SOLUTIONS TO IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION PROBLEMS

SOLUTION 1 : Begin with x3 + y3 = 4 . Differentiate both sides of the equation, getting D ( x3 + y3 ) = D ( 4 ) , D ( x3 ) + D ( y3 ) = D ( 4 ) ,

The following problems require the use of implicit differentiation. Implicit differentiation is nothing more than a special case of the well-known chain rule for derivatives. The majority of differentiation problems in first-year calculus involve functions y written EXPLICITLY as functions of x . For example, if

then the derivative of y is

However, some functions y are written IMPLICITLY as functions of x . A familiar example of this is the equation x2 + y2 = 25 ,

which represents a circle of radius five centered at the origin. Suppose that we wish to find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of this equation at the point (3, -4) .

How could we find the derivative of y in this instance ? One way is to first write y explicitly as a function of x . Thus, x2 + y2 = 25 , y2 = 25 - x2 ,

and

where the positive square root represents the top semi-circle and the negative square root represents the bottom semi-circle. Since the point (3, -4) lies on the bottom semi-circle given by

the derivative of y is

i.e.,

Thus, the slope of the line tangent to the graph at the point (3, -4) is

Unfortunately, not every equation involving x and y can be solved explicitly for y . For the sake of illustration we will find the derivative of y WITHOUT writing y explicitly as a function of x . Recall that the derivative (D) of a function of x squared, (f(x))2 , can be found using the chain rule :

. Since y symbolically represents a function of x, the derivative of y2 can be found in the same fashion :

Now begin with x2 + y2 = 25 .

Differentiate both sides of the equation, getting D ( x2 + y2 ) = D ( 25 ) , D ( x2 ) + D ( y2 ) = D ( 25 ) ,

and

2x + 2 y y' = 0 ,

so that

2 y y' = - 2x ,

and

i.e.,

Thus, the slope of the line tangent to the graph at the point (3, -4) is

This second method illustrates the process of implicit differentiation. It is important to note that the derivative expression for explicit differentiation involves x only, while the derivative expression for implicit differentiation may involve BOTH x AND y .

The following problems range in difficulty from average to challenging.

(Remember to use the chain rule on D ( y3 ) .) 3x2 + 3y2 y' = 0 ,

so that (Now solve for y' .) 3y2 y' = - 3x2 ,

and

SOLUTION 2 : Begin with (x-y)2 = x + y - 1 . Differentiate both sides of the equation, getting D (x-y)2 = D ( x + y - 1 ) , D (x-y)2 = D ( x ) + D ( y ) - D ( 1 ) , (Remember to use the chain rule on D (x-y)2 .)

2 (x-y) (1- y') = 1 + y' ,

so that (Now solve for y' .)

2 (x-y) - 2 (x-y) y' = 1 + y' ,

- 2 (x-y) y' - y' = 1 - 2 (x-y) ,

(Factor out y' .)

y' [ - 2 (x-y) - 1 ] = 1 - 2 (x-y) ,

and

SOLUTION 3 : Begin with

. Differentiate both sides of the equation, getting

(Remember to use the chain rule on

.)

so that (Now solve for y' .)

(Factor out y' .)

and

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SOLUTION 4 : Begin with y = x2 y3 + x3 y2 . Differentiate both sides of the equation, getting D(y) = D ( x2 y3 + x3 y2 ) , D(y) = D ( x2 y3 ) + D ( x3 y2 ) ,

(Use the product rule twice.)

, (Remember to use the chain rule on D ( y3 ) and D ( y2 ) .)

, y' = 3x2 y2 y' + 2x y3 + 2x3 y y' + 3x2 y2 ,

so that (Now solve for y' .) y' - 3x2 y2 y' - 2x3 y y' = 2x y3 + 3x2 y2 ,

(Factor out y' .) y' [ 1 - 3x2 y2 - 2x3 y ] = 2x y3 + 3x2 y2 ,

and

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SOLUTION 5 : Begin with

. Differentiate both sides of the equation, getting

so that (Now solve for

.)

(Factor out

.)

and

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SOLUTION 6 : Begin with

. Differentiate both sides of the equation, getting

so that (Now solve for y' .)

(Factor out y' .)

and

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SOLUTION 7 : Begin with

. Differentiate both sides of the equation, getting

, 1 = (1/2)( x2 + y2 )-1/2 D ( x2 + y2 ) , 1 = (1/2)( x2 + y2 )-1/2 ( 2x + 2y y' ) ,

so that (Now solve for y' .)

and

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SOLUTION 8 : Begin with

. Clear the fraction by multiplying both sides of the equation by y + x2 , getting

or x - y3 = xy + 2y + x3 + 2x2 .

Now differentiate both sides of the equation, getting D ( x - y3 ) = D ( xy + 2y + x3 + 2x2 ) , D ( x ) - D (y3 ) = D ( xy ) + D ( 2y ) + D ( x3 ) + D ( 2x2 ) , (Remember to use the chain rule on D (y3 ) .) 1 - 3 y2 y' = ( xy' + (1)y ) + 2 y' + 3x2 + 4x ,

so that (Now solve for y' .) 1 - y - 3x2 - 4x = 3 y2 y' + xy' + 2 y' ,

(Factor out y' .) 1 - y - 3x2 - 4x = (3y2 + x + 2) y' ,

and

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SOLUTION 9 : Begin with

. Clear the fractions by multiplying both sides of the equation by x3 y3 , getting

, y4 + x4 = x5 y7 .

