Byresolvingconflictwithlessviolencethan

thatproposedbyoutsideintervention,ongoingdialogueinEsquipulasalsoincreasedthe
937 potentialforconveningafutureisthmianparliament. Tosomedegree,theUnitedStates1989

militaryinterventioninPanamaweakenedUnitedNationspeacekeepingandparliamentary planning.FromCostaRicaspointofview,thisactionsidetrackedtheEsquipulasIIAgreement andreinforcedtheContrasonitsnorthernborder.TheContrastherewerethelastholdouts againstthedemilitarizationofNicaragua. UnitedNationsPeacekeepingAmericanorInternational Esquipulasdialoguewasrootedintheisthmianstrugglefor thehumanrighttopeaceand

938 nonviolence,orthejuscontrabellum. DespiteUnitedStatesopposition,pledgesofsupport

934 SofarU.N.SecurityCouncilpeacekeepinghasbeenlimitedtocompliantnonalignedstates.SeeRaimo

Vyrynen,FocusOn:IsThereaRolefortheUnitedNationsinConflict Resolution? JPR 22(1985):18996. MuchoftheauthorsunderstandingofU.N.peacekeepingstemsfrominterviewswithJamesHolger,Washington, D.C.,U.N.PeacekeepingForcesliaison(Sept.1989Spring1990),andfromBrianUrquhartinhisNewYorkCity FordFoundationoffice(Sept.1987).UrquhartrecommendedinterviewingoneofhissuccessorsattheU.N.,Jean ClaudeAime(Sept.1987),whointurnsuggestedworksbyMarrackGoulding.Theseinterviewsconcernedthe experienceofMiddleEastpeacekeepingrelevanttotheWesternCaribbean. 935 EsquipulasIIwashostedbyamonasterybehindtheChurchoftheBlackChristinEsquipulas,Guatemala. FormalresultsoftheisthmiannationsdecisionswereannouncedafterwardinfrontofthisChurch.TheBlack ChristandBlackMadonnasurviveasasyncretisticmatrixofpreEuropeanandRomanCatholicbeliefsinSpain, someSlavicstates,suchasPoland,southernIndia,Africa,andLatinAmerica.ThevillageofEsquipulasliesastride themajorlandroutefrom GuatemalaoverHondurasintoNicaragua,inaruggedandisolatedmountainareavisited bytheauthorwithRobertGanterinearlyMarch1989. 936 EnriqueGomriz,ed., BalancedeunaEsperanza,EsquipulasII,UnAoDespus (SanJos:FLACSOUPAZ CSUCA,1988),91and108110.ParticipantsintheEsquipulasdialogueincludedCarlosJosGutirrez,theCosta RicanrepresentativetotheU.N.,whosefatherwasborninNicaraguaseeConstantnLscaris, Desarrollodelas IdeasenCostaRica(SanJos:Ed.CostaRica,1975),418. 937 PatricioFalconAlmeida,LaEncrucijadaCentroAmricana,VivienciasdelParlamentoLatinoamricano (Quito:ComisinPolticadelParlamentoLatinoamricano,n.d.).NoprecursorsyetexistforaLevantine parliament,otherthantheArab League,whichoperatesmuchliketheOASandOAUinconflictresolution. 938 JeanPictet, LeDroitHumanitaireetlaProtectiondesVictimesdelaGuerre (Leiden,theNetherlands:A.W. Sijthof,1973).SeealsoworksbyMilanBartosofYugoslavia.TheauthorisgratefultoJosNstorMourelo Aguilarforpointingoutthepossibilitiesbeyondjustwarlaws,which,asethicalorreligiouscriteria,lackobjective legalprecedentininternationallawseealsoJosefKunz,BellumJustumandBellumLegale, AmericanJournalof InternationalLaw 45(1951):53031.

239

arrivedquicklyfromboththeUnitedNationsSecretaryGeneral,JavierPrezdeCuellar,andthe
939 OrganizationofAmericanStatesSecretaryGeneral,JoaoClementeBaenaSoares. Baena

SoaresdefendedtheLatinAmericanpreferenceforconflictresolutionthroughUnitedNations
940 peacekeeping. TodeflectisthmianmomentumforUnitedNationspeacekeeping,theUnited 941 StatestemporarilyoverwhelmedHonduraswithContraaid. InsidetheUnitedStates,

however,defyingcriminallawsuitsinstigatedbytheexecutiveandjudicialbranchesofthe UnitedStatesgovernment,lobbyingandsanctuarygroupsappliedpoliticalpressureforisthmian
942 peace. AsthefirstAmnestyInternationalpoliticalprisonerofconscienceintheUnitedStates

since1979,oneofthesanctuarymovementleadersStaceyMerktbecameaninternational
943 symbolforthehumanrighttopeace.

FurthergainsfrompeaceplanslikethatofEsquipulasforresolvingisthmianconflictwill dependoncombinedUnitedNationsandnongovernmentalorganizationaction.Forexample, AndrewYoungandWalterFauntroyhelpedtoinitiateparallelorcitizendiplomacyina nonviolent,nongovernmentalvisittoBeirut,criticizingproxyinterventionbyIsrael.Thisvisit soothedthetensionarisingfromconflictthatincludedIsraelisuppressionoftheJuly1979

944 NicaraguanRevolution. In1983,theLebaneseconflictitselfreachedanimpassewithabrief

939 JimMorrell,ContadoraEludesU.S.,

IPR (Jan.Feb.1987):23.TheU.N.failedtointerveneintheU.S. IndoChinaWar,butFrance,Poland,Sweden,Canada,India,andthenonalignedmovementattempted negotiations withHoChiMinh.Laos,Vietnam,andKampucheastruggledunsuccessfullytoberecognizedasneutralstates.See SarDesaiDamadarRamaj,IndiasRelationsWithVietnam,Laos,andCambodia(Ph.D.diss.,Universityof CaliforniaatLosAngeles,1965),120,18285,191,296,and63233.ThichTriQuangledthe PhongTraoTranh Dau(peacemovement)tooverthrowaU.S.installedpresidentofS.VietnamandtomobilizeHu,Hanoi,and Saigon(HoChiMinhCity)againstwarandforneutralityseeAlfredHassler,Saigon,U.S.A. (NewYork:R.W. Baron,1970),825,4849,11557,and210213. 940 ONUEnviaObservadores, Barricada,8July1989,1and5. 941 EthanSchwartz,HondurasNicaraguaDisputeImperialsU.N.RegionalPeaceEffort, WPT,24May1989,A 18.TheauthorisgratefultoDeltonFranzoftheMennoniteCentralCommitteeforthisinsight. 942 ResponsetoRepression, BethesdaCoopNewsletter,Sept.1985,2.Thesanctuarymovementwasmodeledon the1860sUndergroundRailroaddevelopedto carryescapingslavesandpacifiststoCanada. 943 VickiKamper,StaceyMerktReleasedfromPrison, Sojourners,June1987,inDCF (1987),95.TheChristic InstitutesdefenseofMerktpulleditintoastruggleagainstthearmsanddrugbusiness.Thejudge sentencedherto federalprisonfortransportingisthmianwarrefugees,anactionpermittedbyU.S.federallawbutcontestedbythe Reaganadministration.Shewaspregnantatthetime.ForU.S.IndoChinawarveteransrolesinthesanctuary movement,seeJackElder,TheSanctuaryChallenge,TheTexasObserver,27June1986,inDCF (1986),57. OrganizationsliketheChristicInstitutewouldalsoopposeThomasPolgar,thechiefSenateinvestigatorforthe CongressionalIranContrahearings.Polgarand TheodoreShackleywerebothexSaigonCIAstationchiefssee DavidMacMichael,ReportFromWashington[D.C.], Unclassified,August1989,2. 944 MisindelaSCLCenLbano,EsPosibleunaSolucinNoviolentaenElCercanoOriente, EstudiosArabes (BuenosAires)12(AprilJune1982):16469.TheyvisitedtopleadersinBeirut,includingYassarArafat,butwere notpermittedintoIsrael.ThevisitwasmarredbythealienationofU.S.ZionistleadershipfromtheU.S.civilrights

240

attempttoinstitutionalizemilitaryconscription.ThatimpassedissolvedastheAriasplanscaled backtheContrawarandIsraeliantiwarorganizationsmobilizedthelargestpeace
945 demonstrationseverexperiencedinIsrael. TheseIsraelidemonstrationspressedfor

interventionbytheUnitedNations,insteadofproxyinterventioninLebanon,whichthen
946 repealeditsmilitaryconscriptionlegislation.

Effectiveinternationalpeaceandconflictresolutioninitiatives,focusingonhumanneeds andexpectations,willcontinuetorelyuponnonviolentculturalsynthesisanddialogue.Such initiativeshaveincludedthedialogueofContadoraandEsquipulas,thesanctionsoftheSouthern AfricanDevelopmentCoordinatingConference,andthedialogueandsanctionssynthesizedby theIslamicConference.However,officialfactions,tiedtothearmsanddrugbusinessinstates

947 likeIsraelandCostaRica,haveopposedsuchpeacefulinitiatives.

Thisfactionaloppositionhasobstructedmultistate,confederatedpeaceproposalstoend
948 theconflictsembroilingLebanonandCostaRica. Attackshavecontinueddespitepropeace

movementforthefirsttimesincethe1960s,despitetherapidlygrowingpopularityofotherformsofcitizen diplomacy,e.g.,U.S.Sovietcitizendiplomacy. 945 S.N.Eisenstadt, TheInternalRepercussionsoftheLebanonWar(Jerusalem:HebrewUniversity,LeonardDavis InstituteforInternationalRelations,PolicyStudy17,1986),4344.Theassassinationofapropeacedemonstrator, EmilGrinzweig,softenedhardcoreIsraeliconservatism.SeealsoWhatIsThePeaceCamp?Israel&Palestine, Feb.1983,11.FornonviolentPalestinianoutcomes,seePalestinianAcademicConvicted, PalestinePerspectives, Sept.1987,4orMubarakAwad,NonViolentResistance:AStrategyfortheOccupiedTerritories, Journalof PalestinianStudies13(Summer1984):2236.FortheJewishhistoricalcontextofsuchnonviolentapproachesin IsraelandPalestine,seeHenrik(andShulamit)Infeld,UtopiaandExperiment,EssaysintheSociologyof Cooperation (PortWashington,WA:KennikatPress,1955),3132and311.KibbutzKeremShalom Hebrewfor VineyardofPeace offthesouthwestcorneroftheGazaStrip,wouldbecomeknowninternationallyforits conflictresolutionbetweentheBedouins,Israelis,andPalestinians,anditssupportfortheVoiceofPeaceradioship. TheauthorvisitedthiskibbutzintheSpringof1976,aftervisitingtheLebanesepeacemovement. 946 DorotheaWoods,Kidnapping,RoundUpsandOtherFormsofExtraLegalConscription,QUNONewsletter, Jan.1988,6.Forabriefdescriptionofthemanypost1982Israelipeacegroups,includingEnough(Dai),Artists againsttheWar,AlternativetoSilence(HorimNegedSchtika),theDemocraticFrontforPeaceandFreedom (CHADASCH),NoMoreBorderWarwithLebanon(YeshGhvul),andtheCommitteeAgainsttheWarinLebanon andforIsraeliPalestinianPeaceledby,e.g.,YehoshuaLeibowitz,ed.ofthe HebrewEncyclopedia seePeter BathkeandKarinKulow,Israel,Kriegspolitik,Antikriegsbewegung(Berlin:Dietz,1985),5072. 947 IssamSartawiwasthusallegedlykilledinApril1983by theCIAandtheIsraeliMossadforproposingpeace. SeeMaximGhilan,AlmostaHomecoming, Israel&Palestine,AprilMay1983,610.Suchviolencemay continuetoplagueIsraelihistory,if,ashasbeenclaimedbythepoliticalscientistGueievski,the profitsofMeyer LanskyandFulgencioBatistafromthesyndicateinCubaoriginallyfundedtheIsraeliStern,MOSSAD,andIrgun ZvaiaLeuminetworks.SeeI.A.Gueievski,LaMafia,LaCIA,Watergate,EnsayoSobreLaDelincuencia OrganizadayLasPracticasenEE.UU. (BuenosAires:EdicionesLihuel,1982),4148and104106. 948 UriAvnery,MyFriend,TheEnemy (Westport,CN:Lawrence&Co.,1986),53and71.SaidHammamiwasalso allegedlykilledbytheCIAandtheIsraeliMOSSAD.AccordingtoAvnery,noofficialIsraelidiplomatrecognized Hammamisconfederatedpeaceproposal.ForanalogousassassinationsofVietnameseneutralists,despite comprehensivesupportforneutralityinSaigon,seeFranzSchuurman,PeterDaleScott,andReginaldZelnick, The PoliticsofEscalation,AStudyofUnitedStatesResponsestoPressureforaPoliticalSettlementoftheVietnamWar: November1963November1966 (Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia,1966),513.

