Lecture 1

1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM Experimental psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. (different from mid-twentieth century def)

SCHIZOPHRENIA Most common form of psychosis (1% of the population) Schizo=split phrene = mind o Refers to the fragmentation of thought processes Onset late adolescence-early adulthood Prognosis poor People tend to not recover from schizo, chronic illness Positive: behaviors not seen in normal humans o Delusion- incorrect belief held despite evidence to the contrary Delusions are benign, see things that are not happening E.g. Alien abduction o Hallucinations sensory experience in the absence of any stimulus E.g. report hearing voices when there are none. During a hallucination, brain imaging shows that it is indistinguishable from normal hearing. Feel the need to respond the voices they are hearing. Voices are in command Hearing voices Visual hallucinations and olfactory hallucinations o Odd dressing, frenzied or silly behavior o Can be violent a danger to themselves or others o Paranoid o Lifetime suicide rate for schizos is 15% o 58% of schizos never work Negative Symptoms o Anhedonia: flattened affect, failure to perceive affected responses of others o Poverty of speech, motor retardation, catatonia

o Emotional withdrawal, and social withdrawal o Which comes first? Being odd or being ostracized? o Cognitive symptoms no coherent train of thought, memory abnormalities, sensory processing abnormalities o This can all be seen as brain damage o Lack of train of thought o Memory abnormality o Sensory processing abnormalities Brain anatomy o Brain damage ventricles hollow interconnected chambers filled with cerebrospinal fluid which cushions and supports brain. Enlarged ventricles evident in MRI scans of living schizophrenics. Ventricles nearly twice normal size. More common in males. Ventricles holds fluids. Big ventricles means less brain tissue Bigger ventricles means fewer nerve cells (not seen in all, but it common finding)

o o o

o Why are people schizos? Brain damage is one possible answer. Molecular Level Dopamine hypothesis o Messages between nerve cells chemical neurotransmitter o The DA hypothesis: schizophrenia caused too much activity at DA synapses (gap between nerve cells). o DA receptor blockers alleviate schizophrenia o Amphetamine produces psychotic symptoms o Glutamate hypothesis too little glutamate o PCP/angel dust blocks glutamate transmission and produces schizophrenic symptoms o Drugs that elevate glutamate alleviate symptoms o Schizos have too little glutamate o Dopamine is released by a o Big dopamine release in people who have used amphetamine and cocaine

o Pet scan can be used to pick up on the activity of one transmitter o Tranquilizers didnt calm schizos, just made the hallucinations temporarily disappear Genes/environment o Schizophrenia runs in family o Does this fact alone argue for a genetic basis? Could be shared environment Risk is same whether adopted or not MZ twins more similar than DZ MZ twins come from the same zygote, DZ do not. More likely for MZ twins to be schizophrenic if one is. Lower chance for DZ twins. Not completely genetic or MZ twins would be identical prenatal factors? o Genetics provides a predisposition to schizophrenia. Virus or certain events might trigger schizophrenia in certain people. Developmental environment factors that affect the individual during brain development.

Social o Correlation vs. causality: Schizophrenia is correlated with poverty and dysfunctional family Has a causal role in SES: 58% have never worked. Deinstitutionalization. Dysfunctional family seems to be caused by, not the cause of schizophrenia. Being schizophrenic makes you poor. Correlation does not tell you the direction of the cause. o Legal vs. medical definitions of insanity much more likely to convicted of a crime o Although there are treatments that really help schizophrenia, the side affects are disastrous. o A lot of these people end up in the street. No job, no social support. Summary o Causes of schizophrenia

Environment Genes Brain damage Loss of brain tissue Brain chemistry abnormalities