Now differentiate both sides of the equation, getting D ( y4 + x4 ) = D ( x5 y7 ) , D ( y4 ) + D ( x4 ) = x5 D (y7 ) + D ( x5 ) y7 , (Remember to use the chain rule on D (y4 ) and D (y7 ) .) 4 y3 y' + 4 x3 = x5 (7 y6 y' ) + ( 5 x4 ) y7 ,

so that (Now solve for y' .) 4 y3 y' - 7 x5 y6 y' = 5 x4 y7 - 4 x3 ,

(Factor out y' .) y' [ 4 y3 - 7 x5 y6 ] = 5 x4 y7 - 4 x3 ,

and

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SOLUTION 10 : Begin with (x2+y2)3 = 8x2y2 . Now differentiate both sides of the equation, getting D (x2+y2)3 = D ( 8x2y2 ) , 3 (x2+y2)2 D (x2+y2) = 8x2 D (y2 ) + D ( 8x2 ) y2 , (Remember to use the chain rule on D (y2 ) .) 3 (x2+y2)2 ( 2x + 2 y y' ) = 8x2 (2 y y' ) + ( 16 x ) y2 ,

so that (Now solve for y' .) 6x (x2+y2)2 + 6 y (x2+y2)2 y' = 16 x2 y y' + 16 x y2 , 6 y (x2+y2)2 y' - 16 x2 y y' = 16 x y2 - 6x (x2+y2)2 ,

(Factor out y' .) y' [ 6 y (x2+y2)2 - 16 x2 y ] = 16 x y2 - 6x (x2+y2)2 ,

and

Thus, the slope of the line tangent to the graph at the point (-1, 1) is

and the equation of the tangent line is

y - ( 1 ) = (1) ( x - ( -1 ) )

or

y=x+2.

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SOLUTION 11 : Begin with x2 + (y-x)3 = 9 . If x=1 , then (1)2 + ( y-1 )3 = 9

so that ( y-1 )3 = 8 ,

y-1 = 2 ,

y=3,

and the tangent line passes through the point (1, 3) . Now differentiate both sides of the original equation, getting D ( x2 + (y-x)3 ) = D ( 9 ) , D ( x2 ) + D (y-x)3 = D ( 9 ) , 2x + 3 (y-x)2 D (y-x) = 0 , 2x + 3 (y-x)2 (y'-1) = 0 ,

so that (Now solve for y' .) 2x + 3 (y-x)2 y'- 3 (y-x)2 = 0 , 3 (y-x)2 y' = 3 (y-x)2 - 2x ,

and

Thus, the slope of the line tangent to the graph at (1, 3) is

and the equation of the tangent line is

y - ( 3 ) = (5/6) ( x - ( 1 ) ) ,

or

y = (7/6) x + (13/6) .

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SOLUTION 12 : Begin with x2y + y4 = 4 + 2x . Now differentiate both sides of the original equation, getting D ( x2 y + y4 ) = D ( 4 + 2x ) , D ( x2 y ) + D (y4 ) = D ( 4 ) + D ( 2x ) , ( x2 y' + (2x) y ) + 4 y3 y' = 0 + 2 ,

so that (Now solve for y' .) x2 y' + 4 y3 y' = 2 - 2x y ,

(Factor out y' .) y' [ x2 + 4 y3 ] = 2 - 2x y ,

and

(Equation 1)

Thus, the slope of the graph (the slope of the line tangent to the graph) at (-1, 1) is

Since y'= 4/5 , the slope of the graph is 4/5 and the graph is increasing at the point (-1, 1) . Now determine the concavity of the graph at (-1, 1) . Differentiate Equation 1, getting

Now let x=-1 , y=1 , and y'=4/5 so that the second derivative is

Since y'' < 0 , the graph is concave down at the point (-1, 1) .

GRAPHING OF FUNCTIONS USING FIRST AND SECOND DERIVATIVES

The following problems illustrate detailed graphing of functions of one variable using the first and second derivatives. Problems range in difficulty from average to challenging. If you are going to try these problems before looking at the solutions, you can avoid common mistakes by carefully labeling critical points, intercepts, and inflection points. In addition, it is important to label the distinct sign charts for the first and second derivatives in order to avoid unnecessary confusion of the following well-known facts and definitions.

Here are instruction for establishing sign charts (number line) for the first and second derivatives. To establish a sign chart (number lines) for f' , first set f' equal to zero and then solve for x . Mark these x-values underneath the sign chart, and write a zero above each of these x-values on the sign chart. In addition, mark x-values where the derivative does not exist (is not defined). For example, mark those x-values where division by zero occurs in f' . Above these x-values and the sign chart draw a dotted vertical line to indicate that the value of f' does not exist at this point. These designated x-values establish intervals along the sign chart. Next, pick points between these designated x-values and substitute them into the equation for f' to determine the sign ( + or - ) for each of these intervals. Beneath each designated x-value, write the corresponding y-value which is found by using the original equation y = f(x) . These ordered pairs (x, y) will be a starting point for the graph of f . This completes the sign chart for f' . Establish a sign chart (number line) for f'' in the exact same manner. To avoid overlooking zeroes in the denominators of f' and f'' , it is helpful to rewrite all negative exponents as positive exponents and then carefully manipulate and simplify the resulting fractions.

