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Chapter 1: The International Atmosphere and Air Flow Concept

1.1 Introduction
As with all physical systems, the flight of an air vehicle is subject to the basic laws of
motion. An understanding of Newtons Laws of motion and the basic concepts of
mass, momentum, impulse, force, torque, work, energy and power is essential to the
study of the mechanics of flight. A quick look at these fundamentals is provided here:
- Newtons Laws of Motion:
o First Law: A body remains at rest or continues to move in a straight
line with a constant velocity unless acted on by an external force
o Second Law: The rate of change of momentum of a body is
proportional to the force acting on it
o Third Law: To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
The system of units used almost universally is the Systeme International dUnites (SI
units) which is based on the metric system. However, in aerospace, especially in
USA it is common to find the imperial system or foot-pound-second (FPS) system of
units still used. Aerospace engineers and air crew have to be familiar with both
systems of units. Some of the commonly used SI units for the quantities used are
listed below:
- Mass (m) is a measure of the amount of matter present in a body. The units
for mass are kilogram (kg) in the SI (MKS) system, or pound (lb) in the
Imperial (FPS) system.
- Momentum is the product of mass and velocity. Without external forces, the
momentum of a system remains constant. The units of momentum are kg.m/s
or lb ft / s.
- Impulse is the product of the force and the time that force acts.
Impulse (I) = Force (F) x time (t) = Ft. It is measured in newton-second or lbf-
second.
- Force (F) is equal to the rate of change of momentum (mv) with time (t). F=
mass x acceleration = m x a. It is measured in newtons in SI or pound-force
(lbf) in FPS.
- Torque is the moment of force about the axis of rotation. A torque may also
be equal to a couple, which is the product of two equal and opposite forces,
and the perpendicular distance between them. The units of moment or torque
are newton meter or lbf ft
- Work is the product of the force on a body and the distance moved in the
direction of the force. The units of work are the same as those for energy:
joule in SI or foot-pound (ft-lbf) in FPS system.
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- Energy is the inherent ability of a system to do work. There are several forms
of energy such as heat, sound and electrical energy. These forms of energy
may be converted from one form to another, but the total energy of a system
is always conserved (Law of the conservation of energy). The units of energy
are the same as those for work, joule or foot-pound. The two forms of
mechanical energy are:
Potential energy (PE) is energy possessed by a body by virtue of its
position.
PE = mgh
Kinetic energy (KE) is energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion:
KE = mv
2

Power is the rate of doing work with respect to time. It is measured in
watts which is one joule per second in the SI system, or in horsepower
which is 550 ft-lb per sec.
- SI is defined by ISO 1000. It comprises seven basic units from which almost
all the other engineering quantities are derived. The seven basic units are:
Quantity Unit Symbol
o Length meter m
o Mass kilogram kg
o Time second s
o Electric current ampere A
o Temperature Kelvin K
o Luminous intensity candela cd
o Amount of substance mole mol
Although the SI system of units is widely used by the European and Asian countries
including Singapore, it must be noted that the USA as the dominant aerospace
nation continues to use the imperial or FPS system, in particular for its aviation
industry. It is important that those intending to enter the aerospace profession be
proficient in the use of both systems of units. For a detailed background of the
systems of units and conversion factors see:
http://www.ex.ac.uk/cimt/dictunit/dictunit.htm
1.2 The Atmosphere
The medium in which flight takes place is the earths atmosphere which consists of
air with about 78% nitrogen, 20% oxygen and small amounts of hydrogen, carbon
dioxide and the inert gases helium, argon, krypton and neon. The atmosphere is
assumed to cover the surface of the earth up to an altitude of 100 km or 62 miles.
Although it may be treated as a homogeneous gas of uniform composition, the
atmosphere consists of fairly distinct regions as follows:
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Troposphere:
This layer starts from sea level and extend to about 11 km (36,000 ft) in altitude.
Temperature decreases linearly with height at a constant lapse rate of 6.5 K per km
increase in altitude.
Stratosphere:
This layer covers from 11 km to about 48 km in altitude. The temperature remains
constant at about 56.5
0
C (216.7 K).
Mesosphere:
This layer covers from 48 km to 90 km in altitude. The temperature decreases again
to typical values of 93
0
C (180 K).
Thermosphere:
This layer stretches above 90 km and the temperature increases sharply with altitude
to very high values.
The tropopause is a region between the troposphere and the stratosphere, where
the two regions merge. For all practical purposes of flight, we shall be concerned
with the troposphere and the stratosphere.
Like all fluids, air has the following properties:
- Temperature T is measured in degrees Kelvin (Celsius) in SI or Fahrenheit
(Rankin) in FPS. K =
0
C+273, R=
0
F + 460
The ISA temperature at sea-level is 288 K or 15
0
C.
- Pressure p is the force per unit area exerted by the air on an immersed body,
measured in Pascal (N/m
2
) or pounds per square inch (psi). Note one
bar=100,000 Pa, one atmosphere=101,325 Pa = 14.69 psi which is the ISA air
pressure at sea level.
