RENA A. SHIFFLET
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
2008
THE INSTRUCTIONAL USE OF BLOGS AND WIKIS
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Rena A. Shifflet
The purpose of this study was to investigate how blogs and/or wikis were used by
K-12 classroom teachers, how these teachers determined when and why to use these
technologies with their students, and teachers’ perceptions of how these tools affected
students and student writing. With the understanding that technology and the resulting
literacies are changing at an ever increasing rate, this researcher chose to look deeper into
Using a qualitative case study approach, eight K-12 teachers were interviewed for
this study. In addition, teacher-generated and student-generated blogs and/or wikis were
examined. Data analysis suggested that the availability of an authentic audience was
significant motivation for participants to choose to use blogs and/or wikis with their
Since blogs and wikis are web-based applications and considered to be forms of
technology, this study also probed to find the reasons behind teachers’ determination to
use technology in lieu of other methods of instruction. Evidence from this study
suggested that the participants’ intents for using a blog or wiki were in accord with their
pedagogical beliefs were also in play. These findings add a deeper complexity to previous
technology.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
share their knowledge and experience in order to help others. Their willingness to allow
me to question and probe their instructional use and beliefs about technology serve as a
testament to their motivation to be life-long learners. I have no doubt that their stories
A very special thank you goes to my dissertation chair, Dr. Cheri Toledo. When I
first met Cheri five years ago, I knew I had found a kindred spirit. She not only
understood, but shared my passion for teaching and learning with technology. Over time
she has been my teacher, mentor, collaborator, advisor, and most of all a cherished friend.
While her role as chair may have ended, her other roles have not as I will have the good
I would also like to thank my other committee members, Dr. Ellen Spycher and
Dr. Tony Lorsbach. Every doctoral candidate should be as fortunate as I was to have this
perfect committee. They offered me direction when I felt totally lost. They offered me
encouragement when I thought there was no end in sight. Their comments and
suggestions helped to make my work richer. They will always have my deepest respect
especially my husband, Michael. He never once questioned why a retired teacher would
want to pursue yet another degree. He did everything in his power to make it easier for
me to concentrate on completing this work; from doing household chores, making dinner,
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running errands, to spending hours and hours alone. He was a constant source of faith and
encouragement. There is no possible way I could have done this without him. As for my
daughter Katie, who has also chosen to enter this marvelous field of teaching, I hope she
will always pursue her dreams and challenge herself. She has always made me proud to
be her mom.
Thank you. Two words that imply so much, but often fall short of expressing the
reality of the heart-felt emotion they are intended to express. To all of those who helped,
encouraged, and cheered me on this journey, both on Earth and from above, these two
little words will have to suffice; for no amount of words can covey my gratitude for your
R. A. S.
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CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS i
CONTENTS v
TABLES x
FIGURES xi
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION 1
Student Writing 14
Writing Process 22
Revision 24
The Teaching of Writing 25
Electronic Writing 31
Writing with Weblogs 35
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Wikis 43
Constructivism 47
Constructivism in Education 49
Constructivism, Writing, and Technology 53
Summary 56
III. METHODOLOGY 59
Katie 69
Mike 79
Rita 96
Evan 103
Donna 111
Jeff 116
V. DISCUSSION 136
Katie 168
Mike 169
Rita 169
Grant 170
Evan 170
Donna 171
Jeff 171
Summary 172
Limitations 172
Conclusions 173
Audience 173
Commentary 174
Implications 179
Final Thoughts 180
REFERENCES 182
TABLES
Table Page
8. What is the Intent or Purpose for Using Blogs and/or Wikis? 168
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FIGURES
Figure Page
9. Screen shot from a junior high class blog in reference to Kitty’s post 96
10. A student post and comments for the area of a geometric figure 99
18. A comment from a university blogging buddy to one of Katie’s students 151
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19. Class blog with one-way vs. two-way commenting 152
INTRODUCTION
This chapter will present the background of the problem, which includes: the state
of writing, literacy and technology, and literacy in the context of school. In addition, the
statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the research questions, the definition
Writing today is not a frill for the few, but an essential skill for the many.
(National Commission on Writing in America's Schools and Colleges, 2003,
p. 11)
America's Schools and Colleges, 2005). The Commission released its benchmark report,
The Neglected “R”: The Need for a Writing Revolution, in 2003. Their goal was to
identify and define the role of writing in education and make recommendations for its
teaching and learning of writing. Citing data from the National Assessment of Educational
Progress (NAEP) conducted in 1998, the amount of time fourth graders spent writing was
equal to 15% of the time they watched television. As for seniors in high school, less than
half were required to write a paper with three or more pages as a monthly English
assignment. Teacher responsibility for 120 to 200 students on a daily or weekly basis was
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the reason given for the departure of the once traditional, senior research project. While
data for the 2002 NAEP Writing results showed an increase in scores rated as basic for
fourth and eighth graders, scores for twelfth graders declined. However, this is still a cause
for guarded optimism as 76% of high school seniors did not achieve a proficient level: the
skills appropriate to subject matter” (National Center for Education Statistics, 2003, p. 2).
Fourth and eighth grades also had a high number of students who did not attain a level
deemed proficient. It is not that students are unable to write; it was that they do not have
the ability to write at an expected level of mastery in today’s world (National Commission
This report called for the nation’s leaders to place writing at the center of the
school agenda and provide the necessary resources to support and sustain this initiative.
In the massive school improvement venture, which began with A Nation at Risk (1983),
writing did not receive the attention it deserves. The Commission equated writing to
learning, as student writing not only served as a means to demonstrate knowledge; it was
also a means for knowledge construction. “Writing is how students connect the dots in
2003, p. 3).
In 2004, the Commission released its second report to Congress, Writing: A Ticket
to Work…or a Ticket Out. Data for this report was obtained from a survey of 120 major
American corporations responsible for employing almost 8 million people. The report
classified jobs into three categories: salaried, service, and hourly positions. While writing
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was a universal requirement for all service employees, between one-third and one-fifth of
all service employees were required to write in their profession. As for salaried
such employees would not be around long enough to even be considered for a promotion.
The Commission emphasized the importance of writing skills for individuals across all
Writing: A Powerful Message for State Government (2005) was the third in the
series of reports from the National Commission on Writing. Survey data were obtained
for 49 of the 50 state human resource directors. The ability for government employees to
write in a clear and accurate manner was found to be more critical than for those in the
private sector; as the audience for government employees can range from constituents
with advanced degrees, to those who have dropped out of school. For this reason, writing
ability plays a significant role in the hiring and retention of state employees.
The latest work from the National Commission on Writing addressed writing and
school reform. This report highlighted the tension and frustration felt by educators to
meet the requirements mandated in No Child Left Behind. “The views expressed by these
instruction devalue teaching and diminish opportunities to embed best writing practice in
2006, p. 13).
2004 report, Writing: A Ticket to Work…or a Ticket Out, acknowledged and supported the
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recommendation of the 2003 Commission for more instructional time devoted toward
writing. Technology also received considerable attention and discussion from the 2004
time for writing, the Commission viewed technology as a means of connecting with peers
outside the local community. In addition, the Commission encouraged teachers to take
advantage of the motivational factor of blogs and instant messaging to help student
Agencies have also solicited the opinions of the general public. In 2005, the
Views of Writing in Our Schools, a national public survey to determine America’s stance
on writing and writing education. Respondents viewed writing as a priority and believed
writing instruction should begin early in a child’s education and occur consistently across
all disciplines. They contended the amount or type of writing instruction should not be
dependent on a student’s career choice, as the ability to write well was essential for
developing reading, communication, and thinking. The public saw writing as a critical
These reports provide a good indication of the state of writing in America and
attest to the importance of writing in every aspect of life. The 2003 Commission
acknowledged that while citizens may not consider themselves to be writers, they do not
workplace requires a new language (New London Group, 1996) brought on by key,
dramatic changes: global economic change; a move from a top-down management style
the industrial age. Globalization of the marketplace and new communication technologies
Association, 2002; Tyner, 1998). This presents a challenge for today’s literacy pedagogy.
the texts of traditional and new communications technologies via spoken language, print,
and multimedia” (Luke & Freebody, 2000, p. 9). While this definition of literacy may
appear useful, Anstey and Bull (2006) assert it is missing the critical component of
context; contexts that would include work, social, civic, cultural, and community
activities (p. 20). An individual must know what is required, perform as expected, and
conduct himself appropriately depending on the literacy necessary for that situation
(Luke & Freebody, 2000; Warschauer, 1999). Being literate will depend on an
individual’s ability to combine and recombine existing literacies for new contexts created
by an ever changing world (Anstey & Bull, 2006; Luke & Freebody, 2000).
Throughout history, the essence of literacy has changed as a direct result of new
forms of communication and technology (Anstey & Bull, 2006; International Reading
Association, 2002; Klantzis & Cope, 2001; Leu Jr. & Kinzer, 2000; Tapscott, 1998).
“Literacy is rapidly and continuously changing as new technologies for information and
technologies are continuously crafted by users” (Leu Jr., 2000, p. 743). Leu (2000) credits
the pressure to remain competitive in today’s global economy as the impetus behind these
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continually changing technologies and a guarantee for a perennial cycle of change. He
points out that as the speed and efficiency of these new technologies facilitate, encourage,
and even necessitate communication, users envision unique uses for these new
The 21st century rode in on the coattails of a technological revolution unlike any
that had came before, and affected every aspect of life (Brown, Bryan, & Brown, 2005;
Kellner, 2000; Klantzis & Cope, 2001). Whereas the preceding revolution was a result of
harnessing the mechanical powers of steam, this latest upheaval, deemed the knowledge
revolution, emerged from the power of information, knowledge, and networks (Warschauer,
1999, p. 9). Current literacy demands require more than mastery of traditional printed text
literacies. Literacy today requires not only the ability to consume multimodal texts
(Huijser, 2006; Klantzis & Cope, 2001), which include audio and visual text and images,
but the ability to produce such multimodal texts as well (Anstey & Bull, 2006; Brown,
Bryan, & Brown, 2005). In 1996, the New London Group coined the term multiliteracies to
increased globalization and social diversity. This group maintains that pedagogical practice
of multiliteracies can prepare students to be actively engaged in their social futures and be
designers of such futures as well. Klantzis & Cope (2001) view multi-literacies as vehicles
to enhance and expand the instruction of literacy for the 21st century.
free skills that can be imparted to individuals” (p. 1). The influences of societies, cultures,
and contexts cannot be ignored, for it is these influences that meld with technological
changes to delineate literacy (New London Group, 1996). Increased access to the Internet
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is one of the most significant factors affecting reading and writing in the world today
(Corio, 2003; International Reading Association, 2002; Leu & Corio, 2004). The
potential information and computer technologies (ICTs) resulting from the potency of the
Internet have served as the catalyst for an increase in new literacies (Leu Jr., 2000; Luke
& Freebody, 2000; Warschauer, 1999). This ever-growing inventory of new literacies is
continually evolving as those literacies considered new today will be replaced by even
Tyner (1998) suggests just as an agreement could not be reached for a definition
of literacy in previous years, technology will continue to cloud efforts to define these new
literacies. Due to the constant flux of literacy, it is important to keep in mind that any
attempts to redefine literacy must be more than simply adding on to existing literacy
practices (Hagood, Stevens, & Reinking, 2002, p. 82). Hagood et al. (2002) contend that
while adult perceptions of literacies do not reflect those used by adolescents in their
personal lives, adults impose their traditional curricular, school, and worked-based
literacies onto adolescents nonetheless. This creates a disconnect between those literacies
used by students in school and those they use outside of school. This can create a barrier
when teachers want to relate to their students within the context of school (Kinzer, 2003).
Teachers who want to signify acceptance and valuing of their students’ everyday
literacy practices are best able to do so by demonstrating an understanding of the
literacies that form an important part of students’ lives. Lack of knowledge about
IM, avatars, activeworlds, text messaging, MP3 downloads, and the like distances
teachers from the students they want to reach. And not knowing how to use the
Internet to facilitate learning makes one less of a professional than one could be.
(Kinzer, 2003, Teachers as Relevant in Students’ Eyes section, ¶ 2)
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This disconnect between what students view as literacy in school and literacy at
home enables a second conflict between the haves and the have nots (Hagood, Stevens, &
Reinking, 2002; Kellner, 2000; Kinzer, 2003). Students’ technological capacities and
competencies are directly influenced by their social and school contexts (Ba, Tally, &
Tsikalas, 2002). Students who are unable to overcome the absence of new literacies in
their lives outside of school “will be left out of the emerging economy, networked
society, and culture” (Kellner, 2000, p. 249). The undeniable fact that technology is
altering nearly every facet of our social, educational, and professional lives (Kellner,
2000), coupled with the fact that technology facilitates educational possibilities not easily
accomplished without it (Kinzer, 2003), makes a strong case for the inclusion of tech-
nology in literacy instruction. Kellner (2000) cautions that it is not technology itself that
matters, but rather how that technology is used. Educators must determine how to utilize
information and computer technologies (ICTs) to effectively address the educational and
social demands of multiple literacies as they prepare students for an increasingly inter-
dependent and global world (Brown, Bryan, & Brown, 2005). “The education pendulum
continues to swing. Technology, however, leads the way in creating new tracks for the
lifelong learners” (Brown, Bryan, & Brown, 2005, Conclusion section, ¶ 3).
Current Research
2004, Juzwik, Crucic, Wolbers, Moxley, Dimling, and Shankland (2006), analyzed the
technology surfaced as a significant area of concern. Yet very few studies examined
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technology as the central factor to be investigated. “Given the rapid changes in digital
technologies in the recent years, we would expect technologies and writing to be a high
priority on the agendas of writing researchers” (p. 469). In addition, Juzwik et al. (2006)
studies that were analyzed. The authors felt this was disconcerting as significant language
Likewise, Williams and Jacobs (2004) and Trammel and Ferdig (2004) make note
of the lack of refereed published material on the educational uses of blogs. There is,
practitioners on the topics of blogs and wikis (i.e., J. Oravec, 2003; V. Richardson, 2003;
Seitzinger, 2006). While there may be a shortage of empirical research regarding blogs
and wikis in K-12, it is not the case for higher education, especially in conjunction with
pre-service teacher education (i.e., Boling, 2005a; Du & Wagner, 2007b; Sade, 2005;
Wrede, 2003). In this learning environment, blogs are often used as a replacement for the
traditional reflective journal, as they serve to reinforce this accepted practice (Williams &
Jacobs, 2004).
Summary
it nearly impossible to predict what literacies will be necessary twelve years from now
when the current class of Kindergarteners graduates from high school (International
Reading Association, 2002); a situation that Antsey & Bull (2006) describe as a “climate
of constant change” (p. 18). Leu, Kinzer, Coiro, and Cammack (2004) describe literacy as
a moving target (p. 1584), continually changing societal expectations for a literate citizen.
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As these expectations change, the definitions of literacy must also change in order to
meet such shifting demands. Professional and personal success will rest on the ability to
effectively and critically utilize new literacies generated from information and communi-
learned before educators, administrators, and parents can provide all students with the
(Penrod, 2007).
The ability to write is receiving greater emphasis in all aspects of life: social,
professional, and educational. Despite this awareness, students across grade levels are
world’s market, along with rapid advances in communication technologies, has made the
traditional definition of literacy insufficient. The ability to read and write text on a paper
medium, while still important, is not enough to succeed in this ever-changing society. In
Chapter II, the review of the literature will show that student writing improves when they
write for an authentic purpose and an authentic audience. This literature review will also
show that students learn best in constructivist learning environments where they can
collaborate with experts as well as peers, and take ownership of their learning. Blogs and
wikis have the potential to provide the type of environment that can facilitate student
writing and enhance the construction of knowledge, but there is little empirical research
Research Questions
1. How are K-12 teachers utilizing blogs and/or wikis in the classroom?
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a. What is the intent or purpose for using blogs and/or wikis?
b. To what extent do these tools support constructivist learning theory?
c. How do teachers prepare their students to use blogs and wikis?
3. How do K-12 teachers perceive these tools have impacted their students?
This study was designed to examine how blogs and wikis are being used by K-12
classroom teachers. As the review of the literature in Chapter II will show, it is widely
accepted that technology is highly motivating for students. This study attempted to ascer-
tain if teachers go beyond this fact when selecting to use blogs and/or wikis. In addition,
study was an effort to fill the existing lack of research regarding the use of these tools as
well as provide an insight into the thought processes teachers may use to determine when
This study showed that blogs and wikis have the potential to offer student writers an
authentic audience other than their peers and classroom teacher. Goddard (2002) points
out that computers should serve as a tool to provide curricular support and create learning
suggested purposes are among instructional practices closely aligned with constructivism
(Rakes, Flowers, Casey, & Santana, 1999). This association between computers and
constructivism was examined for a connection to the use of blogs and/or wikis for student
writing.
Operational Definitions
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Weblog or blog: in its simplest form “is a website with dated entries, presented in
reverse chronological order and published on the internet. The word ‘blog’ is both a noun
Wiki: “a collaborative Webspace where anyone can add content and anyone can
edit content that has already been published” (Richardson, 2006, p. 8).
abilities of individuals to read, write, speak, listen, view, and think” (Cooper, 1997, p. 7).
study.
After an extensive literature search, no empirical studies were found on the use of
blogs or wikis to support student writing in a K-12 setting. Researchers have also
acknowledged the lack of research on these tools. While there has been a barrage of
studies analyzing technology and student writing, this is the first study to investigate the
teacher’s intent for using blogs and/or wikis with students and whether these tools are
base on technology and writing, as it targets two specific writing genre, blogs and wikis.
Knowing the processes that teachers follow to determine when and how to use these tools
technology coordinators, and researchers gain insight into using blogs and wikis for
student writing. In addition, the results can help teacher educators to better prepare pre-
service teachers on the instructional use of blogs and wikis in the K-12 classroom.
review of the literature as it pertains to these relevant topics: word processing and student
III will describe the research design, data collection, and data analysis. Chapters IV will
present the results of the case studies, and Chapter V will discuss the summary,
This chapter will address the relationship between the use of computers and
student writing. First, this literature review will present a thorough investigation of
studies that conducted a comparison between the utilization of paper and pencil and the
utilization of a word processor for student writing. While no single instructional approach
can be applied to all learning contexts (Chapman, 2006), factors found to enhance student
uses of blogs and wikis in a K-12 setting will be presented. The relationship between the
characteristics of blogs and the factors found to enhance student writing will also be
Student Writing
taking an idea and giving it life through a combination and sequence of words. For
students, writing is often viewed as a long and rather arduous task (Beck & Fetherston,
2003) in which they are often hindered by the process of conveying the thoughts in their
mind onto a blank sheet of paper (Kahn, 1987). This sense of frustration is compounded
when their returned work is “bleeding from the margins with red-penciled abbreviations”
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As computers and word processing programs began their migration from the
business sector to education, many looked to these tools as possible solutions to these
common problems (Kulik, 2003a). Ease of use (Beck & Fetherston, 2003; Kelly, 1990),
readability both on the computer screen and the finished hardcopy (Kurth, 1987; Owston
& Wideman, 1997), revision capabilities for small and large amounts of text (Beck &
Fetherston, 2003; Bradley, 1982; Moeller, 2002) elimination of the need to recopy
(Kantrov, 1991), as well as the onboard editing tools included in most word processing
software (Daiute, 1983; Jones, 1994), made computers and composition appear to be a
perfect match.
Several studies, beginning in the 1980s, were conducted to address these suppositions.
These studies analyzed a variety of factors including: both quality and quantity of student
writing; student attitudes toward writing; quality and quantity of revisions; in addition to
writing with paper and pencil against that of students using a computer-based word
processing program. Several studies utilized an overall holistic score as the indication for
the quality of student writing. While this holistic approach is widely accepted by
language arts instructors, Hunter, Jardine, Rilstone, and Weisgerber (1990) suggested a
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“more atomistic approach” (p. 43), as this may help future researchers identify the effect
the effect of word processing on the quality of student writing and revisions. Eighth grade
students who had previous experience with the application and its editing features were
selected as the sample group. Drafts and final revisions originally done with paper and
pencil were transcribed and printed. Trained raters consistently scored papers written with
a word processor significantly higher than those that were handwritten in each of four
experienced writers benefit more from the use of a word processor than those with less
experience, Owston et al. contended, “the fact that students at all levels of language arts
achievement showed similar levels of writing quality again when using word processors
In 1997, Owston and Wideman examined 52 third grade students from a high
access school with a ratio of one computer for every 3 students and 56 third grade
students from a school with a ratio of 1 computer to every 15 students. Over the course of
3 years, students attending the high-access site (HAS) displayed increased motivation and
less distraction when using a word processor than when writing with paper and pencil.
After only 2 years, researchers observed that compositions written by HAS students were
three times as long as those of students attending the low-access site (LAS). In addition to
an increase in the length of writing, HAS students also displayed a significant increase in
subjects of a study to determine the effects computer technology had on student writing
proficiency as well as student attitude toward writing (Lyons, 2002). The experimental
group of students had access to laptop computers for all writing exercises the entire
school year; while the control group was only allowed to use paper and pencil. It is
important to note that both groups received the same instruction and were required to
complete the same assignments. While statistical analysis showed a greater increase in
writing proficiency for the experimental group, Lyons cautions this may be due to uncon-
trolled factors. Students in the experimental group had access to grammar and spell check
functions on the laptop, while the control group was limited to dictionaries. In addition,
the experimental group may have received richer, more effective writing instruction.
The studies described thus far in this review are only a few of the hundreds of
studies done over the last 25 years. As a means to synthesize these findings, three key
Drowns (1993), a quantitative design; and Goldberg, Russell, and Cook (2003), a mixed
methods design.
these studies, which contained quantitative information, were used to compare the quality
of student writing using word processing against those with paper and pencil. Thirteen of
these studies showed students using word processors produced higher quality composi-
tions. Statistically significant results favoring word processing were found in 10 studies,
while only one study revealed significantly negative results. “Given such percentages,
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one would attribute strong and reliable positive effects to the use of word processing in
regarding the impact of word processing on the quality of student writing. She felt
enough measures had not been taken into account for the influence of other interrelated
variables such as teacher instruction and the context of the writing assignment. Despite
this assertion, Cochran-Smith did find an increase in both the frequency of writing as
well as the overall quantity of writing for students of various ages. By far she felt word
processing had the greatest potential effect on student attitudes toward writing.
The most important reason to consider student attitudes toward writing with word
processing is its potentially powerful mediating effect on allocation of time spent
on writing, willingness to revise and edit, and the quantity of test produced. As I
have augured repeatedly, it is the interrelationship of these factors that is the most
interesting and probably the most important consideration in research on word
processing and writing. (p. 144)
word processing software, Goldberg, Russell, and Cook (2003) reviewed 26 studies from
1992 to 2002 in their meta-analysis. Although the findings supporting word processing
(1993). Yet this analysis revealed the effect of writing with computers on the quality of
student writing was larger for middle and high school students than students in
elementary school.
Student Attitudes
the perceived benefits of word processing for individual writers as well as groups of
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students (Hunter, Jardine, Rilstone, & Weisgerber, 1990). A positive student attitude for
writing is seen as one of these benefits. “In addition to broadly positive attitudes toward
writing with word processing, students often report that they believe their writing
improves with word processing” (Cochran-Smith, 1991, p. 143). Along with a perception
of improved writing quality, Snyder (1993) found students believe computers increase
Beck and Fetherston (2003) studied the attitudes about writing both with and
without computers for Year Three students in Australia. This mixed methods research
study investigated seven students and their teacher over a 6-month period. Two hand
written compositions and two compositions created using a word processing program
were evaluated using an analytic scoring system. Students in the study equated good
writing with neat work. If their handwriting was clean and neat, then their composition
was considered to be good. Teacher praise for such a final product only served to
reinforce this belief and created a discontent for manual writing assignments.
When using pen and pencil to compose a story, Beck and Fetherston (2003)
observed that students became easily distracted in a short amount of time. This study
revealed a marked difference in student attitude when utilizing a word processor. Students
were able to stay on task for longer periods of time and would often give up their recess
The students' attitudes towards writing and the writing process changed
throughout the period of this investigation. At the start, simply mentioning the
word writing made the students cringe with distaste. At the end, however, when
the students were able to use the word processor to assist them in their story
development, they could not get enough. They began to enjoy the writing process
due to the ease with which the word processor enabled them to complete the
writing tasks. (p. 154)
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Quality of student writing was also investigated. While Beck and Fetherston
(2003) concluded that writing produced via word processing was of higher quality, it is
important to consider the software program used for this study. In addition to the typical
editing features of other word processing programs, Story Book Weaver Deluxe (1994)
adds extensive graphic capabilities. Students can select from a wide variety of
backgrounds and other graphics to create a picture. Students in this study were familiar
with this program and were not distracted by these multimedia enhancements.
If students were not familiar with this package, there could have been a chance
that they would not achieve a great deal of writing, rather be taken by the pictures
and sounds that are so appealing. Their familiarity of this package ensured that the
students writing development was affected positively by the incorporation of the
word processor. (p. 158)
subjects of her study designed to evaluate positive attitudes, as well as negative attitudes
toward writing. The attitudes of the experimental group were found to be slightly higher
than those of the control group for writing with and writing without a computer. These
results suggest a positive effect of technology use on the attitudes of students toward the
process of writing. Student attitudes toward the use of word processing for composition
can significantly influence such writing factors as time on task, motivation to revise and
Hunter et al. (1990) contended the length of student writing is not indicative of
the quality of the work. A longer composition does not necessarily make it better. In a
study of 28 sophomore and junior high school students, Kurth (1987) found no significant
difference in the number of words written by students with or without the use of the
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computer. The nature and purpose of the writing assignment were more influential on the
students. For 5 days, half of the class used a word processing program to compose their
daily journal entry, while the other half used paper and pencil. Writing methods were
reversed every week over the course of 4 weeks. While Padgett determined an increased
emerged.