FACTS and DEFINITIONS

1. If the first derivative f' is positive (+) , then the function f is increasing (

).

2. If the first derivative f' is negative (-) , then the function f is decreasing (

).

3. If the second derivative f'' is positive (+) , then the function f is concave up (

).

4. If the second derivative f'' is negative (-) , then the function f is concave down (

).

5. The point x=a determines a relative maximum for function f if f is continuous at x=a , and the first derivative f' is positive (+) for x<a and negative (-) for x>a . The point x=a determines an absolute maximum for function f if it corresponds to the largest y-value in the range of f .

6. The point x=a determines a relative minimum for function f if f is continuous at x=a , and the first derivative f' is negative (-) for x<a and positive (+) for x>a . The point x=a determines an absolute minimum for function f if it corresponds to the smallest y-value in the range of f .

7. The point x=a determines an inflection point for function f if f is continuous at x=a , and the second derivative f'' is negative (-) for x<a and positive (+) for x>a , or if f'' is positive (+) for x<a and negative (-) forx>a .

8. THE SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST FOR EXTREMA (This can be used in place of statements 5. and 6.) : Assume that y=f(x) is a twice-differentiable function with f'(c)=0 .

a.) If f''(c)<0 then f has a relative maximum value at x=c .

b.) If f''(c)>0 then f has a relative minimum value at x=c .

These are the directions for problems 1 through 10. For each function state the domain. Determine all relative and absolute maximum and minimum values and inflection points. State clearly the

intervals on which the function is increasing ( appropriate. Neatly sketch the graph.

) , decreasing (

) , concave up (

) , and concave down (

) . Determine x- and y-intercepts and vertical and horizontal asymptotes when

SOLUTION 1 : The domain of f is all x-values. Now determine a sign chart for the first derivative, f' : f'(x) = 3x2 - 6x

= 3x (x - 2)

=0

for x=0 and x=2 . See the adjoining sign chart for the first derivative, f' .

Now determine a sign chart for the second derivative, f'' :

f''(x) = 6x - 6

= 6 (x - 1)

=0

for x=1 . See the adjoining sign chart for the second derivative, f'' .

Now summarize the information from each sign chart.

FROM f' :

f is (

) for x<0 and x>2 ;

f is (

) for 0<x<2 ;

f has a relative maximum at x=0 , y=0 ;

f has a relative minimum at x=2 , y=-4 .

FROM f'' :

f is (

) for x>1 ;

f is (

) for x<1 ;

f has an inflection point at x=1 , y=-2 .

OTHER INFORMATION ABOUT f : If x=0 , then y=0 so that y=0 is the y-intercept. If y=0 , then x3-3x2=x2(x-3)=0 so that x=0 and x=3 are the x-intercepts. There are no vertical or horizontal asymptotes since f is a polynomial. See the adjoining detailed graph of f .

Click HERE to return to the list of problems.

SOLUTION 2 : The domain of f is all x-values. Now determine a sign chart for the first derivative, f' : f'(x) = 4x3 - 12x2 = 4x2 (x - 3)

=0

for x=0 and x=3 . See the adjoining sign chart for the first derivative, f' .

Now determine a sign chart for the second derivative, f'' : f''(x) = 12x2 - 24x

=12x (x - 2)

=0

for x=0 and x=2 . See the adjoining sign chart for the second derivative, f'' .

Now summarize the information from each sign chart.

FROM f' :

f is (

) for x>3 ;

f is (

) for x<0 and 0<x<3 ;

f has an absolute minimum at x=3 , y=-27 .

FROM f'' :

f is (

) for x<0 and x>2 ;

f is (

) for 0<x<2 ;

f has inflection points at x=0 , y=0 and x=2 , y=-16 .

OTHER INFORMATION ABOUT f : If x=0 , then y=0 so that y=0 is the y-intercept. If y=0 , then x4-4x3=x3(x-4)=0 so that x=0 and x=4 are the x-intercepts. There are no vertical or horizontal asymptotes since f is a polynomial. See the adjoining detailed graph of f .

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SOLUTION 3 : The domain of f is all x-values. Now determine a sign chart for the first derivative, f' . Using the ordinary product rule, we get f'(x) = x3 2 (x-2) + 3x2 (x-2)2 (Factor out x2 and (x-2) .) = x2 (x-2) [ 2x + 3(x-2) ]

= x2 (x-2) [ 5x-6 ]

=0

for x=0 , x= 6/5 , and x=2 . See the adjoining sign chart for the first derivative, f' .

Now determine a sign chart for the second derivative, f'' . Using the triple product rule, we get f''(x) = 2x(x-2)[5x-6] + x2(1)[5x-6] + x2(x-2)[5]

(Factor out x .)

= x [ 2(x-2)(5x-6) + x (5x-6) + 5x(x-2) ] = x [ 2(5x2-16x+12) + 5x2-6x + 5x2-10x ] = x [ 20x2-48x+24 ] = 4x [ 5x2-12x+6 ]

=0

for x=0 , and (using the quadratic

formula) for the second derivative, f'' .

. See the adjoining sign chart

Now summarize the information from each sign chart.

FROM f' :

f is (

) for x<0 , 0<x<6/5 , and x>2 ;

f is (

) for 6/5 <x<2 ;

f has a relative maximum at x=6/5 ,

f has a relative minimum at x=2 , y=0 .