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initiativessuchassupportfromtheleadersoftheEuropeanGreenParty,proposing cooperativeneutralityalongthelinesofCostaRicas,andadvocatingthehumanrightto
949 peace. TheSovietUnionalsosupportedneutral,multistatepeaceproposalsforinternational 950 conflictresolution, whiletheUnitedStatespersistedinproposingtheproxyContrasashelpful

forendingconflictin theisthmus,duplicatingtheproxyIsraelimilitaryforendingconflictinthe Levant. Accustomedtoaworldordermaintainedbyviolence,statesliketheUnitedStatesmay continuetoopposelessviolentalternatives.ThebasicGeorgeBushplantostop thearmsand drugbusiness,forexample,recommendedimprisonmentofstreetoffendersanddiscretionary UnitedStatesforeignmilitaryintervention.Hisplandidnotrecommendbettercashcropsto

951 replacecocaandopiumpoppiesorbetterwaystoalleviatetheinternationaldebt. Bysimply

ignoringtheviolentcounterinsurgencyrootsofarmsanddrugrelatedviolence,hisplantacitly
952 authorizedmoreofsuchviolence. TheBushplanconsequentlyroderoughshodover

internationallegaldecisionsliketheHagueCourtsdecisionagainstthewarinNicaraguaand theCostaRicanNationalLegislaturesDrugCommissionsdecisionagainstthearmsanddrug businessinCostaRica.

949 DieGrnen,

LandesarbeitskreisFrieden,GibtEsEinenAusweg?(Bayern,WestGermany:Grnen,1985),2426. EchoingtherecommendationoftheIsraelipeacemovementforamultistatesolution,theGreensalsoendorsed AustrianandFinnishneutralityasamodelforWestGermany.ThreeofthenineGreenPartyworkgroupswere headedbygroupchairs WaltraudSchoppe,EllenOlms,andOttoSchily withadirectinterestinconflict resolutionconcerningwomen,internationallaw,andinternationalrelations.SeealsoGreenWorkGroup TelephoneList(WestGerman)Bundestag,Mimeo,(1988),n.p. 950 AppealofScientistsofSocialistCountries[Bulgaria,Czechoslovakia,EastGermany,Hungary,NorthKorea, Laos,Mongolia,Poland,Roumania,Vietnam,andtheSovietUnion],1984ConferenceoftheScientificCouncilon PeaceandDisarmament,Moscow,Mimeo(1984),13.ForabackgroundonSovietinterestsintheMiddleEast,see ArthurJayKlinghoffer,SovietOilPoliticsintheMiddleEastandSovietAmericanRelations(TelAviv:TelAviv University,No.6,Dec.1976),45.FortherelatedneedtotransplantmuchoftheSovietheavyGlav[ki]metal industrialplants,duringthe1940s,toKharkov,Moscow,andLeningrad,andevenSiberia,inordertopreventwarin theMiddleEastfromdestroyingtheSovietindustrialbase,see MauriceDobb,SovietEconomicalDevelopment Since1917 (London:Routledge&KeganPaul,Ltd.,1948),86,12527,and29798. 951 ClarenceLusaneandDennisDesmond,DrugWarGames,AnOverviewandAnalysisoftheDrugCrisis, MimeofromtheOfficeofthenU.S.RepresentativeWalterFauntroy,Washington,D.C.(Fall1989),24.No explanationsweregivenfortheplans20,000domesticprisons,scheduledfortheyear2005.Prisonshavenotheld topdomesticmoneyearnersinthepast.Theplanalsoignoredprecursorchemicalsrequiredtoproducecocaine,the majorityofwhichoriginatefromCalifornia.SeealsoCongress,House,SelectCommitteeonNarcoticsAbuseand Control, TheFlowofPrecursorChemicalsandAssaultWeaponsfromtheUnitedStatesintothe AndeanNations, 101stCongress,1stsess.,Nov.1989,SCNAC10118,1990,1285. 952 WithdebtstoU.S.,Israeli,Brazilian,andEuropeanbanks,Colombiamayalsohavebeensubjectedtoacovert U.S.OperationExtermination,basedonamodelofIsraelimanagedcovertactioninGuatemala,toeradicateanti dependencyorientedconflictresolution.SeeRafaelCribari, Colombia,OperacinExterminio(Montevideo, Uruguay:MonteSexto,1988),16and98105.

242

TheUnitedNationspeacekeepingmechanismsrecommendedbytheEsquipulasII Agreement,incontrast,werebasedsoundlyonAngolanandLebaneseinternationalconflict resolutionexperience.TheUnitedNationsAngolaVerificationMissionleader,PriclesFerreira Gomes(fromBrazil),ledtheinitialmappingeffortsanddeploymentexercisesforUnited Nationsisthmianpeacekeepingforces.ThisUnitedNationsObserverGroupinCentralAmerica

953 (ONUCA) concentratedonremovingobstaclestodisarmamentanddevelopmentforregional

peaceandsovereignty. TheprimeobstacletoreconciliationwastheContralogisticalnetwork.ONUCAwas thuscoordinatedbythefiveisthmiancapitalsasliaisoncenters,linkedtotheONUCA

954 headquartersinTegucigalpas,Honduras. AsthefirstUnitedNationspeacekeepingforcein

thewesternhemisphere,ONUCAformedfromSpanish,Canadian,andotherunarmedorlightly armedBlueHelmetforces.AlargerforcewasintendedbeforeVioletaChamorros1990 electoralwininNicaragua,iforganizinginitiativesinHondurascouldproceedfarenoughto

955 allowtheContrastoreturnunarmedtoNicaragua. ONUCAsproposalwassimilartothat

whichtheUnitedNationscontinuedtoadvanceforjusticeinJordan,Israel,Lebanon,andSyria, requestingthatrefugeesinexile(suchastheContrasorPalestinians)beallowedtoreturntotheir homecountryunderaninternationalgovernanceagreement. Nonetheless,theUnitedStateshaspersistedinitsworldorderapproachtoconflict

956 resolution. Atthesametime,operatingeconomicallylikeaThirdWorldstate,withaworld

orderorientedmilitary,theSovietswereguidedbyantidependencyexpectationsforabetter
957 958 future andsomecooperativeinput. But,toensurepeacefulinternationalconflictresolution

953 MajorGeneralAgustinQuesadaGmezAppointedChiefMilitaryObserverofONUCA,U.N.PressRelease,

SG/A/425,BIO/2438,CA/11(22Nov.1989),1. 954 U.N.,SecurityCouncil,ReportoftheSecretaryGeneral,(11Oct.1989),S/20895/0,12and9.Forconcurrent SovietviewpointsonEasternEurope,seeOlegBogomolov,TheSocialistWorldonthePathofRestructuring, ProblemsofEconomics31(July1988),1019.EasternEuropeisnolongerassubjectedtogeopoliticalviolenceas theisthmusandtheLevantcontinuetobe. 955 U.S.JoinsVoteforU.N.RegionalRole,SecurityCounciltoSend625TroopstoCentralAmericanBorder, WPT,8Nov.1989,A1.Usingairtransportationhasalsohelped bypassingtheindustrialstageofrailroads wheretheconflictistoointenseandtheterraintoodifficultseeTonyHodges,Angolatothe1990s,ThePotential ForRecovery (London:EconomistSpecialReportNo.1079,EconomicIntelligenceUnit,1987),114115and120 21.Airtransportationcoulddothesameintheisthmus,preparingitfora21stCenturyroleanalogousto Singapores. 956 DanielFreiandChristianCatrina, RisksofUnintentionalNuclearWar(Totowa,NJ:Rowmanand Allanheld/UNIDIR,1983),6675. 957 OlegBogomolov,TheSocialistCountriesataCriticalStageinWorldEconomicDevelopment,Problemsof Economics 30 (Dec.1987):3940.Thisbeliefwasbasedonproductiontrendsofoil,gas,steel,cement,electric

243

onindividualandgovernmentallevels,boththeUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionwillneedto
959 coordinateallthreeapproachesintheleastviolentwaypossible. Neitherofthetwo

superpowers,bothhandicappedbytheirownpowerfulperceptionsofviolentworldleadership, hassofarmanagedtoconceivesuchanapproach,althoughMikhailGorbachevsinternational reconstructiondreammayappeartobekinderandgentlerthanaworlddominatedbycrowded

960 prisonsenvisagedbyGeorgeBush.

Afinalpiecetothestillincompletepuzzleofinternationalconflictresolution concerns thepressingaspectofracial,linguistic,anddemographicconflict,especiallyintheSpanishand ArabicculturesoftheisthmusandtheLevant.English,themainlanguageoftheworldsmajor citiesfrom18001990,willrecedetofifthplacebytheyear2000,whileRussian(fourthin1900) droppedundertwentiethplacein1990.Thus,Berlin,Paris,London,Moscow,LosAngeles,and NewYorkCitywillbesurpassedinsizeaftertheyear2000bySeoul,Beijing,Bombay,Cairo, Lima,Madras,Shanghai,Calcutta,Jakarta,Karachi,NewDelhi,BuenosAires,SoPaulo, MexicoCity,andRiodeJaneiro. Inotherwords,inthetwentyfirstcentury,Arabic,Chinese,Hindi,Spanish,and Portuguesewillbespokenintheworldslargestcities,notFrench,English,German,and Russian.Inparticular,Bombay,Cairo,Madras,Calcutta,NewDelhi,andMexicoCitywill remainthesignificantcitiesnearthefourconflictzonesoftheWesternCaribbean,theEastern
961 Mediterranean,SouthernAfrica,andSoutheastAsia. FutureresearchinSpanishandArabic,

power,mineralfertilizers,wheeltypetractors,caterpillartractors,andmetalcuttingmachinetools,etc.,withthe highestexpectationsoftheformerSovietblocinEastGermany. 958 See[TatianaAlexandrovaPavlovainRussian, JohnBellersandEnglishSocialEconomicThought](Moscow: Nauka,1979),aswellasworksbyOlegBogomolovandYevgeniyPrimakov. 959 RenHabachi,UnePhilosophiepourNotreTemps (MuhadaratAlNadwah),Vol.14(Beirut:LesConferences duCnacle,1960),12731.SuchcoordinationwilllikelyincludedealingwithfuturisticDNA,ethnic,and enzymespecificweaponstechnologiesstillonthedrawingboardswhichmightbeaimedat ThirdWorldstates. SeeCarlLarson,EthnicWeapons, MilitaryReview 50(Nov.1970):411. 960 SuchanintegrationalsoneedstotranscendtheEurocentricitycommontoworldorderandantidependency approachesseeHerbAddo,Goals,Processes,andIndicatorsofDevelopment,GPID,FinalAdministrativeReport (Dec.1985),UNUMimeo[197782GPIDProjectcoordinatedbyJohanGaltung],2122,30,4252,and79orHerb Addo,OutlinesofaPossibleIntegrationMethodologyfortheFindingsoftheGoals,Processes,andIndicatorsof DevelopmentProjects,GPID/UNUMimeo,(Oct.1986),22,34,4951,8081,109110,and14243. 961 MahdiElmandjra(UniversityofMorocco),LanguagesSpokeninthe25LargestCitiesoftheWorld:Rank& Number(OfCities), IFDADossier51(Jan.Feb.1986):6.OnlyJapanese,focusedinmetropolitanOsakaand TokyoYokohama,willcontinuetorankatthetopwellintothetwentyfirstcentury.Racialprojectionsindicatethat French,English,German,andRussianspeakingwhiteEuropeanswillslipinracialdominancefrom33%(1/3) to18%(1/6)oftheworldstotalpopulationinthe1900s.Duringthelasthalfofthe1900s,SouthAfricaswhite populationisshrinkingsimilarlytounder12%.SeeGrardChaliand, OVa (Paris:CalmannLvy,1986),1218.