Dybahl, Shaw, and Blahous (1997) found inconsistent quantitative results in their
well as the number of words was used to define the quantitative variable. In a writing
sample taken in November, the experimental group had a higher total for both the number
of sentences and the number of words. However, the data sample from May revealed no
significant difference in the total number of words. Dybahl et al. questioned using
quantity as a variable to determine the effect computers may have on writing fluency.
As both teachers and students begin to internalize the notion that form (including
length) follows function, researchers who continue to attempt to explain quantity
through a consideration of method (the computer versus the hand) may be
studying a secondary, but not a primary contributor to the writing. (p. 49)
Some studies do report positive outcomes for quantitative results when using
word processing. Jones (1994) and Keetley (1995) both found stories written with a word
compositions contained more words as well as more sentences than the control group.
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While Peterson (1993) found similar results, her comparison of class interaction with the
method of writing provide an interesting consideration (p. 60). High school seniors wrote
on topics assigned by their teacher 1 day a week for 5 weeks. In a class-to-class compari-
son, one of the classes using paper and pencil had a slightly higher average word count
than the experimental group. Peterson attributed this to the writing topic, as each group’s
Writing Process
While most studies examined the effect word processing had on student writing as
opposed to their performance with paper and pencil, Jones (1994) approached his research
design from a different angle. He questioned whether the use of a word processor
influenced a student’s pencil and paper writing ability and skills. In a counterbalanced
pretest-posttest study, 20 second grade students received the same treatment but in reverse
order. After 8 weeks, Jones found “an overall improvement in the quality of their writing”
(p. 52) as well as stories of longer length when word processors were used for both the
experimental and control group. After reverting back to paper and pencil, the scores for the
experimental group also increased, suggesting skills acquired while using word processing
for writing were carried over to compositions done with other tools. Jones contended using
computers facilitates the mechanical aspects of the writing process for students giving them
more time to compose and revise their work (Cochran-Smith, Kahn, & Paris, 1990; Kahn,
Baker and Kinser (1998) found a difference in the writing process when students
wrote using computers. The writing process for students that used paper and pencil was
more linear. First an outline was created, followed by various drafts, before a final
23
document was produced. For students using computers, there was no prescribed set of
steps. Students began to revise their work well before the first draft was ever completed.
For them, revision was a recurring process, similar to the findings of Owston, Murphy,
Cochran-Smith, Kahn, and Paris (1990) made the claim that the benefits of word
processing can be dependent on the instructional context for which it is used. Depending
on these conditions, word processing can be beneficial to students, especially for begin-
ning writers. When students are hampered by poor fine motor skills, letter production
necessary for the writing task can be a chore. Cochran-Smith et al. suggested word
processing eliminates this obstacle and can actually “unmask competence” (p. 238). The
While Kahn (1987) found a positive effect for young students when using a word
processor, she also found “a ripple effect” (p. 12) on both the process of writing and the
were better developed with fewer gaps between ideas than most stories written in the
traditional manner. This difference was attributed to a circular revision process where
students would add or delete content as they wrote. Without the physical pain of holding
a pencil to write for extended periods of time, as well as the mental pain of revising and
recopying hand-written work, students indicated a preference to use a word processor for
The focus of revision studies vary. Some are centered on the gross number of
revisions, while others measure the type of revisions. Bangert-Drowns (1993) pointed out
that counting the gross number of errors can be misleading. A simple count does not
identify the significance of the revision; a simple correction that retains the meaning or a
more extensive correction that changes the meaning. More importantly, the total number
of revisions may be substantially lower as many revisions occur throughout the writing
process; changes that “disappear on the final paper copy” (Bangert-Drowns, 1993, p. 85).
This may give some credence to the fact that findings on the effect of word processing
Both the work done by Hawisher (1986) with college freshman and the study
done by Kurth (1987) on tenth and eleventh graders, found no difference in the number or
quality of revisions made by students using a word processor compared to students using
paper and pencil. However, Daiute (1986) found junior high students using computers
made fewer revisions than when they used a pen. She attributed this result to the fact
students revised differently when using these particular writing tools. When using a word
processor, students tended to add text as an extension to what was already on the paper
When the burdens of recopying were lifted, student writers tended to interact less
with what they had written in a draft than they did when they revised with pen and
had to recopy. It appears that these students skimmed over their texts enough to
catch mechanical errors but not enough to rework the text at any higher level. (p.
153-154)
Findings by Owston, Murphy, and Wideman (1991) and Grejda and Hannafin
(1992) were more positive. Using eighth graders well versed in word processing, Owston
25
et al. determined papers written with a word processor were of higher quality than hand-
written papers. In addition, data revealed these students continuously revised and edited
their work throughout the writing process. The majority of these revisions were done on
the initial draft, making the variance between draft and final copy less noteworthy.
This ability to alter text at will gave students a sense that their writing is in “a
fluid state” (Beck & Fetherston, 2003, p. 152). Students were willing to try new things
knowing nothing was permanent and a few keystrokes could replace the original text.
This ease of revision, contrasted with the laborious task of erasing indelible pencil strokes
or the recopying of work associated with traditional writing methods, earned the label
viewed as a major benefit of word processing, “the very same feature may discourage
students from doing substantive revisions because they don’t have the same opportunities
to revise as they recopy” (Kantrov, 1991, p. 64). When students use spelling and grammar
checks as the major and often sole proofreading method, the results can be anything but
desirable (Moeller, 2002). Coined the fairytale syndrome (Boiarsky, 1991), students
allocate a magical power to computers. “My computer said that was right. I didn’t think
so, but I couldn’t believe my computer could be wrong” (Luffman, 2001, Pros and cons
section, ¶ 1). In addition, the sleek clean look of a freshly printed copy can give the
Dybahl, Shaw, and Blahous (1997) cautioned that the mystical powers of the
computer helped to conceal the key to effective student writing; the teacher. “The most
26
important ingredient in any composition program is a teacher who is knowledgeable
about the composing process” (Kurth, 1987, p. 18). The computer and word processing
program are merely tools to assist students in writing. How these tools are used in the
instruction of writing is ultimately the role of the teacher (Kahn, 1987; Kantrov, 1991).
Teachers who integrate computers into their writing classes really are teaching
more than just what they would teach if they did not use computers or if they
relied only on fancy software. They are teaching a new way of thinking about and
working with writing—a way of thinking of text as fluid and movable, a way of
thinking about communication as dynamic and purposeful. (Rodrigues &
Rodrigues, 1989, p. 23)
improving student writing. Due to the complexity of this process, no single instructional
method can be applied to all situations and conditions (Raimes, 1991). However, there is
mounting evidence that specific techniques can indeed enhance student writing
activity and as such should be entrenched within a social context (Chapman, 2006; Heap,
1989; NCTE Executive Committee, 2004; Young, 1994). Heap (1989) suggested writing
in the classroom is systematically distinct from the free flowing process often associated
with writing. For students, writing is a task; an assigned duty which can result in positive
such as interactions with the teacher or other students, even interactions with tools and
resources that may assist with the writing process. Such interactions create a sense of
community and establish conditions for writing as a social endeavor. However, this social
activity should not be thought of as a discrete entity apart from the context in which it is
set.
Just as children learn that social contexts often dictate their spoken language, the same
realization must take place in their understanding of written language (NCTE Executive
cognitive and social aspects of student writing (Heap, 1989; Young, 1994) and consider
Young (1994) and Farmer (2003) discussed the importance of student writers as
information. It is within this social context of mutual interest and knowledge that students
learn to communicate effectively as they learn different contexts place different demands
collaborate with others, but also an increased opportunity to respond to the ideas of others
(Chapman, 2006, p. 21). In this way, writing becomes a means for students to explore their
personal thoughts and ideas while influencing and being influenced by those of their
audience (Harris, 1992), essentially “creating an open forum for the creation of knowledge”
(Gay, Sturgill, Martin, & Huttenlocher, 1999, Conceptual Context section, ¶ 1).
contrived by the teacher for a specific writing assignment (Bos & Krajcik, 1998; Cohen
& Riel, 1989; Heap, 1989; Lankshear & Knobel, 2003). When, in fact, educational theory
and research support authentic activities, those more closely resembling real-word
activities, that are situated in authentic contexts (Danielson, 2000; Hartman et al., 1995).
“By contextualizing the skill in communicative settings, students are more likely to
utilize skills learned in classrooms outside of school” (Cohen & Riel, 1989, p. 156).
Designing writing tasks within a learning environment that are targeted to a specific,
Cohen and Riel (1989) conducted a study to determine seventh grade students’
ability to direct their writing toward a specified audience. In the design of the study, one
composition was to serve as their midterm evaluation and receive a grade. Students had
one class period to complete an essay on one of four topics: a recent sports game; a major
power or water supply failure; an increase in costs due to inflation; or the military reserve
duty of their father (p. 149). Another assigned work was written to other students who
were part of the InterCultural Learning Network. This composition, completed after the
midterm exam, had the same four topic choices. These pieces were later translated and
29
wired to students from other countries. All compositions were typed and then scored by
Contrary to the teachers’ assumption that the midterm essay would receive a
higher rating, compositions written for their international peers were scored higher by
more than half a standard deviation. Compositions written for an authentic audience, an
audience of their peers, were richer in detail, better organized, contained fewer
mechanical errors, contained a more thoroughly developed theme, and were written more
neatly. When writing for their teachers, students assumed they shared common
background knowledge and were not as detailed in their descriptions and writing as they
The default audience for most student work, the classroom teacher, may be
inauthentic in that the teacher already knows most of the material being
communicated, and may not respond to writing in the same way that an audience
interested in the writing’s content would. (Bos & Krajcik, 1998, p. 2)
The motivating factor in this case did not prove to be a significant grade but instead an
freshman to an email listserv against that work written for an assigned essay. The purpose
of this study was to determine if there was a carryover in the quality of writing. Would
those who wrote well for the online audience, members of the listserv, write equally well
for the offline audience, the instructor? While the online writing proved to be better
constructed for the targeted audience, there was no carryover in quality to the offline
assigned essay. Krause contended the online writing appeared to be more authentic to
30
both the students and raters; but when the audience became that of the default teacher,
well. Wollman-Bonilla (2001) examined the Family Message Journals of four case-study
sive writing tasks. Students used their Family Message Journal to communicate their
wishes to parents, such as asking for a dog, ordering books, or getting help with home-
work. Wollman-Bonilla monitored student journals for an entire school year. She found
development. This result was attributed to writing for a real-world, as well as a familiar,
audience.
Several positive outcomes have been found when students are given a specific
audience for which to write. Students have been found to experience: increased
motivation and achievement (Littrell, 2005; Pearson & Wilkinson, 1986; Sommers &
Collins, 1984); improvement in writing quality (Cohen & Riel, 1989; Kulik, 2003a;
Spitzer, 1990); deeper content knowledge (Danielson, 2000); increased comfort with and
competence in writing (Harris, 1992; Warschauer, 2004); and adjustment in their writing
in order to better suit the targeted audience (Bos & Krajcik, 1998; Reed, 1996). Despite
these benefits, typical writing assignments for students have no concrete, authentic
Students usually learn to write in schools by first writing words, then isolated
sentences, and only later paragraphs—all outside of a communicative context.
They are often asked to write about things and events (like the perennial “How I
spent by summer vacation” assignment) with no specified purpose (other than to
31
practice writing) and addressed to no one in particular (other than the teacher as
evaluator). (Cohen & Riel, 1989, p. 143)
message” (Johnston, 1999, p. 60). The fact the sole audience is that of the teacher with an
emphasis on evaluation, does not go unnoticed by the students (Lowe & Williams, 2004).
Electronic Writing
literature, educators find the classroom environment restricts the ability to create writing
applications founded by authentic, rather than concocted, circumstances (Cohen & Riel,
1989). Today a tool once used as an alternate writing instrument, now has the potential to
remove this restriction. The classroom teacher and student peers need no longer be
considered the only available audience for student writing, for all physical limitations
have been removed. Students can now collaborate, construct knowledge, and build
learning communities with students from all around the world (Weiler, 2003).
Computers were once thought to be tools of isolation that would prevent students
from collaborating and communicating with classroom peers and condemn them to a life
of solitude (Kamil, Intrator, & Kim, 2000; Spitzer, 1990). However, computers have
been found to be more of a catalyst as they serve to increase collaboration and communi-
cation, especially in the field of writing (Bump, 1990; Dickinson, 1986; Hawkins,
Sheingold, Gearhart, & Berger, 1982; Spitzer, 1990). Taking this a step further, Hermann
(1990) found computers have the potential to make learning more collaborative and
32
student-centered. Now, “the pedagogical task becomes one of devising teaching strategies
The connection between writing and learning has been well established
(Danielson, 2000; Mayher, Lester, & Pradl, 1983). “Writing stimulates thinking, and in
thinking, one comes to formulate ideas, opinions, and new knowledge” (Zacharias, 1990,
p. 6). It is this connection between writing and the construction of knowledge that is a
fundamental reason for using student journals (Fulwiler, 1987). When journals are used
as a personal writing space, very much like a diary, students can reflect on their inner
thoughts and feelings. However, when journaling is used “to facilitate the learner’s ability
questions, and find answers” (Danielson, 2000, Writing to Learn section, ¶1), its true
Instructors from across the disciplines use student journals for more than a mere
summary of facts (Applebee, 1977), but also as a means to gain insight into the child’s
understanding and assimilation of the information (Kerka, 2002; Killion, 1999; Medway,
1987). “To fully understand any discipline or subject, students must learn to write in the
subject, to understand the conventions used and the unique kinds of vocabulary which
characterize it” (Danielson, 2000, Writing to Learn section, ¶2). While students can use
oral language to express their understanding of the content, writing about the content can
present a richer representation, as students have time to think, reflect, and determine the
best way to express themselves (Littrell, 2005; Medway, 1973)—something they cannot
their constructed content knowledge (King & LaRocco, 2006, p. 3); a voice some
communication between the teacher and student (Kreeft Peyton, 1997; Wang, 1993). This
genre offers students a chance to write on topics of personal interest and can transpire
over an extended period of time, rather than starting a new daily topic (Staton, 1982). In
an effort to promote conversation, grammar and convention errors are not brought to
attention (D'Arcy, 1987; Kreeft Peyton, 1997). Instead, the teacher models correct usage
While McIntyre and Tlusty (1995) asserted the cyclical process of writing,
reading, and response “creates a dynamic discourse that produces shared, mutually
constructed knowledge” (p. 2), there are some limitations. First, there is the cumbersome
exercise of physically collecting and returning the journals (King & LaRocco, 2006;
Longhurst & Sandage, 2004). While the journals are in the possession of the instructor,
the students are unable to create a new reflection or continue an existing discussion (King
& LaRocco, 2006; Phipps, 2005; Wickstrom, 2003). By the time the journals are returned
to the students, teacher responses may lose their potential impact as the student can lose
interest in the entry topic (Wickstrom, 2003). “Thus one of the most promising tools for
fostering reflectivity is undermined buy logistical and social realities” (McIntyre &
new learning on the part of the student or instructor, Longhurst and Sandage used an
existing and familiar tool as the format for student journals, email. As a writing device,
email offered “many of the best practices educational researchers recommend for
reading assignments; and active learning” (p. 71). However, it lacked one important
component. The teacher remained the sole audience for the students’ writing.
King and LaRocco (2006) conducted a study to determine the viability of using e-
piece was used as the instrument for the e-journals. Graduate level students were required
to submit at least one journal entry per week. Journal entries remained private and were
subject solely to teacher comments. Course instructors adjusted the subsequent lesson
based upon questions and comments made by the students in their e-journals.
At the conclusion of the semester, the authors found both the students and teachers
benefited from the e-journal exchanges. While early entries demonstrated the students’
inexperience with journal writing, as the semester progressed, students often posted more
than the required entries and posted comments in response to those of the instructors.
Students also reported a more thorough understanding of the course content and were more
readily able to apply this knowledge to circumstances outside the classroom. Instructors
found the immediate and convenient access to these electronic journals enabled them to
gain a deeper insight into their students’ thinking which served to enhance their teaching.
individual learning needs (King & LaRocco, 2006, Discussion section, ¶ 2).
35
Writing with Weblogs
As indicated thus far, computers have directly impacted student writing, from
eliminating the dread of rewrites and enhancing the revision process, to making
context for student introspection. The Internet and the abundance of web-based
One such web-based application is the weblog. Jorn Barger is credited for
conceiving the term Weblog in 1997 (Blood, 2000; Huann, John, & Yuen, 2005). At that
time, Weblogs were strictly link-driven sites and required the ability to code HTML
(Blood, 2000; Downes, 2004; Richardson, 2006). It was Dave Winer who gave the
Weblog its true power when he created the ability to "edit this page" (Blood, 2000, p. 8).
We could all write, not just read, in ways as never before possible. For the first
time in history, at least in the developed world, anyone with a computer and
Internet connection could own a press. Just about anyone could make the news.
(Gillmor, 2005, p. 24)
The word Weblog is a combination of the words Web and log, leading many to
associate the genre of Weblogs to online journals (Ferdig & Trammell, 2004). However,
Downes (2004) and Sevelj (2006) pointed out that a blog is defined by its format not its
substance. It is the characteristics of a blog that perhaps put it closest to realizing what
36
Gillmore (2005) described as, "the original, read/write promise of the Web" (p. 28), the
creation of content.
The characteristic that ultimately differentiates a blog from a Web page is the way
information is displayed on a blog. Bloggers create posts, or entries, which are chunked
bits of content arranged in reverse chronological order with the most current at the top.
This helps the reader to find new additions quickly as blogs can be updated frequently.
Bloggers insert hyperlinks to other blogs or online sites as a reference to bits of content
within their post. This in essence extends the audience, as it stretches the conversation
outward and helps to provide support for the author's thoughts and opinions (Drexler,
Traditionally, students view their writing as a private exchange between the teacher,
who serves as their evaluator, and themselves (Palmeri & Daum, 2001). The ease of publi-
cation associated with blogs adds a needed improvement to the basic audience of teacher
and student, access by the public (Lowe & Williams, 2004). This public arena provides a
transform knowledge, they must have authentic opportunities for publication of knowl-
edge” (Ferdig & Trammell, 2004, p. 14). While students may not be enthused at the process
of writing, they are often motivated by the anticipation of being published (Alber, 1999).
For many blogvangelists, authentic audience is high on the list of reasons they
choose to use blogs with their students. It is the ease and simplicity of publishing with
blogs that provides students access to the highly desired, immediate, and authentic,
audience characteristic of sound pedagogical practice (Bos & Krajcik, 1998; Reed, 1996;
37
Spitzer, 1990).“Web publication gives students a real audience to write to and, when
optimized, a collaborative environment where they can give and receive feedback,
mirroring the way professional writers use a workshop environment to hone their craft”
While class peers and teachers may serve as a familiar audience, publication on
the Web invites a totally unfamiliar audience; one unrestricted by location or time zone
(Bos & Krajcik, 1998; Brooks-Young, 2005; Cohen & Riel, 1989; Ferdig & Trammell,
2004; Lowe & Williams, 2004). It is often awareness of this unfamiliar audience that
motivates students to be more precise in their writing (Cohen & Riel, 1989; Reed, 1996),
and helps to establish a sense of ownership (Ferdig & Trammell, 2004; Godwin-Jones,
public commenting and archived posts (Huann, John, & Yuen, 2005). Utecht (2007)
emphasized blogs are about the conversation, not the writing (p. 31), and it is the ability
to receive comments about this conversation that deepens the student’s understanding and
from others can challenge the student to “regularly update and evaluate his or her point of
view on a topic or issue… to produce persuasive arguments, crisp analyses and so on” (p.
18). Comments can not only affect the author, they can affect the reader as well. As com-
ments are left, they become a part of the conversation and serve as a type of peer-review
(Moeller, 2002; Wang, Fix, & Bock, 2005). These comments may take future visitors on a
different course, as they choose to pursue the thoughts and ideas of those who came
before them.
38
While blogs have been compared to journals (Duffy & Bruns, 2006; Huffaker,
2005b; Oravec, 2002; Weiler, 2003), there is a fundamental difference between these two
forums for writing: journals are linear, and blogs have the ability to hyperlink (Sevelj,
2006). However, it is not the tool itself, but rather how the elements of that tool are
utilized. “Blogs as journals do not engage students any more in the learning process than
a regular journal would. A journal is simple: a student writes, the teacher reads” (Utecht,
2007, p. 32). Without these interactive components of a blog, online journals are merely
Feldman (2001) suggested it is the interactivity of the hyperlink, the ability to click on a
word and be instantaneously hurled to another place and time, that provides the attraction
for many to the World Wide Web. For students, these hyperlinks can help to create and
enhance relationships between the content and the intent of the author (Bolter, 2001;
Feldman, 2001).
roadmap for the conversation that ensues as “bloggers link to other bloggers, creating an
(Huffaker, 2005b, p. 337). A feature called trackback will inform a blogger when a link
points back to his post. This often deepens the conversation as ideas are exchanged and
refined through reader comments. This roadmap is always available through another type
39
of hyperlink known as a permalink, a portmanteau for permanent link. Even after a blog
post has been archived and is no longer visible on the main page, it can be found via its
Technorati, a blog search engine, has been tracking blogs since November of
2002. According to Sifry (2006), the number of blogs doubled every 3 months between
2003 and 2006, 100 times larger than when Technorati first began counting. On July 31,
2006, the official number reached 50,000,000. Currently, there is no way to calculate
exactly how many of these are educational blogs; however, Downes (2004) indicates this
number would be “equally impressive” (p. 16). This trend appears to have carried over
into the research of weblogs. According to Lamshed, Berry, and Armstrong (2002), there
are a wealth of studies on blogs and the nature of blogging. While there is adequate
research on the use of blogs in higher education, little empirical research has been done to
study the use of blogs in K-12 education (Fiedler, 2004; Wang, Fix, & Bock, 2005;
Williams & Jacobs, 2004). The majority of documentation available on the subject of
Empirical Research
compared similar activities using two different journaling tools, blogs and traditional
paper/pencil. Littrell focused on three aspects: the frequency and length of journal entries
separated into two groups. Each group received the same book to read, but used a
40
different journaling tool. After 2 weeks, the groups switched methods and continued
writing about the assigned novel. This entire process was repeated using a second book.
Data revealed a 50% increase in the number of blog posts as compared to the
number of entries in the paper/pencil journals. Blog entries were on average 30% longer
than entries using the traditional method. All the participants expressed a preference for
writing on the blog. Reasons for this preference included: ease of use; having time to
formulate a thorough response; being able to clarify a position or idea; publishing for an
audience; being able to express their thoughts freely without criticism; and the ability to
personalize their space. Littrell concluded that blogs “served as an impetus for writing,
giving participants a chance to develop their thoughts and ideas about the literature being
read, which in turn segued into their continued writing” (Littrell, 2005, p. 44).
Anecdotal Accounts
Ted Nellen (2000) found the Internet to be ideal for the very diverse population of
students in his Cyber English class. “I use the Internet in my classroom because it solves
so many problems, bridges so many gulfs, inspires so many fertile minds, provides so
much information, introduces such a large audience” (p. 220). All student assignments
were completed on the Internet and later published to a personalized Web page. This site
served as the student’s Webfolio. For Nellen and his students, the Internet offered many
advantages. Rather than waiting until a composition was finished for any feedback,
Nellen, as well as peers and mentors, was able to monitor student progress throughout the
writing process. This helped to reinforce good writing practices and avoided the
discovery of major problems after the writing process had been completed. Hypertext
was also seen as an advantage for the readers of these compositions, as it gave immediate
41
access to any resources or information used by the author, creating a much richer
experience.
Williams and Jacobs (2004) conducted a study to determine the feasibility of using blogs
in an MBA course. While participation was voluntary, students did receive credit for
doing so. Fifty percent of the 102 students elected to participate in the blog. Of the 50%
who chose to abstain, two major reasons emerged for this choice: the participation points
were not worth the effort, and there was a sense the student had nothing worth
participation and contribution; reading the blog but not posting a response was viewed as
participation. Overall, a strong majority of students felt the MBA blog facilitated their
understanding of the content and increased the level of meaningful intellectual exchange.
Both the qualitative and quantitative findings of this study supported the use of blogs as
Although anecdotal, Shelbie Witte (2007) described the power of blogs on her
students. In an effort to recreate a project she learned about while attending a conference,
Witte set up a blog as a tool to promote literacy for her eighth grade students. The
university collaborated with the students via the blog. The interest extended to Iraq as a
name of the town in one of his posts, the administration shut down the project. Rather
than kill the entire venture, communication continued through the exchange of paper
journals.
42
Students let the administration know about their frustration with this change. One
student wrote, “It’s like we’ve gone back to using leeches instead of nuclear medicine”
(Witte, 2007, p. 94). Another said, “By taking away our access to the Talkback Project
blog, you have taken away my voice” (Witte, 2007, p. 95). The soldier in Iraq felt the
questionable content should have been removed rather than shutting down the whole
project. The passionate pleas from the students resulted in an alternative location for the
In Blogs as a Tool for Teaching, Steven Krause (2005) described his “outright
failures” (p. B33) with this new writing genre. To create a structure for collaboration,
Krause divided his graduate students into groups and assigned each to a blog. Wanting his
students to experience open and free writing, assignments centered on general topics
covered in the course. No specific directions or guidelines for the posts were given. Much
to the dismay of Krause, the energetic and engaging interaction he expected did not take
place: postings were inconsistent; some students rambled for long lengths; while others
merely provided hyperlinks to other websites. When asked what might be the reason for
the lack of interaction, many students proposed the expectations were too vague. Krause
suggested the failure was due to a lack of desire on the part of the students. He
maintained an author writes because he wants to, not because he has to.
Will Richardson (2003) writes of a completely different experience; one that has
become the inspiration for many other educators (e.g., Borja, 2005; Kennedy, 2003).