FROM f'' :

f is (

) for

and

f is (

) for x<0 and

f has inflection points at x=0 , y=0 and

and

OTHER INFORMATION ABOUT f : If x=0 , then y=0 so that y=0 is the y-intercept. If y=0 , then x3(x-2)2=0 so that x=0 and x=2 are the x-intercepts. There are no vertical or horizontal asymptotes since f is a polynomial. See the adjoining detailed graph of f.

Click HERE to return to the list of problems.

SOLUTION 4 : The domain of f is all x-values. Now determine a sign chart for the first derivative, f' . Using the quotient rule, we get

=0

for x= 1 , and x=-1 . See the adjoining sign chart for the first derivative, f' .

Now determine a sign chart for the second derivative, f'' . Beginning with

and using the quotient rule, we get

(Factor out 2x and (x2+1) .)

=0

for x=0 ,

, and

. See the adjoining sign chart for the second derivative, f'' .

Now summarize the information from each sign chart.

FROM f' :

f is (

) for -1<x<1 ;

f is (

) for x<-1 and x>1 ;

f has an absolute maximum at x=1 , y=2 ;

f has an absolute minimum at x=-1 , y=-2 .

FROM f'' :

f is (

) for

and

f is (

) for

and

f has inflection points at x=0 , y=0 and

and

OTHER INFORMATION ABOUT f :

If x=0 , then y=0 so that y=0 is the y-intercept. If y=0 , then

so that 4x=0 and x=0 is the x-intercept. There is a horizontal asymptote since

=0.

Thus, the line y = 0 is a a horizontal asymptote for the graph of f . See the adjoining detailed graph of f .

Click HERE to return to the list of problems.

SOLUTION 5 : The domain of f is all x-values EXCEPT x=2 , because of division by zero. Now determine a sign chart for the first derivative, f' . Using the quotient rule, we get

=0

for x= 1 , and x=3 . In addition, note that f' is NOT DEFINED at x=2 . See the adjoining sign chart for the first derivative, f' .

Now determine a sign chart for the second derivative, f'' . Beginning with

and using the quotient rule, we get

(Factor out 4 and (x-2) .)

(Divide out a factor of (x-2) .)

=0

for NO x-values. However, note that f'' is NOT DEFINED at x=2 . See the adjoining sign chart for the second derivative, f'' .

Now summarize the information from each sign chart.

FROM f' :

f is (

) for x<1 and x>3 ;

f is (

) for 1<x<2 and 2<x<3 ;

f has a relative maximum at x=1 , y=1 ;

f has a relative minimum at x=3 , y=9 .

FROM f'' :

f is (

) for x>2 ;

f is (

) for x<2 ;

f has no inflection points.

OTHER INFORMATION ABOUT f :

If x=0 , then y=0 so that y=0 is the y-intercept. If y=0 , then

so that 2x2-3x=x(2x-3)=0 . Thus, x=0 and x=3/2 are x-intercepts. There is no horizontal asymptote since

and

Remember, a horizontal asymptote exists only if the limit to denominator, i.e., at x=2 . Thus,

or

is a finite number. Now check for a vertical asymptote by computing one-sided limits at the zero of the

(The numerator approaches 2 and the denominator is a positive number approaching 0 .)

and

(The numerator approaches 2 and the denominator is a negative number approaching 0 .)

This shows that the line x = 2 is a vertical asymptote for the graph of f . Remember, if EITHER of these one-sided limits is detailed graph of f .

or

, a vertical asymptote exists. See the adjoining

SOLUTION 6 : The domain of f is all x-values EXCEPT x=2 and x=-2 , because of division by zero. Now determine a sign chart for the first derivative, f' . Using the quotient rule, we get

(Factor out 2 and (x-4) .)

=0

for x= 1 , and x=4 . In addition, note that f' is NOT DEFINED at x=2 and x=-2 . See the adjoining sign chart for the first derivative, f' .

Now determine a sign chart for the second derivative, f'' . Beginning with

and using the quotient rule, we get

(Factor out 2 and (x2-4) .)

(Divide out a factor of (x2-4) .)

=0, so that -2x3 + 15x2 -24x + 20 = 0 . To solve this equation use Newton's method or an equation solver like that found on a TI85 graphing calculator, getting a single real solution . In addition, note that f'' is NOT DEFINED at x=2 and x=-2 . See the adjoining sign chart for the second derivative, f'' .

Now summarize the information from each sign chart.

FROM f' :

f is (

) for x<-2 , -2<x<1 , and x>4 ;

f is (

) for 1<x<2 and 2<x<4 ;

f has a relative maximum at x=1 , y=-3 ;

f has a relative minimum at x=4 , y=0 .

FROM f'' :

f is (

) for x<-2 and 2<x<5.70 ;

f is (

) for -2<x<2 and x>5.70 ;

f has an inflection point at

OTHER INFORMATION ABOUT f :

If x=0 , then y=-4 so that y=-4 is the y-intercept. If y=0 , then

so that (x-4)2=0 . Thus, x=4 is the x-intercept. There is a horizontal asymptote since

=1.