Lecture 2: The Neuron

1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM

Nervous system is hierarchically organized WHY IS THE NERVOUS SYSTEM HIERARCHICALLY ORGANIZED? Dont have to duplicate apparatus o Dont need a separate set of instruct for how, e.g., to run for each activity one set of commands in lower levels of the NS that is tapped into when needed Guy at the top doesnt have to worry about every detail Evolutionarily, small pieces of behavior more likely to arise by chance than large pieces o Once a piece of behavior arises in one context, can be tapped intro for other purposes and can eventually become a part of more complex systems o Has been argued that intelligence is the ability to apply behavioral programs flexibly. E.g., bees vs. people. REDUCTIONISM Definition: Attempt to understand a phenomenon by studying its component parts 2 major drawbacks: o The whole is usually more than the sum of its parts. It also reflects their interaction o Is possible to take the reductionistic approach too far, to lose sight of the phenomenon of interest Cant explain all phenomena Believe that someday, psychologists will be able to explain these things in reductionist terms. Axon: transmits information away from cell body. Cell usually has only one. Can be very long (or not or a few feet or a few microns) Transmission of information to next neuron: Collaterals branches at end of axon Properties of cell membrane make neuron special Resting potential when undisturbed, inside -70 mv compared to outside. Sodium potassium pump metabolic energy maintains gradient. Propagation of impulse: Disturbance in one area de-stabilizes the next area of the membrane. Why doesnt it go backward? Refractory period e.g., hydra and nerve net.

SPEED OF PROPAGATION Several factors affects speed of propagation: o Axon diameter, e.g., giant squid axon bigger = faster o Myelin: like insulation not all axons are myelinated e.g., C fibers that carry pain signals. o Intensity: if neuron obeys all or none and speed of propagation is a function of diameter and myelin o How do we distinguish between weak and strong stimuli? # of neurons firing rate of firing GLIA: WHO KNEW? Guide neuron migration Guide regeneration May modulate strength of connections important in learning May be a parallel slow communication system SUMMARY Neuron is special because of anatomy and membrane Within a neuron, the signal is electrical Potential energy from Na+/K+ pump Action potential All or none Myelin increases speed of conduction Code for intensity by # of neurons firing and frequency of firing Reading: Synapse

Lecture 3

1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM

REVIEW QUESTIONS Name a positive/negative symptom of schizophrenia Delusions & hallucinations positive Disordered thought negative Describe a reductionistic explanation for schizophrenia The phenomenon is the behavior of the patient. Looking at the patients brain and brain imaging and there are enlarged ventricles. Looking at dopamine activity, and need dopamine blockers. Looking at neurotransmitters reductionistic approach Name an advantage of hierarchical organization You dont have to duplicate simple behavior patterns for standing up, walking, swallowing etc. You dont have to consciously think about low level processes What happens when you take reductionism too far? What 2 things make a neuron special Anatomy Membrane If you understand the neuron do you know everything you need to know about the nervous system No because you need to know how they interact as well Which part of the neuron sends information away from the cell body Axon away from cell body, towards cell body dendrites Difference between action potential and graded potential Action potential is all or none, once action potential is triggered it is the same size through out travel in the neuron. Graded potentials can be any size and are not being charged through out the whole way. Sometimes get weaker as travel along At rest the inside of the axon is negatively charged with respect to the outside What is a threshold? The smallest stimulus that can cause a response. There is a threshold that needs to pass for action potential to occur. Why does the action potential only go in one direction Refractory period, once A.P. goes by theres that extra inside the axon, even becomes more negative. In that period of time it is harder to get the neuron to fire again. So A.P. moves in the

direction of the membrane that is not charged during that refractory period. Give two factors that affect the speed of propagation in a given axon Myelination makes the signal go faster because it skips from node to node. And the diameter of axon makes a difference as well. Remember original work on axon diameter w/ giant squids How can the nervous represent intensity of a stimulus The frequency of action potentials goes up and the reason for that is because a stronger stimulus can cause a stronger A.P. in the earlier period than a threshold period. Neurons have different thresholds. So if you have a very weak stimulus, only the most sensitive of neurons response. As the stimulus gets stronger, a bigger group of neurons can response

INFERRING THE SYNAPSE Sir Charles Sherrington inferred the synapse by measuring speed of reflex o Ex. Pinched the toe of a frog, waiting for how long its foot of the frog would withdraw. From toe to spinal cord back to leg. Can measure the distance. You can measure how it takes for the A.P. If you measure the distance it has to travel, realized that it is a lot slower. Otto Lowei showed that the signal was chemical. Who read about the frog heart study? (In the book) o If you stimulate the vegas nerve you will slow the heart down. Stimulate the nerve attached to one heart. Neurotransmitter: chemical released by one neuron that triggers a response in another neuron or target cell (e.g., muscle or gland) o Many different transmitters, most neurons can respond to more than one Synaptic cleft (.02 microns or 200 Angstroms (10^-10m) Post-synaptic membrane thickening Cartoon #2 Youtube neural synapse