Richardson used a class blog as an online discussion tool with his high school Modern
American Literature class. His goal was to extend the in-class discussions that took place.
Students were given a specific number of required posts and were required to comment
43
on posts by their peers as well. The expectations were clear. To add to the experience,
Richardson did not limit the conversation to the members of the class. Not only were
parents invited to read and share in the discussion of The Secret Life of Bees, so was the
author, Sue Monk Kidd. Even students who were reluctant to share their opinions in
class, found a voice in the blog. With an authentic audience in place, an engaging
discourse ensued.
“online learning logs could serve as a significant predictor for overall course
performance” (p. 5). For the course of the semester, college seniors were required to post
their reflections on what they had learned and read for the week as well as their thoughts
on information posted by others in the class. Performance variables in this study included
the blogs which served as learning logs, the final exam, all other coursework, and overall
performance in the course, which excluded the blogs. The blogs proved to be a significant
predictor of exam performance at the .02 level of significance, and a predictor of overall
relationship between all other course work and the final exam performance did not prove
Wikis
Wiki is the shortened form of wiki-wiki, the Hawaiian word for quick (Parker &
Chao, 2007; Richardson, 2006). The term was contrived by Ward Cunningham in 1994 as
a name for his newly designed collaborative Internet tool (Augar, Raitman, & Wanlei,
2004; Evans, 2006; C. Wang & Turner, 2004). For such a small word, a wiki fills an
44
enormous void. The basic premise of a wiki site is "to become a shared repository of
knowledge, with the knowledge base growing over times [sic]" (Goodwin-Jones, 2003,
RSS and Wiki section, ¶ 4). A wiki is basically a Website where groups, rather than
individual users, can easily create and edit pages (Parker & Chao, 2007). This degree of
Blogs and wikis are both known as social web tools because they facilitate
collaborative creation of content open to the public (Anderson, 2007). Despite this basic
similarity, there are several noticeable differences beginning with the fact they serve
different purposes. If your intent is to invite participation but keep the content unchanged,
a blog would be the best tool. If you are looking for as much collaboration as possible
from as many people as possible, then a wiki is the tool for the job (Mader, 2007).
Feedback is another area of variance. While both forms allow for public input, Mader
points out a blog does so by enabling comments, and a wiki allows the user to add or
(2006) believes educators are starting to realize the potential of wikis to facilitate
of which are essential properties in an education context” (p. 47). Such is the case with
Richard Watson, a professor at the University of Georgia. When Watson couldn’t find a
quality textbook to use with his course in XML, he decided to create his own (Gibson,
2006). This wasn’t a typical textbook, edited, published, and sold. This was written by his
students, published on a wiki, and free to the public. Each student was responsible for
45
researching and writing one chapter and served as the editor for preceding and following
standard textbook, students learned the material more thoroughly and with more
enthusiasm by creating their own” (Evans, 2006, p. 30). Watson was surprised at the
however, that Watson worked with international students to translate this wikitext into
Again in the context of higher education, Mitchell, Posner, and Baecker (1995),
the effects of a synchronous collaborative editor, quite similar to a wiki. The students
were divided into two groups and given the task of creating a magazine on prejudice over
a 12-week period. The process of cooperative writing presented more challenges to these
inexperienced writers than using the technology. As students came to understand that
writing as one cohesive unit was different than writing as separate units in parallel, they
began to take advantage of the benefits found in a synchronous writing tool. This became
evident when students took ownership of the piece and would make significant changes
to the text regardless if they were the person who entered the information. The authors
determined that the technology did have a distinct impact on the collaborative writing
Familiar with previous research that examined the use of a computer for creative
writing, Desilets and Paquet (2005) performed a case study to analyze using a wiki for a
web-based, hypertext story. Students in grades 4-6 volunteered to meet after school as part
of an extracurricular activity. Students gathered into groups from two to six members to
46
write a story. These stories were non-linear in nature and very similar to the “Choose your
own adventure” books. As the story progresses in these well-known books, the reader
chooses which event should next occur, creating a different story with each reading. Stories
of this genre in paper form require the reader to leaf through the pages looking for the
number that matches their selection. Using a wiki, the reader simply clicks on his choice
Desilets and Paquet (2005) noted a distinct, collective sense of ownership on the
part of the students as they would not hesitate to work on whatever needed to be done
regardless of their designated task. The asynchronous nature of the wiki enabled the
as criticism, which received immediate attention from the students at the next session.
The authors felt this writing activity capitalized on the unique structural capabilities of a
The use of wikis does bring about issues of trust with many educators (Evans,
2006; Ferris & Wilder, 2006; Lamb, 2004). It is difficult to accept credibility when the
content is open to insertions and deletions at the whim of the general public. Wikipedia is
one of the best well-known examples. Vandalism is a continual nuisance, but the collabo-
rative nature of a wiki leads to a strong sense of common purpose and ownership (Lamb,
2004). Evans (2006) makes the point, “while Britannica is a frozen monument to past
scholarship, the Wikipedia is living, growing and rapidly improving” (p. 31). Still, one of
the most common uses for wikis is writing instruction (Lamb, 2004) as it offers several
audience; a space for review of information and continued discussion; as well as serving
47
to promote collaboration and a sense of community (Ferris & Wilder, 2006; Forte &
Bruckman, 2006).
Constructivism
Say the word constructivism, and the mind can become dizzy trying to sort
radical, situated, social, sociocultural, even trivial constructivism (Davis & Sumara,
2002; Murphy, 1997; Steffe & Gale, 1995). Constructivism stems from the Latin word
construere, which "means to 'interpret' or 'to analyze,' with emphasis on a person's active
epistemology (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Davis & Sumara, 2002).
Historically, many philosophers and theorists have been connected to this wide
variety of constructivist leaning theories. Perhaps one of the earliest, Immanuel Kant
(1724-1804) declared while knowledge begins with experience, it is not always a direct
knowledge, knowledge independent from the event, in order to construe new associations
among events or experiences (Brooks & Brooks, 1999). To Kant, "a tabula rasa psychol-
ogy was self-contradictory, for unless certain rational categories are posited a prior,
neither 'experience' nor 'mental association' is even possible" (Olssen, 1996, p. 277).
articulating ideas that later led to constructivism (Mahoney, 1991; Regina Public Schools
& Saskatchewan Learning, 2004; Warrick, 2004). Vico's "battle cry" was "the truth is the
48
same as made" (von Glasersfeld, 1984, p. 27), for man could only know what he has
constructed for himself (Parkinson, 2004; Simon, 1999). Thus there could be no reality
constructivism (Brooks & Brooks, 1999) and is thought by some to be the original
constructivist (Oxford, 1997; Warrick, 2004). It was from Kant's work that Piaget derived
a basis for his epistemological beliefs (Prawat, 1996; Warrick, 2004). Like Kant, Piaget
believed humans actively construct their knowledge through experience. However, Piaget
posited distinct, internal processes that equip individuals with not only the ability to learn
1997; Simon, 1999). Assimilation takes place as an individual associates new occurrences
with previous knowledge and concepts. Existing cognitive structures must be altered in
the new with the old that Piaget felt was critical to the learning process. While the term
Piaget later influenced another theorist, Ernst von Glasersfeld (1917- ). This is
evident in von Glasersfeld's focus on how an individual comes to know, along with his
edge (Phillips, 1995). Further inspiration from Piaget is manifested in von Glasersfeld's
in which the subject reorganizes his or her activity in order to eliminate perturbations"
49
(Cobb, 2005). It is the radical constructivist's view, as espoused by von Glasersfeld, that
there is no reality outside the mind; no reality outside an individual's experience (Oxford,
1997; Warrick, 2004). We alone create the reality within our own minds.
Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky (1896-1934) believed learning was dynamic and should
not be associated with developmental periods. More emphasis was placed on the social
context of learning (Knight, 2003). Vygotsky viewed language as the key to both the
development of human thought and culture alike (Alpay, 2003; Liu & Matthews, 2005;
Simon, 1999; Tudge & Winterhoff, 1994), for it is language that facilitates both
individual thought and social interaction. Vygotsky believed more could be learned by
studying students in social situations (Alpay, 2003; Warrick, 2004). He contended "what
students could do with the assistance of others was more indicative of their intellectual
development than what they can do on their own" (Simon, 1999, p. 18).
It is this gap between what a student can do independently and what he is capable
of with assistance that Vygotsky has labeled the zone of proximal development: "The
solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving
under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978, p.
86). It is important to note that this zone is not a well-defined space and is a direct result
Constructivism in Education
In the early part of the 20th century, a 'change in behavior' was thought to define
learning. Thus, teaching was characterized as clear communication with
appropriate learner practice, reinforcement, and motivation. Disciplines were
broken down into skills and concepts, sequenced from what was considered
simple to complex tasks, and assessments were designed to measure changes in
50
behavior. We thought of the mind as a muscle in need of exercise and affected by
practice. (Fosnot, 2005a, p. 276)
Fosnot (2005a) has summarized a quite familiar teaching model, which, for many, con-
Objectivists believe knowledge of a true and reliable world exists outside the
knower (Jonassen, 1991).The student's mind is seen as a blank slate. For those who hold
this theory of learning, the teacher is in complete control as she actively transmits her
interpretation of the world to the submissive student through direct instruction (V.
Richardson, 2003).
This bestowal of information is usually done through scripted lessons carefully outlined
the amount of truths a student acquires (Airasian & Walsh, 1997). Failure to recall a
given truth of a prescribed learning objective will result in repetition of the content until
it is mastered.
knowledge and the theory of learning have experienced a paradigm shift as constructivist
perspectives on learning have become widely adopted over the past 20 years (p. 36).
application of instructional strategies in which the teacher is the principle actor and the
51
students are objects upon whom action is taken" (p. 132). Educators who choose to
follow this practice face conceptual, pedagogical, cultural, and political, dilemmas.
ate instruction and assessment. This is a key cultural dilemma. A lack of understanding
can cause confusion between an activity and an idea. "Educators sometimes revert to
catch phrases—such as 'hands-on learning,' 'active engagement of the learner,' and 'depth
over breadth'—without explaining how these concepts can be applied in the classroom
(2002) asserts this transformation requires educators to both think and act as a
constructivist.
tional theories of learning. Creating learning environments and activities that facilitate
multiple methods for students to explore various concepts. The process of scaffolding
1997; Savery & Duffy, 1995). In addition, these new learning activities no longer fit into
the easily created, easily administered, easily graded, multiple-choice tests. More
(2002) determined these abilities can be the outcome of learning in a constructivist environ-
ment. The world of high-stakes testing compounded the issue (Brooks & Brooks, 1999),
and forced some schools to use scripted curricula in hopes of meeting Annual Yearly
Progress (AYP). Armed with the task of preparing citizens for the 21st century, instructors
continue to use texts and other materials that stress basic skills. Bruner (1971) cautioned
A method of instruction should have the objective of leading the child to discover
for himself. Telling children and then testing them on what they have been told
inevitably has the effect of producing bench-bound learners whose motivation for
learning is likely to be extrinsic to the task—pleasing the teacher, getting into
college, artificially maintaining self-esteem. (p. 123)
The culture of the constructivist classroom not only changes for the teacher, it
also changes for the student. As one of the constructivist tenets, teachers are expected to
become facilitators of learning rather than simple disseminators of information. For the
students, this means they will have more control of their own learning, a role that some
may find more difficult and may even resist (Perkins, 1992).
Students will also have to learn new ways to perform. They will have to learn to
think for themselves, not wait for the teacher to tell them what to think; to proceed
with less focus and direction from the teacher, not to wait for explicit teacher
directions; to express their own ideas clearly in their own words, not to answer
restricted-response questions; to revisit and revise constructions, not to move
immediately on to the next concept or idea. (Airasian & Walsh, 1997, p. 7)
workers, parents and the community, that students can and do benefit from this type of
instruction. The basic skills curriculum is very familiar to many of these stakeholders, for
53
it is often the way they were taught. "In the public eye, the idea of constructivism suffers
evaluate students on production; “what they can generate, demonstrate, and exhibit”
(Brooks & Brooks, 1999, p. 16). If students are to have the opportunities necessary to
generate, demonstrate, and exhibit their writing, teachers must create learning environ-
ments that accommodate and promote such outcomes. One can argue that all of this is
Considering the elements that can enhance student writing, authentic audience,
writing is easily accomplished through the use of technology (Kulik, 2003b; Spitzer,
1990). Blogs and wikis can provide students with the social environment to establish
learning communities and foster communication with authentic audiences outside of their
immediate school surroundings (Duffy & Bruns, 2006; Richardson, 2006). While blogs
and wikis share these powerful characteristics, they also have unique qualities of their
own. Blogs offer students the ability to become producers of content by publishing their
writing (Brooks-Young, 2005; Ferdig & Trammell, 2004; Polly, 2007). Yet the process
doesn’t stop here, as the public has the ability to interact with the author by posting a
54
comment, in effect extending or refining a conversation (Du & Wagner, 2007a;
Richardson, 2006).
For some, the possibility of such discourse makes blogs one of the most vital web-based
affords them an opportunity to reflect on their thinking and possibly amend previous
thoughts and ideas (Brecia & Miller, 2005; Quinn, Duff, Johnston, & Gursansky, 2007;
Richardson, 2006). Blogs offer reticent students time to contemplate and formulate their
addition, blogs serve as an archive of student work, allowing students to monitor their
thoughts over time as well as what others have written (Huann, John, & Yuen, 2005;
knowledge” (Huann, John, & Yuen, 2005, p. 3) which empowers students to take
easily achieved in a traditional or digital setting” (p. 8). He compares this web-based
application to an “enhanced electronic whiteboard” (p. 6) which allows the general public
or a selected group to both create and modify content. Despite the commanding presence
of wikis in the business area (Evans, 2006), educators are just beginning to see their
(Reinhold, 2006, p. 47). The online nature of wikis removes all barriers of time and
space, increasing the potential for teachers and students to collaborate on an article or
other piece of writing (Parker & Chao, 2007). Wikis further enhance the writing process
by allowing continual input and the ability to provide comments over time; rather than on
one occasion, the final draft (Duffy & Bruns, 2006). When members of such a group can
work together to discuss issues and share their knowledge, “wikis can serve as a
Technology can enable powerful learning environments and can facilitate the
can serve as a guide for curricular and lesson planning; school learning should occur in a
meaningful contexts; and out-of-school experience should relate to the child’s school
experience (Maddux, Johnson, & Willis, 2001, p. 139). Of all the technological tools
available today, blogs and wikis offer significant potential in helping to address these
This call for authenticity in student writing is echoed in the writings of Vygotsky.
In Mind in Society (1978), Vygotsky contended that writing must be purposeful for the
student and situated within an authentic context; and that writing instruction is often
Teaching should be organized in such a way that reading and writing are
necessary for something. If they are used only to write official greetings to the
staff or whatever the teacher thinks up (and clearly suggests to them), then the
exercise will be purely mechanical. (p. 117)
56
Vygotsky continues, “Writing must be ‘relevant to life’ (p. 118).
(1962), Moffett (1968, 1982), Britton (1970, 1975), Emig (1971, 1977), Elbow (1973,
language and its role in assigning meaning for humans (p. 1). This connection between
1. When people articulate connections between new information and what they
already know, they learn and understand that new information better (Bruner,
1966).
2. When people think and figure things out, they do so in symbol systems
commonly called languages, most often verbal, but also mathematical,
musical, visual, and so on (Vygotsky, 1962).
3. When people learn things, they use all of the language modes to do so—
reading, writing, speaking, and listening; each mode helps people learn in a
unique way (Emig, 1977).
4. When people write about new information and ideas—in addition to reading,
talking, and listening—they learn and understand them better (Britton, 1975).
5. When people care about what they write and see connections to their own
lives, they both learn and write better (Moffett, 1968). (Fulwiler, 1987, p. 5-6)
When teachers are able to design learning environments capable of implementing these
principles, students are able to experience writing as real writers do; becoming engrossed
Summary
The vast amount of research analyzing the use of computers for student writing
focused on word processing. Results concerning quality and quantity of writing, revision,
and student attitudes were discussed. While these results varied for quality of writing,
quantity of writing, and revision, increased motivation and positive student attitudes
57
about writing were common. The ease of revision, elimination of both the physical pain
of writing for long periods, and the need to recopy, are credited for this increase in
Many researchers discussed the disconnect between the activity of writing and the
purpose for the writing. This situation was perpetuated as teachers generated nonsensical
purposes for assignments and often served as the only audience for student work. The
literature showed writing for an authentic audience with an authentic purpose influenced
from authenticity such as: improved quality in writing; deeper content knowledge; and
With the onset of the Internet, electronic forms of writing simply served as
the cumbersome aspects of collecting and returning paper varieties. Yet they still lacked
the aspect of an authentic audience in an authentic context. Weblogs, which have often
been compared to electronic journals, can offer these missing components of authenticity.
Blogs, as they are sometimes known, have the additional benefit of serving as an
archive of learning, but perhaps their most powerful characteristic is the potential for
publication. When students publish their blog posts, their work becomes public and is
available to every reader on the World Wide Web. Readers are able to respond to student
writing in the form of comments. These comments provide a means of extending the
conversation, as the student can reflect on his initial thoughts, expand this thinking, or
modify it entirely; all based on responses from an authentic audience. While the research
58
on the use of blogs in higher education is abundant, the vast majority of the writing on K-
12 use is anecdotal. This literature supports the assertion that blogs have the potential to
Available research on the use of wikis in K-12 education is also slim. Like blogs,
wikis offer students opportunities to publish for an authentic audience, but collaboration
is the key advantage to using this tool. By removing the barriers of time and space, wikis
enable group contribution to and modification of the content instantaneously. While many
see this access to content manipulation as an advantage, some are concerned such access
Knowledge cannot be bestowed upon the child by the teacher. Constructivist learning
environments have the potential to provide elements that can enhance student writing;
elements such as authentic audience, collaboration, and writing for an authentic purpose.
Such environments are not easily created using traditional methods of writing instruction.
Technology can facilitate the principles necessary for a constructivist classroom, and
enable powerful learning environments. Of the many technological tools available today,
environments and enhance student writing. Chapter III will present the methodology for
this study.
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this study was to investigate how blogs and/or wikis were used by
K-12 classroom teachers; how these teachers determined when and why to use these
technologies with students; and their perceptions of how these tools affected students.
The association between blogs, wikis, and student writing, and the association between
computers and constructivism were also examined. In order to fully address these
questions appropriately, the qualitative case study approach was selected as the research
method. This chapter will serve to provide a clear description and purpose of the design
1. How are K-12 teachers utilizing blogs and/or wikis in the classroom?
a. What is the intent or purpose for using blogs and wikis?
b. How and to what extent do these tools support constructivist learning
theory?
c. How do teachers prepare their students to use blogs or wikis?
3. How do K-12 teachers perceive these tools have impacted their students?
setting, with the goal of understanding how these participants have created meaning
through their own experiences (Merriam, 1998). Savenye and Robinson (2004) note
59
60
qualitative research methods have a long history of use in the study of educational
technology. Asking different questions about new technologies may, in fact, offer a
deeper understanding of what is really happening when these new technologies are used
Like Bogden and Biklen (2003), Merriam (1998) believes qualitative research is
concerned with process instead of resulting outcomes. “The interest is in process rather
than outcomes, in context rather than a specific variable, in discovery rather than
confirmation” (p. 19). When contextual conditions are believed to be a significant factor
to the phenomenon of the study, Yin (1994) advocates the use of the case study method,
possible to manipulate behaviors (p. 8). Savenye and Robinson (2004) perceive another
strength of this methodology is its ability to provide insight into how new technologies
are used by students and teachers without distraction or interference. It is these assets that
considered: the type of research questions to be asked, the amount of control the
researcher has over the events, and whether the focus is on contemporary or historical
events. Keeping these conditions in mind, the case study has a distinct advantage when
the study involves how and why questions about contemporary events of which the
researcher has little to no control (Yin, 1994, p. 9). In addition, Merriam (1998) suggests
that a case study approach has the unique potential to uncover knowledge not probable
with other methods (p. 33), making it possible to identify and explain specific educational
research strategies for this study. The emphasis of this study was on the use of blogs
and/or wikis by K-12 teachers in conjunction with student writing, a highly contemporary
event involving rather new technologies. While analyzing how blogs and/or wikis were
used, this researcher also investigated how teachers determined these were the appropri-
ate tools to use. The emphasis on how questions satisfied another of Yin’s (1994) condi-
tions. Finally, this researcher had no control over any behavioral events. By utilizing a
qualitative approach, this study may provide insight into “ ‘what is really happening’
when technology is used” (Savenye & Robinson, 2004, p. 1174). Based on these reasons,
a case study approach was an effective method to answer the questions posed in the
study.
Role as Researcher
As the ultimate responsibility for the acquisition and analysis of data is that of the
researcher (Merriam, 1998), accuracy, depth, and breadth of data is of primary concern
(Bogdan & Biklen, 2003). The question of subjectivity arises as the data interact with the
reality of the researcher, before it becomes part of the report (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003;
Merriam, 1998). This requires that researchers clearly acknowledge their point of view
…no matter how much you try you can not [sic] divorce your research and
writing from your past experiences, who you are, what you believe and what you
value….The goal is to become more reflective and conscious of how who you are
may shape and enrich what you do, not to eliminate it. (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003,
p. 34)
Glesne (1992) warns of an emotional attachment between the researcher and her
topic of study. The researcher must be able to differentiate a topic that will have an
62
intrinsic interest for others, from a topic which has such deep personal issues that the
researcher may be seeking justification for or even vindication from previous experiences
or actions.
enhance student learning with technology. However, when more sophisticated web-based
applications, such as blogs and wikis, became available, this researcher had already left
the classroom to become the district technology coordinator. In this capacity, she was
for teachers and staff, as well as student instruction. While this researcher has come to
accept the fact that not all teachers share her vision or passion for technology use, she
must constantly monitor how her experiences, opinions and/or prejudices may affect
every aspect of this study. “How you pursue your own subjectivity matters less than that
Participant Selection
While a case study can provide a rich, thick description of the phenomenon being
exaggeration of this thick description can mislead the reader and facilitate incorrect
conclusions. Guba and Lincoln continue to advise that a case study is merely one piece of
a puzzle and not necessarily a depiction of the whole. Merriam (1998) suggests an
analysis of multiple cases within the same study that are varied in nature can provide a
more convincing interpretation. “The inclusion of multiple cases is, in fact, a common
and/or wikis with their students. In an effort to enhance the external validity of this study,
eight participants, representing various grade levels, were pursued. Keeping in mind that
using blogs and/or wikis is not a common practice among K-12 educators, looking for
random participants would have been very time consuming. Technology coordinators and
other educational technologists at the state and local levels were contacted by phone for a
potential list of participants. These individuals were in the position to know which staff
members were using these tools. This purposeful sampling (Creswell, 2005) was neces-
sary in order to find individuals in a timely manner who were able to provide data for this
study. Suggested participants were contacted through email and informed of the nature
and involvement of the study. Every attempt was made to find teachers from a broad
representation of grade levels. A letter of consent (see Appendix A) was mailed and
Data Sources
Yin (1994) and Patton (1990) advise multiple sources of evidence be used to
collect data as this helps to increase the strength of the study. Interviews often serve as
one source of evidence in qualitative studies. Interviews are an essential tool when it is
replicate an event (Merriam, 1998). Patton (1990) believes interviews enable a researcher
to “find out what is in and on someone else's mind” (p. 278). Because the answers to
many of the stated research questions were not achievable through observation,
with the perceptions and beliefs of the participant and actually reveal those predetermined
by the investigator. Miles and Huberman (1994) suggest a study based on the opposite
extreme can also be detrimental, as it can make cross-case analysis more difficult. A
semi-structured interview format was utilized in this study. While specific information
was required from all participants, this questioning procedure was flexible and allowed
the researcher to address whatever situation arose during the interview (Merriam, 1998).
These artifacts included blogs and/or wikis created by the teacher and/or students which
could be viewed by the public. Access to non-public blogs posted to school servers was
also procured by the researcher. Blogs offer an additional advantage as they serve as an
archive of interactions from the time the blog was created. A deeper analysis was
conducted of how this tool was used over time and if the intent of the instructor remained
consistent or changed.
asks one or more participants in the study to check the accuracy of the account” (p. 252).
In addition to checking for accuracy, participants have the opportunity to check for
understanding (Creswell, 2005) and clarify their position by revising or adding additional
information (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Lincoln and Guba (1985) indicate member
checking is “the most crucial technique for establishing credibility” (p. 314) in a study, as
65
participant analysis adds to “the transparency of the research” (Fossey, Harvey,
Every participant in this study received a complete copy of the transcript for all
additions to clarify their intent and present a more clear and accurate representation of
their responses.
Collection Procedures
Unless otherwise requested, interviews were conducted using a free Voice Over
Internet Protocol (VOIP) service tool called Skype. Each participant was interviewed a
minimum of two times. The first interview was used to gather some demographic
information and overall use of blogs and/or wikis. This initial interview provided an
opportunity for the participant to become familiar with Skype and the interview process
clarify any responses from the first interview. All audio exchanges from every interview
After the interview process was completed, the researcher examined blog and/or
wiki artifacts available online. Detailed notes of observations were made. The instructor
was contacted via email when clarification was needed. While four of the participants
used both blogs and wikis with their students, this study analyzed their primary tool of
Data Analysis
Bogden and Biklen (2003) maintain good researchers rely on their theoretical
perspective to guide them as they collect and analyze data. The philosophy of education
66
held by this researcher is based on interpretivism, specifically constructivism. It is this
researcher’s belief that knowledge is constructed by the individual and is not totally
"lawlike generalizations" (Willis, Thompson, & Sadera, 1999, p. 6). The goal is to under-
stand how teachers' own reality of the effectiveness of technology impacts their instruc-
tional use of these tools and if this reality has been altered by their experience with them.