Thus, the line y=1 is a horizontal asymptote for the graph of f . Now check for vertical asymptotes by computing one-sided limits at the zeroes of the denominator, i.e., at x=2 and at x=-2 . Thus,

(The numerator approaches 4 and the denominator is a positive number approaching 0 .)

and

(The numerator approaches 4 and the denominator is a negative number approaching 0 .)

This shows that the line x = 2 is a vertical asymptote for the graph of f . Remember, if EITHER of these one-sided limits is Thus,

or

, a vertical asymptote exists. Now check at x=-2 .

(The numerator approaches 36 and the denominator is a negative number approaching 0 .)

and

(The numerator approaches 36 and the denominator is a positive number approaching 0 .)

This shows that the line x = -2 is a vertical asymptote for the graph of f . See the adjoining detailed graph of f .

DIFFERENTIATION OF TRIGONOMETRY FUNCTIONS

In the following discussion and solutions the derivative of a function h(x) will be denoted by derivatives :

or h'(x) . The following problems require the use of these six basic trigonometry

1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

6. DIFFERENTIATION OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

None of the six basic trigonometry functions is a one-to-one function. However, in the following list, each trigonometry function is listed with an appropriately restricted domain, which makes it one-to-one.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

for for for for for for , except , except x = 0

Because each of the above-listed functions is one-to-one, each has an inverse function. The corresponding inverse functions are

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. arc arc arc for for for

for for for , except , except y = 0

In the following discussion and solutions the derivative of a function h(x) will be denoted by follow from trigonometry identities, implicit differentiation, and the chain rule. They are as follows.

or h'(x) . The derivatives of the above-mentioned inverse trigonometric functions

1.

2.

3.

4.

arc

5.

arc

6.

arc

DERIVATIVES USING THE LIMIT DEFINITION

The following problems require the use of the limit definition of a derivative, which is given by

They range in difficulty from easy to somewhat challenging. If you are going to try these problems before looking at the solutions, you can avoid common mistakes by making proper use of functional notation and careful use of basic algebra. Keep in mind that the goal (in most cases) of these types of problems is to be able to divide out the term so that the indeterminant

form

of the expression can be circumvented and the limit can be calculated.

SOLUTION 1 :

(Algebraically and arithmetically simplify the expression in the numerator.)

(The term

now divides out and the limit can be calculated.)

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SOLUTION 2 :

(Algebraically and arithmetically simplify the expression in the numerator.)

(Factor

from the expression in the numerator.)

(The term

now divides out and the limit can be calculated.)

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SOLUTION 3 :

(Eliminate the square root terms in the numerator of the expression by multiplying

by the conjugate of the numerator divided by itself.)

(Recall that

(The term

now divides out and the limit can be calculated.)

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SOLUTION 4 :

(Get a common denominator for the expression in the numerator. Recall that division by

is the same as multiplication by

.)

(Algebraically and arithmetically simplify the expression in the numerator. It is important to note that the denominator of this expression should be left in factored form so that the term can be easily eliminated later.)

(The term

now divides out and the limit can be calculated.)

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SOLUTION 5 :

(At this point it may appear that multiplying by the conjugate of the numerator over

itself is a good next step. However, doing something else is a better idea.)

(Note that A - B can be written as the difference of cubes , so that

. This will help explain the next step.)

(Algebraically and arithmetically simplify the expression in the numerator.)

(The term

now divides out and the limit can be calculated.)

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SOLUTION 6 :

(Recall a well-known trigonometry identity :

.)

(Recall the following two well-known trigonometry limits :

and

.)

CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS OF ONE VARIABLE

The following problems involve the CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION OF ONE VARIABLE. Function y = f(x) is continuous at point x=a if the following three conditions are satisfied :

i.) f(a) is defined ,

ii.)

exists (i.e., is finite) ,

and

iii.)

Function f is said to be continuous on an interval I if f is continuous at each point x in I. Here is a list of some well-known facts related to continuity :

1. The SUM of continuous functions is continuous.

2. The DIFFERENCE of continuous functions is continuous.

3. The PRODUCT of continuous functions is continuous.

4. The QUOTIENT of continuous functions is continuous at all points x where the DENOMINATOR IS NOT ZERO.

5. The FUNCTIONAL COMPOSITION of continuous functions is continuous at all points x where the composition is properly defined.

6. Any polynomial is continuous for all values of x.

7. Function ex and trigonometry functions

and

are continuous for all values of x.

Most problems that follow are average. A few are somewhat challenging. All limits are determined WITHOUT the use of L'Hopital's Rule. If you are going to try these problems before looking at the solutions, you can avoid common mistakes by using the above step-by-step definition of continuity at a point and the well-known facts, and by giving careful consideration to the

indeterminate form

during the computation of limits

PROBLEM 1 : Determine if the following function is continuous at x=1 .

Click HERE to see a detailed solution to problem 1.

PROBLEM 2 : Determine if the following function is continuous at x=-2 .

Click HERE to see a detailed solution to problem 2.

PROBLEM 3 : Determine if the following function is continuous at x=0 .

Click HERE to see a detailed solution to problem 3.

PROBLEM 4 : Determine if the function

is continuous at x=-1 .

Click HERE to see a detailed solution to problem 4.

PROBLEM 5 : Check the following function for continuity at x=3 and x=-3 .

Click HERE to see a detailed solution to problem 5.

PROBLEM 6 : For what values of x is the function

continuous ?

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PROBLEM 7 : For what values of x is the function

continuous ?

