Concrete Bridges
Contents
3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 15 15 Introduction Function and elegance Built to last Versatility Fast construction Sustainable bridge design High performance concrete Case studies Conclusion References
Concrete Bridges
Introduction
Bridge design and construction is a challenging and exciting field, calling for creativity and ingenuity to deliver beautiful, robust and durable structures that will stand the test of time, allowing people, vehicles and trains and sometimes even boats to cross streets, roads, railways, rivers, valleys and estuaries.
More bridges are built using concrete than any other material worldwide. Indeed, following its introduction as a widespread construction material, and the pioneering work by the French bridge engineer Freyssinet during the early years of the last century, concrete has been an increasingly popular choice for bridge construction. Today, concrete continues to be used in mass, reinforced and prestressed applications to deliver a wide range of different substructure and superstructure bridge forms. The growing number of concrete bridges in use on every continent demonstrates continued confidence in the materials performance and durability. Concrete bridges worldwide have a clear track record of flexibility and versatility in terms both of final forms and methods of construction that is hard to match. As the material science develops, so does the potential for concrete bridges. Recent advances in both concrete and bridge construction technologies afford the bridge owner, designer and constructor better value, reliability and safety than ever before. New developments in high strength concrete offer engineers the ability to span longer distances and to produce ever more economic designs. Concrete brings many construction advantages to any project. Its intrinsic durability, versatility, mouldability and economy coupled with its availability as a locally sourced material (there is generally a concrete ready-mix concrete plant within six radial miles of every construction site in the country) means that concrete is the natural material of choice for bridge structures. Universally applicable, in-situ concrete is readily obtainable and easily incorporated into all bridge components from foundation piles to feature finishes. Additionally, many bridge components can be precast in factory conditions, ensuring that they are both precision engineered and quick to erect when delivered to site. Concrete can easily meet societys demands for improved sustainability, with a production process that can use recycled aggregates and blended cements containing industrial by-products. Additionally, many owning and maintaining authorities are becoming increasingly conscious of the significant costs and disruption caused by routine maintenance over the life-cycle of bridges. The considerable advances made in concrete technology and structural detailing provide enhanced durability, attractively reducing maintenance burdens. This guide explores the reasons why concrete is the material of choice for bridge construction. It is aimed at all members of the bridge design team from clients to bridge designers and constructors. The information included encapsulates current best practice guidance on concrete design for bridges, and concrete bridge construction methods. Bridge case studies also demonstrate some innovative uses of concrete and explain the benefits brought to the projects.
Cover images: Main picture: A1 Tyne bridge, Scotland. Courtesy of Scott Wilson. Inset image, top: Kildare bridge, Ireland. Inset image, bottom: Sunniberg bridge, Switzerland.
Striking features
Concrete can be moulded into any shape by using appropriate formwork. This capability can be used to provide bespoke design solutions to resolve specific constraints and deliver visual impact. Alongside design potential, the architectural surface finishes that can be created provide the opportunity for architectural expression to blend with structural integrity. Concrete surface finishes add to the overall visual impact of any bridge project, while at the same time eliminating the need for cladding or painting thereby reducing ongoing maintenance requirements.
Concrete bridges consistently win awards. The Supreme Award Winner of the Structural Awards 2006, presented by the Institution of Structural Engineers, went to Sungai Prai Bridge, Malaysia.