& Sadera, 1999). One purpose of this study was to investigate how teachers determine
why and how to use technology with their students, an articulation of their intent. This
researcher also hoped to learn what types of activities using blogs and/or wikis were
designed and if these occurred within a constructivist learning environment. It would not
be feasible to examine these questions about the design and integration of technology
outside of the context in which they were positioned. It was the theoretical perspective of
interpretivism that served as a guide for this researcher as she collected and analyzed data.
filled with knowledge transmitted by the teacher, constructivism views the acquisition of
knowledge as that which is actively constructed by the student (Murphy, 1997; Vygotsky,
1978). Constructivists contend there is no reality outside the individual. Knowledge is not
merely a transfer of information directly into the memory, but rather the creation of an
interpretation by the student. Knowledge cannot be discovered but is housed within the
beliefs, and acquired knowledge, (Jonassen, 1991; Kim, 2001). This concept precipitates
2003). However, Perkins (1992) notes, "If learning has this constructive character
inherently, it follows that teaching practices need to be supportive of the construction that
must occur" (p. 49). This can be accomplished through the design and implementation of
learning environments. Brooks and Brooks (1999), Ferguson (2001), and Sprague and
Dede (1999) suggest teacher beliefs that can promote such constructivist learning
environments:
• Collaboration is encouraged.
While teachers were asked about their use of blogs and/or wikis with students,
the focus was on the factors participants used to determine how and why they choose to
use these tools. The data was analyzed to see whether they enabled and supported a
Salomon (2000) professes just because it can be done, doesn't be that it should be
cated. By his definition this means technology is only used when it fits into the current
68
philosophy of knowledge transmission. Students are allowed to learn from technology,
not with technology. Its use as an effective and unique tool to construct, communicate,
and design is suppressed (¶ 6). While technology has the potential to provide rich
learning environments, Salomon contends there is a vast difference in its potential, how it
is actually being used in education, and how educators should be using it. "Education is
far too important to society to be wiggled by a technological tail. Let technology show us
what can be done, and let educational considerations determine what will be done in
actuality" (¶ 29).
Data retrieved from one-on-one interviews and artifacts were analyzed using the
constant comparative method. As the name would indicate, the data were constantly
evaluated and compared (Merriam, 1998). This process provided the groundwork for the
emergence of tentative categories. These tentative categories were reviewed against the
data and, after constant comparison, led to more refined patterns and themes. A cross case
Summary
A multiple-case study approach was used to analyze the intent of K-12 teachers to
use blogs and/or wikis with their students, in particular for student writing; how these
teachers determined when and why to use these technologies with students; and their
perceptions of how these tools affected students. The association between the use of
blogs and/or wikis and constructivism was also examined. Data were gleaned from one-
student blogs and wikis. Using a constant comparative method, data was continually
compared and analyzed in an effort to refine emergent categories, themes and/or patterns.
CHAPTER IV
DESCRIPTION OF PARTICIPANTS
This chapter will provide detailed information about each of the eight participants
used in this study. (See Table 1.) Demographic information for each participant; deter-
mination to use technology; blog and/or wiki project descriptions; intent or purpose for
using blogs and/or wikis; preparing students to use blogs and/or wikis; student impact;
possible concerns about using these tools; and an overview will be presented for each
participant.
Katie
Located in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan, this P-8 school had a popula-
tion of around 300 students; 25 of which attended Katie’s first grade class. She describes
her local area as middle class with some government subsidized housing. It is interesting
to note the composition of this class did not have a diverse ability spread. The top-
performing first grade students were placed in the first/second grade split class, a practice
that happens in this school whenever the numbers do not justify two sections of first
grade. For Katie, this meant there were fewer students who were described as “the
keeners” who could “do all the stuff really quickly.” With 16 years of experience, Katie
had won several awards for her work with students and had presented in a K-12 online
technology conference.
69
Table 1
70
136
71
Determination to Use Technology
Katie was very selective in her determinations to use technology. She analyzed
the desired outcome in order to determine the instructional tool to be used. For Katie,
technology was not viewed as the driving force but rather a supporting tool.
You have to always be weighing what’s the best way that I can teach this so the
kids can understand it. There are times when a paper thing is a better tool, but
often times it’s not. Often times, the technology is better.
Katie saw the possibilities for using a blog with her students when she attended
She approached him to see if he thought this might be possible with first graders. He had
been looking for a teacher ready to accept the challenge, and a partnership was formed.
This first grade teacher also used the main blog page as a portal to individual
student blogs. Katie was able to give students individual time at the computer by using
blogging as one of her centers during guided reading. While Katie was conducting small
group reading sessions, students were able to work independently on their blog posts at
the computer center. As students did not receive assistance while writing, Katie inserted
an editor’s note to help readers who did not speak “emergent writer.” She did not correct
The main page of the blog also provided information about what the class had
studied, work they had done, trips they had made, special projects, and other events.
Katie used a number of video and audio tools to display the students’ work and inform
the audience. A slideshow presented drawings while each student told about their work. A
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video, taken by a student, showed a number-family activity done during math. Twenty-
five students wrote almost every day with only six classroom computers.
Katie also had a class wiki dedicated to primary math. Katie’s wiki was
collaborative and open to other interested schools for participation. Various pages in the
wiki represented general math concepts such as number, patterns, and addition. Schools
that joined the wiki added content to the pages in the form of pictures, slide shows, and
videos. Katie did not use the wiki on a daily basis. Wikis were designed to enable others
to contribute unique content. Katie explained her students understood the difference
between the purpose of these two tools. “They know you can’t just make a blog just to
learn something, but you could make a wiki about that and ask people to contribute. They
definitely understand.”
With 25 students, six networked computers served as one of the centers during
guided reading. At this center, Katie’s students worked independently on their blogs,
often choosing their own topic for their post. Katie worked throughout the first semester
teaching students blogging mechanics, often scheduling multiple sessions in the computer
Prior to using blogs, Katie used a website to inform parents of the day’s activities.
One student spent the final 10 minutes of the day to write about the day’s events. Katie
made it readable for parents by adding editor comments and posted it to the webpage.
When Katie first began using blogs, this same practice continued. The blog had simply
replaced the purpose of the website, only in a different format. She wanted something
more engaging; something that used higher order thinking skills. She wanted a place
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where her students could write, not just about the day’s events. What was once intended
to be a reflection of what was happening in her classroom, was “turning more and more
Student Preparation
Katie was asked if she was teaching her students any differently now that she used
blogs with her students. Katie made it clear that the only difference she perceived was the
I don’t really see my classroom as that different than other people’s classrooms. I
just see that we’re doing things on technology, using technology instead of pencil
and paper. We’re still learning how to write and read in the same way.
For Katie, blogs and wikis were a way of supporting her instruction and the students’
Student Impact
Katie found the access and interaction with an authentic audience, people other
than the teacher, classmates, or parents, was a very motivating factor for her students.
They became much more interested in writing knowing that someone else was reading
their work. Her students wanted to know what Katie wrote on the main page of the blog
whenever something new appeared, and they wanted to see the blogs of all the schools
who partnered with them as blogging buddies. Katie attributed this cycle of writing,
“Knowing someone has read your work 121 times, gives a lot more purpose to your
While Katie could not say that her students were better writers, she was not the
least bit hesitant to associate the blogging process with students’ increased motivation to
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write. This was substantiated from a different source, as Katie recounted the story of a
student she taught for two consecutive years at different grade levels. These were,
incidentally, the first 2 years she used blogs for student writing. In a conversation with
Katie, a child’s mother said she was convinced her son’s love of writing was a direct
Katie also made use of mentors with her first grade students. She established a
university. This was a special relationship as both groups of students were learning from
one another. The university students assisted their first grade blogging buddies to
improve their grammar and writing skills, which in turn helped them to learn about
Katie presented the university students with the rubric used to assess student
writing skills at the end of the year. As a part of their course assignments, these university
students were required to make comments on their first grade blogging buddy’s blog.
Katie hoped knowledge of specific goals and outcomes would enable the university
students to make knowledgeable and intelligent comments that would serve to reinforce
the learning taking place in the classroom. Perhaps that is exactly what happened, but
reading the post in Figure 1, one might have reason to believe a first grade student
Katie had further evidence this was a successful partnership when her students
began monitoring their own writing to produce the results brought up in the comments of
Today before we blogged I said, OK what are your blogging buddies looking for
in your writing? Because instead of saying, “What I am looking for?” it’s much
more powerful that they know, oh, there’s blogging buddies looking for this. They
quickly said, “Oh, they’re looking for periods. They’re looking for capitals letters.
They’re looking to see if we sounded out our words.” They knew. They just listed
off.
The interchange of blog comments between Australia, New Zealand, and Katie’s
class often provided rich, relevant learning opportunities. Students in Katie’s class were
able to learn about extraordinary topics such as volcanoes and sharks from students who
thought these were common, every day things. She recalled two incidents with kinder-
garten students from New Zealand. (See Figure 2.) Katie’s students had talked about
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volcanoes in class so they wrote about them in their blogs. The New Zealand students
wrote back to say they actually had a volcano near their school, and they could see it
spewing ash when it erupted. Katie described her students’ reaction as “over the wall.”
Katie’s students gained more than knowledge about two distinct things in nature. They
learned about differences in culture and geography from other first grade students who
Concerns
Giving first grade students access to the Internet can raise all types of concerns
with everyone involved: parents, teachers, and administrators (Boling, 2005b). For Katie,
the fact that the future is impossible to predict made it even more important that students
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are not only exposed to this digital culture, but are taught how to use it responsibly as
well.
I think that I have no idea what the world is going to be like by the time they
graduate. But without a doubt, the world is going to be continually more digital in
some way. Perhaps blogs won’t even be around by the time they graduate from
high school, but they may have morphed into something else. So I think we have
to give them that exposure to a constantly changing environment like the Internet
and teach them appropriate use of the tools, appropriate conduct online, starting at
a young age. I think that’s really important.
As part of this instructional strategy for using the Internet, students are only
allowed to use their first name. When pictures are posted, no name is visibly associated
with that picture. Katie will, however, give credit to the student who filmed the video or
took the picture. She also uses a blogging tool that allows her to moderate comments, to
approve or disapprove of them before they are publicly posted to the blog. Every student
blog post must also be approved before it is published to the blog. If students write a
comment which may be considered hurtful to another student, Katie will use that as a
While Katie understood the need for such precautions, she believed much of the
concern about child predators finding victims online is not as dangerous as another
I don’t know what the law is in the United States, but if you were in a public
place here, the newspaper could go and take your picture and get the name and
post it at anytime without your permission. So, who are the students more in
danger from? Someone who is in the same city, or someone who lives in
Timbuktu?
Overview
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Katie called herself a “very odd duck” for the fact she did not use technology
outside of the classroom applications. “I’m not a techie person.” Katie talked about how
The first year we did it, I didn’t put on any pictures or anything. I wrote. They
wrote. It wasn’t very interesting to look at all. And then the next year, I finally
figured out how to put pictures on. Then you learn new things as they come along.
Katie had several intentions for using blogs with her students, but making and
receiving comments was not one of those intentions. Commenting was another discovery
Initially I was just looking to get the kids’ stuff online. I didn’t even realize it
(the commenting feature) would be there to tell you the truth. But once I realized
it, then I realized what a powerful thing it was.
Katie did not anticipate how much her students would learn from their blogging buddies
by receiving comments. They learned about sharks and volcanoes from the New
Zealanders and a fire safety poem from students in Australia. All of this learning was like
a domino affect, leading to even more questions and continued exchanges of information.
Katie now expects this type of learning to happen simply because her students blog.
While Katie’s blog has transformed over time, she said her expectations have
always been exceeded. “It’s always just gone above; the results have been way beyond
what I expected could happen.” She gave the example of a wiki she created to collect
1,000 signatures. She wanted her students to get a visual representation of what 1,000
looked like. The students put their names on it. The parents put their names on it. Katie
wrote about it on the blog, and 21/2 months later, they had 1,000 signatures.
As an instructor, Katie felt the connections she made were a benefit. “It’s the
connections you make outside your classroom. You’re really inviting the world into your
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classroom to help you teach these kids; sort of sharing the burden.” She also felt this
connection was important to her students’ learning as well. “For the long term, I think it’s
really important for them to see the potential of how they can learn and how they can
By taking advantage of the complete blogging process where students are writing,
an audience is reading and commenting on their work, Katie believed her students felt
they were authentic writers which validated their work. “I think they’re much more
interested in writing and they’re much more aware of themselves as writers because they
As far as continuing to use blogs and wikis with her students, Katie left no doubt
that this practice would continue. “I can’t imagine doing this [teaching] without it.”
Mike
Mike was an elementary teacher for 18 years. At the time of this study, he was a
sheltered ELL class, Mike explained his class size was a bit smaller, allowing him more
time to focus on language development. Mike's school had a total student population of
510 with a low income rate of 40%. Located in the suburbs of a large Midwestern city,
Mike described his school as being "on the other side of the tracks. They're the mores and
we're the lesses on this side." This low income rate enabled his school to participate in the
Enhancing Education through Technology, E2T2, Grant. This grant provided his district
with technology hardware, software, and professional development. Mike served as the
lead teacher for the grant. His responsibilities included attending regional and state
trainings in order to provide in-house training for the teachers in his building. Mike also
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taught a graduate level class about using technology with ELL students for a local
university.
students.
When I want them to do a project and I kind of look at…is this the best way of
doing it? Or can they do it more efficiently or just as effectively? How can it be
useful? How can we get the kids more involved? Basically, what are the benefits?
He understood how the age of his third-grade students can place limitations on the
activities he designed. The typing ability of students, especially ELL students, can be
somewhat restrictive.
It takes a long time for them to type anything. Not just because they are ELL, just
this age. Being ELL does make it a little slower, but mostly because they have to
search for the letters all the time.
Mike considered this factor when he designed his blog to be a class blog that did not
While Mike's school district provided professional development for its teachers,
his first exposure to blogs was at a mini-conference. Mike immediately saw a way to use
his students' excitement about technology and his goal to improve their literacy in a
Because anything on the computer, my kids, they go nuts. They love it. So,
getting them on there, and I write the posts. They're reading it. They'll sit there
and read that before they read a book. So it's a chance to get them reading
something.
The blog also offered an opportunity for his students to post positive reinforce-
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ment of their peers' accomplishments. This is quite visible in the students’ responses to
Mike's posts. After posting congratulatory remarks to several students for passing their
daily math test, Grace was one of three students to post similar remarks to her peers. She
wrote, "I am passing every day. Daria is passing every day. I want everybody to pass on
Friday."
Another function of the blog was to communicate with his students when he was
not in the classroom. As a trainer and the lead teacher for the E2T2 Grant, Mike often
missed school for professional development. Not only did he catch up on what was going
on in the class, his posts offered an opportunity to share information about his location.
While attending a workshop in Springfield, Mike uploaded some pictures of the state
capitol to his blog. He asked the students questions about some of the photos. A link to
information that would lead to the answer was included. Students would then post their
After blogging for about a year, Mike also started using wikis with his students.
As part of their E2T2 grant training, teachers created a technology project that aligned
with the Illinois Teaching Standards as well and the International Society for Technology
teacher in his building to design a wiki. Mike’s third-grade students served as “language
coaches” for these first-grade writers, helping them to make corrections, leave a
“It gives my kids a chance to edit the first-grade posts and actually know what
some of the mistakes are. They get to be the language coaches in this situation.” By
serving as the language coaches for first-grade students, Mike’s ELL class had an oppor-
tunity to learn grammar through error analysis in a meaningful way (Gilbert, Goldstein,
Jacobs, & Winn-Bell Olsen, 1997) and gain confidence in their second language abilities.
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A second wiki enabled Mike’s students to collaborate on various writing activities.
Through this partnership, students worked together to create, edit, and revise content.
In this case, they are collaborating as peers and creating meaning and under-
standing together. Since their language proficiencies are closer, they are working
in their ZPD, zone of proximal development, from Vygotsky or their l+1 from
Stephen Krashen. This is just beyond their proficiency level, so they are learning
something new because it's not totally a foreign concept. So, a student may learn
something about putting in periods to break up a long sentence, because they
already know that a period ends a sentence and a sentence is a thought. If a peer
shows them a run-on sentence and shows them how it's two thoughts, learning
takes place.
While Mike’s primary tool of choice was the blog, he used a wiki to provide other
opportunities for his students: collaboration, reflection, as well as practice and application
of their second language. As with blogging, time and scheduling were issues for Mike, so
the wikis were not as developed as he wanted them to be. He was not satisfied with the
amount of writing his students did and hoped to see both the amount of writing and the
I do the posts and give them in the morning when they first come in. They've got
seven computers set up that can access it. So they can come in. They can read the
posts, read comments, and like I said on the introduction to mine: It's just a blog
for my class of third graders. I'll celebrate their accomplishments and brag about
them. So just a place where I can kind of encourage them, and they're actually
reading, responding, leaving comments back. So, it's literacy, and just a place to
pump them up a little bit.
Student Preparation
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Commenting is a unique feature associated with blogs. Posting a comment to a
public blog essentially invites anyone in the world to make a comment. For Mike, this
was considered a significant reason for utilizing student blogs. He used this aspect as a
motivational factor for students to do their best writing. Mike discussed what it meant to
We talk about this. This is out there. The world can see it, so you want to do your
best. Before you put it up there, you’re going to want to do everything to make it
as correct as you know how.
Student Impact
Mike found increased student motivation to be primary factor that impacted his
students. He found they were more likely to read the blog than read a book. Students
would also endeavor to read more difficult passages when reading text on the screen. “If
it’s on the computer, they will attempt to read things they wouldn’t read in a book.”
Students were excited to see their name on the blog and read what Mike and their
classmates would say about them. This enthusiasm helped to push students beyond the
Mike used his blog as a means to encourage and promote student learning. He
These types of posts served as a model for his students. They soon began encouraging
Concerns
Mike did not indicate he provided direct instruction about online safety, yet he did
express a concern about exposure to inappropriate comments. While his blog was public,
he alone had the ability to create and post original content. The students provided input
through the commenting feature. Every comment had to be approved by Mike before it
was posted to the blog. This assured no inappropriate messages were ever made public.
It may be the only contact with a computer they have, really. So I want them using
it as much as possible, for as many different things as possible. This is one of the
new things on the Internet, so even if they’re not posting a lot, just leaving
comments, they’re at least experiencing it a little bit. It’s exposure for them.
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Knowing students had limited access at home, also limited the way Mike used the blog. If
he knew more parents could see it, he would use it as a communication and support tool
as well; informing parents of classroom events and providing instructional support links
to online resources. I could do blog posts daily, but they could only see them in school.
Just finding the time to get them to the computers to read and comment is a challenge.
Future Uses
Mike expressed a desire to do more with wikis with the intent of having his
students create more of the content. He tossed around ideas to do book reviews or have a
class Wikipedia. As he made possible suggestions, the subject of access came up again.
“With my class too, I’m thinking since a lot of them don’t have access at home, even just
to a computer, anything that they can do with a computer now is just going to help them.”
Summary
Increased opportunities to write were vital for Mike’s third-grade ELL students.
Mike used both blogs and wikis to present multiple means for his students to engage with
the English language. Varying student schedules and difficulty in keyboarding were sig-
nificant factors in Mike’s determination to only allow student input through comments.
supporting first-graders as they edited their work on a class wiki. This collaborative effort
helped Mike’s students apply their skills and gain a sense of empowerment by assisting
younger, less capable students. An additional wiki enabled Mike’s class to collaborate on
various writing projects. Mike felt the peer editing process and occasional group
conferencing with him created additional methods for practice, support, application of
initial intent. “I like it for my original purpose, just to kind of brag about them and
encourage them, and communicate when I’m gone.” It is interesting to note that Mike is
still assessing and reflecting on his intent. “So it's kind of an experiment. I'm still trying
to figure out a good and a better way of using it. I think that the benefits are there; the
factor; one which he felt had not been achieved. “I didn’t do as much as I should have. I
need to make sure that we are writing more. As Jason Ohler said, ‘When they write, they
Grant
Over the course of Grant’s 17-year career as an educator, he has taught every
grade from first through fifth and served as a staff developer. At the time of this
interview, Grant had been in a fifth-grade position for 3 years. A P-5 building located in a
northeast suburb of New York, NY, Grant’s school was one of four in the district and had
a student population of 620 students. Grant described the local area as being very diverse.
“We definitely have two sides of the track in our district; a wealthy side of town and a
not-so-wealthy side.” Thirty to 40% of the student population was designated as ESL,
and 20% receive Free and Reduced Lunch services. Grant is also an award recipient for
teacher. Theories he formed about student learning applied to his current students.
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I used to teach first grade and I often go back to that experience, because I learned
pretty quickly that if I can get the kids together, talking together, socializing in
cooperative groups, whatever you want to call it, things worked out better.
Grant saw blogs as “a natural extension” of the benefit students experience through
collaboration and cooperation. His choice of how and when to use technology, was based
on the potential for such connections. “Ultimately I think the tools that really grab me are
the ones that can make connections between kids and that they can share things among
themselves.”
The majority of content found on the main page of Grant’s class blog portal was
intentionally stagnant. It provided information about classes that collaborated with his
students, books read in class, directions about posting a comment, online safety, teacher
assignments and links to individual student blogs. Grant, another self-taught educational
blogger, first became aware of blogs and wikis online as he watched how they were being
used by other teachers. In his analysis, he determined much of the material on class blogs
was classroom-based and difficult for an outside party to understand. Then he came
blogger. Her students were blogging about the news Grant saw that as a viable solution
Grant considered the news a universal topic. He hoped the fact that more people
could identify with the news would spark the general public’s interest and facilitate its
ability to comment on the students’ writing. This led to one of multiple uses for his blog,
student posts about the news. Because Grant found it difficult for all his students to
access one of the four classroom computers, the class usually completed their blog post
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about the news once a week in the computer lab. Another purpose for the blog was to
display student compositions for formal writing assignments. Most of the time these
pieces were submitted electronically; however, the pioneer journal entries were
Yet another type of writing found on student blogs was self-initiated student writing
projects. These projects came in various forms, but were more likely to be a script for an
post a review of a book they had read. As students prepared to go to the library, they
could go through the reviews to find a book they someone had recommended. Fifth grade
students also posted responses to prompts about books assigned in class; all with the
intent for students to write about their reading. Unlike the class blog, this was not public
public blog essentially invites anyone in the world to make a comment. For Grant, it
appeared to be an essential reason to use blogs with his students: “If I didn’t have other
classrooms commenting to the work they’re doing, then I probably wouldn’t be doing it.”
Grant utilized the analogy of using a fishing worm as bait with his students. He explained
that a post is like a worm. It must be fat and juicy in order to lure the audience into
making a comment.
Collaboration was also an important consideration for Grant. “Whatever helps the
kids correspond with each other; collaborate and communicate with each other; I think
that helps. Blogs for me were just a natural extension of that.” It is interesting to note that
the importance of collaboration extends to his profession as an educator as well. This was
evident as Grant explained the reason he continued to use the same blogging tool, even
though others had more advanced features, was due to the strong user support forum. As
a member of several networks, Grant felt he knew the educators with whom he
an audience other than the classroom teacher, their peers, or parents, a feature Grant
found valuable. So valuable in fact, Grant often searched for other schools with which to
exchange comments. Grant would have his students comment on the blogs of other
You’ve got to work really hard to set up connections to other classrooms so you
can get a tangible audience going. If you don’t, the kids right away are not going
to see the point. It’s going to be like a fancy bulletin board.
Student Preparation
Grant’s strategy to prepare his students to use blogs was more about the purpose
than the tool. Since the students were writing a review of a news article or event, Grant
writing technique, how to construct a meaningful comment. Grant used an actual com-
ment made to a student blog as a model. During this weekly activity, the class discussed
the effectiveness of the comment, and how they might apply the writer’s techniques to
audience, Grant talked about the impression this would make on the readers. “We talk
about that it’s going to have a greater audience; to make sure that you proofread your
work.” Grant also had discussion with his class about the differences between more
formal writing, and the informal writing style many of his students used, Internet
Messaging, IM. “Just talking about this is a formal type of writing that people are going
Grant witnessed some positive changes in student writing. Some students found
blogging to be more engaging, which motivated them to write more. Some students
gained an increased ability to target that writing toward a specific audience. Yet Grant
It’s still up in the air for me whether it actually improves their writing. Gosh, what
I really should be doing this for is to help them get to be better writers really, and
I’m not quite sure about that.
Grant was another participant in search of proof that might substantiate the supposition
that blogs had a positive impact on student writing. He was currently working on a
An authentic audience proved to be motivating for this fifth grade class. Grant
described a reaction from a student when he realized just how far away his work was
being read. “I had this boy Jason, and he just turned around from his computer and said,
‘Man! People from China are reading my stuff!’” Yet Grant does not believe this enthusi-
asm is shared by all of his students. From his observations, Grant felt his stronger writers
“naturally gravitated” toward blogging; while those who ”struggled” were aware of their
weakness and hesitant to make their work visible to the public. Grant hoped his research
would reveal tangible evidence to indicate whether or not blogging for a global audience
Overview
Before using blogs, Grant had attempted to provide an outlet for his student work
by posting their projects on a Webpage. He even went to the trouble of first creating an
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email link and later a discussion board link to provide a method for commenting on each
I was spending a lot of time, these were first graders too, digitizing their work,
putting it up there, and manually trying to put in the email links; underneath each
work there was an email link under it so anybody that came and visited, parents in
particular at that point, could email a link. I would copy and paste those
comments underneath the work.