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PROBLEM 8 : For what values of x is the function

continuous ?

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PROBLEM 9 : For what values of x is the function

continuous ?

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PROBLEM 10 : For what values of x is the function

continuous ?

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PROBLEM 11 : For what values of x is the following function continuous ?

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PROBLEM 12 : Determine all values of the constant A so that the following function is continuous for all values of x .

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PROBLEM 13 : Determine all values of the constants A and B so that the following function is continuous for all values of x .

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PROBLEM 14 : Show that the following function is continuous for all values of x .

Click HERE to see a detailed solution to problem 14.

PROBLEM 15 : Let

Show that f is continuous for all values of x . Show that f is differentiable for all values of x, but that the derivative, f' , is NOT CONTINUOUS at x=0 .

SOLUTIONS TO CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS OF ONE VARIABLE

SOLUTION 1 : Function f is defined at x=1 since

i.) f(1) = 2 .

The limit

= 3 (1) - 5

= -2 ,

i.e.,

ii.)

But

iii.)

so condition iii.) is not satisfied and function f is NOT continuous at x=1 .

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SOLUTION 2 : Function f is defined at x=-2 since i.) f(-2) = (-2)2 + 2(-2) = 4-4 = 0 .

The left-hand limit

= (-2)2 + 2(-2)

=4-4

=0.

The right-hand limit

= (-2)3 - 6(-2)

= -8 + 12

=4.

Since the left- and right-hand limits are not equal, ,

ii.)

does not exist,

and condition ii.) is not satisfied. Thus, function f is NOT continuous at x=-2 .

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SOLUTION 3 : Function f is defined at x=0 since

i.) f(0) = 2 .

The left-hand limit

=2.

The right-hand limit

=2.

Thus,

exists with

ii.)

Since

iii.)

all three conditions are satisfied, and f is continuous at x=0 .

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SOLUTION 4 : Function h is not defined at x=-1 since it leads to division by zero. Thus,

i.) h(-1)

does not exist, condition i.) is violated, and function h is NOT continuous at x = -1 .

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SOLUTION 5 : First, check for continuity at x=3 . Function f is defined at x=3 since

i.)

The limit

(Circumvent this indeterminate form by factoring the numerator and the denominator.)

(Recall that A2 - B2 = (A-B)(A+B) and A3 - B3 = (A-B)(A2+AB+B2 ) . )

(Divide out a factor of (x-3) . )

i.e.,

ii.)

Since,

iii.)

all three conditions are satisfied, and f is continuous at x=3 . Now, check for continuity at x=-3 . Function f is not defined at x = -3 because of division by zero. Thus,

i.) f(-3)

does not exist, condition i.) is violated, and f is NOT continuous at x=-3 .

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SOLUTION 6 : Functions y = x2 + 3x + 5 and y = x2 + 3x - 4 are continuous for all values of x since both are polynomials. Thus, the quotient of these two

functions, , is continuous for all values ofx where the denominator, y = x2 + 3x - 4 = (x-1)(x+4) , does NOT equal zero. Since (x-1)(x+4) = 0 for x=1 and x=-4 , function f is continuous for all values of x EXCEPT x=1 and x=-4 .

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SOLUTION 7 : First describe function g using functional composition. Let f(x) = x1/3 , , and k(x) = x20 + 5 . Function k is continuous for all values of x since it is a polynomial, and functions f and h are well-known to be continuous for all values of x . Thus, the functional compositions

and

are continuous for all values of x . Since

function g is continuous for all values of x .

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SOLUTION 8 : First describe function f using functional composition. Let g(x) = x2 - 2x and

. Function g is continuous for all values of x since it is a polynomial, and

function h is well-known to be continuous for composition

. Since g(x) = x2 - 2x = x(x-2) , it follows easily that

for

and

. Thus, the functional

is continuous for

and

. Since

function f is continuous for

and

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SOLUTION 9 : First describe function f using functional composition. Let

and

. Since g is the quotient of polynomials y = x-1 and y = x+2

, function g is continuous for all values of xEXCEPT where x+2 = 0 , i.e., EXCEPT for x = -2 . Function h is well-known to be continuous for x > 0 . Since follows easily that g(x) > 0 for x < -2 and x > 1 . Thus, the functional composition

, it

is continuous for x < -2 and x > 1 . Since

function f is continuous for x < -2 and x > 1 .

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SOLUTION 10 : First describe function f using functional composition. Let

and h(x) = e x , both of which are well-known to be continuous for all values of x . Thus, the

numerator

is continuous (the functional composition of continuous functions) for all values of x . Now consider the

denominator

. Let g(x) = 4 , h(x) = x2 - 9 , and

. Functions g and h are continuous for all values of x since both are polynomials, and

it is well-known that function k is continuous for

. Since h(x) = x2 - 9 = (x-3)(x+3) = 0 when x=3 or x=-3 , it follows easily

that

for

and

, so that

is continuous (the functional composition of continuous functions)

for

and

. Thus, the denominator

is continuous (the difference of continuous functions)

for

and

. There is one other important consideration. We must insure that the DENOMINATOR IS NEVER ZERO. If

then

Squaring both sides, we get 16 = x2 - 9

so that x2 = 25

when

x = 5 or x = -5 .

Thus, the denominator is zero if x = 5 or x = -5 . Summarizing, the quotient of these continuous functions,

, is continuous

for

and

, but NOT for x = 5 and x = -5 .