244

ifcurrentviolenttrendscontinue,willbecomecentralindevelopinginternationalconflict resolution.Thisresearchwillconcernhowtoresolveprogressivelymorecongested urbanization,disparitiesbetweenwealthandpoverty,tensionfrompopulationdensityinstates pronetoconflict,andburdensomeeconomic(debtdrug)conflictanddestabilization. SurprisestoExpectintheFuture Wemayexpectsurprisesinthefutureofinternationalconflictresolution. Judgingfrom thedifficultiesofwritingthiswork,itisclearthattheconceptsofserialandstructuralviolence needfurtherresearchattention.Indicatorsofserialviolenceshouldbelinkedmoreprecisely withthedegreeofsuccessinmeetingthehumanneedsofhousing,education,employment,and healthcare,andwiththehumanrightsoffreespeech,freeelections,andfreeassembly.Making someoftheseconnectionsintrendresearchonserialandstructuralviolenceuncoveredpowerful socialminefieldsorculturaltaboos,andcontrastedconceptualpolaritiesnotoriginallyexpected. Itwasnotoriginallyclear,forexample,thatCentralIntelligenceAgencyinterventionwas intendedtounderminetheinternationaldemonstrationeffectofCostaRicasunarmed diplomacy. Attemptstoimproveontheknowledgeofthesetrends,linkages,andindicatorsof violenceandnonviolencemayinvitebetter,moreincisiveresearchtoolstoprobeintense internationalviolenceandtodiscoverwaystocureit.Hopefully,thiskindofscientificresearch willgobeyondtheprurientfascinationwithwarandviolentpowerthatcharacterizescurrent politicallycoloredmassmediaimages.Trendresearchforpeaceandjusticeshouldimproveand integratecaringapproachesthatstrengthenthepowerofnonviolentconflictresolutiononlegal, social,economic,andpoliticallevels,notonlyonthelevelofinterpersonalinteraction. Thedeathtollisabluntsledgehammerlikeinstrumentforthescientificanalysisof power,conflictintensity,andthepotentialforsuccessinconflictresolution.But,asyet,no commonlyacceptedtoollesslikeabludgeoncanquantifytheconditionsofinternationalconflict

Itmaybesuchfutureconditionsthatwillbringfullmeaningtophraseslike worldapartheid,vividlyapplicablein whitestateslikeCostaRicasurroundedbyblackandlatinpopulations.

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resolution.Hopefully,futureresearchersmaybeabletoproceedlessclumsilybecausetheywill havebettertoolsandlessviolencetoaccountfor.Preventiveratherthaninterventivescientific tools,basedonlocalandglobalknowledgedrawnfromallthreeapproaches,mayadvancethis futureresearchwork forexample,toenabletheconstructionofaquantifiableecologyor ecologicalqualityoflifeindicator.Theremaybenoexitfromthegloballylethalarmsraceother

962 thansuchpainstakingresearchandcarefulcreativity.

Thelargestobstacletothisresearchandcreativityisthepartisanbiasoftheinternational relationsliteratureaboutwarandwarresolutioninstatessuchasCuba,Iceland,Laos,Vietnam, Angola,Barbados,Lebanon,Nicaragua,Vanuatu,andCostaRica.Aninitialunderstandingof thesestatesfromtheirownpointofview,tryingtousenonviolenceandtryingtoresolveserial violenceimposedonthembyoutsideintervention,cameonlythroughmanypersonalinterviews duringyearsoftravel oftenonfoot.Butunderstandingofthispotentiallyfertilefieldof knowledgeaboutpeacemustalsobecultivatedtogaintheawesomewealthhere,otherwisethe pragmaticpowerofnonviolencewillcontinuetobemarginalizedininternationalrelationsand developmentcontexts.
963 Relevantliteraturehasemergedonlyinslow,patient,andrevolutionarystruggle. In

themeantime,serialviolencewilllastaslongastheemotionallyentrenchedjudgmentsofreality thatrelativizethecriticalvalueofnonviolencefortheneedsandrightsofpeople.IntheTwenty FirstCentury,ifnonviolentmeansdonotgaincredence,wideningeconomicdisparitiescould continuetobrutalizeninetypercentoftheworldspoorest(ThirdWorld)peopleliterally impoverished,wounded,andkilledintheirdaily,facetofaceencounterswiththeotherten percentoftheworldsmilitarizedpeoplewithevenmoreserialviolence.

962 Thischoicebecamestarklyevidenttothe

authorduringconversationswithalongtimefriendandcorrespondent ofSimonedeBeauvoirHelenWenck aQuakerwhoovercamethepersonaltraumaofaNazideathcamp experience(Kalamazoo,MI,19791982). 963 AsimpressedupontheauthorduringconversationswithBonnieDay,a(U.S.)Quakerpoetexiledforactingasa courier relayingtensofthousandsofdollarsatatime fromU.S.peacemovementstoCanada.Themoney thenwenttohospitalsin HanoiandHaiphong,Vietnam,duringtheU.S.saturationbombing,bywayofMennonitesinCanadaandtheSoviet Union(Toronto,19741979).

246

Theauthorwasseriouslyhamperedbythispartisanbiasininternationalrelations literaturewhich:(1)obscureswhatweneedtoknowtodiscovertheviolentroleofmilitarization achievedbyconscriptionandtaxesforwarinthenationstateandthenonviolentresistanceto thismilitarization,and(2)blurswhatweneedtoknowtodisclosethepracticallinksbetween

964 thismilitarization,serialviolence,andthestructuralviolenceofunderdevelopment. This

partisanbiashaspreservedviolentpowerfromhealthycriticism,leftithiddenbythe equivocationofpowerandviolenceembeddedinthoughtandlanguagethatconcealsthe personaldependencyofmanystateleadersonviolentapproachesinconflictresolution.But powereuphemisticallyshieldedfromscrutinyasjustwarcanonlyentangleusinmorewar, insecurity,andunderdevelopment.Anequalrightsamendmenttosubstitutepersistent nonviolenceandcooperationforthisdeeplyembeddedlinguisticandinterculturalenslavement

965 toviolenceislongoverdueinourdreamforabetterfuture.

Limitedprogresstowardnonviolentinternationalconflictresolutionhasbeenmade throughtheUnitedNationsformulaondisarmament,development,andsecurity.Asaresult,the UnitedNationshasproposedbetterarmsmonitoring,especiallyforconventionalarms,which constituteeightypercentoftheweaponstheworldplans,produces,andstockpiles.These proposalscenterondebateoverbeginningafundthatwouldresolveunderdevelopmentby divertingmoneyawayfromarms.ThebulkoftheoppositiontothisfundcamefromSouth AfricaandtheUnitedStates.

964 SuchknowledgeisalsonotedbyJuditBalzs,PeaceResearchinHungary,InstituteforWorldEconomicsof

theHungarianAcademyofSciences,Mimeo,(11Jan.1985),12and69.SeealsoitsDevelopmentandPeace magazine,whichopenedcapitalistcommunistdialoguethroughanInternationalPeaceInstituteinVienna,Austria, encouraginginputbyU.S.scholarssuchasPaulPeachey. 965 TheupshotoftheU.N.securitythroughdisarmamentanddevelopmenthypothesishasthusbeenarguedtothe effectthattheideologicalmotororpowersourceofthearmsrace theshieldconceptofviolenceaspower, mutuallyreinforcedbyagloballywideningdisparityofwealthandpovertyandbyecologicaldisintegration is drivingusasaspeciestoomnicide.SeeU.N.,DisarmamentandDevelopment,A/36/356,132.Argumentssuch asthismayneedtoaddressprosaicquestionsaswell,e.g.,(1)Whymaytherighttorefusetokillandtopaytaxes forwarunderminethelegitimacyofthenationstatesystem(possiblyevenundercuttingtheviolenceofdrugsand thedebt)?and(2)Whyareomnicidalsystemspartofthenextstageofworldhistory(orlackthereof)inwhichthe nationstatesystemhasbecomeasuselessasthemedievalcastleinconfrontingthearmsofabygoneage?Such systemsare the problem,accordingtothefounderofIPRA:BertRling,DeUniversiteitenhetProbleemvan OorlogenVrede,UniversityPeaceDayLecture(Groningen,theNL:PolemologischeInstituutvande Rijksuniversiteit,1984/2),124.

247

Initiativesforthisdebateoperate throughaclearinghouse,theUnitedNationsInstitute forDisarmamentResearch(UNIDIR)inGeneva,Switzerland.Originally,CostaRica,Sweden, andtheNetherlands,withsupportfromCuba,India,andGermany,tookthepreliminarystepsin

966 1987towardcreatingdialogueonthisintegralapproachtointernationalconflictresolution.

Unfortunately,fewsuchinitiativesyetexistininternationalrelationsacademicprogramswhere theseinitiativesarethemostexigent:forexample,inLaos,Iceland,Angola,Lebanon,Vietnam, Namibia,Nicaragua,andVanuatu.However,despiteslowgrowth,CostaRicasUnitedNations affiliatedUniversityforPeacehasbroughtusonestepclosertotheglobalintegrationof

967 internationalconflictresolution.

Atthepresenttime,powerarticulatedbywarandviolencestillpervadesinternational approachestoconflictresolution.Reflectingeachstatesselfimage,aparallelpassive aggressivesyndromeradicallydifferentfromneutralityandnonalignmentcontinuesto influencenationalpeacemovementsasaresult.Whatevertheapproach,however,noneofthe threeapproacheshassucceededinusingpowerverywelltoresolveconflictonitsown.Only methodsandpracticethatintegrateandstreamlinethegoalsofthesethreeapproaches,whether innationalorinternationalcontexts,willensureourinterdependentsurvival,productivity,and creativityformakingpeaceinsteadofwaronlocalandgloballevels. Power,deployedasaconsensualprocessofforce,conflict,andcoercion,caneffect mutualchangeformutualbenefitthroughnonviolentcooperation.Anecologicalruleoflaw
966 HelmutVolger,DerWandelderPerzeptionvonAbrstungEntwicklungundKonversioninderUNO(Frankfurt

amMain:HaagandHerschenVerlag,1987)andPaulHubers,UnitedNationsConferenceontheRelationship BetweenDisarmamentandDevelopment, AmericanCounciloftheUnitedNationsUniversityNewsletter,Fall 1987,6.SeveralinterviewswithIngaThorssonduringtheNewYorkCityU.N.DisarmamentandDevelopment Conf.(Aug.Sept.1987)helpedtheauthorunderstandthisintegralapproachtointernationalconflictresolution. 967 Pleasereferalsotofootnote3inthischapter.TheLeagueofNations(until1938)andtheU.N.(19451990)have attemptedtoregistersomearms transferdataseeSIPRI,TheArmsTradewiththeThirdWorld(Middlesex, England:Penguin,1975),311.Furtherexplorationbysuchresearchcould,e.g.,developfindingsfromtheDutch consumerexperienceforanalyzinglegalizationofsoftdrugs.BrutalizationoftheWesternCaribbeanthrough violentconflictandpoverty,alignedwithanarmsanddrugbusiness,mighthavebeenavertedifsuchanenlightened policyhadchanneleddruguseintheUSA.Insteadsucharmsanddrugbusinesseshavedamagedthe international relationsofstateslikeCubaandCostaRica.Otherresearchdirectionsmayalsopermitnonviolentmicroanalysisfor rebuildingfamilyandkinshipsystems,onissueslikestatetaxes,power,andeconomicdevelopment.SeeLaDonna Harris,ReportfortheVanAmeringenFoundationontheAmericanIndianforOpportunitysFamilySystems Project,Mimeo,Washington,D.C.,23Dec.1989,163.

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basedonnonviolentpowerandresponsibility,supercedingmilitarizationandunderdevelopment whileimprovingaccesstohumanrightsandnecessities,willprovidethesimplestwaytoprevent serialandstructuralviolence.Untilmoreprogressismadetowardnonviolentconflictresolution formutualinternationalcoexistence,though,militarizationcomplicatedbydrugs,debt,and omnicidalweaponswillcontinuetoobstructpeaceablesecurityandecologicallysustainable development. Numerousattemptshavebeenmadetolessentheviolenceinthetheoriesandmethods withwhichweresolveinternationalconflict.Commonpoliticalpowerandcreativity,not economiccharity,havebeenfoundtobethemostviablemeansoverthelongtermforresolving

968 conflicteffectively,aboveallintheadvancementofeducationalplanningforpeace.