ENDING SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION Re-uptake dopamine Enzymatic degradation acetylcholine

o Myasthenia gravis an example Autoimmune disease Antibodies block receptors at neuromuscular synapse Need more transmitter to get same response Give pyridostigmine, acetyl cholinesterase blocker Cartoon #3 positive tensilon (edrophonium quick acting anti-cholinesterase) test One type of acetylcholine receptor found in brain and nerve-muscle synapse Note that many potential binding sites

POST-SYNAPTIC POTENTIALS EPSPs excitatory post-synaptic potentials ISPSs o Graded responses, not APs o Also conducted decrementally o Can be any size o ESPSs can sum o ESPSs and ISPSs also sum BUGS AND DRUGS Agonists: external agents that have the same effect as a transmitters o Amphetamine increased release of Dopamine o Block re-uptake Cocaine (dopamine) Anti depressants (SSRIs) Serotonin o Bind to same receptor Cannabinoids (bind to anadamide receptor) Nicotine Muscarine (Euripides) Arecoline betel nuts (slight euphoric) Antagonists: extetnal agents that have an effect opposite to that of transmitter o Block release Alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine (AMPT) is a tyrosine hydroxylase enzyme inhibitor. Pheochromocytoma

Botulinum toxin from anaerobic bacteria Botulus means sausage. Must get inside nerve terminals and blocks fusion of vesicles w/ membrane o Bind to same receptor but block rather than stimulate Hardol (DA) Beta Blockers (NE) Curare & a snake venom alpha-bungarotoxin (Ach) o Massive release followed by depletion Black widow spider venom

Lecture 4

1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM

REVIEW QUESTIONS How did Sherrington infer the synapse? Stimulate the nerve to one heart and then you put some of the liquid in the other heart. How was it demonstrated that the synaptic signal is chemical? What is a synaptic vesicle? Packages of neurotransmitters that releases into a synaptic cleft when an action potential occurs. Why dont the synaptic nobs get really big when the neuron fires a lot? Synaptic vesicles are recycled Name two ways that neurotransmitters are inactivated Inactivated by an enzyme T, F, a single neuron can respond to more than one neurotransmitter true Which transmitter system is affected in Myasthenia Gravis? How do EPSPs and IPSPs differ from APs? EPSPs and IPSPs are graded, they can be any size whereas action potentials cannot. Name 2 ways that agonists can work Agonist does the same thing as a transmitter, antagonist stops the processes Agonists can block reuptake into the neuron OR mimic of neurotransmitters and combine with receptor OR cause release of the transmitter or promote release ANTAGONIST CAN: Block the receptor Promote reuptake MOVING UP THE HIERARCHY TO REFLEX AND INHIBITION THE REFLEX Reflex: stereotyped glandular secretion or movement produces as a direct result of a stimulus E.g.: startle, eye blink, pupil contraction, salivation, tendon reflexes, grasp, pulling away from pain From Descartes WHY STUDY REFLEX HERE?

Basic unit of movement. Can involve as little as 2 neurons. Next step up the hierarchy

INHIBITION E.g. Reciprocal inhibition o Flexors-extensors. Abduction (lift arms away from sides)Adduction (bring arms down toward the sides) Cant have both contracting at the same time, not only less efficient, but dangerous e.g. tetanus Signal for contract for one sense an inhibitory signal to the other Where does inhibition come from? Most comes from higher levels of the NS Higher levels of NS dont replace lower ones, just take control of the functions of the lower levels and switch them on and off more appropriately than lower levels could alone. Relationship of higher levels to lower illustrated best by disinhibition: what happens when higher levels are removed Low level behaviors are often still intact but run on uncontrollably E.g., Neonatal reflexes e.g. rooting, grasp, sucking o Seen in babies o Not seen in normal adults o Seen in brain damaged adults. Were inhibited as person got older but were released from inhibition with brain damage PRAYING MANTIS Female reflexive killer Makes copulation a problem (more in captivity than wild) In some species, male gives female something to chew on In others, male wraps gift first so that female spends whole time unwrapping and can steal back to use with other mates In still others, male dresses up as female and steals gifts that males bring to him Mantis does none of this Male carefully creeps up If female looks, he freezes Waits until she looks away to creep up some more Can take 10 minutes to move inches When gets close, leaps & turns in mid-air