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SOLUTION 11 : Consider separately the three component functions which determine f . Function

is continuous for x > 1 since it is the quotient of continuous

functions and the denominator is never zero. Function y = 5 -3x is continuous for since it is a polynomial. Function is continuous for x < -2 since it is the quotient of continuous functions and the denominator is never zero. Now check for continuity of f where the three components are joined together, i.e., check for continuity at x=1 and x=-2 . For x = 1 function f is defined since

i.) f(1) = 5 - 3(1) = 2 .

The right-hand limit

(Circumvent this indeterminate form one of two ways. Either factor the numerator as the difference of squares, or multiply by the conjugate of the denominator over itself.)

=2.

The left-hand limit

= 5 - 3(1)

=2.

Thus,

ii.)

Since

iii.)

all three conditions are satisfied, and function f is continuous at x=1 . Now check for continuity at x=-2 . Function f is defined at x=-2 since

i.) f(-2) = 5 - 3(-2) = 11 .

The right-hand limit

= 5 - 3( -2)

= 11 .

The left-hand limit

= -1 .

Since the left- and right-hand limits are different,

ii.)

does NOT exist,

condition ii.) is violated, and function f is NOT continuous at x=-2 . Summarizing, function f is continuous for all values of x EXCEPT x=-2 .

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SOLUTION 12 : First, consider separately the two components which determine function f . Function y = A2 x - A is continuous for for any value of A since it is a polynomial. Function y = 4 is continuous for x < 3 since it is a polynomial. Now determine A so that function f is continuous at x=3 . Function f must be defined at x=3 , so i.) f(3)= A2 (3) - A = 3 A2 - A .

The right-hand limit

= = A2 (3) - A = 3 A2 - A .

The left-hand limit

=4.

For the limit to exist, the right- and left-hand limits must exist and be equal. Thus,

ii.)

so that 3 A2 - A - 4 = 0 .

Factoring, we get

(3A - 4)(A + 1) = 0

for

or A = -1 .

For either choice of A ,

iii.)

all three conditions are satisfied, and f is continuous at x=3 . Therefore, function f is continuous for all values of x if

or A = -1 .

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SOLUTION 13 : First, consider separately the three components which determine function f . Function y = Ax - B is continuous for

for any values of A and B since it is a

polynomial. Function y = 2x2 + 3Ax + Bis continuous for for any values of A and B since it is a polynomial. Function y = 4 is continuous for x > 1 since it is a polynomial. Now determine A and B so that function f is continuous at x=-1 and x=1 . First, consider continuity at x=-1 . Function f must be defined at x=-1 , so

i.) f(-1)= A(-1) - B = - A - B .

The left-hand limit

= A (-1) - B

=-A-B.

The right-hand limit

= = 2(-1)2 + 3A(-1) + B

= 2 - 3A + B .

For the limit to exist, the right- and left-hand limits must exist and be equal. Thus,

ii.)

so that

2A - 2B = 2 ,

or

(Equation 1)

A-B=1.

Now consider continuity at x=1 . Function f must be defined at x=1 , so i.) f(1)= 2(1)2 + 3A(1) + B = 2 + 3A + B .

The left-hand limit

= = 2(1)2 + 3A(1) + B

= 2 + 3A + B .

The right-hand limit

=4.

For the limit to exist, the right- and left-hand limits must exist and be equal. Thus,

ii.)

or

(Equation 2)

3A + B = 2 .

Now solve Equations 1 and 2 simultaneously. Thus,

A - B = 1 and 3A + B = 2

are equivalent to

A = B + 1 and 3A + B = 2 .

Use the first equation to substitute into the second, getting

3 (B + 1 ) + B = 2 ,

3B+3+B=2,

and

4 B = -1 .

Thus,

and

For this choice of A and B it can easily be shown that

iii.)

and

iii.)

so that all three conditions are satisfied at both x=1 and x=-1 , and function f is continuous at both x=1 and x=-1 . Therefore, function f is continuous for all values

of x if

and

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SOLUTION 14 : First describe f using functional composition. Let g(x) = -1/x2 and h(x) = ex . Function h is well-known to be continuous for all values of x . Function g is the quotient of functions continuous for all values of x , and is therefore continuous for all values of x except x=0 , that x which makes the denominator zero. Thus, for all values of x except x=0 , f(x) = h ( g(x) ) = e g(x) = e -1/x2

is a continuous function (the functional composition of continuous functions). Now check for continuity of f at x=0 . Function f is defined at x=0 since

i.) f(0) = 0 .

The limit

(The numerator approaches -1 and the denominator is a positive number approaching zero.)

so that

=0,

i.e.,

ii.)

Since

iii.)

all three conditions are satisfied, and f is continuous at x=0 . Thus, f is continuous for all values of x .

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SOLUTION 15 : First show that f is continuous for all values of x . Describe f using functional composition. Let , , and k(x) = x2 . Function h is well-known to be continuous for all values of x . Function k is a polynomial and is therefore continuous for all values of x . Function g is the quotient of functions continuous for all values of x , and is therefore continuous for all values of x except x=0 , that x which makes the denominator zero. Thus, for all values of x except x=0 ,

is a continuous function (the product and functional composition of continuous functions). Now check for continuity of f at x=0 . Function f is defined at x=0 since

i.) f(0) = 0 .