When blogging tools finally appeared that enabled him to moderate any comment made
to a student’s blog, Grant found a tool that matched his goal of providing his students
with an authentic, participatory audience and his need to keep students safe online.
student posts about self-selected news articles. A third option for posting was also
projects. Students often chose to complete one of these projects on their own time. In
order to publish their work on the blog, they had to go through the formal writing process
After their work was published, some students took it to another level. They
turned their piece into a script; practiced the part with their friends during recess or lunch;
and then videotaped their play. Students then took the video and embedded it into the
blog post with their writing project. “I’ve always had writing projects, but it’s never taken
off because we didn’t have this publishing forum…They get so charged about it.” It was
these self-selected writing pieces that gave students the freedom to choose, ensuring that
they read and/or wrote about a topic of interest to them. (See Figure 7.)
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Grant had many questions about the value of blogging with students. “I still don’t
know whether it’s worth all the work, to be honest. I think the kids enjoy it. But it takes a
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lot of instructional time, and it’s not something I’m held accountable for.” Part of his
concern was based on the fact other fifth-grade teachers were not blogging with their
I’m doing that, and the other fifth grade classrooms are doing something else. I
assume they’re doing something about the mandated curriculum that I’m not
doing. I can make the argument that hopefully it is helping them write, think, and
read.
Yet he continued to be pleased by his students’ enthusiasm when they received comments
on their work, and their excitement about the connections and collaboration they had with
Further doubt came after reading the post of Will Richardson, an educational
blogger that Grant followed. Richardson was looking for examples of posts where
students connected to what they were reading by discussing that author’s work in their
own blog. This was not a skill Grant thought his students could demonstrate. “My kids do
not do that. They write in an isolated lab or classroom. They’re putting it out there and if
they’re lucky they get a comment back from one of these kids that we’ve set up.” It is
interesting to note that one of Grant’s students’ posts about the news (See Figure 8.)
caught the attention of junior high class somewhere in cyberspace. (See Figure 9.)
Figure 9. Screen shot from a junior high class blog in reference to Kitty’s post
action research study to find some quantitative evidence of the effect blogging had on
student writing. Perhaps Grant will find some of the answers he is seeking to support a
practice he felt he could rationalize, “I think in my mind that I can rationalize spending
the time with the kids doing this;” but had difficulty justifying.
Rita
suburban district of Atlanta. She described her class of 24 students as very diverse. At the
time of this study, Rita also served as the “blogging” teacher for the other two fifth grades
in her building. A rotation cycle was established, and science and social studies were taught
to Rita’s class by the other instructors. In 6 years of teaching, Rita had completed both her
Masters and Specialist degree in Education. Rita explained a specialist degree was the
equivalent of having all the course work done for a terminal degree in education.
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Determination to Use Technology
Rita was a unique participant. As with all the other participants in this study, she
was a regular classroom teacher. However, she also assumed the responsibility for
teaching a class devoted to using blogs for the other two fifth-grade classes. Rita’s
determination to use technology is fundamentally based on her preparations for this class.
I think it’s a matter of planning what kind of lesson I’m going to do and what kind
of standards I’m going to incorporate. With blogging, it’s just how far can I go?
There are so many things out there I can do.
Rita was influenced by the work of Anne Davis, an educational blogger, but in a
much more personal way (http://anne.teachesme.com). Davis had actually done some
student blogging projects with Rita’s class the previous year. When Davis went on to
other ventures, Rita decided to continue the work Davis had started. Only this time, all
fifth-grade students would be involved as Rita took on the roll of blogging instructor.
Students from the three classes were placed on a rotating schedule and met with Rita two
times a week. In order for this to work, Rita’s regular classroom students received
instruction in science and social studies from the other fifth-grade teachers. As the
students now came more often, Rita had to expand some of Davis’ previous ideas.
One factor that increased the popularity of blogs was the simplicity of use; knowl-
edge of html coding language was no longer necessary to post information, graphics, and
hyperlinks to the Internet (Blood, 2002). Yet one still has to know procedures for
accomplishing these tasks, even if it was only a matter of knowing which buttons to push.
Specific time scheduled for blogging instruction, enabled Rita to instruct her students on
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the features of their blogging tool, plus wide variety of techniques and procedures to
A single blog served as the portal for the all three fifth-grade classes. Rita kept the
audience informed about the blogging topics in her posts located on the main page of the
blog. Links to individual student blogs, recent comments, archived posts, other classes
who read and commented on their blogs, and current event resources were also available
Rita saw this as an excellent opportunity to reinforce the skills and expand on
some of the topics that were covered in the other subject areas. Blog prompts were
designed for students to apply skills in a more creative manner. For example, students
drew geometric shapes and asked their classmates to find the area. While completing this
task, students also learned how to insert and manipulate a graphic. (See Figure 10.)
Students also practiced the skill of “true blogging.” They first read another student
blog they found interesting. Then they hyperlinked to the original post in their blog and
Figure 10. A student post and comments for the area of a geometric figure
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Rita had a specific intent for a specific event; an intent that served a dual purpose.
First, Rita was looking for a way to enhance their writing curriculum and make it more
relevant for the students. “My biggest goal, my biggest hope for this was to reinforce
things we were learning in the regular classroom but in an innovative way.” Second, Rita
wanted students to have the opportunity to review and extend concepts covered in other
content areas.
Writing was the fundamental premise for using blogs with Rita’s fifth-grade
essay, was very “formulated and rigid.” She saw blogs as a way to apply writing skills
learned in the regular classroom in an innovative and creative way. “Overall I wanted it to
be an exciting way for us to review things we were learning in the classroom and go
deeper with.” Rita considered blogs to be a bridge between knowledge students acquired
about the formal writing process and the application of that knowledge to the more
engaging writing form of blogging; a process she was certain would improve student
writing.
Rita viewed blogs as a means to make writing relevant to her students. She
believed blogs had the potential to create opportunities to apply writing to “real-life
situations.” All student posts were written in response to a prompt or topic, yet these
assignments allowed for degrees of student choice and opportunities to relate to personal
content areas; such as their reaction to a movie about the peril of our planet, a plan to
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conserve water, the description and properties of a geometric shape, or analogies. Many
posts involved the use of student created graphics or the manipulation of existing
Student Preparation
Rita found the relaxed atmosphere of the computer lab often resulted in “lazy
speech,” such as using slang words or inserting emoticons. She felt these might even be
behaviors they had acquired from using computers at home. Rita stressed the fact the
blogging class had the same high expectations of the more formal style of writing used in
Student Impact
Personal blogs enabled these fifth-grade students to invite other members of the
audience to share their perspectives on topics or projects the students wrote about on their
Rita’s word for the impact of authentic audience on her students was ownership.
“There’s a little bit more ownership because they know so many people can read their
work, and the feedback they get.” There was a sense that students wanted to “show off”
their work in the hopes of soliciting more comments. This spurred a higher student
interest, which Rita believed motivated them to demonstrate what they knew.
Rita also felt blogging gave a voice to students who were hesitant to speak up in
the regular classroom, a fact that was not missed by the other fifth grade teachers who
worked with these students. “In particular, students that maybe in the regular classroom
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are very reserved or low performing, we have seen some students like that who have
Overview
In essence, Anne Davis served as a mentor for Rita. Davis would come at
scheduled times during the week to work with Rita’s class. Rita chose to continue this
practice of teaching and learning centered on blogging and how it could support other
educational topics. This created a unique environment, one very different from the
students’ other scheduled classes. Their physical surroundings were different and so was
their task. “They’re not just writing on paper and turning it in, and then they get a grade,
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and that’s kind of the end of it. What they put on their blog is there for everyone to see
possible to establish a blogging class. If the same opportunity did not exist next year, Rita
planned to continue using blogs in her classroom, but she would focus their use in
language arts.
Students were not the only ones to benefit from using blogs. Despite the challenge
of being “one step ahead of the kids,” Rita also saw a personal benefit in using blogs with
her students.
This instructor saw value in this tool for all parties involved.
Evan
Evan, a 14-year veteran, was the eighth-grade American History teacher for a
Midwestern junior high which housed 700 students in grades 8 and 9. As a suburb of
Kansas City, MO, this upper-class suburban area was growing at such a rapid rate, it was
difficult to build schools fast enough. Evan’s class size ranged from 23 to 30 students per
class. Evan had also conducted workshops and presented at local and national
teaching a masters level class, Technology for the Classroom, both face-to-face and
online. Evan also earned the honor of teacher of the year for his state.
response was simple.“It comes down to when I can get access for them on the computer.”
Several stationary and mobile computer labs were available, but they still required
advance scheduling and planning due to heavy usage. A one-to-one student to computer
As I tell a lot of people, if they would give me one-to-one computers, that would
dramatically change my curriculum. If you want to set me loose, give everyone of
my students a computer they can take home every day. We’ll be able to get a lot
more done. We’ll be more efficient and we’ll get more actual education done.
When and if that happens, it will change my curriculum a lot…If I had one-to-
one, I wouldn’t use the textbook. I would have enough resources available, at my
disposal; just through government sites and different sites. I wouldn’t need the
textbook at all. The only thing a textbook is for me right now is an anchor that
kids can take home.
Evan anticipated that when the new high school was built, it would be a one-to-one
environment and this initiative would eventually trickle down to the junior high.
Evan is another teacher who was impressed by the words of David Warlick, an
speak at a conference, Evan read Warlick’s book and followed his blog. Warlick posted
notes and slides from all his presentations on his blog and journaled about the experience.
Evan was impressed that he could “keep track” of what Warlick was doing without
actually being present. This sparked Evan’s interest and he began to experiment with
Most of what I do with Web 2.0 has been self-taught; just experimenting and
reading. That’s a big thing that Will Richardson talks about too; learning the tools.
It’s a lot easier now to walk into a workshop and learn about blogging or
podcasting than it was 31/2 years ago. There weren’t very many people teaching it.
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There weren’t very many people doing it. Most of the blogging and podcasting
has been self-taught, experiment, trial and error; things work or don’t work.
For the last 2 years, Evan has maintained a collaborative book blog on an
historical fiction novel for young adults. This included an open invitation for any school
in the world to join the blog and participate in the 4-week project. There are, however, a
few factors that make this project quite unique from other similar projects. First, the
author of the novel was an active participant in the blog. She moderated comments from
the participants and asked some very deep and probing questions as well. (See Figure 12.)
She also answered questions about her writing: how she decided on the characters
she used; how much was factual; how much was fictional; and whether or not there would
be a sequel. Second, the novel took place during a time period that was a required topic in
the curriculum; an important consideration for Evan. Third, the setting for these actual
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events was the town where the school was located; an opportunity for Evan’s students to
Evan received a grant to purchase 350 books, one for every student in the school
and a few copies that could be checked out by parents and other community members.
Three or four questions were posted each week. Students were only required to comment
on two of these posts any time during the project, but they were free to comment more
often and ask questions of the author. Evan also posted other content that was pertinent to
the historical events in the novel: video clips, other websites, and podcasts done by the
author. As a culminating activity, each student was required to produce a final product in
the form of a movie poster, an alternate ending to the story, an alternate book jacket, an
interview with one of the characters, or a poem. These were also posted on the blog and
As a sustained silent reading activity, students read every day for 20 minutes. In
an effort to create an opportunity for his students to talk about the books they read, Evan
built a different type of book blog for students. Once every 2 weeks, students could
submit a book review and rating of a novel they had read recently. (See Figure 13.) Any
student in the school could then view these reviews and submit one of their own.
What I used to do is put a bulletin board up in the back of my room. But now it’s
in a place where you can be in the library and check it out. You could be at home.
Other people beyond just my students can look at it if they wanted to see some
suggestions for eighth grade reading. I think a lot of times adults try to push books
on eighth grade readers. This is a way for eighth graders to tell other eighth
graders what they liked or didn’t like about books.
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Intent or Purpose for Using Blogs and/or Wikis
Evan had a specific intent for a specific event. Evan needed a physical place where
over 300 students, some in a different time zone or hemisphere, could share in a conversa-
tion and exploration of an historical novel with the author; “a virtual space where you’re
not limited by the confinements of physicalness or time.” His students interacted with other
participating classes from across the nation, as well as with the other 300 fifth-graders in
Evan’s school. Technology was the vehicle students used to share ideas, discuss concepts,
Student Preparation
Internet messaging (IM) was the by-product of a need for economy; to converse
rapidly using text, rather than voice, with the popularity of digital communication
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(Shortis, 2007). Teachers soon became anxious about the invasion of IM into more formal
English and language arts classes (Howard & Monfils, 2007; Ross, 2007; Roussin, 2008).
This too was a concern for Evan. He spent time to address the need and purpose for
I think students today have more of a variety of languages they use. They have
their IM language, and they have their verbal language when they’re in the
hallway with each other. Then they’re supposed to have formal language that they
use when they write their term papers and things. Just kind of talking about
audience; we’re not going to be talking in IM. We’re actually going to use full
word and sentences and things like that. I think that’s a big part of it. Just talking
about this is a formal type of writing that people are going to see and judge you
on based on how you write.
sional blog, Evan understood the far-reaching capabilities of a blog and the impact a
public audience can have on you as a person and author. He considered it important for
Part of it is having the students understand that what they post is going to be
global and try and do the best work possible, because they know that it’s not just
going to be Mr. Evan reading it; it’s going to be possibly thousands of people. I
think that that increases their desire to write better when they know they’re going
to have a larger audience.
Student Impact
“Blogging is writing.” For Evan, there was an obvious connection between a Web
2.0 tool and a task performed by every K-12 student. Even before Evan introduced his
class to blogging, writing was a prominent element in his classroom. Evan indicated there
was however a difference in the way writing was evaluated and discussed.
In some cases, they might have been writing the same amount, but it’s not being
read the same. It’s not being discussed the same. I probably didn’t do as much of a
quality job of giving feedback. It’s a lot richer type of writing now than it would
have been before.
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Evan also utilized a mentor in his book blog project; the actual author of the novel
being discussed through the blog. Evan’s mentor did more than just communicate with
students through comments. She served as Evan’s partner, posting and answering
questions, as well as moderating and facilitating comments. Evan found the author’s
participation in the blog to be a valuable asset. “I know some students wrote more in
comments or corresponded with the author more than they would have if they just would
have read the book traditionally.” This type of interaction would not have been possible
Evan concluded his students were motivated to write more accurately due to the
fact their work was now visible to a larger, more global audience. “I think it increases
their desire to write better when they know they’re going to have a larger audience.”
Knowing the novel’s author was as a participating audience member motivated some
students to actually write longer posts than they did for other occasions.
Perhaps the factor which had the greatest impact on the students was the removal
of the barriers of time and space. Students who were more reserved and reluctant to speak
in class were no longer contained by four walls with all eyes on them.
I definitely saw that some students were able to have more of a discussion online
than they would in a physical classroom by raising their hand and speaking in
front of the class. They had a voice they don’t necessarily have in a traditional
classroom… For such students, it seems like a dichotomy, there’s more freedom
posting to the blog than there is to raise your hand in class.
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They were free to think, write, and edit until they were satisfied with their work before
they had to make it public. As for time, students no longer had to wait for a specific
period of the day to ask a question or share a thought. As soon as a student had a
spontaneous or creative idea, he could write a post or comment on the blog, extending the
Concerns
Evan reiterated the concern of many classroom teachers, that of Internet safety. To
combat that problem, he used controlled measures. Evan and the author served as the
gateway to the blog. They approved comments before they were ever made public. Evan
did not allow students to even use their first name and required them to use a pseudonym.
Everything is filtered when I do the book blog through me. It’s approved or
disapproved through me. Nothing is posted without my approval. I eliminate the
safety issues. I think the issue with blogs is: how do I make it secure so it’s not
open to people who would use it for the wrong things.
Evan conveyed the purpose for the blog is the discussion, and not simply for students to
see their names in print. “It’s not about the name of the person. It’s about the actual
discussion.”
Access to technology is also a concern for Evan. He does not have the desired
level of access at school, and he is also unsure of the students’ accessibility at home.
Overview
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Evan gained first-hand experience with blogs by maintaining a professional blog.
Evan saw the opportunity to collaborate with teachers from around the world as a benefit
and considered it his “personal learning community.” Evan extended the importance of
collaboration onto his student blog projects: other schools could participate in the
collaborative book blog and any student in the school could submit a book review for the
library blog.
environment, as blogs were not the only form of technology Evan uses with his students.
He also used podcasting and digital stories to enhance his curriculum and student
learning. In addition, Evan served as an example and mentor for other educational
bloggers. All of his conference presentations as well as his classroom materials were
posted on line via his professional blog. Many of these had an accompanying podcast
The cornerstone of Evan’s blog projects was the collaborative book blog. Evan
searched for 3 or 4 years before he found a book that met his criteria of relevance to the
curriculum. The book he ultimately found not only was directly related to the social
studies curriculum, this piece of historical fiction actually took place in the city in which
the school is located. As an additional element of relevance, the book’s author was an
active participant in the book blog. Students interacted directly with the author; asked
questions of the author; responded to questions posed by the author; while the author also
commented on the students’ blog posts. Direct contact with the author helped students to
deepen their understanding of the historical events as well as the author’s intent for
writing the story. This connection also afforded them the opportunity to gain an
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understanding of how an expert in the field works. Using a tool such as a blog facilitated
Donna
Donna was a high school science teacher for 28 years. At the time of this study,
she taught anatomy/physiology and advanced placement, AP, biology to 110 students.
Her high school, located in a Midwestern city, had a student population of 1,500 students
and had recently attained a low income rate of 40%. She served as a district technology
trainer, as well as a trainer for the Technology Feast, a week-long technology summer
camp for K-12 teachers. Donna had also been awarded Technology Teacher of the Year
Donna's determination factors were centered on the students and making learning
I'm looking for ways to make the curriculum relevant; tied to some of the issues
the kids are facing. If it helps kids learn the material, or expands their knowledge,
or prepares them for the real world, and it's related to technology, you know I look
for it. I use it.
project she was conducting. She found evidence that supported the impact audience can
have on student writing. “The research that I did indicated that kids tended to write better,
and do a better job when they know more than just the classroom teacher is going to read
their response.”
2cents). She was moved by the ideas she heard at the conference. "I mean I was so, I
mean just awed by that man [Will Richardson (2006)]. The fact that his students studied
the Secret Live of Bees with the author of the book, it brought the world into the
classroom!"
Donna created one class blog. However, she utilized the same blog for two indi-
vidual projects which were modifications of previous assignments that did not involve
this type of technology. The first centered on Taylor's story. Taylor was a high school
student who committed suicide while attempting to stop using steroids. Students
researched the effect of steroids on the human body. Facts found to be questionable were
substantiated or refuted by other sources. In addition, they created action plans which
might enable schools, communities and families to help prevent steroid use by high
school students.
The second project involved the Kennewick Man, a 9,000 year old skeleton. A
debate raged between Native American tribes and scientists over the ownership of the
remains. Scientists wanted to study the remains, while the Native Americans wanted them
to be repatriated. Students studied both sides of the argument. They then selected a
position, supported by at least three pieces of data. This topic was even more relevant as
Native American skulls and artifacts had been found in a local attic the previous summer.
Students were able to compare and contrast how these incidents were resolved.
For Donna, helping students to understand the significance of being well informed
controversial topics. “I wanted to focus in on issues that were open ended. There was no
right or wrong answer. I didn't want them to think that they could just give me what they
thought I wanted.” Students were expected to study an issue from multiple perspectives
before they determined which side of the issue they supported. Problem-based activities
required students to investigate truths and myths about steroid use to generate possible
ideas to assist schools, communities and/or parents to stop the use of steroids by high
Student Impact
Donna, who had conducted the same project with paper and pencil, said there was
a definite improvement in the quality of writing done on the student blogs. She felt
students did a better job of supporting their arguments, because they were reading the
posts from other classmates. In addition, knowledge of arguments and suppositions made
writing. Donna recently conducted some action research on student writing. In her review
of the literature, Donna found an audience other than that of the classroom teacher did
help to improve student writing. She was using blogs in an effort to find evidence that
I mean, one in five kids are solicited by some kind of a predator when they're
online. That concerns me. I mean I don't have a problem with teaching kids how
to be safe and all of that stuff. I just don't want that exposure to occur because
they've worked on a project for me. I couldn't live with that.
To address this concern, Donna’s class analyzed several articles about Internet
predators and other online safety issues. Together the class formulated a “Safe Blogging
Policy” which was signed by every student. All other participants, except for Mike,
instructed their students about online safety issues. Some allowed their students to use
their first name only, while others required students to use a pseudonym.
Donna was also very apprehensive about the freedom her students would have to
post comments in a public environment such as a blog. “It is a risk doing a technology
project with kids the first time because you don’t' know, I mean they're teenagers. God
only knows what they're going to come up with sometimes.” The blogging tool Donna
used does allow comment moderation, but this feature would only work as a class blog;
Setting up individual student blogs using this particular blogging tool was another
concern. Donna had received some spam directly related to a blog post using the word,
I didn't want to expose kids to other inappropriate emails and responses from
people and stuff too. With Blogger, if you post it to Blogger, you run that risk. It's
just like what I got with the steroids posting. I wasn't ready for that.
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These concerns have prompted Donna to consider using Moodle, a content management
system, in order to be able to control outside access. As a result, her blog is no longer
Overview
This was the first time Donna used blogs with her students, and she considered it
“an experiment.” This project was related to some action research she was doing for her
Masters degree, looking at the impact of blogs on reading scores. However, bad weather
conditions forced schools to cancel classes several times. This in turn impacted her
teaching schedule as she had to make adjustments for the lost time, coupled with the fact
she started mid-year. Because of these factors, Donna felt the implementation of her blog
She relied heavily on information acquired from her review of the literature when
deciding to use blogs with her students. “I spent a lot of time researching the connection
between writing and reading and thinking. It [blogging] brings together those three.” Her
research on writing also added credence to using a blog for its ability to provide an
additional audience.
Because in my research, one of the important things that research was showing is
that kids tended to do better with their writing if they know more than just the class-
room teacher was going to read it. That's one of the reasons I went with a public.
At the time of this study, this blog was public, but no outside comments were made from
the available world-wide public audience. The only other persons reading the students’
work were their peers. Donna indicated this was enough of a change, from teacher as the
sole audience, to have some positive impact on their writing and class discussions.
Jeff
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Jeff was a high school English teacher with 23 years of experience. He taught two
classes: a typical sophomore English class and a "skills level" sophomore English class.
Most of the students in the skills level class were instructional learning disabled, LD,
students, many of whom had multiple handicaps. This was a suburban high school with a
student population of 3,200. One of two campuses, Jeff described it as a middle class,
consultant for two periods a day. His duties included assisting other teachers in the use of
technology. Jeff also acted as the cooperative education trainer for his building, presented
at state and national technology conferences, and had been recognized by the educational
blogging community.
Jeff's determination for technology use was based on the curriculum, not the tool.
According to Jeff, technology should not be used for the sake of using technology. It
reason for the use of technology, Jeff felt this helped the students acquire a deeper
Collaborative learning was the key factor in choosing a wiki as the tool for Jeff’s
Going back with collaboration, the idea of negotiating meaning and working;
going back and forth to add; to get kids to read and critique and go back and
modify; I think this is a huge skill. Can you do that on paper and pencil? Sort of,
but this is one case where the ability to make a clean delete and start over, and
have multiple people be able to edit the same item; I think this is very valuable.
other participants in this study, Jeff did not see an immediate use for these tools.
To be honest with you, I really didn't see the draw. I didn't see what the catch was.
I didn't get it. And until I could wrap it around something that my students could
use, then I'll make the decision on that. Now that part, I finally figured it out.
English. Students read self-selected books in groups of three or four. Jeff felt his students
merely "jumped through the hoops" and did not gain anything from the process. Rather
than having typical group discussions associated with this method, Jeff created an individ-
ual wiki for each of the novels. Students in each group worked to create a study guide
similar to CliffNotes or SparkNotes for their novel. As a class, they analyzed the structure
of this type of study guide to determine what information was critical to someone who was
unfamiliar with a particular novel. The wiki served as a collaborative work space for
students to create and build their resource. At the end of the term, students took a test on
one of the novels they had not read using the collaboratively created wiki as a resource. To
add to the complexity, it had to be created in a different class than the one they attended.
In a different and relatively new venture, Jeff created a blog for each student.
These blogs resembled an electronic journal and acted as a private communication tool
between Jeff and each individual student. This blog served a dual purpose as students
were allowed to post drafts of essay questions from the final test for feedback from Jeff.
In the past, Jeff’s tests had been open book, and the students could take them home
overnight. This time, the students were presented with the test questions the day they
his students to support the learning of their classmates. Their task was to build a resource
to be used by other students in that course, and not necessarily the same class.
If they can create text that their peers can use, not just be entertained by, but to
use… “I’m going to be better off; I need to listen to you.” All of a sudden that
makes the creator of that text much more accountable and more powerful and
more, “I better be sure about what I’m doing because I’m being held to
something. I’m not just doing it for the teacher.”
A wiki was used as the writing space where students could collaborate to create content.
Students negotiated meaning; read and critiqued each other’s work; and modified content
Student Preparation
anyone can add content and anyone can edit content that has already been published”
(Richardson, 2003, p. 8). When multiple students collaborate to create a final product,
this can perpetuate concerns regarding accountability. Jeff understood the difference
The theory is you create this place for a kid to create his document, and every-
thing works out wonderfully, and everyone participates, and everybody edits. The
reality is you’re going to have one kid who does nine tenths of the work; two or
three kids who don’t do anything; and one kid who does a meager output on a
couple of things. Kids are afraid to edit each other. Because you put that on there,
who am I to change what you put on there?
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To address this reality, Jeff assigned revision roles to each student in a group working on
that wiki. In essence this gave each group member a license to change someone else’s
work without creating a sense of guilt for the editor or embarrassment for the author. This
also helped to establish a sense of group ownership for the wiki and not ownership of
individually contributed content. Jeff felt providing revision roles and other assigned
duties created a vested interest for students and ensured a higher quality of work.
Audience awareness was still a factor even though Jeff’s students did not create a
wiki for the general public. Since these products were intended to be used by students in
other classes for their exam, the audience was in essence their local high school peers.