- Density is the mass per unit volume of air, measured in kg/m
3
or lb/ft
3
or slugs/
ft
3
. The density of air at sea level under ISA conditions is 1.225 kg/m
3
- Viscosity is a measure of the stickiness of a fluid, and is related to friction in
solids. It causes tangential stress within the fluid with relative motion and hence a
velocity gradient. This property is measured as a coefficient of viscosity in two
forms:
o Absolute or Dynamic coefficient of viscosity,
o Kinematic coefficient of viscosity, v, where v = /
The value of at ISA sea level is 1.789 x 10
-5
kg / m s.
Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of
the material by one degree, measured in J/kg
0
C. For air and all gases, the heat may
be applied at constant volume or at constant pressure, and hence there are two
forms of specific heat for gases.
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o Specific heat at constant volume, c
v
o Specific heat at constant pressure, c
p
The ratio of specific heats, c
p
/ c
v
is an important parameter in high speed flow as it
affects the speed of sound in the gas and hence the Mach number of the flow. For
air the value of the ratio of specific heats is 1.4. The gas constant R = c
p
- c
v,
and for
air, the value of R is 287 J/kg K. Like all gases, air may be assumed to obey the
ideal gas law:
pv = RT or p/ = RT
As these properties vary at different points on the earth depending on the climatic
and weather conditions, it is useful for comparison of aircraft performance to adopt a
standard atmosphere. The most commonly used standard is the International
Standard Atmosphere (ISA). The values of the properties like temperature, pressure,
density, speed of sound, coefficient of viscosity are tabulated against altitude for the
ISA. Refer to ISA Table for the respective values. At sea level, the ISA values of the
atmosphere are as follows:
- Temperature T
0
= 15
0
C = 288 K
- Pressure p
0
= 101,325 Pa or N/m
2
= 1013 mb
- Density
0
= 1,225 kg/m
3
- Speed of sound, a
0
= 340.3 m/s
- Coefficient of viscosity,
0
= 1.789 x 10
-5
kg/ms
The variation of the various properties of the atmosphere with altitude under ISA
conditions are shown in the chart below.
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APPENDIX A: THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
h
(km)
T (K) u = T/T
0
a (m/s) a/a
0
p x 10
4
(N/m
2
)
= = p/p
0
(kg/m
3
) o = /
0
\o
x 10
-5
(kg/m s)
u x 10
-5
(m
2
/s)
0 288.2 1.000 340.3 1.000 10.132 1.000 1.225 1.000 1.000 1.789 1.461
1.0 281.7 0.977 336.4 0.989 8.989 0.887 1.112 0.908 0.953 1.758 1.581
2.0 275.2 0.955 332.5 0.977 7.950 0.785 1.007 0.822 0.907 1.726 1.715
3.0 268.7 0.932 328.6 0.966 7.012 0.692 0.909 0.742 0.862 1.694 1.863
4.0 262.2 0.910 324.6 0.954 6.166 0.609 0.819 0.669 0.818 1.661 2.028
5.0 255.7 0.887 320.5 0.942 5.405 0.533 0.736 0.601 0.775 1.628 2.211
6.0 249.2 0.865 316.5 0.930 4.722 0.466 0.660 0.539 0.734 1.595 2.416
7.0 242.7 0.842 312.3 0.918 4.111 0.406 0.590 0.482 0.694 1.561 2.646
8.0 236.2 0.820 308.1 0.905 3.565 0.352 0.526 0.429 0.655 1.527 2.904
9.0 229.7 0.797 303.8 0.893 3.080 0.304 0.467 0.381 0.618 1.493 3.196
10.0 223.2 0.775 299.5 0.880 2.650 0.262 0.414 0.338 0.581 1.458 3.525
11.0 216.7 0.752 295.1 0.867 2.270 0.224 0.365 0.298 0.546 1.422 3.898
12.0 216.7 0.752 295.1 0.867 1.940 0.192 0.312 0.255 0.505 1.422 4.558
13.0 216.7 0.752 295.1 0.867 1.658 0.164 0.267 0.218 0.467 1.422 5.333
14.0 216.7 0.752 295.1 0.867 1.417 0.140 0.228 0.186 0.431 1.422 6.239
15.0 216.7 0.752 295.1 0.867 1.211 0.120 0.195 0.159 0.399 1.422 7.300
16.0 216.7 0.775 295.1 0.867 1.035 0.102 0.167 0.136 0.369 1.422 8.540
17.0 216.7 0.752 295.1 0.867 0.885 0.087 0.142 0.116 0.341 1.422 9.990
18.0 216.7 0.752 295.1 0.867 0.757 0.075 0.122 0.099 0.315 1.422 11.686
19.0 216.7 0.752 295.1 0.867 0.647 0.064 0.104 0.085 0.291 1.422 13.670
20.0 216.7 0.752 295.1 0.867 0.553 0.055 0.089 0.073 0.269 1.422 15.989
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1.3 Air Flow
For flight to take place the air vehicle must overcome gravity; it must generate a
vertical force at least equal to or more than its total weight. In the case of lighter-
than-air vehicles like hot air balloons, this vertical force is mainly created by
buoyancy based on Archimedes principle. For heavier-than-air aircraft, however this
force has to be generated through the flow of air to create the aerodynamic forces.