Concrete Bridges
Built to last
Records can trace early use of concrete to as long ago as 7000BC. It was regularly used by the ancient Egyptians, with current research put forward by the Department of Materials Science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology arguing that the top levels at least of the great Pyramids at Giza were formed from cast in situ concrete. Moving forward within the ancient world, the Roman Emperor Hadrian used concrete to build the famous wide span concrete domed roof over the Pantheon in Rome in around 118 to 126 AD. The physical evidence is there for all to see, handed down to us throughout history to confirm that concrete has proved itself to be a very durable construction material. Concrete mixes for high durability A number of national and European design standards and specifications(e.g. BS 5400, BD57/01, BS 8500 and BS EN 206) [3, 1, 4, 5] set out the requirements for concrete construction, identifying the required cover to reinforcement, cement content, water/cement ratio and cement type. Following these recommendations will ensure that the concrete is resistant to carbonation and chloride ingress, providing an extended working life. Concrete is a very appropriate construction material to use on projects where the structure is to be subjected to unusually aggressive ground conditions. High quality, low permeability mix designs are available that will provide a resilient performance within the most challenging environments. UK and European standards for concrete, BS 8500 and BS EN 206, recognise concretes potential in difficult environments, setting out minimum cement content, maximum water/cement ratios and cement types to protect against sulfates and acids in the ground. The partial substitution of Portland cement with fly ash (fa) or ground granulated blast furnace slag (ggbs) in the mix results in concretes with high resistance to the ingress of chlorides from de-icing salts or sea water. Innovation has led to development of modern forms of concrete that is free from any risk of alkali-silica reaction (ASR). ASR was a rare occurrence found in a few early concrete bridges. In modern concrete, ASR is prevented at the outset through the proper use of materials at the concrete mix design stage. Minimising maintenance Well designed and constructed concrete bridges require only minimum maintenance to keep them in good working condition. CIRIA Guide C543 [2] contains good practice recommendations for designing concrete bridges to minimise maintenance and ensure longevity. Particular attention should be paid to detailing the secondary elements of bridge structures, such as bearings and expansion joints. Integral construction, where the substructure is built monolithically with the bridge deck, should be adopted where possible to ensure maximum resilience and robust performance. An alternative option to integral construction is to design inspection galleries into the structure, to permit checking and maintenance of bearings and expansion joints throughout the life of the bridge.
Concrete Bridges
Versatility
Concrete bridges come in all shapes and sizes. Designs can meet whatever functional, aesthetic and economic criteria are appropriate to the site location and needs of the client.
There are a number of different types of bridge decks (the top surface of a bridge which carries the traffic) for designers to choose from. The range of options means that there will always be a few deck options to consider for any one site. Bridges can be categorised in terms of span range. The current limits to span ranges, shown in Figure 1, should only be treated as guidelines, as the codes of practice adopted for loading and structural design in conjunction with material availability will alter the upper bound span ranges. The advance of material, design and construction technologies are also likely to further increase these ranges over time.
DECK TYPE
RC solid slab RC voided slab Prestressed voided slab
(Internal bonded)
SPAN RANGES/M
Span by Span
(Supported on scaffolding)
PRECAST
Inverted T beams cast into slab M,U and Y beams with deck slab Segmental balanced cantilever
(Erected by crane)
Definite range
Arches are perhaps the oldest form of bridge construction. They can be adopted over a large range of spans.
ARCHES
Slab bridge decks are useful for short spans. Designed with either solid or voided slabs, they are usually constructed with insitu concrete using traditional formwork and falsework systems.
Concrete Bridges
Beam bridges can be quick to erect over existing roads, railways or rivers. Standard precast beam types can cater for spans of up to 50m.
BEAM BRIDGES
Box girders are used for spans from 40m up to 300m using either in-situ or precast concrete segmental construction. Box girders produce elegant and robust solutions.
BOX GIRDERS
Extrados bridges are a hybrid between a conventional box girder deck and a cable stayed bridge. A stiff deck is supported by cables at a shallow inclination from short pylons.
EXTRADOS BRIDGES
Cable stayed bridges are appropriate for longer spans. They can be designed for a huge range of span and cable configurations.
Concrete Bridges
Fast construction
The demands of clients and the very nature of the fast moving construction industry continually mean project targets are set for bridges where speed of construction is of the essence. Adequate pre-planning, precasting of elements and the use of appropriate technology in design and construction can make concrete the cheapest and fastest material for constructing durable, quality bridges. A number of techniques are commonly used to achieve fast construction.
Chartist Bridge, Sirhowy Enterprise Way, Wales. Courtesy of The Concrete Society.
Broadmeadow Estuary Bridge, Ireland. The designers were able to take full advantage of the good early strength properties of concrete.