Thecreativepowerforsuchacommontheoryshouldelicitfrom usacommonmeaning
969 ofpower, usefulfordefense,freedom,justice,security,anddemocracy.Suchacommon

meaningshouldenableustosharepowerintheequitableaccessofhumannecessitiesfor development,ratherthantoviolateeachotherintheabuseofinnovativetechnologiesfor militarization.Theoutcomesfromsuchatheoryandmethodwillgiveustheinterdependent powerandstrengthweneedforcommonpeace,security,anddevelopment,aswellastheability topreventandresolveinternationalconflictwithlove,wellbeing,andconsensusthatis, peace.Theresultingcooperativepowerandresponsibility rootedinnonviolentforce, conflict,andcoercion willbethemostsurprisingofallforcreatingandencouragingpeace, security,andanecologicallysustainableenvironment.

968 LeonardGambrell,COPREDUNESCODisarmamentEducationSurvey,UniversityatEauClaire,WI(Dec.

1978),MimeoandLeonardGambrell,TeachingDisarmamentAtUniversities:AWorldSurvey,UNESCO Courier,Sept.1982,3031.SeealsoUNESCO,WorldDirectoryofPeaceResearchandTrainingInstitutions (OxfordandNewYork:UNESCOandBERG,1988). 969 Fromthe rootmeaningofthewordsforeducation,theancientLatinwordseducare and educere,i.e.,totrain, elicit,drawoutandleadout.SeeD.A.Kidd,CollinsLatinGemDictionary (London:Collins,1964),113and519 [ontoleadout].

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Sources
AppendixA:AnEtymologyoftheThreeApproaches
Understandably,underthepressuresforchangeorviolence,termsfortheapproachesof worldorder,antidependency,andnonviolencemayvaryinmeaningoutsideoftheEnglishor 970 Thetwomaindifferencesthatstandoutarehighlighted European(Romance)languages. withvariousnuancesintheproactive(notpassive)nonviolentandantidependencyapproaches. NonviolenceintheDutchlanguage,theworldslanguageofinternationallaw,forexample, translatesasgeweldloosheidliterallymeaningasolutionfreeofviolence.TheDutchterm nietgebonden(foranantidependencyapproach)meansnot,ornolongerboundorshackled.In contrast,theDutchwordfororde orordercanalsoindicateacomprehensiveworldclass(or 971 evenglobalapartheid)system. InArabic,asinSpanish,theterminologyresonateswithbiasesfororagainstviolence. ThesebiaseshavebeenmoldedbytheintensityofwarsconcentratedhistoricallyintheWestern CaribbeanandtheMiddleEast,aswillbediscussedaboveallinChaptersThreeandFive.The historicallinkageofthesetwoareashascoalescedthroughtheculturalintermixtureofthe SpanishandArabicworldviewsoverthelast1,500yearsinMoorishSpain asexpressedby thecommonSpanishhouseholdwordsforbasicpuebloarchitecturalstylesortheverybasicmeal ofbeansandrice(MorosCristianos).Thislinkagehasemergedcharacteristicallyfromthe
970 GuntherHaensch,et

al.,eds.,DictionaryofInternationalRelationsandPoliticsSystematicandAlphabeticalin FourLanguages:German,English/American,French,Spanish(Amsterdam:Elsevier,1965).Seepp.18485(no. 2461)forviolenceornonviolenceandpp.202203(no.2738)forworldorder.However,whiletermssuchas disarmamentarelistedhere,othertermssuchasdevelopmentorantidependencyarenottobefoundinthis638 pagedictionary.Suchtermsasthelattertwowillbeexploredinthedictionarycitationstofollow. 971 E.MartinandG.A.J.Tops,VanDaleGrootwoordenboekEngelsNederlands (UtrechtAntwerp:VanDale Lexicografie,1984),852,854,and886.FortherelevantGermanword, lsung,ascited,seeHerbertSchffler, SchfflerWeisEnglischDeutsch (Stuttgart:PonsGrosswrterbuch,1978),252and313.Pleasenoteaswell thattermsfromotherthantheRomanic(English,Russian,orNorthernEuropean)script,suchasthetermscited throughoutthedissertationfromtheChinese,Hindi,Arabic,andJapaneselanguages,arenotaccessiblebythe presentlyusedwordprocessingpackage(i.e.,WordPerfect5.1).TheIndian,orHindiJainistSanskrit,termsfor violenceandnonviolencemaybemorefamiliar,giventheexampleofMohandasGandhiforfightingviolence(or himsa)withnonviolence(ahimsa).SeeChapterTwoformoreontheIndianexperience.

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MoorishSpanishcitiesofGrenada,Cordoba(withpossiblythelargestfunctioningmosque outsidetheArabcentersofMecca,Damascus,andJerusalemorAlQuds),andSeville,aswellas theprovincesofAragon,Valencia,andCatalonia(includingBarcelona).Theintermixtureoften includesBasque,Muslim,ornonRomanCatholictraditionsinnorthern,mountainousGallego Spainaswell. TheArabictermsjabr,raghm,andzawrmeanviolence,whiletaallukandittikal indicatedependency.Likewise,alammeanstheworld,anddunyaor kaidah,orderly 972 However,alnidhamaljadidindicatesthemostmodern(world)order,and governance. adamalittikal (orfreeofoppression),antidependency. Launf(ornoviolence)means 973 nonviolence[Sabr,patience]. InRussian,atkazot(ortorefuse)nasiliye(orviolence)translatelooselyasnonviolence. BothEnglishandRussianwordsforworldordertakeacontextuallytopdownviewofpower, wheremilitaryprowessallegedlyguaranteessecurity.But,asmightbeexpected,givennotable Sovietwarepics,antipatchiiye(orsubjugation) orantidependency meansrejectionof 974 subjugation. TheChineseandJapanese,ontheorientalsideoftheplanet,sharebasicSpanishand Arabicinsightsonnonviolenceandantidependency.LiketheArabicwordsforamodern worldorder,forinstance,theChinesewordsforworldorder,zhixu,combinetheolderwordsof shi,jia, zhi,andxu.Thusantidependency(fanyilai)andnonviolence(fanbaoli)arealsoterms
972 JosephCatafago,

AnEnglishandArabicDictionary (London:BernardQuaritch,1858),444,746,1035,and 1055.TheremarksaboutMoorishSpainarebasedontravelexperiencedbytheauthorinSpain,NorthernAfrica, andtheMiddleEast,aswellasLatinAmerica.OneneedonlythinkofsuchtravellingseersasMaimonidesorIbn alArabitomakethispoint. 973 TheauthorisgratefultoAbdulAzizSaidandto MubarakAwadforhelpoverthesetermsinArabic(particularly nonviolence).SeealsoJ.M.Cowan, ArabicEnglishDictionary,TheHansWehrDictionaryofModernWritten Arabic(Ithaca,NY:SpokenLanguageServices,1976),104(fromtaqil forheavy,burdensome),114,597,649,851, and978.Anotherterm, sabra,alsoindicatesnonviolencetoacertaindegree.Sabraconcernsnotonlythesucculent partsofathornydesertcactus,(whichmayactasabotanicalspecifictocounterdysentery),butalsothepatience thatonlythealkalinedesertcanteach.However,inmodernHebrew(orEevreet)streetslang, sabra alsodenotes thoseJewishpeopleborninIsrael. 974 V.S.ShakhNazarova,N.O.Volkova,andK.V.Zhiravchenko,eds., EnglishRussianDictionaryofDiplomacy (Moscow:Yazyk,1989),50,207,485,489,510,804,and831.SeealsoV.P.Filatov,RussianEnglishDictionary ofSocioPoliticalTerms(Moscow:Yazyk,1987),315,aswellasJ.NogueiraandG.Turover,DiccionarioManual RusoEspaol (Moscow:Yazyk,1979),225.

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thatproactivelychallengeviolentcolonialforce(bao)andpower(li),rootedinthebitter 975 memoriesofwar,famine,andcolonization. Moreover,theJapaneseusetwowordsfortheEnglishtermnonviolence.Thefirst, hiboryoku,meanstheirresistibleresolutionofviolence,andthesecond,muteiko,meanspassive obedienceinthecontextof dokuritsujison(orantidependentselfesteem,respect, importance,andindependence).Finally,kokusaichitsujoindicatesaninternationallydisciplined 976 worldorder,ultimatelymaintainedbymilitaryforceandpower.

AppendixB:ResearchSources
Pleasenotethattheauthorschoiceofsourceshasbeenguidedbyasearchfor academicallydistinguishedresearch,aboveallforsuchresearchsourcesasthosewhich have emergedfromgraduatelevelpeaceandconflictresolutionuniversityprograms.Suchprograms wouldincludethedoctoratelevelprogramsininternationalbusinessandsociology(Bradford, England),ininternationallaw(Groningen,theNetherlands),andininternationalpolitical economy(Budapest,Hungary). Ongoing,butcontestedinformation,suchasthatconcerningtheethicsofnational leaders,forexample,GeorgeBush,wasomittedfromthedissertation,sincesuchmaterialwould notbedeemedappropriatetothispioneerwork.However,therehavebeenmanysuch statements(yettobeprovenbyacourtoflaw)intheWashingtonPost,theNewYorkTimes,and theWallStreetJournal.Inaddition,whenquotingfromsourcesthatmayhavebeenconditioned bythepastColdWar,everyattemptwasmadetoquotefromuniversitypresses,suchasthe Nauka(meaningScience)orYazyk(meaningCulturalEducation)presseslinkeddirectlytothe

975 K.Hemeling, EnglishChineseDictionaryoftheStandardChineseSpokenLanguage

(Freeport,NewYork: BooksforLibrariesPress,1973),Vol.1, AF,368,Vol.2, GP,971Vol.3, QZ,1595and1646.Theauthoris alsogratefulto variousChinesegraduatestudents,aswellasHweiLingHuo,anassistantprofessorofChineseand AsianstudiesduringApril1991,atTheAmericanUniversityfortheirpatienceinhelpingtodefinethesedifficult totranslateterms.PleasenotethattherearenoprecisephoneticEuropeannuancesfortheunderlined,Romanized terms.Eventherelativemusicaltonalsoundsmaydiffer. 976 ObunshasJapaneseEnglishDictionary (Tokyo[?]:Obunshas,1972),80,108,154,407,589,and744.See alsoOresteand EnkoElisaVaccari, EnglishJapaneseConversationDictionary (London:KeganPaul,Trench, Trubner&Co.,1959).TheauthorisgratefultoanonymousEmbassyofficersattheJapaneseEmbassyinformation centerinWashington,D.C.,duringApril1991,forhelpindefiningtheseterms.