To analyze forces created by the airflow over an aircraft, the following general
characteristics of fluid flow have to be considered:
- Steady Flow: The flow properties at any single point are constant with respect
to time, although they may vary from point to point. Steady flow is assumed in
most analysis and calculations in this module.
- Viscosity Effect: In the free stream the viscosity of air is generally assumed to
be negligible and the flow is considered to be inviscid. However, near the
surface of the body the effects of viscosity are important in the boundary layer.
The velocity of the airflow in the boundary layer increases from zero at the
surface to the free stream velocity. The shear stress and hence the skin friction
is proportional to the velocity gradient.
- Laminar or Turbulent Flow: In laminar flow, the airflow is smooth, steady and
regular, while turbulent flow is unsteady and chaotic with eddies and flow
detachment, leading to increased skin friction and form drag. There is generally
a point of transition where the laminar flow gradually breaks down to become
turbulent. The transition from laminar to turbulent is dependent on the value of
Reynolds number (Re) defined as:
R
e
= VL / , where V is the airflow velocity, and are the density and
absolute coefficient of viscosity of the air and L is a specified representative
length of the body.
- Compressibility Effect: In subsonic flow, the air may be assumed to be
incompressible (its density does not vary as it flows over a body) and the effects
of compressibility may be neglected. However this assumption cannot be
applied at speeds greater about 0.3 times the speed of sound, or at Mach
numbers greater than 0.3.
Mach Number M = V / a, where a = the speed of sound given by a =\ RT.
For air, the value of the adiabatic index, = 1.4 Note that is also the ratio of
specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume. = c
p
/

c
v
The value of the gas constant R= 287 J/kg K, and T is the absolute temperature.
For an inviscid and incompressible flow, we may apply Bernoullis equation,
p + v
2
+ gz = constant
If the flow is horizontal, the height z is constant and the equation is reduced to
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p + v
2
= constant
This equation is used in the measurement of air speed in the Pitot - static tube where
the total pressure or stagnation pressure p
t
and the static pressure p are measured.
p
t
= p + v
2
Where the term v
2
is also referred to as the dynamic pressure (q = v
2
). By
simple manipulation, it can be shown that the velocity V can be deduced from the
difference between the values of p
t
and p.
v = \ 2(p
t
p)/
1.4 Air Speed Indicator: The pressures measured by the Pitot - static
tube are linked to an aneroid barometric capsule where the pressure difference is
converted to air speed in km per hour or in knots (nautical miles per hour). The air
speed indicator (ASI) is calibrated based on the standard ISA condition at sea level
where the density is assumed to be constant at
0
= 1.2256 kg / m
3
. As the aircraft
operates in a wide range of altitudes, the air speed shown on the ASI has to be
corrected to give the actual air speed. We need to understand the derivation of the
various values of air speed:
- Indicated Air Speed (IAS) is the speed shown on the air speed
indicator.
- Calibrated Air Speed (CAS) is the value of the air speed corrected for
instrument and position errors. Instrument error may be caused by the
design and manufacture of the ASI, while position error is related to the
measurement of the Pitot and static pressures caused by the location
and alignment of the Pitot - static tube.
- Equivalent Air Speed (EAS) is the value of the air speed corrected for
compressibility effects. The initial IAS after correction for instrument,
position and compressibility errors gives the EAS.
- True Air Speed (TAS) is the actual speed of the aircraft relative to the
air. TAS = EAS / \o , where o is the density ratio or relative density of
air at the operating altitude of the aircraft.
o = /
0
For subsonic speeds, EAS is less than TAS. To obtain the ground speed, the TAS is
corrected for the prevailing wind speed. TAS is used to compute Mach number, M.
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1.16. Summary
In summary, the aerodynamic forces created by the air flow over a body must have a
lift component which can overcome the weight of the body for sustained flight. The
elements contributing to the creation the lift force may be summarized as follows:
- Medium: The medium in which all aircraft operate is the atmosphere of air. The
main properties of air and their variation with altitude have major effect on the
performance of aircraft.
- Air flow over a body: The flight of an aircraft in air may be compared to a
submarine moving beneath the sea of water. The forces created by the
movement of the aircraft through the air may be analysed using Newtons laws
and Bernoullis equation:
o Wind tunnel principle: Forces on a body as it moves through air = Forces on
the body as air flow over the static body.
o For incompressible subsonic flow, we can apply Bernoullis equation: static
pressure + dynamic pressure = constant (total pressure or stagnation
pressure).
p + ..V
2
= constant (total pressure or stagnation pressure)
List of References:
A: Mechanics of Flight, Tenth Edition by A.C. Kermode, R.H. Barnard,
D.R. Philpott: Prentice Hall: 1996 (ISBN 0-582-23740-8)
B. Aerodynamics for Engineering Students: E.L. Houghton, P.W. Carpenter
C. Introduction to Flight, Fifth Edition, John D. Anderson