Concrete Bridges
Off-site manufacture Construction time on-site can be reduced by precasting the concrete elements either in a factory or alongside the bridge site. Examples of this include precasting of complete structural elements or prefabrication of reinforcement cages. When working on rail lines where access times are restricted, complete deck elements can be manufactured and slid, lifted or rolled into place. The designer will play an important role in the development of such methods. Sliding, launching and transporting Bridges can be launched, slid or moved into place using multi-wheeled transporters. This is a technique often used to minimise disruption to road and rail networks during bridge replacement or installation. The forward launching of concrete bridge decks can be especially economic when the total deck length is more than about 200m. The process lends itself to any construction that is high, or over difficult or obstructed ground, such as roads, railways or rivers. An alternative construction option for challenging locations is a cast in situ concrete bridge formed using an appropriate falsework. Jacked boxes Precast concrete box culverts and pipes can be jacked beneath existing embankments, removing the need to close the road or railway above to construct a traditional bridge. Larger concrete box structures, suitable for vehicular traffic, can also be jacked through embankments. The boxes are formed in adjacent casting areas and
then pushed into the embankment using suitable jacking points. A steel or concrete shield is used to support the advancing front face beneath the embankment, while anti-drag systems reduce friction between the box and the soil. Modular bridges The modular bridge system combines features of steel-concrete composite, precast concrete beam, in-situ and segmental schemes into a solution that can deliver the highest value for the majority of bridge locations of medium-span bridges, usually in the span range of 15m to 50m. The modular system consists of relatively light, 2.5m long, precast concrete shell units that can be easily transported to site for assembly. Permanent prestressing cables are then placed within the precast elements and covered by in-situ concrete to provide the protection required. The construction methodology can be varied to suit specific bridge sites and demands of the project programme. Varying span lengths, carriageway widths, horizontal and vertical curvatures and skew can be readily accommodated by the match-cast shell units to provide an elegant solution for medium span bridges.
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Concrete Bridges
The UK is highly self-sufficient in the materials needed for concrete and there is generally a ready-mix plant within six radial miles of every construction site in the country.
Concrete Bridges
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Table 1: Embodied energy (Gj/m2) for various structural forms and materials [7]
Energy Minimum
Steel 17.8 30.9 49.8 40.3 23.5 39.3 61.9 50.6 30.8 49.3 75.6 62.6
Concrete 15.7 / 16.6 23.6 38.8 34.3 21.1 / 22.1 30.6 49.1 43.9 28.1 / 28.6 39.1 60.9 54.8
Composite 16.6 29.1 48.8 37.7 22.1 37.0 60.8 47.7 29.2 46.6 74.4 59.3
Average
Maximum
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Concrete Bridges
Concrete Bridges
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The Confederation Bridge in Canada used high-performance concrete to resist the corrosive action of salt water.
The Flintshire (Dee Estuary) Bridge utilised concrete with strengths up to 70N.
High strength concrete High strength concrete is continually innovating. In the 1950s 34N/mm2 was considered high strength, building up to compressive strengths of up to 52N/mm2 being used commercially in the 1960s. More recently, it has become standard practice for precast beam manufacturers to adopt 70N/mm2 concretes an industry development welcomed by bridge designers because of the permitted increased spans. A number of bridges have now been constructed with ultra high strength concrete which can achieve compressive strengths of up to 225N/mm2. High workability concrete The concrete used in bridgeworks will frequently be specified to have high workability. This flexibility enables placing in the complex shapes and congested details that may be encountered in a bridge of any size. The workability of fresh concrete should be suitable for each specific application to ensure that the operations of handling, placing and compaction can be undertaken efficiently. European and UK standards for concrete, BS 8500 and BS EN 206, give guidance on workability for different uses. The handling and placing of concrete mixes can be considerably improved by the use of cement replacement materials such as fly ash or ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Admixtures such as water reducers and superplasticisers also have beneficial effects on workability without compromising the concretes other properties. Lightweight concrete Lightweight concrete can be produced using a variety of lightweight aggregates, originating from the thermal treatment of natural raw materials, such as clay, slate or shale, and manufacture from industrial by-products such as fly ash. The benefits of using lightweight concrete in bridge design and construction include a reduction in dead loads (which generates savings in foundations and reinforcement), a saving in transporting and handling precast units on site and a reduction in formwork and propping [10].