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MoscowState(MGU)University.Likewise,citationsfromapparentlyobscureperiodicalswere usedonlyifconfirmedbytwoorthreeothersimilarreferences. ThisAppendixonresearchsourcesforthedissertationwillbedividedintotwoparts. Thefirstpartcitestheprimarysourceshelpfulforspecialinsight,beyondthepeoplealready mentionedinthebeginningAcknowledgements.Then,basedonresearchandinterviewswith primarysourcestohelpreaderswhomaywanttodosimilarresearchonatopicasdifficultas CostaRica(claimingtobewithoutmilitarypower) thesecondpartliststenhelpfulbooks, theses,monographs,andperiodicalarticlesforeachofthethreepartsofthedissertationonthe theory,method,andoutcomeofinternationalconflictresolution. Asprimarysourcesforresearch,IreceivedhelpfulinsightinCostaRicafromJohn TrostleandMollyFiguerolaoftheMonteverdeCommunity,aswellasErnaCastro,Margaret Metzinger(Professor,Heredia),PatriciaRebolledoandLezak(Lisa)ShallatplusGuadalupe UrbinaforhersongsfromtheSan JosPeaceCenter.Otherhelpfulconversationstookplace withManuelArayaIncera(DirectorofFLACSO,CostaRica),AlexanderBonilla(Founderof theEcologicalParty),GerardoBudowski(Ecologist,UnitedNationsUniversityofPeace),Judy Butler(Editor, Envo,Managua),MaraliseHood(Negotiator,UnitedNationsUniversityof Peace),LucreciaLozano(Professor,NationalUniversityofMexico),LuisMesaDelmonte (Cuba),ClotildeMaraObregonQuesada(Professor,UniversityofCostaRica,bytelephone), JulioQuan(Professor,UnitedNationsUniversityofPeace),andMattijsVonBonzel(attach,the NetherlandsEmbassyinSanJos).ForestryofficersoftheNorwegianEmbassyinSanJosand theSwedishEmbassyinManaguawerealsohelpfulforidentifyingissues.InCuba,Toms FidelCastellanosGarcaandMartnMedinaRodrguezalsoguidedmeinmeetingMartaTerri, directoroftheNationalJosMartLibrary. TheinformationspecialistsofmosthelpwerefoundatTheAmericanUniversityBender Library,especiallyShirleyRosenstockintheInterLibraryLoandivision,andatthe specializedDisarmamentLibraryoftheUnitedNations,linkedtotheNewYorkCityUnited NationsDagHammarskjoldLibrary.AdditionalhelpcamefromtheUnitedNations Washington,D.C.InformationCenterLibrarytheInternationalLaborOfficeLibrarytheUnited StatesLibraryofCongressMain,Law,Maps,Manuscript,andMicrofilmdivisionstheNational LibraryofCostaRicainSanJosandtheuniversitylibrariesoftheUniversityofCostaRicain SanJostheNationalUniversityofCostaRicainHerediatheHistoricalInstituteofthe

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UniversityofCentralAmericainManaguaandtheGraduateInstituteofInternationalRelations inHavana.BruceSherman,attheRadio/TVMarti(Cuba)ResourceCenterLibraryofthe UnitedStatesInformationAgencyinWashington,D.C.,wasalsohelpful. TheexpertiseofpeopleintheStockholmInternationalPeaceResearchInstitute,the PolemologicalInstituteoftheNationalUniversityatGroningenintheNetherlands,andvarious Quakerorganizations(theQuakerUnitedNationsOfficeinGeneva,theAmericanandCanadian FriendsServiceCommittees,QuakerPeaceandServiceinLondon,andtheFriendsCommittee onNationalLegislation),washelpfulalso.Finally,thenetworkofferedbytheInternational PeaceResearchAssociationNewsletter(editedbyEliseBouldingandClovisBrigago) complementedthefollowingclippingcollections:theDataCenterFiles(Oakland,CA)usedat theGeorgetownUniversityCentralAmericanHistoricalCenter,theCenterofEconomic Research(CIDE,MexicoCity)andtheCostaRicanInternationalRelationsdepartmentlibraryin Heredia,CostaRica. Thefollowingtenexamplesofbooks,theses,monographs,andperiodicalarticlesof fundamentalimportancecorrespondtoeachofthethreepartsofthedissertation: PartI.Theory: Bellers,John.SomeReasonsforAEuropeanState(1710).InWilliamPennetlaPaix. EditedbyTaroTerasaki.Paris:A.Pedone,1925. Castro,Fidel. TheWorldEconomicandSocialCrisis.Havana:CouncilofState PublishingOffice,1983. Chaliand,Grard,andJeanPierreRageau.StrategicAtlas,AComparativeGeopoliticsof theWorldsPowers.NewYork:HarperandRow,1985. Detzer,Dorothy.AppointmentonCapitolHill.NewYork:HenryandCo.,l948. Eddington,Arthur. ThePhilosophyofScience.NewYork:MacMillanCo.,1939. Fuerst,J.S.MoreThanaPeacemaker,ThePoliticalWritingsofOscarArias. Commonweal(4December1987). Kelley,Florence.ModernIndustry.NewYork:Longmans,Green,andCo.,1914reprint ed.,NewYork:Hyperion,1975. Mahan,AlfredThayer.TheMonroeDoctrine.NationalReview 40(February1903). Maislinger,Andreas,ed.CostaRica,Politik,GesellschaftundKultureinesStaatesmit StandigerAktiverundUnbewaffneterNeutralitt.Innsbruck,Austria:University ofInnsbruck,1986. Paul,Alice.TowardsEquality,AStudyoftheLegalPositionofWomenintheUnited States.LL.D.Diss.,TheAmericanUniversity,1928. PartII.Method:

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Bailey,Sydney.HowWarsEnd.Vols.1&2.Oxford:Clarendon,1982. Frank,AndrG.ArmsEconomyandWarfareintheThirdWorld.ThirdWorld Quarterly2(1980). GarciaMuiz,Humberto.LaEstrategiadeEstadosUnidosyElMilitarizacindel Caribe.RoPiedras:UniversityofPuertoRico,1988. Grinevich,E.,andB.Gvozdariov.WashingtonContraLaHabana.Moscow:Progress, 1986. Hubers,Paul.AGlobalMethodologyofNonviolence.GandhiMarg [NewDelhi, India],97(April1987). Marshall,Jonathan,PeterDaleScott,andJaneHunter.TheIranContraConnection, SecretTeamsandCovertOperationsintheReaganEra.Boston,Massachusetts: SouthEndPress,1987. Mata,Leonardo.InvestinginEducationandHealthversusMilitarism:TheCaseof CostaRica.IPPNW[InternationalPhysiciansforPreventionofNuclearWar, Boston]Report2(October1984). MacBride,Sean.TheRighttoRefusetoKill.Geneva:InternationalPeaceBureau,1971. McCoy,Alfred,CathleenRead,andLeonardAdams.ThePoliticsofHeroininSoutheast Asia.NewYork:Harper&Row,1972. Yarrow,C.H.Mike.QuakerExperiencesinInternationalConciliation.NewHaven,CN: YaleUniversityPress,1978. PartIII.Outcome: AsambleaLegislativa[ofCostaRica].ComisinEspecialNombradaParaInvestigarLos HechosDenunciadosSobreNarcotrfico.Expediente10.684,InformeFinal,San Jos(20July1989). Barry,Tom,BethWood,andDebPreusch.DollarsandDictators,AGuidetoCentral America.Albuquerque,NewMexico:ResourceCenter,1982. Heiberg,Marianne.ObservationsonUNPeaceKeepinginLebanon.Norsk UtenrikspolitiskInstitutt/NUPI305(September1984). Kende,Istvan.TwentyFiveYearsofLocalWars,JournalofPeaceResearch8(1971). Kende,Istvan.WarsofTenYears.JournalofPeaceResearch15(1978). MuroRodrguez,Mirta,etal.NicaraguaylaRevolucinSandinista.Havana:Editorial deCienciasSociales,1984. ObregonQuesada,ClotildeMara.CostaRica,RelacionesExterioresdeUnaRepblica enFormacin,18471849.SanJos:EditorialCostaRica,1984. Nussbaum,Arthur.AConciseHistoryoftheLawofNations.NewYork:MacmillanCo., 1947. Szentes,Tmas.EconomicEffectsofGlobalMilitarization.DevelopmentandPeace4 (Spring1983). Werth,Gnter.TagebuchEinerAggression,ChronologischeDarstellungderdrchdie AmerikanischeBritischeAggressionimLibanonundinJordanien HervorgerufenenNahstkrise.WestBerlin:VerlagdesMinisteriumsfr NationaleVerteigigung,1958.

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AppendixC:SerialViolenceData
Workonsomesortofindicatorfortheintensityofviolenceandthepotentialforthe resolutionofconflictsince1945beganwithnotmuchmorethanamorphousliteratureon conflict.Muchofthisliteratureunfortunatelycoversconflictregardingthesocalledgreat powersmorethanotherconflict,althoughitiswellknownthatwarsince1945hasbeen concentratedintheThirdWorld.Thesewidelyavailablegreatpowereventsdatabasescanbe accessed,forexample,via:JohnJessup,AChronologyofConflictandResolution,19451985 (NY:Greenwood,1989)orClaudioCioffiRevilla,TheScientificMeasurementofInternational Conflict:HandbookofDatasetsonCrisesandWars,14951988A.D. (Boulder:L.Rienner, 1990). Buttherewereindicationsofsomethingquitedifferentinsourcessuchasthosecitedin AppendixBabove,orviaAndrGunderFrank,ArmsEconomyandWarfareintheThird World,ThirdWorldQuarterly,2(1980)andTheImpactofMilitarizationonDevelopmentand HumanRights,BulletinofPeaceProposals,9(1978).Similarindicationsofsomething differentweretobefoundinarticlesscatteredthroughoutvariousjournals,suchas:Greenpeace, ScienceforthePeople, GandhiMarg(Delhi),MiddleEastReport(MERIP),NACLAsReporton theAmericas,DevelopmentandPeace(Budapest), CovertActionInformationBulletin,andthe NordicJournalofLatinAmericanStudies.PleaserefertotheSelectBibliography. Progressininitiallyidentifyingzonesofconflictbeganbyexploringthetwoseparate, independentdatasetsdescribedbelow,onthechronologicalincidenceofwarfare,byIstvan KendeandGrardChaliand.Thisprogressledtowardthequantitativeindicatorofwhatwould becalledserialviolence. Serialviolence,asdescribedalsoinchapterfive,denotesthe quantitativeindicatorusedtomeasuretheintensityofcondensed,continuous,orperiodic conflict,andthepotentialforconflictresolution.Ahigherserialviolenceindicatorshouldmean lowerpotentialforresolutionofconflict.Theindicatoritselfisapercentage,derivedfromtotal numbersofpeoplekilledinwardividedbynationalpopulationtotals,forconflictlastingover twentyyears,from19451985forthezones,andforaslateas1989forthepercentagesofserial violence.PleaseseethespecificsectioncalledSerialViolenceinchapterfiveforfurtherdetails onthederivationofthisindicator. AppendixCon SerialViolenceData consistsofthreemajortables:1)A WarIntensity From1945to1985 tabletoindicatehowwarshaveclusteredinfourmajorzonesofwar

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(identifiedassuchinchapterthree)2)A WarZonestabletosummarizethedatafromthefirst tableand3)A ThirdWorldSerialViolenceIntensitytabletodepicttheserialviolence indicatorfortenspecificcountries(asbrieflyillustratedbyabargraphinchapterfive). Thefirsttable,WarIntensityFrom1945To1985,containscomparativedatafromthe twodatasets,firstfromIstvanKende(1978),theoriginatorof muchofthissortofdata,who definedwarascontinuous,althoughperhapssporadic,armedclasheswithsomehierarchical (state)organizationatleastononesideoftheconflict.Kendedidthisworkatthepeaceand conflictresolution ThirdWorlddataprojectinBudapest,whichiswellknownforits ratheruniquedataofthisnature.DataconfirmingKendesworkisprovidedinaseconddataset fromGrardChaliandandothers(1985).Kendenotes99suchwars,Chaliandetal.101such wars.Each eventofserialviolenceisidentifiedasoccurringinacertainwarzone:forexample, intheWesternCaribbean,theMiddleEast,SoutheastAsia,orSouthernAfrica.Therefore,for instance,Kendenotesthat16ofthe99(16%)whichhecountedtookplaceintheWestern Caribbean,whileChaliandetal.notethat12ofthe101wars(12%)whichtheycountedtook placeintheWesternCaribbean.ThePercentageofwaringlobalwarzonesunderneaththe countandpercentageofwarsforeachzoneindicatesthepercentageofwarsfoughtexclusively withinthefourwarzones. Bothsourcescountwarsconsideredassuchininternationalrelationsliterature,without referencetowhokilledwhoinsuchwarsdominatedbyciviliancasualties.Thedefinitionsof bothKendeandChaliandetal.closelyapproximatetheuseofthewordwarasdefinedattheend ofchapterone,thatis,asaconditionmarkedbyfrequentepisodesofarmed,hierarchical violencecharacterizedbycontentionandarmedaggressionpleaseseethissameplaceinchapter oneforadefinitionofpeaceifnecessary.ThemaindifferencebetweenKendeandChaliandet al.isthatthelattercontendthatwarinthefourwarzonesinvolvesoutsideintervention (sometimesarms,sometimessoldiers,...), andthusincludesamainagentofintervention markedinthetablebythenameoftheThirdWorldstate,aslashmark,andwhattheycontend wasthemajoroutsideinterventiveagent. Thesecondtable,WarZones,comparesthepercentagesofthetwodatasetsfrom1945 to1985.Ontheleftmargin,thefourzonesarelistedonebyone(toindicatepercentagesfor warsinsidethezones,allotherwars,andallwarsasawhole).Themiddlecolumncontains percentagesofwarsenumeratedbyKende.Ontherighthand,anothercolumncontains

257

percentagesofwarsenumeratedbyChaliandetal.Thetwodatasetsindicatethatsomewhere between63%and71%allwarssince1945havebeenfoughtintheglobalwarzones. Finally,thedatainthelasttable,aWarIntensityFrom1945To1985 table,focusesthe informationfromthefirsttwotablesintheindicatorofserialviolence.Thetimeperiodsforthis serialviolence,andthefullmeaningofthisindicator,havealreadybeenexplainedindepthand summarizedbyabargraphinchapterfive.Thefourcolumnsinthistablelisttenstatesas examples,includingdatafortheirbodycount(peoplekilledinwar),theirpopulationcount(in millions),andtheirserialviolencepercentages(asreadfromlefttorightbycolumn). Comprehensivefootnotesgivefurtherreferencesusedtocomputethevalueforeachserial violencepercentageindicator.