This explicit purpose for the wiki created a specific, targeted audience, and helped to
To write for the world wide world is easy because the world is anonymous. If
you’re writing to a specific person or a specific group of 10 people, you need to
be much more careful. Those people can confront you and can question you and
are relying on your wisdom for whatever you’re doing to steer them the right way.
If you’re writing to the whole world, you can assume that maybe no one is ever
going to look at it.
Jeff’s view about writing for a public audience was much different than that of the other
Student Impact
Jeff had previously done a paper-pencil version of his wiki project. It was
When students completed the assignment this time as a group on the wiki, Jeff also found
an improvement in the quality of student writing. This improvement was not a natural
outcome of using a wiki. The prospect of working collaboratively in a group was not
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welcomed by all the students. “The idea of having to collaborate with other people on a
common writing space was new ground for them. It was uncomfortable because there
To alleviate some of the frustration and confusion, Jeff assigned specific roles for
each member of a wiki. Students now had a direction, something Jeff described as “a
charge.” Students not only felt comfortable editing someone else’s work, they allowed
another group member to modify their contribution. The mindset changed from work
belonging to the person who wrote the words, to work belonging to the group who shared
thoughts and ideas. With clear expectations for individual as well as group performance,
Overview
Jeff had a firm fundamental belief about using technology for student instruction.
He believed the curriculum should be the determining factor for choosing to use
I think sometime tech teachers tend to put the cart before the horse. They say,
we’ve got this wiki, or we've got this software, how can we fit this into the
curriculum? That's wrong. I’ve got this curriculum, and these are the learning
behaviors I need my kids to have.
After determining an essential connection with the curriculum, Jeff felt it was also
necessary to determine if technology could fulfill those objectives better than a more
traditional method. As Jeff stated so succinctly, “If it’s a project that’s better done
Jeff did not directly address authenticity in his instructional design for the use of
wikis. Jeff considered authentic purpose was a prerequisite for authentic audience. “If
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you really want to have a true audience, you’ve got to have them writing for a purpose.”
Most of his wiki projects were designed not only to make students dependent on one
another to complete the project, but also dependent upon the collaborative work of others
Collaboration was not a natural process for Jeff’s students. He talked about the
difficulty with accountability and ownership; not everyone took equal responsibility for
the work and when they did, they often did not like another person manipulating their
work. “I've got my part in and that's it. It’s like an assembly line mentality. I did my job
and whatever happens down the road, it's not my concern.” Jeff used the analogy of
progressing from a quilt to a comforter to help his students grasp the idea of
collaboration. “A quilt has got a lot of different things from a lot of different people
writing. It's got to be all uniform, and it's got to flow together.”
Jeff found the easiest way to address the sense of separate identities in a group
project was to take an active part in the development of the wiki. As a participant, he
could provide leading questions and constructive comments to guide students as they
A lot of times kids were posting and not reading what each other was writing.
They're popping something independently and not even reading what each other
said… I had to formulate some sort of a structure to encourage them to
collaborate more as opposed to just put mine in and the heck with the rest of it.
Using wikis worked well for Jeff. They were collaborative in nature, requiring the
input of several students to complete the task. This proved to be uncomfortable for some
students, yet Jeff considered this association with cooperative learning and technology to
be a “natural step.” Not simply because students were working together, but because they
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shared in the experience of creating something unique and more complex than if they had
Something as simple as having multiple people being able to edit one document,
all of a sudden creates a whole new realm of behaviors; a whole new realm of
what you would expect kids to do, and it raises the bar as far as expectations.
David
large urban city located in the Canadian province of Manitoba. His course load included
twelfth-grade pre-calculus. This 9-12 high school with a population of 1100 students also
served as an English as an Additional Language, EAL, magnet school. For more than one
third of his school, English was an additional language and not necessarily the second
language. For some students, it was their third, fourth, fifth or higher language. This large
When they write their work, often they struggle with the language; never mind, in
my case. I teach mathematics, so that’s a language unto itself. They’re really
struggling learning two languages at once; which is a bit of a challenge.
David has been a conference presenter at the national and international levels. He
was also one of the originators of a K-12 online technology conference. This annual 2-
necessary for this annual conference. All of the presentations are free and archived for
future retrieval.
When asked how he determined when to use technology for instructional purposes,
David explained that his pedagogy is structured around some general principles. At the end
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of his four minute response, David was able to articulate everything he had just described
in one sentence.
When the list of sessions for an upcoming local professional development day
came around in the winter of 2004, David thought there had to be more than using tools
in the Microsoft Office Suite and understanding email. So David asked the committee if
he could prepare an additional session on harnessing the power of the Internet. As he was
preparing for his session, he happened to stumble upon Alan Levin’s BlogShop. “For me,
the blog was like, Wow! This is a great way and means to aggregate all this content that’s
dispersed widely over the Internet; to share it with my students.” David learned
everything he did with his students, through his “personal learning network,” contacts he
Some blogs are designed as a class blog where students comment directly to the
teacher’s post or prompt. The blog created by this mathematics teacher was much more
complex. The main page of David’s class blog not only served as a portal to each
individual student’s blog, but also served as a vehicle for students to access all the
All course content found on past and current blogs was student generated. Each
night, one student served as the class scribe. It was their task to literally recreate the
lesson and material covered that day in class; “to annotate it and articulate it so that
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someone who wasn’t there should be able to follow your work and understand it.”
Scribes used examples, illustrations, and other work captured from the SMART Board
during class. They also brought in other resources or examples to assist in their
explanation of the day’s events. Other class members would then examine the scribe’s
work. They might ask questions, correct an error, or even suggest an alternate solution.
While the daily scribe posts enabled students to ask questions of one another, the
Blogging on Blogging, BOB, feature allowed students to ask questions of the master
himself. Sometime previous to the test, students were required to “post a reflection of
where they are in their learning.” This might be a simple statement saying they wished
they had done all the assignments or studied more. Some even apologized for having to
spend more time on homework for another subject. If students took advantage and wrote
about a concept that remained confusing or difficult to understand sooner that the night
before the test, David addressed these concerns in class the next day.
David also included a chat feature on his course blogs. Students are able to chat in
real time, or leave a message that could be read by others at a later time. “Learning math
is like learning a language, and you don’t learn a language unless you use it. If the only
place they use it is in class with me, well that’s not nearly enough exposure.” As you read
these conversations, along with the BOB posts and comments, it is clear the language of
math has been extended beyond the classroom walls. (See Figure 14.)
David used both blogs and wikis with his mathematics classes. David created a
“wiki solution manual.” This wiki was filled with a variety of problems from every unit
that might be found on the final exam. In a 2-week time period, students had to
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accomplish two tasks. First, they must make a significant contribution. They must
Second, they must perform a constructive modification. This task required them to edit
someone else’s work; not their own. They could correct several minor errors or one
significant error. They could also add a graphic for clarification. The focus was always on
When David first became aware of the existence of blogs, he immediately viewed
share his passion for teaching and learning. It was through these connections that David’s
own learning became amplified; connections he felt every educator should use “to get
entirely different. David was no longer in charge of locating and posting the content. As
scribes, students now “generated the lion’s share of content.” It also became a place for
his students to not only share their learning, but their misunderstandings. More
I think it is also important for them to see how work is done by students who
understand the stuff well, and to see how I solve the problem. So they need to see
all of that, because I think they need to be exposed to the way an expert thinks
about it. They need to be exposed to the way a novice thinks about it. That’s got to
tweak their thinking, so they move from novice, to apprentice, journey person,
and expert.
Student Preparation
David was the only participant who extended Internet safety into the broader topic
of digital ethics. In addition to requiring students use pseudonyms, David discussed some
possible consequences of online behaviors. He used some highly effective videos about
Internet predators, cyber bullying and digital dirt. Guidelines for student bloggers were
also posted on the main page of his class blog. It is interesting to note that David did not
enable the chat box until these topics have been fully discussed and understood by the
students in class.
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David also used several web-based applications with his blog. He said he spent
about 5 minutes explaining the application to his class; then they went home and set it up.
David grudgingly gave up instructional time for this purpose. “Even those 5 minutes, I’d
Student Impact
While David will tell you that professional mathematicians make their “bread and
butter” by writing, he will also tell you that he had a great disdain for using it in the
classroom with his students. He found the idea of writing journals to be very artificial,
So by having to blog about it on a regular basis, using the language, using the
terminology, and articulating it well enough for an interested learner to learn it as
well…that’s authentic. That’s real. When I started, I didn’t do this to bring writing
into the mathematics’ classroom. That’s not why I started doing it. That’s been a
corollary consequence. It’s not been the main focus. The main focus is learning
the mathematics and articulating what you’ve learned.
While writing may indeed be corollary, David has established one practice he
found does challenge his students’ writing. David invited several mentors to participate
on the blog, again with specific goals in mind. Student teachers from a nearby university,
along with another math teacher, and a professor of mathematics, got students to delve
deeper into the content, with the goal of justifying their reasoning and clarifying their
work. He had yet another mentor with a totally different task. Her job was to focus on the
quality of learning by encouraging students to reflect on the purpose for their writing.
writing the textbook. For these students, audience awareness had a very different
meaning, not the generic public audience but a more professional one. Members of the
audience that read their work included, teachers, educational professional development
leaders, graduate students writing their thesis, and college professors from around the
world. People often wrote to David asking permission to use information from the blog in
their work or presentation. They were surprised to find out it was the work of the student
Students felt a great sense of ownership and pride in this real-world application of
their efforts. The scribe post is a required assignment. It is interesting to note that the
quality of the post had no bearing on the grade. If they completed it, they received credit.
Even David was often surprised at the amount of effort and detail that went into a post.
It’s amazing the work they do. It’s not like it’s for mega marks, but they’re
challenged within the class to do something worth recognition. So the motivation
to do well in class, to write a good scribe post, is really intrinsic.
David admitted that all of his students were not receptive to blogging. One student
refused to complete his assigned scribe post for almost the entire semester. He finally
acquiesced and created a post so incredibly rich, it was published in a print journal.
his blog, third party applications that added functionality. Answer Tips made every word on
the screen clickable. Double click a word, and a window with definitions opened. Scroll to
the bottom and a link for more opened an entire page of information about that word, filled
with links to other references. Increasing the accessibility to the language of mathe-matics
Such features were not added to make his blog more appealing to the visitor. They were
added to make learning mathematics more accessible to the student. These features
David described another impact attributed to the use of blogs with his students:
the understanding of time and space for learning had changed. Traditionally, students had
to be physically present in a room during a specific time of day to learn the content. With
David’s blog, students were able to engage in learning mathematics at a time and place,
in a preferred environment that was most convenient for them. “Time and space are no
longer constraints for learning. You can learn anywhere any when.”
David was keenly aware of the impact of blogging on his students. At the end of
every semester, he had his student evaluate the effectiveness of the course, including the
use of blogs. He published the results of the survey on the blog just as they were sub-
mitted. (See Appendix C for class survey for David’s mathematics class.) When asked to
provide a condensed description of the impact blogging had on his students as he knew it
to be, David replied, “It was like a neutron bomb going off. I don’t mean that in a violent
sense. In terms of the ….the excitement, the impact, the far-reaching impact that you
Perhaps this spontaneous post at the conclusion of the class explains the impact of
also saw it as a device to provide his students with an authentic audience and an authentic
assigned scribe, each student’s post became a page in their digital textbook. This was one
of the resources classmates used to complete assignments and prepare for various exams.
The relevance of these posts increased as the work of some students was used by
mathematicians and educators in professional venues, with full credit given to the
about mathematics, not the culminating activity. The scribe for that day took on the role
of expert. They interpreted the content, prioritized the material in levels of difficulty,
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providing additional support or explanation for that which they deemed more difficult;
often with a sense of humor. This post was the launching point for questions or
Learning is an active process, not a passive process. If you have a passive attitude
towards it, you won’t be successful. By getting them engaged and working with
the content and wrestling with it by a variety of ways and means, then I hope
we’re amplifying some of their learning. They’re digging in deeper to the content,
and hopefully they’re retaining it better.
In an earlier reference, David talked about the importance of his personal learning
network. David also had a professional blog, which was an active part of this network.
Here he often engaged, and at times enraged, in a conversation with other educational
bloggers. “It’s through those interactions with people in my personal learning network
that my own learning is amplified a lot.” In many of David’s posts, he discussed the work
of his students, as well as the work of other students. (See Figure 16.)
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David felt reflection on learning was critical for his students as well. Having an
audience and receiving comments on their work, was one way for his students to engage
So it’s not just my eyes that look at their work. The kids see that because other
people can then leave those comments. That’s another part towards encouraging
them toward metacognition; reflecting upon where they are in their learning;
trying to get better at it.
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This was a fundamental purpose for the Blogging on Blogging post required of each
David understood the importance of reflection on the part of the instructor. This
This constant reflection was evident when David discussed a possible future use
for the blog. When a student’s scribe post was selected to be displayed in the Carnival of
David considered having students nominate a post each week for submission to the
carnival, another way of exposing student work to the knowledgeable, scrutinizing eyes of
other mathematicians.
There’s a couple things that will come from that. One is my students looking at
each other’s work with a critical eye, looking for the best work; which will do
wonders for the self-esteem of that student, but also encourage other students to
rise to that challenge. Second, if it gets published in the Carnival of Mathematics,
and there’s no reason why it wouldn’t, then that will draw a different audience
with much more sophisticated mathematical eyes to look at the student’s work;
perhaps leaving a random comment here and there; highlighting some of the good
work done by the other kids; underscoring that sense of audience that I try so hard
to get across to my students in a very real way that by me speaking, I could never
accomplish.
David also had some thoughts about the future of blogging as well. He described
an analogy that suggested blogs were in their primary form, whose future was
unpredictable as they may morph into something totally different, perhaps only slightly
This may help to explain why David felt he is in “constant beta;” searching for the best
DISCUSSION
An essential purpose of this study was to investigate how K-12 teachers are using
blogs and/or wikis in the classroom. Rather than just summarizing the types of activities
done, this researcher chose to look deeper into the intent for utilizing these tools for
student instruction. As blogs and wikis are web-based applications and can be considered
a form of technology, this study also probed to find the reasons behind teachers’
determination to use technology in lieu of other methods of instruction. This chapter will
address and discuss each research question. Conclusions will be presented, and
implications for the use of blogs or wikis in K-16 education will be considered.
Three generalizations regarding the use of blogs and/or wikis were determined:
support of a specific project or event; a separate class; and a seamless tool to support
learning. (See Table 2 for a breakdown of tool uses.) While five of the participants used
blogs and/or wikis as an instructional device for a specific event or project, Mike used his
class blog as a communication tool. It was his method of boosting his students’ self-
concept by praising and encouraging their efforts in class. He used the fact his students
and write. This was an ongoing project that was used when time allowed, or when Mike
Portal to
Primary
Use of blog and/or wiki Posts made to main page individual Comments Students make or
Tool
student blogs receive comments
Katie Blog Seamless tool Teacher Yes Audience Make & receive
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Grant’s blog was also ongoing, but it was a routine, scheduled event. Every week
Grant’s students wrote about an event in the news. The blog also served as a showcase for
other student work and projects. Evan, Donna, and Jeff used a blog or wiki for a specific
project; a project that was directly connected to curricular content. Rita’s students met 2
For David and Katie, blogs served multiple purposes, all centered on student
learning. In addition to narrative blog posts, Katie used various forms of audio and visual
media to showcase student learning. Students not only displayed their work, but they
often explained and/or reflected on it as well. She also invited university students
studying student writing to act as mentors for her students. Katie’s class blog was used
across all content areas, and was not limited to just language arts. Katie described blogs
as “a way to demonstrate our learning and a way that makes learning transparent.”
The daily scribe post was the main function of David’s class blog. This was an
opportunity for these high school mathematics students to analyze, interpret, and recreate
the day’s lesson well enough for any interested party to understand. David saw the blog
as a tool to support learning by including features like a chat box, links to outside
resources, translation and dictionary tools, and instructional videos on the blog. David
also arranged for experts to mentor his students in order to deepen their knowledge and
understanding of mathematics. Like Katie, David’s blog served as a window into his
students’ learning.
It is interesting to note that, in this instance, the age of the students did not impact
the approach teachers chose. Katie, a first grade teacher, and David, a high school
mathematics teacher, both saw blogs as a way to visualize their students’ thoughts; to
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make their thinking transparent. In order to provide opportunities for students to reveal
their thinking, both Katie and David allowed students to post original content to the blog;
David on the main blog page and Katie via individual student blogs. For their students,
blogging was an expected activity, not an event associated with a specific project or
Various studies have analyzed the association of a teacher’s beliefs and their use
technology is influenced by the educational beliefs she has acquired over time. Zhao,
Pugh, Sheldon, and Byers (2002) found that when a teacher’s pedagogical beliefs were
consistent with her choice and implementation of technology, the chance for successful
completion and execution of the project were significantly increased. Evidence from this
study on the use of blogs and wikis suggests that while the intent to use the tool serves as
the foundation for the design of the activity, there is perhaps an even more fundamental
connection; a connection between the determination to use technology, the intent, and a
Participant Quotes Illustrating Determination to Use Technology, Intent for Using Blogs or Wikis, and Pedagogical Beliefs
Determination to use technology Intent for using blogs or wikis Aligned with pedagogical beliefs
“Is this the best way of doing it, or can “I’ll celebrate their accomplishments and “I wrote a book for children called Build
they do it more efficiently or just as brag about them. So just a place where I Yourself for Success: A Kid's Guide to
effectively?” can kind of encourage them, and they’re Success.”
actually reading, responding, leaving
Mike “How can it be more useful? How can we comments back. So it’s literacy and just a
get the kids more involved? What benefits place to pump them up a little bit.”
are we looking for? Basically what are the
benefits?”
“I don’t do things just because of the “My blog is mainly reflection about what “Blogs and wikis are just one more tool
technology. I just use the technology to is happening in our classroom. And it’s that I use in my classroom to support
support whatever I’m doing.” turning more and more into a sharing of learning These tools give us a way to
Katie our learning rather than just what we did.” demonstrate our learning in a way that
“You have to always be weighing what’s allows transparency, feedback and a
the best way that I can teach this so the global audience.”
kids can understand it.”
“I think it’s a matter of planning what “Writing is kind of my first goal as far as “I find when they’re interested in some-
kind of lesson I’m going to do and what …Doing writing with our 5th graders in a thing, they’re just more successful. They
kind of standards I’m going to incorpo- more creative way.” learn more. They get involved in our
rate. With blogging, it’s just how far can I lessons more. I find motivation is just a
“Overall I wanted it to be an exciting way
go? There’s so many things out there I real hard thing.”
Rita for us to review things we were learning
can do.”
in the classroom and go deeper with. All
those things you don’t have time for in a
regular classroom.”
(table continues)
Determination to use technology Intent for using blogs or wikis Aligned with pedagogical beliefs
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“Ultimately I think the tools that really “Whatever helps the kids correspond with “If I can get the kids together, talking
grab me are the ones that can make each other, collaborate, communicate with together, socializing in cooperative
Grant each other; I think that helps. Blogs for groups, whatever you want to call it,
connections between kids and that they
can share things among themselves.” me were just a natural extension of that.” things worked out better.”
“It comes down to when I can get access “Just to have a virtual space where you’re “Everything that I do with computers
for them on the computer.” limited by the confinements of now is basically an enhancement. We do
physicalness or time.” things with studycasts, blogs, and stuff,
but I can’t really ensure that every stu-
dent has access outside of my classroom.
So I can’t engrain the technology into
my curriculum if it was 1-to-1.”
“If it helps kids learn the material, or “I wanted to focus in on issues that were “I have always loved doing this; picking
expands their knowledge, or prepares open ended. There was no right or wrong a topic or an issue, researching this; and
them for the real world, and it’s related to answer. I didn't want them to think that I used to do this by spending my
technology.” they could just give me what they thought summers in the library. Then finding all I
Donna I wanted.” can about that and just studying
something.”
“I’m really doing the research and finding
out what the research studies say and
what the experts say.” (table continues)
Determination to use technology Intent for using blogs or wikis Aligned with pedagogical beliefs
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“I was more intrigued with wikis though. “Well, the number one reason, year in
“I don’t start with the technology, I start Just with my connection between and year out, people loose their jobs is
with cooperative learning.” cooperative learning and technology. That their inability to work with their co-
is the perfect melding between those workers. It has nothing to do with their
“I try not to do technology for the sake of two.” skills or anything else. It's their inability
doing technology. If I can come up with to work with their co-workers. If our role
Jeff good objectives that using the technology in education is to develop a work force,
is going to fulfill better than not using it, then we need to be developing collabora-
then I use it.” tive skills. With the advent of technology,
if you're not using wikis and things like
that, you're missing a big part of
collaboration with technology.”
“So, how do I make decisions about what “I look at the technology as a way to “Cause you can’t really understand what
technology to use … if it will do anything enable students to crate an audience for someone is thinking or what’s going on
to facilitate this network of pedagogy, them to illustrate what they’ve learned in in their head; until they show it to you or
amplify what the students are learning, a meaningful way.” illustrate it to you. So I want to find
David help create an authentic audience for different ways to make what’s going on
them, give them the means to make their inside students’ heads transparent to me
thinking transparent, and enable them to and to each other.”
watch it, do it, teach it, then I’m going to
snag it.”
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Katie used technology to support instruction and student learning. In addition to
individual student posts, a variety of plugins were used to exhibit student work and
inform the audience. “My blog is mainly a reflection about what is happening in our
classroom. And it’s turning more and more into a sharing of our learning rather than just
what we did.” This was a simple yet effective way for students to demonstrate their
Mike looked for an effective way to use technology to benefit his students. He
chose a blog to help promote positive self-concepts for his students. Evidence of a
connection to his pedagogical beliefs can be found along the side of the class blog where
Mike inserted a note about a book that he wrote. This book was written for children to
help them develop good attitudes and positive thoughts about themselves and their future.
It was evident this underlying philosophy had profoundly influenced his designed
purpose to "celebrate their accomplishments and brag about them;" an effective way to
build self-esteem.
Rita’s case was unique as the use of technology was predetermined. The primary
purpose for the class was to use blogs as an instructional tool that could support all the
content areas, especially writing. “Writing is kind of my first goal; doing writing with our
fifth graders in a more creative way.” Rita found blogs to be very motivating and
interesting for her students; factors she felt promoted student learning. “When they’re
Grant looked for technology that facilitated connections between students and
enabled shared understandings and ideas. His projects were designed to enable students
to collaborate and communicate with an outside audience. “If I can get the kids together,
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talking together, socializing in cooperative groups, whatever you want to call it, things
worked out better.” Blogs were the ideal device for Grant to accomplish his goals.
Evan’s book blog enabled over 300 local students and others from various states
and countries to have a virtual space to build an understanding and share ideas. Yet Evan
felt limited by his access to technology. Scheduling lab time did not allow him to act on
his pedagogical belief that technology should be engrained into his teaching.
I’ve told people before. If you want to set me loose, give everyone of my students
a computer they can take home every day. We’ll be able to get a lot more done.
We’ll be more efficient and we’ll get more actual education done. If they would
give me one-to-one computers, that would dramatically change my curriculum.
Evan considered his current use of computer technology to be an enhancement, not a true
For her current action research project she was studying the impact of blogs on ACT
reading scores. The research she read directly influenced her intent.
I'm really doing the research and finding out what the research studies have to say,
and what the experts say. One of the important things that research was showing
is that kids tended to do better with their writing if they know more than just the
classroom teacher was going to read it.
Donna's interest in research was not newly acquired. This was an interest she had for
many years. "I have always loved doing this; picking a topic or an issue, researching this;
and I used to do this by spending my summers in the library. And then finding all I can
about that, and just studying something." Educational research was clearly a driving force
behind Donna's design for instructional technology. Donna’s blog on Taylor’s story also
met her fundamental criteria in the decision to use technology, as it expanded student
While he made a concerted effort to use technology to improve instruction and student
learning, cooperative learning was the primary design influence for Jeff.
Well, the number one reason, year in and year out, people loose their jobs is their
inability to work with their co-workers. It has nothing to do with their skills or
anything else. It's their inability to work with their co-workers. If our role in
education is to develop a work force, then we need to be developing collaborative
skills. With the advent of technology, if you're not using wikis and things like that,
you're missing a big part of collaboration with technology. I don't start with
technology, I start with cooperative learning.
These ideals were perpetrated further in his role as curricular technology consultant and
cooperative education trainer for his school. Cooperative learning was central to Jeff’s
instructional decisions.
learning.
Scribe posts were the embodiment of David’s fundamental beliefs about technology use.
By recreating the day’s lesson, scribes became the teacher, articulating their thought
processes while presenting the content, all within the public forum of a blog. This post
cooperative learning strategies, are not only a foundation for instructional technology
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design, they are the foundation for a deeper, over-riding philosophy. The evidence
suggests it is the pedagogical beliefs of these participants that drive the intentionality for
2003). However, Perkins (1992) notes, "If learning has this constructive character
inherently, it follows that teaching practices need to be supportive of the construction that
must occur" (p. 49). This can be accomplished through the design and implementation of
learning environments. Brooks and Brooks (1999), Ferguson (2001), and Sprague and
Dede (1999) suggested teacher beliefs that can promote such constructivist learning
environments:
• Collaboration is encouraged
Evidence supporting each of the listed teacher behaviors was drawn from participant inter-
views as well as teacher, class, and student blogs. (See Table 4 for a comparison chart of
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participant beliefs that promote a constructivist learning environment.) The next section
will address data representative of each teacher behavior present for each participant.