No-fines concrete No-fines concrete is used behind bridge abutments and in verges. It is obtained by eliminating material from the normal concrete mix. The single sized coarse aggregates are instead surrounded and held together by a thin layer of cement paste to give the concrete its strength. The advantages of no-fines concrete include lower density, lower cost due to lower cement content, lower thermal conductivity, lower drying shrinkage, no segregation and capillary movement of water. No-fines concrete also gives better insulating characteristics than conventional concrete because of the presence of large voids. Self-compacting concrete Self-compacting concrete (SCC) usually contains superplasticisers and stabilisers in order to significantly increase the ease and rate of flow. By its very nature, SCC does not require vibration. It achieves compaction into every part of the mould or formwork simply by means of its own weight without any segregation of the coarse aggregate. This construction benefit makes it an ideal material for bridge construction. Developed in Japan and continental Europe, SCC is now being increasingly used in the UK where it offers faster bridge construction times, giving increased workability and ease of flow around heavy reinforcement. It also provides health and safety benefits as there is no need for vibrating equipment which spares workers from exposure to vibration, and also results in quieter bridge construction sites. Water resistant concrete Water resistant concrete repels the water and other fluids either above or below ground. It is a high density concrete that incorporates fine particle cement replacements, hydrophobic pore blocking ingredients or waterproofing admixtures.
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Concrete Bridges
Case studies
Upper Forth Crossing at Kincardine, Scotland
Launched bridge
This 26-span bridge, weighing over 32,000 tonnes and measuring 1.2 kilometres in length, is the second longest incrementally launched concrete bridge in the world. The design and construct contractor constructed the bridge deck on line in a construction yard established on the northern shore of the Forth at Kincardine. The completed bridge was jacked forward incrementally span by span over the river, using two 600 tonne hydraulic jacks. The contractor incorporated many innovative solutions in the design and construction, including the use of large steel cased reinforced concrete monopiles for the marine piers and partial prestressing of the concrete deck with external tendons to share the loading between the prestressing and longitudinal reinforcement. The availability of a disused power station site lent itself to the deployment of the incremental bridge launching methodology, enabling the new crossing to be constructed with minimal impact on the internationally important wildlife reserves around the Upper Forth.
Concrete Bridges
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Conclusion
With over 100 years of history, concrete bridges are an established part of the UKs rural and urban landscape. Looking ahead, concrete bridge construction should continue to lead the way in the future, enabling aspirations embraced by the construction industry and society to create a more sustainable environment.
Using local resources sourced from within the immediate local environment helps bridge designers and contractors to deliver sustainable concrete solutions for a wide range of bridge applications. Durability, aesthetics, economic solutions, simplified construction and rapid deployment techniques all contribute to making concrete the best construction material for any bridge project, whatever the size, form or intended use. Greater construction flexibility can be realised through the many forms of concrete easily available nationwide, making concrete an adaptable resource suitable for deployment for even the most challenging of bridge types or construction sites.
References
1. Highways Agency: BD 57/01 Departmental Standard, Design for Durability, Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Vol. 1, Section 3, Part 74, Department of Transport, 2001 2. Report C543 - Bridge Detailing Guide, Construction Industry Research and Information Association, 2001 3. BS EN 206-1:2000: Concrete. Specification, performance, production and conformity, British Standards Institute, 2006 4. BS 5400: Steel, concrete and composite bridges Part 4: Code of practice for design of concrete bridges, British Standards Institute,1990 5. BS 8500: Concrete Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1, British Standards Institute, 2006 6. Key Issue: Climate Change, British Cement Association, 2006 7. Collings, D., An environmental comparison of bridge forms, Proc. ICE, Bridge Engineering, Vol 159, Issue BE4, 2006 8. TR63 Guidance for the Design of Steel-Fibre-Reinforced Concrete, CCIP-017, The Concrete Society, 2007 9. TR65 Guidance on the use of Macro-synthetic Fibre Reinforced Concrete, CCIP-021, The Concrete Society, 2007 10. Guide to the use of Lightweight Concrete in Bridges, CCIP-015, The Concrete Bridge Development Group, 2006
Further reading
The following Cement and Concrete Industry Publications (CCIPs) are available to provide further information on the use of concrete in bridge construction. For more information on these and other publications, visit The Concrete Centres website at www.concretecentre.com/publications Fast Construction of Concrete Bridges, CBDG/014 TG5, The Concrete Bridge Development Group, 2005 Guide to the use of Self-Compacting Concrete in Bridges, CCIP-003, The Concrete Bridge Development Group, 2005 High Strength Concrete in Bridge Construction, CCIP-002, The Concrete Bridge Development Group, 2005 Guidance on the Assessment of Concrete Bridges, CCIP-024, The Concrete Bridge Development Group, 2007 Modular Precast Concrete Bridges, CCIP-028, The Concrete Bridge Development Group, due 2009 Guidance on the use of Precast Concrete Arch Structures, CCIP 035, The Concrete Bridge Development Group, due 2009
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