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WarIntensityFrom1945To1985
977 DataSetOnefromIstvanKende(19451978) (TheMostComprehensiveDataSet)

WesternCaribbean
16of99wartotal Worldwarpercentagetotal: Percentageofwaringlobalwarzones: 195961 196170 1962 1962 1963 1965 1969 1972 16% 22%

1948 194853 1950 1954 1955 1957 1957 1959

CostaRica Colombia PuertoRico Guatemala CostaRica/Nicaragua Honduras/Nicaragua Colombia DominicanRepublic

Cuba Venezuela Guatemala Colombia DominicanRepublic DominicanRepublic ElSalvador/Honduras Colombia

MiddleEast
35 of99wartotal Worldwarpercentagetotal: Percentageofwaringlobalwarzones: 195563 Oman Suez 195658 Aden 1958 Lebanon 1958 Jordan 1961 Tunisia 1961 Ethiopia 196164 Iraq/Kurds 196270 Yemen 1956 1967 1968 1969 1971 IsraelArab/PLO SouthYemen S.Yemen/SaudiArabia Jordan/PLO 35% 49%

194445 1945 194649 1948 194849 195152 195254 195462 195559 1963 196364 196364 196367

Greece Algeria Iran Yemen Palestine Egypt Tunisia Algeria Cyprus Algeria/Morocco Somalia/Ethiopia Cyprus SouthYemen

977 IstvanKende,WarsofTenYears,

JPR 15(1978):227and23941.

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196367 1965 196570 196572

Somalia/Kenya Oman Iraq/Kurds Sudan

1972 1973 197475 1974 197576

Yemen/SouthYemen IsraelArabstates IraqKurds Cyprus Lebanon

SoutheastAsia
10of99wartotal Worldwarpercentagetotal: Percentageofwaringlobalwarzones: 1962 1963 1965 1970 1975 Brunei Malaysia Thailand Kampuchea EastTimor 10% 14%

194549 1948 195575 195762 1959

Indonesia Burma Vietnam Indonesia Laos

SouthernAfrica
10of99wartotal Worldwarpercentagetotal: Percentageofwaringlobalwarzones: 196364 1964 1967 197273 1972 10% 14%

194748 195256 1959 196069 1961

Madagascar Kenya Nyasaland Zaire/Congo Angola

Rwanda Mozambique Zimbabwe Burundi Uganda/Tanzania

FourotherauthorscompiledtheseconddatasetinitiatedbyGrardChaliand(1945 1985)for101internationalwareventsfrom1945to1983.Theglobalwarzonesaccountfor64 wars,or62%ofthe101warevents.SeeGrardChaliandandJeanPierreRageau,Trans.by TonyBerrett,MapsbyCatherinePetit,StrategicAtlas,AComparativeGeopoliticsofthe WorldsPowers(NewYork:Harper&Row,1985),4850,fortheseconddataset(19451985) below:

260

WarIntensityFrom1945To1985(Cont.)
WesternCaribbean (allincludeU.S.tosomedegree) 12of101wartotal Worldwarpercentagetotal: Percentageofwaringlobalwarzones: 1965 1969 1972 1976 1980 1983 12% 19%

1953 1954 195659 1961 196168 196267

Colombia Guatemala/Honduras Cuba Cuba Guatemala Venezuela

DominicanRepublic ElSalvador/Honduras Nicaragua ElSalvador Guatemala Grenada

MiddleEast
30of101wartotal Worldwarpercentagetotal: Percentageofwaringlobalwarzones: 29% 47%

194547 1946 194749 194749 19525 195559 1956 1958 1961 1961 196267 1963 196364 196367 1965

Israel/England 196876 Oman/England Azerbaijan/IraniKurds 1970 Jordan/PLO Israel/Arabstates 1974 Greece/Turkey Greece/U.S. 1974 Ogaden/Ethiopia Tunisia/France 197578 Lebanon/U.S./Israel Cyprus/England 1976 Lebanon/Syria Suez/French/British 197677 Djibouti/France Lebanon/U.S. 1977 Ethiopia/Cuba/U.S. Iraq/Kurds/England 197778 Somalia/Ethiopia Eritrea/U.S. 1978 Iran/Kurds Yemen/Egypt 197879 Iran/U.S. Algeria/Morocco 1978 Afghanistan/U.S. Cyprus/Turkey/U.S. 1979 Afghanistan/USSR SouthYemen/England 1979 Iran/Iraq Israel/PLO/U.S./USSR 1982 Lebanon/Israel

SoutheastAsia
12of101wartotal Worldwarpercentagetotal: Percentageofwaringlobalwarzones: 195758 1960 Sumatra/U.S. Laos/U.S. 12% 19%

194654 194654

Vietnam/France Laos/France

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194649 1946 1946 194854

Indonesia/Netherlands196065 Indonesia/NL/U.S. Malaysia/England 1965 Kampuchea/U.S. Thailand/U.S. 196575 Vietnam/U.S. Burma/U.S. 1974 EastTimor/Australia

SouthernAfrica
10of101wartotal Worldwarpercentagetotal: Percentageofwaringlobalwarzones: 196479 1970 1972 1977 1980 10% 16%

195254 195864 196176 196364 1964

Kenya/England Zaire/Belgium/U.S. Angola/Portugal/U.S. Ruanda/U.S./RSA Mozambique/RSA/U.S.

Uganda/England/Israel Namibia/RSA/U.S. Burundi/U.S./RSA Zaire/U.S./RSA/Israel Angola/U.S./RSA/Israel

Allotherwarsoutsidethefourglobalwarzones,listedbyboththeabovesources: 978 IstvanKende(19451978):28otherwars 194548 194649 194647 194654 194649 1947 1949 195053 1952 195265 1955 195563 1956 195664 Spain Greece India/Pakistan Philippines China Paraguay Bolivia Korea Bolivia Morocco China(Islands) Cameroon Hungary India/Nagas/Nepal/Goa 195859 195960 1962 196374 1963 1965 1967 196770 196872 1969 197076 1971 1971 1975 China(Quemoy) Paraguay India/China GuineaBisseau India/Pakistan Peru Bolivia Nigeria Chad Ireland/UK Philippines Bangladesh SriLanka WestSahara

979 GrardChaliand(19451985):37otherwars 194549 194749 1948 China/U.S./England India/Pakistan India/England 19661982 1967 196770 Sudan/England Bolivia/U.S. Biafra/Nigeria/OAU

978 IstvanKende,WarsofTenYears,

JPR 15(1978):23941.TheuseofRSAreferstotheRepublicofSouth AfricaandNLtotheNetherlands. 979 GrardChaliand,etal., StrategicAtlas,4850.

262

194952 195051 195053 1953 1955 1956 1957 1959 1961 1961 1961 1962 1964 1965 196573 196582

Philippines/U.S. 196770 Brazil/U.S. China/Taiwan/U.S. 1968 Ireland/England Korea/U.S. 1968 Czechoslovakia/USSR Morocco/France 196882 Chad/France China/Tibet/India 1969 China/USSR Hungary/USSR 1971 Bangladesh/India Cameroon/France 1973(89) Chile/U.S. India/China 197377 Pakistan/India/U.S. Goa/India/Portugal 1975 Spain/Basques/U.S. Mauritania/France 1977 Philippines/U.S. Tunisia/France 1979 CentralAfrica/France India/China 1980 Philippines/U.S. Gabon/France 1980 Chad/Libya India/Pakistan/U.S. 1980 Gambia/Senegal Uruguay/U.S. 1982 Malvinas/England Peru/U.S.

980 WarZones (AComparisonofDataSetPercentages),ByZones(194585)

ZoneTotals Kende(19451978)Chaliand(19451985) (Averages19451985)Percentages Percentages MiddleEast WesternCaribbean SoutheastAsia SouthernAfrica OtherWars 35% 16 10 10 29 29% 12 12 10 37 100

AllWars100

Pleasenotethatthesewardeadfiguresfor19451985mayincludefaminedead.Suchfiguresare considerablylesspreciseorcomprehensivethanglobalarmsracefiguresforthecostandnumberofweapons,even inbasicThirdWorld disarmamentresearchliterature.Thesefourglobalconflictzones,withapopulationbetween 550,000,000and1billionoftheworlds5billionpeople,maywellbeexperiencingaserialviolenceratedoubleor triplethe19381945rateof1%dead.

980 TheauthorisgratefultoStevenArnoldforfeedbackhere.

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ThirdWorldSerialViolenceIntensity
AsConservativelyMeasuredbyPercentagesfromWarDead(Corpses),
981 DividedbyNationalPopulation,ByZoneandCountry(194585)

Country

BodyCount

Population(inmillions) 3.0 8.0 5.1 2.6 4.2 60.5 3.8 6.2 7.9 1.1

Percentage 3.3% 1.7 1.3 510.0% 982 0.30.6 510.0 510.0 232.0 983 1.35.0 984 0.72.5

Nicaragua 100,000 Guatemala 65,000 ElSalvador139,000 Lebanon130,000260,000 Israel14,00024,000 Vietnam3,000,0006,100,000 Laos190,000380,000 Kampuchea 124,0002,000,000 Angola100,000396,000 Namibia8,00027,500
981 See

UnitedNations,WorldPopulationProspects,EstimatesandProjectionsasAssessedin1984 (NewYork: U.N.,1986)andWilliamEckhardt,AppendixI,WarsandWarrelatedDeaths,19451989,inBernardWood,ed., PeaceinOurTime?ACanadianAgendaintothe1990s(Ottawa:CanadianInstituteforInternationalPeaceand Security,AnnualStatement,1990),4447.ThisCanadianInstituteprecededtheU.SInstituteof Peace.Seealso RuthLegerSivard,WorldMilitaryandSocialExpenditures,11thed.(Washington,D.C.:WorldPriorities,1986) RuthLegerSivard,WorldMilitaryandSocialExpenditures,10thed.(Washington,D.C.:WorldPriorities,1985) RuthLegerSivard,WorldSocialandMilitaryExpenditures1989(Washington,D.C.:WorldPriorities,1989) StephenGoose,AWorldAtWar 1983,DefenseMonitor12/1(1983):entireissueStephenGoose,Armed Conflictsin1986,andtheIraqIranWar, SIPRIYearbook,1987,WorldArmamentsandDisarmament (Oxford, England:OxfordUniversityPress,1987),297317JorgeArturoReina, AnlisisdelosConflictosenAmrica Central(Heredia,CostaRica:CentrodeEstudiosDemocrticosenAmricaLatina,1987),18andGaryLewis, ThirdWorldWar, South 70(August1986):4445. 982 A14,000or0.3%Israeliwardeadfigure,whichcompareswith10%in1940swarsinRussia,Yugoslaviaand Poland,canbeextrapolatedfromBaruchKimmerling,MakingConflictaRoutine:Cumulative Effectsofthe ArabJewishConflictUponIsraeliSociety,inMosheLissak,ed., IsraeliSocietyandItsDefenseEstablishment, TheSocialandPoliticalImpactofaProtractedViolentConflict(Totowa,NJ:FrankCass&Co.,1984),p.17. JoshuaBrilliant,[DefenseSourceReleasesIDFCasualtyData, JerusalemPost,22January1985,2],lists15,632 Israeliwardeadfrom1948to1985,including986wardeadinLebanon.ThesefiguresmaynotincludePalestinian wardead.VerifiableSyrian,Egyptian,orPalestinianwardeadcountsarehardtofindintheliterature.Estimates takingintoaccountdifferingwartechnologylevelswouldmakePalestinianorEgyptianwardeadcountshigherthan Israelitotalsfrom194585.TheCanadiangovernmentstatisticsforIsraelcite24,000dead,or0.5%,whichmayor maynotincludePalestiniandead. 983 SoutheastAsianandSouthernAfricanchangessince1975makeitdifficulttofindreliabledata.See PresidentialVisittoBelgium, ANGOP,12Oct.1987,5,giving60,000deadtotheCanadiangovernmentnumberof 396,000.Cubanwardeadtotalsareanothermatter.Otherpercentagesnotasconcentratedastheseriallevelsof violenceshownonthechartabove:Chile,China,Cuba,Egypt,Jordan,Zaire,India,Syria,CostaRica,SouthAfrica, andSriLankaunder0.2%IraqandIndonesiaabout0.5%Cyprus,Algeria,Mozambique,andColombiaabout1% NorthandSouthYemen,Rwanda,Ethiopia,Bangladesh,andGuineaBisseauabout1.5%Iran,Burundi,Algeria, Nigeria,andAfghanistanunder2%Ugandaat3.7%andfinally,theSudanandNorthKoreaunder5%.The CanadianfiguresforMozambiqueare3.2%serialwardead,butwhetherthesefiguresarecomparabletothosein AngolanandNamibianhistories,ortheSouthAfricanmilitarybodycounts,isnotmadeclear.Angolan,Namibian, Kampuchean,andMozambiquanwardeadnumbersaredifficulttoascertainwithpoliticallyimpartialcertainty. 984 Ashake,SWAPOrepresentativetoWashington,D.C.,inhishomeandoffice,personalandtelephoneinterviews byauthor(Nov.Dec.1987).SeealsoTheGlobalBodyCount, Newsweek,28June1982,22,listingtheSouth