Table 4
Student inquiry is
encouraged to promote X X X X
knowledge construction
Enable learners to
interpret multiple X X X X X X X X
perspectives
Collaboration is
X X X X X
encouraged
For activities to be meaningful and relevant, they be must authentic and of interest
or importance to the student (Means & Olson, 1995). This was the case for all of the
participants, but in varying degrees. The student work associated with Donna, Jeff, Evan,
and David’s class was of high appeal and relevance to the students’ lives. Self-selection
facilitated student interest as Rita, Grant and Katie often gave students a choice of what
to include in their blog post. Mike’s blog was unique as students were often the subject of
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his posts. Students frequently emulated Mike’s type of encouraging posts when they
they must provide opportunities that enable students to think and act as an expert
(Honebein, 1996). In this setting, students can develop a deeper, richer understanding of
the knowledge domain (Sprague & Dede, 1999, p. 8). This was the case for five of the
participants.
David’s scribe post and Jeff’s Literature Circles wiki were designed for students to
create content that served as a resource for other students. Their peers were dependent on
the accuracy and thoroughness of their work. Authentic learning opportunities were not
present in Mike’s blog. However, Mike used a wiki to provide an opportunity for his ELL
students to act as language coaches for younger, less capable students. Initially, Donna’s
blog served as a learning space as students responded to teacher posts regarding student use
students used this blog to relate ideas that might assist and inform adults about this serious
issue. Grant involved not only his students but students from around the world as they
studied an historical fiction novel with the actual author as a mentor. Rita did design
occasional opportunities for authentic activities like the students’ reaction to the movie A
Planet in Peril, and their post on how they can make a difference in this serious issue.
As with the first teacher behavior category, there was a range of authenticity as
well as the frequency of opportunities for such experiences. Data from this study revealed
problem-based activities were only offered by the three high school teachers; an
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intentional decision to make use of the blog’s design to increase the level of authenticity
(Jonassen, 1992). Sprague and Dede (1999) suggested framing open-ended questions and
encouraging students to question their peers are viable methods for promoting student
inquiry. Without a single exact answer, students are challenged to probe and investigate
Solving authentic problems is a natural stimulus for student inquiry. The open-
ended blogging and wiki activities designed by Jeff, David, and Donna provided the
perfect environment for student inquiry. Student products were original, and in David’s
class often motivated other students to produce products of the same or better caliber.
Evan also posed open-ended questions to his students. Questions like, “What similarities
do you see with the guerrilla warfare tactics used in Missouri in 1863 and Iraq in 2008?”
Commenting is a unique factor associated with blogs. When students post their
work to a blog, they expect, even anxiously anticipate, receiving comments from a novice
stimulate an argument giving students a different perspective than their original posted
thoughts. Comments can also ignite a conversation as ideas and possible clarifications are
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exchanged through a series of responses; presenting all parties involved in the
Allowing students to make and/or receive comments was the source of multiple
perspectives, a feature utilized by seven of the eight participants. (See Table 2 for a
breakdown of tool uses.) Despite the absence of the commenting feature on wikis, Jeff’s
collaborative content, students had to hear, analyze, and synthesize individual ideas to
produce a unified piece of work. This entailed a high degree of reflection and
compromise.
Collaboration is Encouraged
(Honebein, 1996), as it affords students the opportunity to share ideas, ask questions,
discuss concepts, and revise their ideas and misconceptions (Sprague & Dede, 1999, p.
8). A wiki is a natural way to facilitate collaboration. Mike and Jeff used a wiki to
establish this opportunity for their students; collaboration was at the heart of their intent.
Again, David’s scribe post was a perfect vehicle for collaboration. While only
one student authored the post, other members of the class shared their opinions, made
suggestions, and asked questions. Katie’s students often received general comments from
a variety of audience members. However, Katie had acquired university students to serve
as mentors for each of her students. This was where the power of collaboration was most
evident. Mentors structured their comments carefully to support, encourage, and model, a
perfect way for these first graders to reflect on their work and revise their
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misconceptions. (See Figure 18.) Like Katie, David also used mentors to collaborate with
his students.
Figure 18. A comment from a university blogging buddy to one of Katie’s students
Collaboration on Evan’s book blog was authentic, but limited. Asking questions
and discussing the events of the book with the author were highly engaging. While the
public could view these interactions, a fluid collaborative exchange of ideas was limited
by a blog’s inherent commenting structure. When students asked questions of the author,
she would respond directly to them and vise versa. Because this was a class blog,
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students could not comment on a comment. They could only comment to the original post
on the blog, so a second response to a comment may not be physically located next to the
intended comment as blog posts are in chronological order. (See Figure 19 to illustrate
this point.) While not ideal, this was the most efficient way to manage the interaction of
If learners are to be expected to construct their own knowledge and not simply
assimilate that of the teacher, they must be afforded the opportunity to do so (Jonassen,
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Peck, & Wilson, 1999). This requires a shift in control as learning becomes more student-
centered, giving the student a greater voice and more ownership of her learning
own ideas and informed by the ideas of others” (Brooks & Brooks, 1999, p. 103).
Two participants used blogs and/or wikis to provide opportunities for students to
pursue new understandings. As a group, Jeff’s class generated categories that would be
necessary to produce a resource similar to Cliff Notes. These categories were then used as
a framework for each group to construct the wiki that served as the reference for their
self-selected novel. This activity required students to apply literary concepts as they
As class scribes, David’s students consistently created content for the class blog.
A task that required students to evaluate their understanding of the material and articulate
this well enough for others to achieve the same understanding. Students used whatever
aids would help convey their information, drawings, diagrams, analogies, even colored
For Jeff and David’s students, working as a group provided ideal conditions for
students to reflect upon and modify their thoughts as they heard different ideas and
opinions from other group members. Students wrestled with their knowledge along with
Not all behaviors were exhibited in the same frequency or to the same degree by
the eight participants in this study. What is clear is the technology, blogs and wikis,
provided the opportunities for teachers to act on their beliefs. More than simply providing
a public area to display student work, blogs enabled the audience to become actively
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involved by questioning or disagreeing with the student’s thoughts and ideas; suggesting
ideas or interpretations of their own; and bringing in other print or human references that
might extend or enhance the original material. While opportunities abound, it is still
incumbent upon the teacher to construct activities that take advantage of this potential.
Two common categories emerged from the data regarding the preparation of
students to use blog or wikis, audience awareness and online safety. (See Table 5 for a
categories were present in the interview data, not all the participants talked about these
topics with their students. These situations will be clarified in the following sections.
Audience Awareness
Katie, Mike, Grant, Evan, and David all discussed the fact student work no longer
had the typical audience of teacher, classroom peers, and parents with their students.
Their online document now was available for any and all to view and critique. These
teachers lectured about the importance for students to check their work for errors because
it now had such a public audience. Evan made it a much more personal form of
evaluation by telling his students, “People are going to see and judge you based on how
you write.”
Rita, Donna, and Jeff all talked about the importance of having an audience other
than the classroom teacher. In the interview data, Rita consistently talked about the
benefits of having a pubic audience for her students. She believed they took more
ownership of their work and reflected on their work more frequently because they knew a
large number of people could read their work and make comments. While Rita did not
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directly state she instructed her students on the topic of audience awareness, evidence of
such was revealed in one of her blog posts. “Reading your work out loud is a great way to
proofread your writing. You should do this before you publish every single post.”
Table 5
Online safety X X X X X X
Writing style
X X
differences
Comment modeling X X X
Digital ethics X
Procedural
X X X
instruction
Collaborative
ownership and X
accountability
Note. X = present in data
Jeff designed his wiki project to have an authentic purpose which did provide an
authentic audience, an audience limited to students who attended the same school. This
was an action based on Jeff’s belief that, “Their best audience is each other.” In fact Jeff
believed his students were more accountable by writing for each other than if they had
To write for the world wide world is easy because the world is anonymous. If
you’re writing to a specific person or a specific group of 10 people, you need to
be much more careful. Those people can confront you and can question you and
are relying on your wisdom for whatever you’re doing to steer them the right way.
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If you’re writing to the whole world, you can assume that maybe no one is ever
going to look at it.
Online Safety
Online safety was another common factor. Certain practices were followed by all:
students were not allowed to use their complete names; no personal information was
allowed in a post; and no names were associated with any pictures. Katie also screened
comments for personal information that may lead to the identification of a student, such
as a relative signing their comment with a last name. All the participants except Mike and
Jeff discussed the issue of online safety with their students. Jeff’s wiki was accessed
through Blackboard and could only be viewed by parents and invited guests. Mike was
the only party that could post original content to the blog, and he also screened all the
Online safety was a significant concern for Donna. While her students created and
signed a safe blogging policy, she removed the blog from public viewing and placed it on
a content management system which was password protected after the project was
completed. Her concern for online safety might explain the reason she did not make
writing, raising the question that this is now an accepted practice with today’s students
(Shortis, 2007). Rita and Evan made it clear to their students that there is a distinct
difference between the informal writing form of texting with its cryptic spellings and the
formal more standard written form. Blogs posts were expected to be written in the
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standard vernacular, without exception. None of the remaining participants indicated this
Comment Modeling
Commenting was an essential function for Grant. “If I didn’t have other
classrooms commenting to the work they’re doing, then I probably wouldn’t be doing it
(blogging).” Grant was looking for more than “drive by commenting.” He wanted more
substantial comments that would “push the original writer a little bit and change their
thinking.” Grant understood this was an acquired skill. Every week he selected a
comment received by one of the students to use as a model. The class analyzed the
quality of that comment, both the good and bad features, and discussed possible
improvements.
Rita also discussed the quality of commenting with her students and made it the
subject of one of her posts to the class blog. (See Figure 20.)
Modeling comments took on a different purpose for Mike. One function of his
class blog was to serve as a means to increase the self-concept of his students. His posts
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served as a model for other students as they too offered comments filled with praise and
Digital Ethics
David was the only participant to address digital ethics with his students. Videos
were posted to the blog on the topics of digital dirt, the fact nothing posted to the Web
can be removed, bullying, and Internet safety. Every student must tell David they have
watched all the posted videos, read the list of guidelines for student bloggers, and agreed
to abide by this policy. He also offered students the opportunity to make suggestions for
Procedural Instruction
Only three participants provided their students with procedural instruction on the
operation of a blog or wiki. For Rita, this was a natural outcome of conducting a class
dedicated to the use of a blog. Katie hoped her students would gain a level of independ-
ence after group instruction in a lab setting which was done early in the school year. This
was important as blogging was an independent center activity during guided reading.
While David provided his students with technical instruction, he did so reluctantly.
“Even those 5 minutes, I’d rather someone else was teaching them that.”
Jeff said he had developed a list of theories and realities about using wikis with
students. People often assume the ideal will happen; “everything works out wonderfully,
and everyone participates, and everybody edits.” The reality, according to Jeff, is a few
students do the majority of the work to earn a desired grade. To alleviate this problem,
Jeff assigned roles to each student. This gave everyone a responsibility and helped make
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editing someone else’s work an acceptable practice. “The idea that every kid was
accountable for a certain aspect at every step along the way ensured that you’re going to
get higher quality work, and all the kids are involved in a vested interest.”
to create content was not a natural activity for Jeff’s students. It was difficult for them to
release ownership of the words they placed on the wiki. Ideas discussed in group plan-
ning sessions were also considered intellectual property. Developing the understanding
quilt with its separate pieces into a comforter, a uniformed piece that flows together.
Out of eight participants, only three found it necessary to actually take instruc-
tional time to teach their students how to use the tool. Modeling proper commenting
techniques was the only other strategy unique to using a blog. These results suggest
participants did not consider it necessary to devote large amounts of time teaching their
students how to use a blog or wiki. Once the students understood which buttons to push,
emphasis was placed on the purpose for using the tool, not the tool itself.
While there is not single instructional method for writing instruction (Raimes,
1991), Chapman (2006) and Heap (1997) suggested specific techniques can be used to
enhance student writing. One of these techniques is to provide students with access to an
authentic audience; one that is represented by more than the classroom teacher and not
the extent to which each participant used blogs or wikis to promote or enrich student
writing varied, every participant expressed the importance of having an audience for their
students’ work, but the type of audience varied. (See Table 6.)
Table 6
How and to What Extent are Blogs or Wikis Structured to Promote or Enrich Student
Writing?
Opportunity to write X X X
Publishing forum X X X
Application of
X X X
language skills
Use of mentors X X X
Collaboration Venue X
Katie first used her blog as a place to display her students’ work. Then she saw
how motivated they were to write because they had an audience; they had someone to
write for. When Katie saw the power having an audience had on her students, she began
looking for other schools to blog with and exchange comments. Her blogging tool Class
Blogmeister, is expressly used by educators. Katie was able to find schools looking for
partners through Blogmeister’s forum. Another contact was established with a school in
Australia. Katie had received a comment on her blog asking Katie to comment in return.
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When she did, she discovered it was a student, not a teacher. The student had actually
been blogging at home with his father over their holiday break. Kathy was able to begin a
partnership with this student’s second grade class. A single blog post from a second grade
Mike’s blog was not structured to receive outside comments. His posts were
directed toward the children, not the general public. He did use the fact the blog was
public to motivate his students to write more carefully and check for errors. The question
must be asked, if students never received a comment from the public, how much care did
they really take? While Mike’s blog was truly intended to be used with just his class,
Mike indicated he would have done more with his blog if he knew his students and
parents could see it at home. Only two of Mike’s students had Internet access.
Access to an authentic audience was present in the data for Rita and Grant.
Allowing personal blogs for their students provided an avenue for audience comments to
and the potential to extend their thinking. These teachers felt strongly enough about the
schools to participate on their blogs. Grant’s words make it clear just how important
access to an audience was. “It means very little if they’re posting and have no audience.”
his book blog. It is important to note the difference, as participants were not interacting
with each other; they were interacting with Evan and the author of the book. While this
may seem limiting, having access to the thoughts and ideas from all who shared in this
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experience was still a powerful way to view different views about the same question and
For Donna this was an essential reason for using a blog. Her research indicated
students wrote better when they knew they had a public audience. Yet Donna did not
allow anyone other than her and her students to make comments. The topics of teen
steroid use and the ownership of artifacts are pertinent to so many, it is important to
question the impact the interaction with a truly public audience, perhaps even outside
Jeff considered the most important audience students could have was other
students, so using a password protected wiki served his purpose. Audience awareness
remained an important topic to address with this class. Jeff felt there was no “true”
audience, if there was no purpose for writing. Creating a resource that was used by other
students for an exam was highly authentic and made their task more critical as others
learning. Finding mentors to engage in a conversation with his students was a way for
David to provide his students with additional eyes to scrutinize their work, and again
provide that different perspective. David understood the direct impact this had on his
students. “That’s another part towards encouraging them toward metacognition; reflecting
upon where they are in their learning; trying to get better at it.” A blog was the
mechanism that provided the audience so students had the opportunity to “illustrate what
Authentic Purpose
As discussed in Chapter II, students often write for an imaginary audience, one
contrived by the teacher for a specific writing assignment (Bos & Krajcik, 1998; Cohen
& Riel, 1989; Heap, 1989; Lankshear & Knobel, 2003). Establishing an authentic
purpose for writing can be a challenge. Blogs however remove the barriers of place and
time and offer endless possibilities for a dynamic legitimate audience that can help to
mentors. As their students wrote about their learning, mentors commented on their work,
Students in Evan’s class had the exceptional opportunity to participate in a book blog
with the author of the book they were studying—a chance to see writing through the eyes
of an expert.
David and Jeff also designed a learning task where their students became the
experts. David’s mathematics students took on the role of instructor as they recreated the
day’s lesson based on their understanding of the concept. As the expert, they fielded any
questions for clarification from their peers. Jeff’s students also took on the role of expert.
Their task was to create a resource so complete, another student, unfamiliar with the
Opportunity to Write
For David, writing was a corollary. It was not one of his objectives for using the
blog. Providing his students with an opportunity to write was an essential reason Mike
used a blog with his students. Blogs were one more way for his ELL students to use their
emerging literacy skills; something Mike hoped to increase in the future. Rita created the
blogging class with an expressed interest to work on the application of writing skills. As
Any chance that you have the students writing more, it’s going to help their overall ability
to communicate.”
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Publishing Forum
Katie, Grant, Rita, and David all considered their blog to be a publishing forum, a
place to display students’ work, but not simply an electronic bulletin board. Students,
even Katie’s first graders, understood the purpose for a blog. By posting their work
students were inviting the audience to take note. To use Grant’s analogy, they were
fishing for comments. Comments were an acknowledgement of their work, giving value
Most of the participants discussed the need for students to proofread their work,
but for some this appeared to be a secondary remark, not a primary emphasis. As the
instructor for an actual blogging class, Rita stated she consistently discussed the need for
accuracy with her students. Katie invited university students to act as writing mentors for
her students. Mentors commented on students’ work complimenting students when they
demonstrated proper conventions and encouraged them for attempting to sound out
difficult words. These mentors also modeled correct language use, most of the time. Jeff’s
wiki project required a high level of literary analysis and application. While it appears
they represent a wide range of grade levels, the focus for all of these teachers was in the
Use of Mentors
This use of mentors has already been discussed multiple times in the discussion
for research question three, but it is still important to note the public nature of blogs
enabled university students and experts in the field from across their respective countries
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and provinces to mentor children. These mentors affected not only the students’ writing,
Collaboration Venue
Jeff was the only participant to use a wiki as his primary tool. He viewed this as
the ideal device to teach his students about collaborative writing; a process where several
students create a single unified piece of writing. Jeff felt many get this confused with peer
editing.
I think a lot of people don't see the difference between peer editing and
collaborative writing. You know peer writing is just getting feedback on your
paper. It's just your name on top. Collaborative writing brings up a whole gamut
and a whole realm of different strengths and different considerations that you
have to have.
Jeff believed collaboration entailed the need to negotiate meaning, giving students the
The perceptions of participants regarding the impact blogs and wikis had on
students was just as varied as the perceptions regarding the impact blogs and wikis had
appears the perceived student impacts are related to the participants’ intent to use blog or
wikis with their students. (See Table 8 for participants’ intent to use blogs or wikis.)
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Table 7
How Do K-12 Teachers Perceive These Tools Have Impacted Their Students?
Increased desire to
X X X
write
Increased learning X X X
Improved
performance X X X X
Increased
accountability X
Increased
opportunity to write X X X
Audience awareness X X X X X X
Access to authentic
audience
X X X X X
Carry over X X X
Removed physical
barriers X X
Increased
opportunity for X X X X X
collaboration
Addressed multiple
learning styles X
Voice for reluctant
X X X
students
Ownership X X
Real-world
application X X X
Opportunity for
X X
reflection
Note. X = present in data for primary tool
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Table 8
Katie
Katie considered her class blog a place to share their learning. To establish a way
to share, students not only posted their work, they also made comments to and received
comments from the general audience. It was this access to an authentic audience that also
increased both the motivation and the desire to write for Katie’s students and provided an
increased opportunity for collaboration. Through this collaboration with other schools,
like the ones from New Zealand and Australia, student learning increased. “We’ve been
able to learn about things that otherwise we wouldn’t have.” These first graders often
wrote for their university blogging buddies, and always received return comments. Katie
felt this real-world application gave her students a sense of being an author. “They feel
like they’re writers, because not only are people reading it, but they’re commenting on it
as well.”
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Mike
Mike used his class blog as an aid to develop student self-concept and a way to
work on the literacy skills of his ELL students. He knew his students were already moti-
vated by technology. He only saw this motivation increase as the blog was published.
“They’ll sit there and read that (the blog) before they read a book.” Making comments on
the blog was just a way to offer increased opportunities to write; another literacy skill.
According to Mike, this writing was impacted by the fact students were aware of an
Rita
Rita’s blogging class was a means for her to improve upon their writing curricu-
lum, at the same time applying concepts from other content areas. She wanted to provide
students with a more creative way to write and hoped this would in turn increase their
motivation and enthusiasm for writing. Motivation was a definite outcome from using
blogs. Rita attributed increased learning and performance to her students’ motivation. “I
feel sometimes the work I get out of them is better because they’re more interested, and
they’re more motivated to show what they know.” Fully aware they had an audience that
could not only read their work but also provide comments, gave them a sense of owner-
ship and proved to be inspiring; even for the more reserved students who were reluctant
to perform in the regular classroom. Rita also believed audience comments gave students
the opportunity for reflection; a chance to consider the thoughts and ideas of others in
relation to their own. Katie believed the ability of blogs to apply writing to real-world
tunity to correspond, collaborate, and communicate with one another and people from all
around. Awareness of this impressive audience was very motivating for Grant’s students.
“I think it’s really powerful to give kids an audience for their work.” Grant attributed the
power of having an authentic audience for increasing his students’ desire to write.
Evan
Evan’s main intent was to establish a virtual space where he could have students
from different classes interacting. As a virtual space, blogs also removed any barriers of
time and space and extended collaboration beyond the classroom. If students wanted to
post a comment about something they read, they did not have to wait until a specific time
on a specific day or even risk forgetting the thought altogether. Evan felt immediate
availability to a virtual space increased the quality of the students’ work and the class
discussions.
space. Receiving comments from different people in different locations was very
motivating for students and increased their desire to write better and increased the quality
of their writing.
Before we had blogs…I don’t think it was really critiqued as much. I probably
didn’t do as much of a quality job of giving feedback...It wasn’t being read the
same. It wasn’t being discussed the same. It’s a lot richer type of writing now than
it would have been before.
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In fact, Evan thought they might be writing more because there was so much less
paperwork for him with the digital format of a blog. An increased opportunity to write
Donna
The research Donna read indicated students wrote better when they knew some-
one other than the classroom teacher would read their work. This was a primary reason
Donna chose to use a blog. Since Donna had done this same activity previously with
paper and pencil, she was able to make some acute comparisons. Donna saw an improve-
ment in student writing, especially in the area of making and supporting arguments. She
attributed this to the availability of an authentic audience, even though it was only an
audience of their peers. Having access to the thoughts and ideas of their peers carried
Jeff
Cooperative learning is the foundation for Jeff’s teaching. Using a wiki was a
means for his students to create collaborative content, a natural way to increase the poten-
tial for collaboration. Working in small groups also increased accountability as student
performance was judged on a group not an individual basis. As students worked to create
collaborative content, requiring a high level of negotiation, the idea of working back and
forth to come to a consensus, was necessary. Jeff considered this a vital skill, and indicated
he saw an improvement in their literary analysis. Like Donna, the audience was limited to
other students in the school. This did not decrease the authenticity of the audience,
however, as Jeff’s students prepared a product to be used by that same audience. “Now the
audience becomes a little more real, and there’s a little bit more of a vested interest.”
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Summary
Many studies have investigated the impact of audience on student writing (Bos &
Krajcik, 1998; Kulik, 2003a; Lankshear & Knobel, 2003; Reed, 1996). Throughout this
intent to use a blog or a wiki and later appeared as a factor for each research question.
Teachers chose to use these tools because they offered students access to an authentic
audience. Not all the participants used a public host. In the end, two chose to keep their
sites password protected. Yet these two still believed access to an audience was an
important component of blogs and/or wikis. Several participants used the fact the
students’ work was available to anyone who chose to look as leverage for their students to
Limitations
This study looked at a small pool of eight participants. Limited contact was made
with these participants in the form of two or three interview sessions and brief email
clarifications. While an attempt was made to select participants that represented a wide
range of grade levels, these eight participants may not be a typical representation of
teachers who currently use blogs or wikis with students. Furthermore, experience with
technology may be a consideration as several of the participants were recognized for their
examining technology for instructional purposes, many factors such as availability and
participants indicated this was an issue for them, but it cannot be said that the conditions
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were equal. These case studies may offer depth in description, but the findings are
Further research on a larger scale is required. This study only analyzed the use of
blogs and wikis from the perspective of the teachers. These perceptions and interpreta-
tions may not be the same as those of the students using the tools. A more thorough study
of all parties involved would provide a clearer understanding of how these tools are used
for instructional purposes and the impact they may have on students. It may also be
informative to study the effect blogs may have on mentoring. What impact would a tool
that was available on demand and removed any limitation of distance have on the process
Conclusions
Audience
This study analyzed the stories of eight K-12 teachers, and how they used blogs
and/or wikis in the classroom. For these participants, establishing an audience for student
work played a significant role in the intent and design for the use of blogs or wikis. Every
participant chose to use a blog or wiki to provide an audience for his or her students other
than that of the teacher, because they understood the significance of writing for an
audience. In some cases, the audience was internal; work was only accessible by students,
parents and teachers. While this may appear to be limiting, Oelz (1989) and Zemelman,
Daniels, and Hyde (2005) suggested students can learn from one another when they are
World Wide Web visitor. For some, the public Internet environment was enough to
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constitute an authentic audience. Others were not willing to wait for someone to stumble
upon their blog. They solicited an audience for their students. Some found other class
blogs and worked out a partnership to have students exchange comments. Content area
experts and university students were also invited to serve as mentors, creating a specific
audience for student writing. Participants who had professional blogs also wrote about
their students’ work and invited visitors to participate in special projects such as Evan’s
book blog. All these efforts were directed towards ensuring that students had a constant
authentic audience.
audience for student work, but it is a passive audience; one that reads, perhaps admires or
questions, but cannot address the author. Here in lies the power of a blog; the ability to
receive comments directly from the reader. The audience can now interact directly with
the writer. Students receive feedback on their writing, giving them cause to consider a
creating an open forum for the construction of knowledge (Gay, Sturgill, Martin, &
Huttenlocher, 1999, Conceptual context section, ¶ 1). It is important to note that every
Commenting
Many remarks were made by the participants regarding the enthusiasm and
motivation displayed by the students when they received a comment on their blog. Katie
said, “They feel like they’re writers, because not only are people reading it, but they’re
also commenting on it as well.” These first-grade students were experiencing the writing
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process as true authors. Grant saw comments as the catalyst for an increase in the desire
to write. “There’s a palpable sense with some in my class that they want to write and post
to the website because others will read it, see it, and comment back.” It is important to
note that the five teachers who made student work available to a global audience
indicated an increase in student motivation occurred. The two participants who kept work
Just as the concept of an authentic audience varied, so did the use of comments.