The limit

does not exist since the values of

oscillate between -1 and +1 as x approaches zero. However, for

so that

Since

it follows from the Squeeze Principle that

ii.)

Since

iii.)

all three conditions are satisfied, and f is continuous at x=0 . Thus, f is continuous for all values of x . Now show that f is differentiable for all values of x . For

we can

differentiate f using the product rule and the chain rule. That is, for

the derivative of f is

Use the limit definition of the derivative to differentiate f at x=0 . Then

Use the Squeeze Principle to evaluate this limit. For

If

, then

If

, then

In either case,

and it follows from the Squeeze Principle that

Thus, f is differentiable for all values of x . Check to see if f' is continuous at x=0 . The function f' is defined at x=0 since

i.) f'(0) = 0 .

However,

ii.)

does not exist since the values of

oscillate between -1 and +1 as x approaches zero. Thus, condition ii.) is violated, and the derivative , f' , is not continuous at x=0 .

NOTE : The continuity of function f for all values of x also follows from the fact that f is differentiable for all values of x .

LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS AS X APPROACHES INFINITY

The following problems require the algebraic computation of limits of functions as x approaches plus or minus infinity. Most problems are average. A few are somewhat challenging. All of the solutions are given WITHOUT the use of L'Hopital's Rule. If you are going to try these problems before looking at the solutions, you can avoid common mistakes by giving careful consideration

to the forms

and

during the computations of these limits. Initially, many students INCORRECTLY conclude that

is equal to 1 , or that the limit

does not exist, or is or . Many also conclude that is equal to 0 . In fact, the forms and are examples of indeterminate forms. This simply means that you have not yet determined an answer. Usually, these indeterminate forms can be circumvented by using algebraic manipulation. Such tools as

algebraic simplification and conjugates can easily be used to circumvent the forms

and

so that the limit can be calculated.

SOLUTION 1 :

=0.

(The numerator is always 100 and the denominator

approaches

as x approaches

, so that the resulting fraction approaches 0.)

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SOLUTION 2 :

=0.

(The numerator is always 7 and the denominator

approaches

as x approaches

, so that the resulting fraction approaches 0.)

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SOLUTION 3 :

(This is NOT equal to 0. It is an indeterminate form. It can be circumvented by factoring.)

(As x approaches

, each of the two expressions

and 3 x - 1000 approaches

.)

(This is NOT an indeterminate form. It has meaning.)

(Thus, the limit does not exist. Note that an alternate solution follows by first factoring out

, the highest power of x . Try it.)

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SOLUTION 4 :

(As x approaches

, each of the two expressions

and

approaches

.)

(This is NOT an indeterminate form. It has meaning.)

(Thus, the limit does not exist. Note that an alternate solution follows by first factoring out

, the highest power of x . Try it.)

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SOLUTION 5 :

(Note that the expression

leads to the indeterminate form

. Circumvent this by appropriate factoring.)

(As x approaches

, each of the three expressions

, and x - 10 approaches

.)

(Thus, the limit does not exist. Note that an alternate solution follows by first factoring out

, the highest power of x . Try it. )

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SOLUTION 6 :

(This is an indeterminate form. Circumvent it by dividing each term by x .)

(As x approaches

, each of the two expressions

and

approaches 0.)

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SOLUTION 7 :

(Note that the expression by .)

leads to the indeterminate form

as x approaches

. Circumvent this by dividing each of the terms in the original problem

(Each of the three expressions

, and

approaches 0 as x approaches

.)

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SOLUTION 8 :

(Note that the expression

leads to the indeterminate form

as x approaches

. Circumvent this by dividing each of the terms in the original problem , the highest power of x in the numerator, also leads to the correct answer. You

by , the highest power of x in the problem . This is not the only step that will work here. Dividing by might want to try it both ways to convince yourself of this.)

(Each of the five expressions

, and

approaches 0 as x approaches

.)

=0.

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SOLUTION 9 :

(Note that the expression

leads to the indeterminate form

as x approaches

. Circumvent this by dividing each of the terms in the original problem

by , the highest power of x in the problem. . This is not the only step that will work here. Dividing by x , the highest power of x in the denominator, actually leads more easily to the correct answer. You might want to try it both ways to convince yourself of this.)

(Each of the three expressions

, and

approaches 0 as x approaches

.)

(This is NOT an indeterminate form. It has meaning. However, to determine it's exact meaning requires a bit more analysis of the origin of the 0 in the denominator. Note

that

. It follows that if x is a negative number then both of the expressions

and

are negative so that

is positive.

Thus, for the expression

the numerator approaches 7 and the denominator is a positive quantity approaching 0 as x approaches

. The resulting limit is

.)

(Thus, the limit does not exist.)

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SOLUTION 10 :

(You will learn later that the previous step is valid because of the continuity of the square root function.)

(Inside the square root sign lies an indeterminate form. Circumvent it by dividing each term by

, the highest power of x inside the square root sign.)

(Each of the two expressions

and

approaches 0 as x approaches

.)

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SOLUTION 11 :

= ``

''

(Circumvent this indeterminate form by using the conjugate of the expression

in an appropriate fashion.)

(Recall that

.)

=0.

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SOLUTION 12 :

(This is NOT an indeterminate form. It has meaning.)

(Thus, the limit does not exist.)