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NstorMoureloAguilar,Jos,ed. MemoriadelPrimerCongresoMundialdeDerechos Humanos,Vol.1. LaNeutralidadPerpetuadeCostaRica.SanJos:ImprentaNacional, 1984. Neuberger,Gnter,andMichaelOpperskalski.CIAinMittelamerika.BornheimMerten,West Germany:LamuvVerlag,1983. ObregonQuesada,ClotildeMara.CostaRicaNicaragua,ProblemticaInternaeInternacional delaDelimitacinFronteriza,18211860.MAthesis,UniversityofCostaRica,1985. ObregonQuesada,ClotildeMara.CostaRica,RelacionesExterioresdeUnaRepblicaen Formacin,18471849.SanJos:EditorialCostaRica,1984. ObregonQuesada,ClotildeMara.RelacionesInternacionalesdeCostaRicayNicaragua:Los Tratadosde1846.SanJos:UniversityofCostaRica,FacultyofSocialSciences,School ofHistoryandGeography AvancedeInvestigacin(I).Mimeo.,1978. OrtegaSaavedra,Daniel.CombatiendoPorlaPaz.MexicoCity:SigloXXI,1988. Poblacin,Total,UrbanayRural,PorProvincias,CantonesyDistritos.Vol.2.SanJos: MinisteriodeEconoma,IndustriayComercio,DireccinGeneraldeEstadisticasy Censos,1974. Reina,JorgeArturo. AnlisisdelosConflictosenAmricaCentral.Heredia:CentrodeEstudios DemocrticosenAmricaLatina,1987. RodrguezBeruff,Jorge. PolticaMilitaryDominacin.RoPiedras,PuertoRico:Ediciones Huracn,1988. RojasAravena,Francisco,andLuisGuillermoSolsRivera.RelacionesInternacionalesen Centroamrica.SanJos:InstitutoCentroamricanodeDocumentacineInvestigacin Social,1986. SacristnLuzon,Manuel.Pacifismo,EcologayPolticaAlternativa.Barcelona:ICARIA Antrazyt,1987. Selser,Gregorio.DeDullesaRaborn,LaC.I.A.,Mtodos,Logros,yPfiasdelEspionaje. BuenosAires,Argentina:EdicionesdePolticaAmricana,1967. Selser,Gregorio. EspionajeenAmricaLatina,ElPentgonoylasTcnicasSociolgicas. SecondEdition.BuenosAires:EdicionesIguaz,1966. Selser,Gregorio,ed.Nicaragua:ElementosHistricos,EstratgicosyTacticosdelaRevolucin FSLN.MexicoCity:SEPLA,1979.

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Selser,Gregorio.Panam,EraseUnPasAUnCanalPegado.MexicoCity:Universidad ObreradeMxico,1989. Sohr,Ral.CentroamricaenGuerra,LosFuerzasArmadasdeCentroamricayMxico. MexicoCity:AlianzaEditorialMexicana,1988. TeologaDesdelaMujerenCentroamrica.SanJos:SEBILA,1989. UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram.FourthCountryProgrammeforCostaRica (Countryand IntercountryProgrammesandProjects).34thSession,26May9June,1987.Item5(6), DP/CP/COS/4,24March1987. UnitedStatesDistrictCourt.SouthernDistrictofFlorida.TonyAvirgan,MarthaHoney, Plaintiffs,v.JohnHull,ReneCorbo,etal.,Defendants.CivilActionNo. 861146CIVKING.AndTonyAvirgan,MarthaHoney,Plaintiffsv.FelipeVidal Santiago,RaulVillaverde,etal.,Defendants.DeclarationofPlaintiffsCounsel,Civil ActionNo.871545CIVKING,1988. UnitedStatesofAmericaversusJosephF.Fernndez,Defendant.CriminalNo.89150A. UnitedStatesDistrictCourtfortheEasternDistrictofVirginia.AlexandriaDivision. Fall1989. UniversidadparalaPaz.InstalacindelConsejodelaUniversidadparalaPaz,Documentos Basicos,PrimeraSesindeTrabajo,SanJos,58March1982.SanJos:National Press,1982. UniversityforPeace.SanJos:GovernmentofCostaRica,1980. UniversityforPeace(Charter).SanJos:GovernmentofCostaRica,1981. VillarealM.,Beatrz.ElPrecarismoRuralenCostaRica,19601980,OrgenesyEvolucin.San Jos:EditorialPapiro,1983. Weir,David,andMarkShapiro.CircleofPoison,PesticidesandPeopleinaHungryWorld.San Francisco:InstituteforFoodandDevelopmentPolicy,1981. White,RichardAlan.TheMorass,UnitedStatesInterventioninCentralAmerica.NewYork: Harper&Row,1984. Yurow,Marshall.LegacyofthePledge:IsraelsInvolvementinNicaragua.MAnonthesis option,AmericanUniversity,1986.

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SelectedJournalorPeriodicalArticlesonCostaRica Acuerdode`ColaboracinEntreIsraelyCostaRica.UnoMasUno,13January1983,in CPSPPCR,96. AgendaInternational.FactSheet:TheCostsoftheWar.Mimeo.[NicaraguanMissiontothe UnitedNations],April 1987. ApruebanenlaONUErradicaraContras. Barricada,16March1989,1. TheArabIsraeliContestforInfluenceinLatinAmerica.BusinessWeek,3May1982,52. AriasAcusaaAntisandinistasdeAbusardelDerechodeAsilo.LaNacin,29July 1986,A8. AriasInsistsonDemobilization,BlastsFMLN.TicoTimes,21March1989,24. Arias,Ron.JohnHull,OnceOliverNorthsManinCostaRica,isNowAccusedofRunning GunsandDrugs.People,1May1989,5357. Avirgan,Tony,andMarthaHoney.TheC.I.A.sWarInCostaRica,Nation,31January1987, 105107. Baker,Betsy.LatinAmericaLinksWiththeCommunity.EuropeanStudies21(1975):1. BakerFox,Annette.InternationalOrganizationforColonialDevelopment.WorldPolitics3 (195051):34148. Bodenheimer,ThomasS.UnitedStatesMilitarisminLatinAmerica:FactSheet[18461985]. SanFrancisco:InstitutefortheStudyofMilitarismandEconomicCrisis,1985,19. Bradlee,Ben,andRichardHiggins.DidReagan,BushCuta1980Deal?BostonGlobe,23 October1988,A2527. Brennan,Peter.CongressmenDenouncePolice`TortureChamber.TicoTimes,21March 1989,5. Brennan,Peter.HullBlamesCommunists,DrugDealers.TicoTimes,21March1989,4. Brinkley,Joel.CostaRicanAidesSaidtoGetBribes.NewYorkTimes,23April1984,A9. Brooks,Laura.LatinAmericanFirst AGreenPartyPreparestoTryItsHandinCostaRica. PacificaNewsService(11January1985),in DataCenterFiles(Oakland,California) (1985):23. Carlson,CarlE.TheOctoberSurprise.Penthouse,November1984,68.

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Chomsky,Noam.InterventioninVietnamandCentralAmerica:ParallelsandDifferences. MonthlyReview 37(September1985):12. ChristicLawsuitExposesUnitedStatesDrug andTerrorNetwork.WitnessforPeace Newsletter,MayJune1987,67. CIAOfficialinCostaRicaLosingJobOverContraAid. AtlantaConstitution,2February 1987,A4. Cockburn,Leslie.AmericasSecretWar:GunsforDrugs.Granta 22(Autumn1987):155. ComandanteCarlos...TheRevolutionAdvances.(Managua,CensusandStatisticsInstitute Mimeo.)(November1986),316. Concha,Miguel.GendarmesNacionalesyRegionales.UnoMasUno,28November1982,in CSPPCR,94. ConsensoenlaONUporFuerzasdePazaC.A. Barricada,16March1989,4. Cora,Mara.CostaRicanWomenFightPoverty,WarBuildUp.ListenRealLoud,Fall1985, in DataCenterFiles(Oakland,California)(1985),15. CostaRica.NewInternationalist,September1983,in DataCenterFiles(Oakland,California) (1983),1. CostaRica:BetweenDignityandSubmission.Envo(Managua)7(April1988):54. EnCostaRicaDesmantelaronlaRedLogisticadeARDE.ElDaInternacional [MexicoCity], 27April1984,15. CostaRicanNeutralityEndangered.FriendsCommitteeonNationalLegislation,June1986,1. CostaRica,TheDarkSideofDemocracy.CentralAmericanReport (Managua),28April 1989,12. Devereux,Don.NicaraguaCanalPlanClaimed.Scottsdale[AZ]Progress,24November1987, 12. Devereux,Don.SinglaubSaysShultzHasConflict. Scottsdale[AZ]Progress,9March1988, 6. Devereux,Don.U.S.ConsidersNicaraguanCanal.Scottsdale[AZ]Progress,29February 1988,12. Donovan,Brian,andSandraPeddie.HeWentForAdventure.Newsday[LongIsland,New York],10May1987,4.

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Doyle,Kate,andMarkStatman.AntiPeacePropaganda,U.S.WarMongersAreBusyAtWork inCostaRica.Guardian[Manchester],30September1987,in DataCenterFiles (Oakland,California)(1987),3031. Doyle,Kate,andMarkStatman.SavvyAriasWalkedAFineLineDuringU.S.Trip.Guardian [Manchester],7October1987,in DataCenterFiles(Oakland,California)(1987),35. Escudero,JosCarlos.TheMagnitudeofMalnutritioninLatinAmerica.InternationalJournal ofHealthServices8(1978):46584. FernndezR.,Guillermo,CocanaHundesuGarraenelPais.LaNacin,23November1986, 8. Figuerola,Miguel,andMollieFiguerola.ByBusaroundCentralAmerica.FriendsJournal28 (15April1982):19. Fox,Geoffrey.ClassWarintheLatinSwitzerland:`ModelCostaRica.Nation,28January 1984,9495. Freedberg,Louis.SanctuaryandDivestment ANewPeoplesDiplomacyTakesOffinU.S. Cities.PacificaNewsService(9July1986)in DataCenterFiles(Oakland,California) (1986),99. Fuerst,J.S.MoreThanaPeacemaker,ThePoliticalWritingsofOscarArias.Commonweal(4 December1987):4344. Gannon,J.D.YouScratchMyBackand....ChristianScienceMonitor,3March1989,4. Gerassi,John.Nicaragua.Shmate13(Fall1985):2123. Gillies,Jorge.FirmadoAcuerdodeCooperacinEntrePasesCentroamricanosyEuropeas. EuropeanCommunityNews,19November1985,2124. Gudmanson,Lowell.CostaRicasAriasatMidterm.CurrentHistory86(December1987): 417431. GutirrezGutirrez,CarlosJos.NeutralidadeIntervencin:DireccinyProblemasdela PolticaInternacionalCostarricenseyProblemasdelaPolticaInternacional CostarricenseDuranteelPrimeroQuartodelSigloXX.RevistadelaUniversidadde CostaRica14(November1956):1239. Hall,Bill.FirstMeetinginTenYears,CentralAmericansGathertoConfrontEnvironmental Crisis.EPOCAUpdate(Summer1987):96.