Depending on how the blog was structured, students could only make comments on the
blog, one-way commenting, or they could make and receive comments, two-way
commenting. One-way commenting was typically used when students did not have their
own personal blog. Students would respond to a teacher’s prompt by posting a comment;
as in the case of Mike and Evan’s blog. This restricted the flow of conversation as
students could not receive direct personal audience feedback. By having a personal blog,
all comments went directly to the student regarding a specific piece of student writing or
post, making the conversation between student and reader more fluent and direct. For
would be caught by a waiting ear, and in time a response would return in the form of a
Comments have the potential to scaffold student learning (Ferdig & Trammell,
2004) by facilitating an environment where students can revisit and revise their thoughts
and ideas based on the input received from an outside audience member (Krajcik,
Blumenfeld, Marx, & Soloway, 1994). A comment such as, “I agree” may be
complimentary, but it encourages little, if any, reflection on the part of the writer. Writing
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effective comments is an acquired skill that comes through practice. Participants handled
this matter in two distinct manners. Rita and Grant chose to directly instruct their students
on effective commenting techniques. Katie and David chose to use mentors to achieve the
same purpose. The remaining participants did not indicate they addressed effective
commenting with their students, nor was evidence of such found on their blogs.
ment principles, was used by both Katie and David to facilitate student learning. Mentors
for the first grade students as well as those for high school mathematics students focused
on a content area. David considered the student as a learner, not just a student of mathe-
matics as he used a mentor to help students focus and reflect on their thinking as well.
She also mentored my students on their blog; pushing their thinking and
challenging them on what they were writing. Linda’s not a math specialist. So she
kind of focuses on motivational stuff; the quality of learning; encouraging them to
reflect more on what they’ve been asked. Nancy and Warren try to get them to dig
more into the content; really justify what they’re saying and make it really clear.
So it’s not just my eyes that look at their work. The kids see that because other
people can then leave those comments. That’s another part towards encouraging
them toward metacognition; reflecting upon where they are in their learning;
trying to get better at it.
These experts from Ohio, Kentucky, and Michigan, along with student teachers from a
created knowledge with students from another country; all made possible by commenting
on a class blog.
Student Writing
The connection between writing and the use of blogs or wikis was clearly evident.
Every participant chose to use a blog or wiki in order to provide their students with
access to an authentic audience. Every participant did this with the intention of
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influencing student writing, except for one. David did not. David indicated that previous
I hated it. I thought it was such an artificial thing. It was so inauthentic. The whole
idea of a math journal…Journals could be more or less; could be better or worse
in the way that they’re done. But it was mostly, a lot of the talk around
mathematics, it was strained.
While not David’s original intent for using blogs, blogging did impact his students’
writing.
With blogs, it’s just a very natural way to express yourself. What my kids are
writing, they’re writing about the content, what they learned in class that day…So
by having to blog about it on a regular basis, using the language, using the
terminology, and articulating it well enough for an interested learner to learn it as
well; that’s authentic. That’s real. When I started, I didn’t do this to bring writing
into the mathematics’ classroom. That’s not why I started doing it. That’s been a
corollary consequence. It’s not been the main focus. The main focus is learning
the mathematics and articulating what you’ve learned.
Blogs are about the conversation between the writer and the audience. A wiki is
about working together to create a collaborative piece of work. Despite the appearance of
a wiki’s limited audience input, the process of coming to a consensus in order to create a
unified piece of writing requires a great deal of reflection and revision, not just of words
on paper, but ideas, thoughts, and understandings as well. This process plays perfectly
Intent
Teachers often have the choice whether or not to use technology when they design
learning activities. What is it the trigger, the hook, the impetus that brings a teacher to
make that choice? Evidence from this study suggested that the participants’ intent for
using a blog or wiki was in accord with the process used to determine when to use
technology for instructional purposes along with their pedagogical beliefs. This adds a
178
deeper complexity to previous knowledge about the influence of pedagogical beliefs on
Blogs and wikis can potentially offer multiple benefits for students; among them
write, an increased opportunity to write, and a venue for collaboration. As Jeff stated, it is
not a matter of “if you build it, they will come and all will be bright and rosy.” Merely
using these tools does not guarantee benefits to students. It is more like a symphonic
concert. A concert, of course, has musicians and an audience; but it must begin with a
composer. The composer is the designer who determines the style of the music, how the
piece will ultimately sound, at what tempo it will move, and how the solo instrumentation
and accompaniment will meld and compliment one another. All the pieces must work in
concert to create a symphony. In this case, blogs and wikis serve as the instruments.
Students play them for the audience. Without a well written score from the composer-
This study has shown blogs have the ability to stimulate and motivate students to
write. That is only a beginning step. Now it is incumbent upon the instructor to design
activities that are open-ended, involve defining and solving real-world problems in order
The tools are that are here today, like blogs and wikis, will continue to change. However,
the tool is only a device. The intent for the use of the tool is the key not only to how that
tool impacts students and student learning, but the degree of impact as well.
179
Implications
This study did contribute to the current knowledge base of how blogs and wikis
are used for instructional purposes with K-12 students. The results revealed a teacher’s
tool, influenced the intent to use blogs or wikis. Other factors such as audience
participant’s intent to use technology. Awareness of this connection can help in the
teacher's pedagogical beliefs can assist technology trainers to better assess professional
development needs and assist teachers in designing student learning opportunities that are
more aligned with their pedagogical beliefs (Zhao et al., 2001). This may not only better
prepare teachers to use blogs and wikis for instructional purposes and promote the use of
these tools with students, but it may also help to alleviate some resistance that exists
The ability to articulate one's pedagogical beliefs can also impact pre-service
teachers. Teacher educators can assist pre-service teachers as they define, analyze and
reflect on their beliefs about teaching, learning, and the determination to use technology.
This will be extremely important for today’s university students, as they are often huge
technology consumers and producers on a personal level. Despite this familiarity with
technology, they need to learn about technology’s instructional uses and the impact their
A personal awareness of one's pedagogical beliefs can directly impact the design
of instructional technology activities for student instruction as shown in this study. This
harmony between the intent of the activity and the philosophy of the instructor was also
shown to have a positive bearing on the desire to use the activity with future classes.
Being cognizant of one's personal beliefs can enable more informed decisions on the
design of technology activities which can in turn lead to more productive and sustained
use.
Final Thoughts
education; “who runs faster, who arrives first…pitting one medium against another”
technology provides the best outcomes. The race to see which approach comes out on top
only reinforces the concept that technology is the deciding factor. According to Salomon,
it is not the technology alone that makes the difference. It is how it is used.
Perhaps the words of Donald Leu (2000) can best explain the importance of the
findings from this study suggesting a connection between the teacher’s intent to use blogs
and wikis, the determination to use technology, and her pedagogical beliefs.
Technology and the literacies they prompt are changing so quickly that their
importance to our children’s future is often clear before a consistent body of
research evidence appears objectively demonstrating their efficacy… Research
might be better spent exploring issues of how to support teachers’ efforts to
unlock the potentials of new technologies, not demonstrating the learning gains
from technologies we already know will be important to our children’s success at
181
life’s opportunities. If technologies continually change in the years ahead, it may
become increasingly important to study teachers’ envisionments of these
technologies for literacy and learning. Teachers’ envisionments, in a time of rapid
technological change, may be one of the more stable components of literacy
education in the future. (p. 762)
Whether blogs and wikis morph into something new or disappear completely will
not matter in the long run. What will matter is how teachers intend to use tomorrow’s
learning.
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APPENDIX A
CONSENT LETTER
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202
My name is Rena Shifflet. I am a doctoral student at Illinois State University. I am
conducting a qualitative research project in order to gain an understanding of the use of
blogs and wikis with K-12 students. The results of this research project will be used as
the basis of my dissertation in Curriculum and Instruction. I may also present the results
in an academic venue or publish them in a professional journal.
I would like you to participate in this research. Your participation would include being
interviewed one or two times for approximately forty minutes to an hour each time. I’ll
ask you questions about your use of blogs and wikis. I would like to digitally record these
interviews. The reason for recording is so that I can construct a verbatim transcript to use
in analysis. I will delete the recording once I have completed the transcription process. I
would also like to review any public student artifacts created as a result of using blogs
and wikis.
The risks of participating in this are very low. There is a risk of loss of time to participate
in the study and a risk of loss of privacy. To minimize the loss of privacy I will keep
whatever information you provide confidential. The information you provide will not be
identified by your name. I will use a pseudonym in the final report I construct. Only the
researchers in this study will have access to the transcripts and notes. In the final research
report I write, there may be some quotations from the interviews and some descriptions
from my observations of student artifacts, but I will not use your real name and will
protect your identity so that you will experience no adverse effects for your honesty in the
interviews and your willingness to participate.
You may benefit from this research project as you reflect on your purpose and intent for
using blogs and wikis with your students. You may also experience an extrinsic reward of
advancing the knowledge of the instructional use of blogs and wikis for other educators.
Your participation is completely voluntary. There is no penalty for deciding not to
participate. Also, you are free to withdraw from participation at any time, for any reason,
with no penalties of any sort.
If you have any questions about this research or your rights as a participant, please
contact me Rena Shifflet, 309-829-5901, rashiff@ilstu.edu; my professor Dr. Cheri
Toledo, 309-438-3490, catoled@ilstu.edu; or the Illinois State University Research and
Ethics & Compliance, 309-438-8451
I have read and understand the statements above. Typing your name below is evidence
that you consent to the use of your data in this study.
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Scribe: (DABC) Sine/Cosine; Relations and Modes of Representation
Class 1: Morning
To start the class off, we put our thoughts into questions that were written on the board.
1.) On the same cartesian plane, using 2 different colours, sketch at least 2 cycles of:
As Mr. K stated during the class, graphing these functions are as easy as counting from 1-
4. In this example, upon which the graph is in intervals of Π/2, you would label your
scale as Π/2, Π, 3Π/2, and 2Π on the positive side of the x-axis. On the negative side of
the x-axis, you would label the scale with the same values except that they are negative:
-Π/2, -Π, -3Π/2, and -2Π.
There are things to remember when graphing in order to achieve full marks. Some of
which are quite simple:
- label your axis
- add arrows to your axis and your curves
- **make certain that the curve arrows either point up or down, NOT STRAIGHT
Back to the question, there are things that you should notice about the function of Sin(x)
and Cos(x).
- both "wrap" around a line, known as the "sinusoidal axis" or the "average value of the
function"
- Cosine starts at its max value
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- Sine starts at its sinusoidal axis
Exploring further into the concept, we find that we can rewrite the function of Sin(x) in
terms of Cosine, and rewrite the function of Cos(x) in terms of Sine.
NOTE: Π/2 in both of these equations are the phase shift a long the horizontal axis, either
left or right, depending on its sign, which will be discussed further on in this post.
a.) y = Sin(x) - 1
b.) y = -2Sin(x)
Notice that the amplitude, in this case (2) is not negative because amplitudes are
described as distances and therefore should not be negative.
c.) y = 2Sin(x) + 1
In graphing these functions, there are certain steps that may be followed to help make
graphing easier also explained later in this post.
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----------
• f(x) = ASinB(x-C) + D
• f(x) = ACosB(x-C) + D
A- The value of A relates both to the amplitude and whether the function will be inverted
or not over the y-axis. The amplitude (which is the absolute value of A: |A|) of the graph
is the distance from the sinusoidal axis. Its sign influences whether the curve will "flip"
over the y-axis or if it retains its normal position. Further explained later on.
B- Parameter B is not the period of the graph but helps determine the period. This is also
explained further into the class.
D- Parameter D is the sinusoidal axis, average value of the function, or the vertical shift.
----------
Now, having discovered the properties of the transformations, we dive deeper into the
concept and talk about how these variables effect the graph and how graphing can be put
into an easier form of remembering.
Ex. Sin2x
Ex. Sin-2x
• Note: the negative signs do not flip the graph vertically over the x-axis but
horizontally over the y-axis
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**To help us improve our understanding of these examples, we compared them with
Sin(x) on the same Cartesian plane.
Now diving even deeper with this new knowledge, we compare more examples to notice
occurring patterns (mathematics is the study of patterns). We do this by observing
sketches of functions.
Using this mode of representation, we can find the relationship between the value of "B"
and the period.
Now discovering all of this in the first class of the day may be quite a load. However, one
thing that should definitely not be forgotten is the concept of the mnemonic: DABC. At
first, the abbreviation may look unfamiliar. However when you peer closer, you notice
that A, B, C, and D, are part of the transformational equation of Sine and Cosine! DABC
is actually that, except in the form of order upon which can be helpful in remembering
how to sketch trig functions.
D - Is the first step in sketching the graph of a trig function. D is the vertical shift or
sinusoidal axis of the graph and should be found first, as you should know that the graph
"wraps" around the sinusoidal axis.
A - Is the second step in sketching the graph of a trig function. A is the amplitude and
determines the stretch of the graph. Also important about the amplitude is its sign. If it is
negative, the graph appears to be inverted; it flips horizontally over the y-axis. If positive,
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Sine graphs will start at zero, and Cosine graphs will start at its max value, which is one.
B - Is the third step in sketching the graph of a trig function. B represents a factor that
influences the period of the graph. This is used to determine the scale values of the x-
axis.
C - Last but not least, the last step in sketching the graph of a trig function. C represents
the horizontal shift of the graph.
When thinking of graphing one of these monsters, you may curse in the form of DABC
(pronounced: Dah - Bick!). Then all of a sudden, a flash of insight washes over you and
you suddenly remember how to sketch the graph! Isn't that amazing everyone?
Finally, we reached the last couple minutes of a long class (or short?). Mr. K put up an
example, which he ended up sketching quickly on the board:
y= -3Cos2(x - Π/4) + 1
For indication purposes, during the class, Mr. K compared graphing trig functions to the
"etchisketch" which is quite the analogy. He stated that one dial of the etchisketch could
be compared to Sin and the other dial could be compared to Cos. Imagine both of the
dials being turned simultaneously and the result is quite frankly circular functions
displayed in a graphical manner or atleast visual.
Class 2: Afternoon
We started off the afternoon by taking a look at these two previous equations:
f(x) = AsinB(x-C)+D
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f(x) = AcosB(x-C)+D
Ex. y = -2sin3(x+Π/6)+1
• Note: The vertical shift is to the left in this example. The positive sign is due to a
negative value input replacing the variable C. Since the formula has a negative
sign, and the example has a positive sign, the horizontal shift is to the left because
a (-)(-) = (+).
• Note: When solving this equation, for any reason, simply use the order of
operations: BEDMAS
Now having graphed this function, Mr. K talked brought up a great topic. He said that, if
you know how to do something one way in math, you should know how to undo it. So,
that's what we ended up doing. Instead of converting the equation to a graphical mode of
representation, we reversed the method and converted the graphs into symbolic modes of
representation: in the form of an equation.
So you might ask, how do you do that? Well, we started off by find the values ABCD of
the transformational equations of sine or cosine.
Note: For this one graph, there can be a large (when I say large, I mean LARGE) quantity
of equations that when graphed, will all look similar or are exact replicates.
• A= -2
• C= 0 (normal cosine curves start at its max, whiel this graph starts at its min due
210
to the negative amplitude sign)
• D= 1
y=-2cos3x+1
Next we decided to rewrite the equation 3 more times: 2 in terms of cosine, and 1 in
terms of sine.
Sine
• A= 2
• B= 3
• C= Π/6
• D= 1
y=2sin3(x-Π/6) + 1
Cosine1
• A= 2
• B= 3
• C= -Π/3
• D= 1
y=2cos3(x+Π/3) + 1
Cosine2
• A= 2
• B= 3
• C= -Π/3
• D= 1
y=2cos3(x+Π/3) + 1
After all those nice examples, we look at where the quadrants are located in the graph. To
put it short, depending on where your starting point is, the period of the curve is divided
by 4 pieces, quadrant 1, 2, 3, and 4 before repeating itself again.
211
After this, we quickly went over number 15 of exercise #5, and number 12 of exercise #6.
Homework for tonight: Curve sketching posted by Mr. K (so far has not appeared)
Scribe for tomorrow: Bertman! (sorry Sam, Bert asked me first :P)
29 comments:
aichelle s. said...
Good job Timmy, I really like your graphics and use of colour! Everything was
very detailed. =)
Tim_MATH_y said...
thanks! =)
VincentR said...
Good job, Timmy! Way to go! This might have take a whole night of games?!
haha. Anyway, very small amount of grammatical error and the fact that Mr. K.
recommended not to use arabic values to indicate the quadrants. Use roman
numerals instead. Overall, it rocks! HAHA! I'm just curious where you happened
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to construct those perfect graphs. It would hasten a lot of our fellow bloggers
because they're easier to make instead of drawing them free-handedly. Good job
again and see you tomorrow!
Tim_MATH_y said...
wows thanks man! lol i forgot about the roman numerals for quadrant numbering..
bah! well i got the idea from mr.k when i asked him how to make quick graphs.
mr.k showed me the link on our blog called "Mathematics Archives" where mr.k
dug through to find me a list of programs to use. i asked john about it and he
perscribed me graphmatica. i downloaded and used it :), with the help of john and
richard to answer questions about it
Tim_MATH_y said...
This post has been removed by the author.
Tim_MATH_y said...
http://archives.math.utk.edu/software/msdos/
graphing/grmat/.html
Anonymous said...
;)
--sheep
SAMUS said...
SHEEP! you are here! i never see you on anymore. oh so lauressa isnt a big jello
after all. haha. hi sheep =)
VincentR said...
I suggest Timmy's scribe post is inducted to the Hall of Fame because of the fact
that the post entails every detail involved in yesterday's class. Not only that, he
213
also clarified some confusing points. His images and text both contribute to the
quality of the post.
Grey-M said...
I second Vincents motion to have this inducted into the H.o.F. because of the
enormous amount detail this post contains. GJ Timmy.
Tim_MATH_y said...
Kasiaw said...
I cast my vote that Tim-MATH-y's scribe post be inducted into the hall of fame
because it was very detailed and the use of graphs was very helpfil.
e said...
I also think your post is great. I only now had a chance to read it and I don't know
if I can vote, but I'd certainly vote for Hall of Fameness :) I still have to do my
job, which is to ask questions.
2. You said: "A- The amplitude of the graph is the distance from the sinusoidal
axis. Its sign indicates whether the function will be inverted or not over the x-axis,
further explained later on in the class."
Elsewhere in the post you said that A can not be negative as it describes the
distance. Let's consider
f(x)=-7sin(3x+pi/3)+2
What are A, B, C and D in this example?
aichelle s. said...
214
I also think this post should be inducted into the hall of fame because of the
graphics, use of colour incorporated with in the post, and I find I can understand
it.
Tim_MATH_y said...
WoW, great questions. I guess I should try to the best of my abilities to answer
them for you.
1.) Well from the looks of these functions, and considering that this question
seems quite difficult for me to explain, I do believe that they all seem quite
similar, in respect to how they would be drawn on the same cartesian plane.
However, I believe there might be more of a twist to these examples.
a) f(x)=2sin(3)x+5
b) g(x)=2sin(3x)+5
c) h(x)=2sin3x+5?
A= -7
B= 3
C= pi/9
D= 2
f(x)=-7sin(3x+pi/3)+2
f(x)=-7sin3(x+pi/9)+2
Now, taking this information in, I notice that my post has a minor error. The value
of "A" is not the amplitude. However, the value of |A| is the amplitude, and I
believe that is should answer your question.
Lani said...
Hi Tim Math y,
Best,
Lani
Tim_MATH_y said...
=)
e said...
Hi Tim,
I like how you handled 2. I agree that we should allow A to be negative, and that
its absolute value is the amplitude. Nice job.
a) f(x)=2sin(3)x+5
b) g(x)=2sin(3x)+5
c) h(x)=2sin3x+5?
You remember discussion about input and output of functions with grey-m? That
is what the differences above are all about. I can rewrite the functions so that it
would be clearer:
a)f(x)=2sin(3)x+5 = 2*sin(3)*x+5 =
= (2*sin(3))x+5,
so f is really just a linear function with slope 2sin(3) and y-intercept 5. See, here
the input for sine is 3, not 3x (that's why there are parentheses there).
b)g(x)= 2sin(3x)+5
is what you wanted to have, a trig function with A=2, B=3, C=0 and D=5.
c)h(x)=2sin3x+5
I can't tell. I would say that it's same as f, but I think you wanted it to be same as
g. It is in this case ambiguous as to what the input for the sine function is.
e said...
216
Tim,
Mr. K said...
I think this post deserves to be in the Hall Of Fame not only for all the reasons
people before me have mentioned, but also for the conversation that has evolved
in the comments. The difference between y=sin(3)x and y=sin(3x) and the
ambiguity in expressions like y=sin3x may seem small but are quite significant.
As e has pointed out, one is a line and the other is a wave the last is ...? Very
different functions.
Tim_MATH_y said...
Haha!
Well, for starters, I knew there was a twist with those examples! Especially
example(a) of question 1 because I actually graphed all three of the functions and
found that it was linear. That put quite the suspicion in my mind but I did not
quite know how to explain what I was seeing.
Thank you for pointing out the differences of the three examples, It definitely
filled some gaps.
Now for number 2.. hrm.. I think that you are trying to hint upon something about
this question.
Ricky said...
217
Oh, I totally forgot to vote tim-math-y's scibe into the hall of fame. Ok I formally
want to vote tim-math-y's scribe into the hall of fame because of his excellent
details on solving each and every question and his excellent visuals and finally for
his rational to be able to do the scribe while avoiding video games. Excellent
Work Tim-Math-Y
«Craig» said...
Well, I would have to say HALL OF FAME!!! I really got to experience the full
use of the Scribe Post. I was not present for this class, but I really felt I was
"there" after reading this scribe. The explanations were so detailed and were
exactly how I think Mr. K. would present them. The graphics were stunning and
the work was displayed nicely. Plus it was about as long as a Math class anyways.
LOL
«Craig» said...
Wow, I just counted, Tim-Math-y is in the 'Scribe Hall of Fame' with 9 votes!!!
e said...
You graphed the functions I gave you? Nice job, I wouldn't have thought to do
that. I learned something, too. Use technology more often :) But I am definitely
glad that you wanted an explanation, too! We'll talk more, I'm sure.
Tim_MATH_y said...
Nice! Thank you all for voting my scribe post into the Hall of Fame!
(Hononored). Wow, 26 comments! Awesome!
=)
Kina said...
Hey! I don't know why you have made this blog thing, but I'm a trigonometry
student and the way my teacher tries to teach us trig just is NOT working. And i
googled some of it to get some definitions and your blog just made
EVERYTHING click. GAH thank you SO much, sosososo much. This is amazing
and I'm going to ace my next test cuz of you.
Tim_MATH_y said...
Wow! I don't know much to say! I'm glad that my scribe post has really enriched
your knowledge of trig!
218
Knowing that my scribe post has helped someone like you really makes me feel
great =). Thanks!
219
220
Class Survey from David’s Mathematics Class
BITTERSWEET
I'm sure everyone is thinking the same thing, "Math is FINALLY done! OH
YEAH!" that's great and all but when you stop to think about it, math was really
fun. I really had fun in that class, I can honestly say that it's the best class I've
had ever. Math was actually fun because I had my friends and everyone else
there was friendly and helpful. We worked as a class and everyone got along
well. We fought in class but that was all based on math, that's how we learned.
It's sweet that we don't have to worry about math now, however it's bitter
because everyone made math bearable! It was like fun and math put together,
didn't think that there was such a thing. Well, I'm going to miss this class the
most. Good luck with you all!
(Bittersweet was posted by a student)
The exam is over and we did a little survey in class. The results are below; 27 students
participated. If you'd like to add another comment on what you see here email me or
leave a comment below this post.
Without any further ado, here are the results of our class's survey. Please share your
thoughts by commenting (anonymously if you wish) below .....
Classroom Environment
The questions in this section were ranked using this 5-point scale:
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4 5
The bold numbers after each item are the average ratings given by the entire class.
1. The teacher was enthusiastic about teaching the course. 4.89
2. The teacher made students feel welcome in seeking help in/outside of class. 4.52
3. My interest in math has increased because of this course. 3.70
4. Students were encouraged to ask questions and were given meaningful answers. 4.74
5. The teacher enhanced the class through the use of humour. 4.56
6. Course materials were well understood and explained clearly by the teacher. 4.15
7. Graded materials fairly represented student understanding and effort. 4.16
(This question was answered by 26 students.)
8. The teacher showed a genuine interest in individual students. 4.19
221
1. Compared with other high school courses I have taken, I would say this course was:
4.30
2. Compared with other high school teachers I have had, I would say this teacher is: 4.78
3. As an overall rating, I would say this teacher is: 4.70
Course Characteristics
1. Course difficulty, compared to other high school courses:
Very Easy Easy Average Difficult Very Difficult
0% 4% 22% 59% 15%
0 to 2 2 to 3 3 to 5 5 to 7 over 7
15% 37% 15% 26% 7%
F D C B A
11% 15% 37% 37% 0%
Specific Feedback
[Ed. Note: Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of students, over 1, that gave the
same answer.]
What was your best learning experience in this course?
Learning other things in life that involved math (3)
The Blog (16)
Workshop Classes (6)
Developing Expert Voices Project (11)
222
What changes would you suggest to improve the way this course is taught?
teach slower
teacher gets off topic and makes me lose motivation
teacher sometimes wordy explaining different concepts
bring back Go For Gold
lighten the homework load
give tests back ASAP (4)
ask and solve questions consistently; not in different ways
more group work (2)
more math jokes
more review before the exam
none (4)
start semester with a test on previous knowledge
give more notes instead of just lecturing
223
It's interesting to compare the items that were considered both the worst and best learning
experiences. Also, take a look at the list of worst learning experiences compared to
suggestions for next year. Help me do a better job next year by commenting on what you
see here ....