If, at any point, he makes a mistake, she is liable to eat him Why arent they extinct? Male copulates without head Illustrates importance of inhibition Illustrates how major levels of the NS interact o Higher cerebral centers do not replace lower centers during the process of evolution and development In the mantis, pattern for copulatory behavior resides in the 6th abdominal ganglion Brain is able to turn pattern on and off by using inhibition Brain is more attuned to environment than is the 6th ganglion alone I.e., brain uses visual information, ganglion runs continuously on its own

ENCEPHALIZATION In seeming contrast, as we travel the evolutionary tree to organisms that are close man, find an increasing dependence on higher centers Encephalization is evolutionary tend for increasing dominance of higher cerebral centers Hydra-nerve net o No hierarchical organization o Simple reflexive behavior like withdrawing from a stimulus o Removal of one body part is no more debilitating than the removal of any other Mantis has some hierarchical organization o Capable of more complex and flexible behavior than the hydra o Still not high flexible. Encephalization does not mean that have thrown out functions of

lower centers, just that they are carrying a smaller proportion of the burden Part of the reason for this is that higher centers not only take control of the lower ones, but also add to them Hughlings Jackson: loss of higher centers is like loss of prominent men of government. We lose the talents of the particular men but also lose the control that they provided. HUMAN BRAIN

See many alternating levels of inhibition and added capacities E.g., Thermoregulation, regulation of food intake from cortex, to hypothalamus, to midbrain, to hindbrain, to spinal cord PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM The nervous system is divided into the: o Central nervous system-brain and spinal cord o Peripheral nervous system (PNS)-includes bother efferent and afferent nerves The PNS is divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Sympathetic activated more as a whole o Sympathetic has a chain of ganglia near spinal cord. Activation spreads o Parasympathetic has ganglion near the end organ o Parasympathetic uses Acetylcholine o Sympathetic uses epinephrine/norepinephrine (aka adrenaline) o Epinephrine also a hormone

Lecture 5: Functional Circuitry of the Brain5/4/2012 12:58:00 AM

REVIEW QUESTIONS How did Descartes philosophy lead to scientific study of the nervous system? Perhaps some human and animal behavior is also mechanical. Name a neonatal reflex Grasping What is a reciprocal inhibition? Pairs of muscles that do opposite things, i.e. flex and extend. Why can the mantis copulate without his head? The basic motor pattern is in the ganglion in the abdomen, not in the head. When the head is bitten off, the activity pattern continues on its own. Why cant people behave without their heads? Encephalization -> as there is evolution in the nervous system, you add layers of control so newer parts of the brain take control of other parts of the brain, but they also add to them. As people we become dependent on the newer parts of the brain. We have trouble moving without the head, but if you pinch a toe you could get a response. We depend on our brains to be people. What are the two major divisions of the peripheral nervous system? Somatic and autonomic nervous systems Which is used to digest food? Parasympathetic Which divisions of the autonomic nervous system tends to activate on a whole? Parasympathetic -> two mechanisms o acetylcholine Chain ganglion for the sympathetic nerves. LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTION Idea that specific brain parts are responsible for specific activities (movement, vision, speech, memory) Certain components of activities that depend on specific parts of the brain. Influential idea in the mid 20th century The brain is hierarchal organized but we can talk about certain components of activities that depend on different parts of the brain

LANDMARKS OF CEREBRAL CORTEX Frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes. Central fissure, lateral fissure, longitudinal fissure Gyrus a bump in the brain Dorsal, ventral, lateral, medial, rostral, caudal Longitudinal fissure divides the halves of the brain Central fissure between frontal lobe and parietal lobe Lateral fissure between temporal and frontal lobe

DIRECTIONS Dorsal the top of the brain Ventral the bottom of the brain Lateral - sides Medial middle Rostral front Caudal back Occipital lobe visual system Temporal lobe auditory processing, language SECTIONS Cut through parallel to the face coronal section Cut through parallel to the floor horizontal section Cut through parallel to ears through middle of head, perpendicular to face saggital section (the left side of the brain, medial surface) Stimulate different parts of the brain to see their function.