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Hawes,Cindy.CostaRicanDeathSquadsSurface.PeoplesDailyWorld,19March1983,in DataCenterFiles(Oakland,California)(1983),12. Hawes,Cindy.U.S.UrgedCostaRicatoStartWarwithNicaragua.PeoplesDailyWorld,14 April1987,in DataCenterFiles(Oakland,California)(1987),73. Hehir,J.Bryan.TheAriasPlan,FramingOurChoices.Commonweal(25September1987): 522. Hirschfield,Stuart.CostaRicaQuietlyReorientsEconomy.WashingtonReportonthe Hemisphere,23November1988,4. Honey,Martha,andTonyAvirgan.LeaningonArias.Nation,September1987,in DataCenter Files(Oakland,California)(1987),32. Honey,Martha,andMichaelEmory.ThePatchworkofPeacework,SomeViewsWithoutthe WhiteHouse.LosAngelesTimes,24January1985,6. Hopfensperger,Jean.CostaRica,SeedsofTerror.Progressive,September1986,in Data CenterFiles(Oakland,California)(1986),12. Hopfensperger,Jean.NeutralityUnderSiege.Progressive,September1984,in DataCenter Files(Oakland,California)(1984),1. IDB&CentralAmerica:DeforestationThreatensBigHydro.WorldRainforestReport, MarchMay1988,15. InternationalCourtofJustice,MilitaryandParamilitaryActivitiesinandagainstNicaragua, (Nicaraguav.UnitedStatesofAmerica),JudgementoftheCourt,InternationalCourtof JusticePressRelease86(27June1986):320. Johnston,David.TestimonyonNorthMayBeUsedAgainstOthers.NewYorkTimes,8May 1989,B6. Jonker,AdolfG.InDefenseofNeutrality.TicoTimes,1June1984.(Sentbyauthor). Jonker,AdolfG.IsCostaRicaGoingNeutralist?TicoTimes,23March1984.(Sentby author). Jonker,AdolfG.Neutrality,ArmsandPropaganda.TicoTimes,8October1984.(Sentby author). Jonker,AdolfG.ThreeYearsAfterItsProclamation.TicoTimes,28Nov.1986,2. Kenen,Joanne.PracticallyNeutral.Atlantic,March1984,in DataCenterFiles(Oakland, California)(1984),69.

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SeCumplelaPacificacin.ElNuevoDiario,31March1989,1and6. TheSecondPanamaCanalProject.JapanQuarterly27(JulySeptember1980):303307. Selser,Gregorio.CostaRica:ElTrasladodeEmbajadaaJerusaln.ElDa [MexicoCity],18 September1987,4. Selser,Gregorio.InquietantesSignosdeUnaCrecienteFaseMilitarista.ElDa [MexicoCity], 14Jan.1983,in CSPPCR,9899. Selser,Gregorio.NuevasViolacionesdelaCIAalaNeutralidaddeCostaRica.ElDa [MexicoCity],29April1984,12. Serafino,NinaM.DatelineManagua:DefiningDemocracy.ForeignPolicy70(Spring1988): 16679. Shallat,Lezak(Lisa).U.S.AidtoC.R. TheStoryBehindtheUproar, TicoTimes,15July 1988,4. SindicalistasPedirnRompimientoconIsrael.LaPrensa,30June1979,4. Sojo,Ana.LaRatioNacionaldeEsquipulasII,VistadesdeCostaRica.Polmica5(May August1988):37. SomozaCediAntePresinEstudiantil.LaRepblica,30April1978,6. Souchre,Elenadela.CostaRica:CitadelofDemocracy.MonthlyReview 7(May1955):58 64. Strausberg,Hildegard.EECandCentralAmericanStatesinanHistoricAssignation.German Tribune,26August1984,2. Summers,H.G.PrinciplesofWarandLowIntensityConflict,MilitaryReview 65(March 1985):4546. Tamayo,JuanO.NoriegaSupportedbyExSpy.MiamiHerald,19January1988,A4. Tinoco:TriunfodeCentroamrica,ApruebanFormacindeONUCA.ElNuevoDiario,16 March1989,12. TomalaSededelaONU,NicaragunsesenHuelgadeHambre.LaPrensaLibre,1February 1978,10. UnitedNations.FourthCountryProgrammeforCostaRica.CountryandIntercountry ProgrammesandProjects(UNDP)(March1987) DP/CP/COS/4,2.

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TheAustrianFederalConstitution.2ded.Vienna:ManzVerlag,1983. Baaklini,Abdo,andJamesHeaphey.LegislativeInstitutionBuildinginBrazil,CostaRicaand Lebanon.London:Sage,1976. Bailey,SydneyD.HowWarsEnd.Vols.1&2.Oxford:ClarendonPress,1982. Bailey,SydneyD.ProhibitionsandRestraintsinWar.London:RoyalInstituteofInternational Affairs/OxfordUniversityPress,1972. Ball,Nicole.ThirdWorldSecurityExpenditure:AStatisticalCompendium.Stockholm,Sweden: StockholmNationalDefenceResearchInstitute,1983. BeitHallahmi,Benjamin.TheIsraeliConnection,WhoArmsIsraelandWhy.NewYork: Pantheon,1987. Bellers,John.SomeReasonsforanEuropeanState(1710).InWilliamPennetlaPaix.Edited byTaroTerasaki.Paris:A.Pedone,1925. Bendersky,JosephW.CarlSchmitt,TheoristfortheReich.Princeton,NewJersey:Princeton UniversityPress,1983. CanalConvention Nicaragua(August,1914),ConventionBetweentheUnitedStatesand NicaraguaCedingRightsforConstructionofShipCanalbyNicaraguanRoute,June24, 1916,TheStatutesatLargeoftheUnitedStatesofAmericafromDecember,1915,to March,1917,ConcurrentResolutionsoftheTwoHousesofCongressandRecent Treaties,Conventions,andExecutiveProclamations.Vol.39(2).Washington,D.C.: GovernmentPrintingOffice,1917. Carson,RachelLouise.SilentSpring.Boston:HoughtonMifflinCo.,1962. Castro,Fidel.TheWorldEconomicandSocialCrisis,ItsImpactOntheUnderdeveloped Countries,ItsSomberProspectsandTheNeedtoStruggleIfWeAretoSurvive[Report totheSeventhSummitConferenceofNonAlignedCountries].Havana,Cuba:Council ofStatePublishingOffice,1983. Caufield,Catherine.IntheRainforest.NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1985. Chaliand,Grard.RevolutionintheThirdWorld.NewYork:Penguin,1981. Chaliand,Grard,andJeanPierreRageau.StrategicAtlas,AComparativeGeopoliticsofthe WorldsPowers.NewYork:HarperandRow,1985. Child,Jack,ed.ConflictinCentralAmerica:ApproachestoPeaceandSecurity.London:C. Hurst&Co.,1986.

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Chomsky,Noam.OnPowerandIdeology,TheManaguaLectures.Boston:SouthEndPress, 1987. Chopra,V.D.,ed. DisarmamentandDevelopment,TheirRelationship.NewDelhi:International InstituteforSouthern AsiaPacificStudiesandUnitedIndiaPress,1988. Clark,SeptimaPoinsette,andLegetteBlythe.EchoinMySoul.NewYork:E.P.DuttonandCo., 1962. Coates,Ken.ed.PerestroikaGlobalChallenge,OurCommonFuture.IntroductionsbyNeil KinnockandMikhailGorbachev.Nottingham,England:SpokesmanPress&Bertrand RussellFoundation,1988. Collier,John.OntheGleamingWay.Chicago:SageBooksandSwallowPress,1962. Curle,Adam.MakingPeace.London:Tavistock,1971. Dasmann,RaymondF.,JohnP.Milton,andPeterH.Freeman.EcologicalPrinciplesfor EconomicDevelopment.NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Ltd.,1973. Dawidowicz,LucyS.TheWarAgainsttheJews,19331945,10thed.NewYork:Seth/Free Press,1986. DEstefanoPisani,MiguelA.FundamentosdelDerechoInternationalPblicoContemporneo. Vol.2.Havana:UniversityofHavanaLawFacultyandMinistryofHigherEducation, 1983. Detzer,Dorothy.AppointmentonCapitolHill.NewYork:HenryandCo.,l948. Diwan,Romesh,andMarkLutz,eds. EssaysinGandhianEconomics.NewDelhi:GandhiPeace Foundation,1985. Dowdy,RussellEugene.Nonviolencevs.Nonexistence:TheVietnamWarandMartinLuther King,Jr.MAthesis,NorthCarolinaStateUniversity,1983. Eddington,Arthur. ThePhilosophyofScience.NewYork:MacMillanCo.,1939. Eisenstadt,S.N. TheInternationalRepercussionsoftheLebanonWar.Jerusalem:Hebrew University,LeonardDavisInstituteforInterrelations,PolicyStudyNo.17,1986. Engelbrecht,Helmuth,andFrankHanighen.MerchantsofDeath,AStudyoftheInternational ArmamentsIndustry.NewYork:Dodd,Mead&Co.,1934. Fedoseyev,PiotrNikolaevitch.ed.PhilosophyintheUSSR,ProblemsofDialectical Materialism.Moscow:ProgressPublishers,1977.

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FernndezShaw,Felix.RelacionesInternacionalesyMediosAudivisuales.Madrid:Editorial Tecnos,1985. Gandhi,Mohandas.NonviolenceinPeace&War,Vol.I.Ahmedabad:NavajivanPress,1969. GarcaMuiz,Humberto.LaEstrategiadeEstadosUnidosyElMilitarizacindelCaribe.Ro Piedras:UniversityofPuertoRico,1988. Gregg,RichardB.ThePowerofNonviolence.NewYork:SchockenBooks,1966. Grinevich,E.,andB.Gvozdariov.WashingtonContraLaHabana.Moscow:Progress,1986. Hilberg,Raoul.TheDestructionoftheEuropeanJews.Chicago:QuadrangleBooks,1961. Hitti,Nassif.ThePoliticsofPreventiveDiplomacy,TheUNIFILRoleinLebanon.Ph.D. diss.,UniversityofSouthernCalifornia,1980. Hubers,Paul.BankingOnWarorPeace,MorganizationMythv.RealizationofPeace. [CopyrightedwiththeUnitedStatesLibraryofCongress,1984,159pp.unpublished ms.],1984. Hunter,Jane.NoSimpleProxy.Washington,D.C.:WashingtonMiddleEastAssociates,1987. Infield,Henrik[andShulamit].UtopiaandExperiment,EssaysintheSociologyofCooperation. PortWashington,Washington:KennikatPress,1955. Ivanov,Konstantin,andBorisBatsanov.WhatDisarmamentWillGiveDevelopingCountries. Moscow:NovostiPressAgencyPublishingHouse,n.d.[1964?]. Jaipal,Rikhi.NonAlignment,Origins,Growth,andPotentialForWorldPeace.NewDelhi: AlliedPublishers,Ltd.,1983. Jamison,Ellen,PeterJohnson,andRichardEngels.WorldPopulation.Washington,D.C.: BureauofCensus,GovernmentPrintingOffice,1987. JaramilloEdwards,Isabel.LaEstrategiaIntervencionistaEstadounidenseHaciaelMedio OrienteyenlaCuencadelCaribe.Havana,Cuba:AvancesdeInvestigacin,No.18, 1983. Jenkins,BrianM.EmbassiesUnderSiege,AReviewof48EmbassyTakeovers,19711980. SantaMonica,California:RandR2651RC,1981. JubranKanaan,Adil.ThePoliticalEconomyofDevelopmentPlanning:TheCaseofLebanon. Ph.D.diss.,UniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley,1967.

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