APRAXIA damage to a motor association area frontal lobe Motor associations are just in front of frontal lobe Not paralyzed but movements will lack meaningful organization. AGNOSIA damage to a sensory association area Visual agnosia people can see, they know that they can see, but they cant make sense out of what they see. o Damage in the occipital lobe (primary projection area for vision) APHASIA deficit in the comprehension of language Usually due to a lesion

Lecture 6

5/4/2012 12:58:00 AM

PROJECTION AREAS Language and practically every other behavior recruits components from all over the brain You have crossed projection, crossed control o The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body and vice versa Association areas are important because they show you how projection areas can work alone o If someone is damaged in the visual association area, they arent necessarily blind but they cant make sense of what they see, cant identify objects APRAXIA Damage to a motor association area APHASIA Deficit in the production or comprehension of language usually due to a lesion, brain damage Brocas Aphasia o He could only say Ton Wernickes Aphasia o Area is near the temporal lobe, next to auditory cortex o Very different type of language disorder o Tremendous difficulty in understanding language however they can speak fairly fluently LANGUAGE CIRCUIT In a blood flow study, what lights up when you speak?

o All the seven components of the Wenicke-Geshwind Model

o You feel yourself move. You would be recruiting components from a large part of the brain, not just the left, but also the right side of the brain. o It is a language circuit, not language center Where is the damage? (for a woman who can only repeat and sing) o All of the areas were tact but she had an unusual lesion o The speak circuit was isolated from the rest of the brain (reason for why she could repeat and learn new material but the rest of her brain was not able to use that circuit to communicate with others) TECHNIQUES FOR STUDYING THE BRAIN Anatomical imaging o Computer puts together a 3D image that has different angles and slices o Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): strong magnetic field and it is used to make an anatomical image because you are filled with water and blood and different tissues respond to the magnetic field differently. Get very detailed anatomical

image and it can be put together by computer in the same way that a cat scan can. Functional imaging o fMRI (functional MRI): images over time that are related to behavior. Measures blood flow in the brain. Oxygenated hemoglobin responds differently to the field than does deoxygenated hemoglobin. When a part of the brain is active, blood flow to the part of the brain increases. o positron emission tomography: small detectors all over the head. Inject something with a radioactive label, something like glucose (cells in the brain use more of when youre active). Disadvantage: need a physicist to inject it. Lesion Stimulation

Lecture 7

1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM

MOTIVATION AND HIERARCHY More complex Goal directed Behavior sequences arranged flexibly to achieve goal THERMOREGULATION IS FOOD INTAKE REGULATED? More complex Dual center theory NO! NO! NO! Weight regained after diet What about response to over eating? o No where near as robust as to the response to under eating HOW IS INTAKE MONITORED & CONTROLLED? Liver monitors fuel o Liver short term glucagon stores Blood glucose monitored? Gut receptors produce hormones Leptin produced by fat stores Cortex (culture) and limbic system OBESITY A GLOBAL EPIDEMIC Very clear genetic component Which genes? Must also be environment

NON-HOMEOSTATIC EATING Defend against caloric deficit Dont fully compensate for excess Eating in absence of need leads to obesity Also need to consider exercise LIKING, WANTING, AND CRAVING DEFINED Liking pleasantness or hedonic response or evaluative response to a stimulus Wanting - desire o Craving a very strong desire WHAT IS CRAVED? Chocolate and pizza top most lists What is the critical characteristic? o Calories?

o Fat? o Forbidden? o Palatability? YOUNG WOMEN REPORT MORE CRAVINGS FOR SWEETS About 60% of the foods craved by young women are sweet and about 40% are savory. For older adults and for young men the proportions are reversed. IS BOREDOM ENOUGH? Is a nutritional deficit necessary for craving? o Nutritional deprivation is not necessary fMRI AN EXAMPLE 4T (tesla) scan 2 groups MD and ND Imagine two liked goods or imagine monotonous diet in block design Why use imagination rather than video? BEHAVIORAL RESULTS All participants in the MD group experienced cravings when they were imagining the liked goods No one experienced cravings when imagining the monotonous diet We were very successful at turning craving on and off in 30 sec. bins

BRAIN ACTIVATION ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD CAVING These areas activated by drug craving as well Caudate involved in habit and automatic responding 3 areas largely associated with craving: Hippocampus, Insula and Caudate fMRI fMRI is a potential non-verbal measure of liking, wanting, and craving Ultimately, all non-verbal measures & animal models must be validated against self-report

CONDITIONING Conditioning effects used to explain compulsion to use drugs long after withdrawal Nutritional deprivation not necessary to produce food cravings

Sight, smell or imagery may be trigger food craving Craving may be acquired response based on repeatedly eating the craved food when hungry

PREVENTION OF AUTOMATIC EATING Distraction prevent obsession Prevent response Remove trigger - prevent impulsive eating Portion control New cravings can be learned

Lecture 8: Emotion

1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM

DEFINITIONS ARE MUDDY Emotion o How many? Mood o Related to emotion, but longer lasting Affect o More general MECHANISMS Some brain mechanisms are the same, others are different All involve autonomic nervous system and limbic system MECHANISMS, II Common sense view see danger fear run James-Lange theory see danger body responds perceive bodily response (running, elevated heart rate) fear Cannon o Physical responses not that different o Cold emotion MECHANISMS, III Schacter-Singer (Jukebox theories) The physiological response may play a role, also cognition o 4 groups Suproxin Adrenalin, informed Adrenalin, uninformed Adrenalin, misinformed Saline o Waiting room with confederate o Got emotion effects in groups 2 & 3 (Romeo & Juliet studies)

FACIAL EXPRESSION Darwin Facial Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals Homologous with other mammals FACIAL EXPRESSIONS, II Species general in humans o Cross cultural o Blind children DISPLAY RULES

Cultural norms (top of hierarchy) Expressions differ when alone and with others REVIEW QUESTIONS How do motivated behaviors fit into the hierarchy? o We do whatever it is that we need to do in order to reach the goal (get food, get away from the bear, etc.) What does homeostasis mean? o Staying the same. Theres something in the body that is being regulated at the same level (body temperature, amount of fluid) What is a set point? o Related to the concept of homeostasis. o Target. When you move away from the set point of physiological response might be triggered. Name an autonomic response to being cold. o Shivering. Goosebumps. What is the dual center theory of intake regulation? o There are two centers in the brain: the satiety center and the feeding center. Feeding center: everything is a network. Give some evidence that humans regulate their body weight - that they do not? o People who stay thin no matter what regulate their body weight in the face of caloric excess o People dont regulate their body weight: overweight people, they do not respond to Leptin. What is glucagon? Leptin? Is obesity genetic? o It is polygenic. Why does cue-induced eating promote weight gain? o Often causes you to eat when you are not actually hungry. Respond more vigorously to caloric excess Define food craving. o Strong desire to eat a specific food. Strong wanting What is the difference between liking and wanting? o Wanting is desire. Who is most likely to report food cravings?

o Young women. Do cravings reflect a nutritional deficit? o No. Triggered by cues in the environment. Is fMRI a more reliable measure of craving than self-report? o Might want to do both. An overweight person might not want to admit to the dessert cravings that were shown in the fMRI What is localization of function? o Certain parts of the brain do specific things. Gives you the idea that there is a speech center and language center and that the function of the brain responds to words in our language but that is not true. What is your parietal lobe? o Top of your head, near the back. Longitudinal fissure? Central fissure? o Runs between the two hemispheres. o Side that divides the parietal lobe What is a gyrus? o A bump, one of the raised areas Where would you find a motor homunculus? For the left side? o Motor projection area, the last place in the cortex that movement is processed before the commands go back down to the spinal cords in the muscles. o On the right side of the brain Would more space be allotted to the hand or the arm?