Types oI pavements

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1. Flexible pavement
2. Rigid pavement
Flexible pavement:
Are those pavements which reIlect the deIormation oI subgrade and
the subsequent layers to the surIace.
Rigid pavement:
The rigid characteristic oI the pavement are associated with rigidity
or Ilexural strength or slab action so the load is distributed over a
wide area oI subgrade soil.
Flexible pavement: DeIinition
Are those pavements which reIlect the deIormation oI subgrade and the subsequent layers to the
surIace. Flexible, usually asphalt, is laid with no reinIorcement or with a specialized Iabric
reinIorcement that permits limited Ilow or repositioning oI the roadbed under ground changes.
The design oI Ilexible pavement is based on load distributing characteristic oI the component
layers. The black top pavement including water & gravel bound macadam Iall in this category.
Flexible pavement on the whole has low or negligible Ilexible strength Ilexible in their
structural action). The Ilexible pavement layers transmit the vertical or compressive stresses to
the lower layers by grain transIer through contact points oI granular structure.
The vertical compressive stress is maximum on the pavement surIace directly under the wheel
load and is equal to contact pressure under the wheels. Due to the ability to distribute the stress
to large area in the shape oI truncated cone the stresses get decreased in the lower layer.
As such the Ilexible pavement may be constructed in a number oI layers and the top layer has
to be strongest as the highest compressive stresses.
To be sustained by this layer, in addition to wear and tear, the lower layer have to take up only
lesser magnitude oI stress as there is no direct wearing action die to traIIic loads, thereIore
inIerior material with lower cast can be used in the lower layers.
Rigid pavement: DeIinition
The rigid characteristic oI the pavement are associated with rigidity or Ilexural strength or slab
action so the load is distributed over a wide area oI subgrade soil. Rigid pavement is laid in slabs
with steel reinIorcement.
The rigid pavements are made oI cement concrete either plan, reinIorced or prestressed
concrete.
Critical condition oI stress in the rigid pavement is the maximum Ilexural stress occurring in
the slab due to wheel load and the temperature changes.
Rigid pavement is designed and analyzed by using the elastic theory.

Advantages oI Rigid Pavement
1. Rigid lasts much, much longer i.e 30 years compared to 5-10 years oI Ilexible
pavements.
2. In the long run it is about halI the cost to install and maintain. But the initial costs are
somewhat high.
3. Rigid pavement has the ability to bridge small imperIections in the subgrade.
4. Less Maintenance cost and Continuous TraIIic and Flow.
5. High eIIiciency in terms oI Iunctionality
Comparison oI Flexible and Rigid Pavement
1. DeIormation in the sub grade is
transIerred to the upper layers
2. Design is based on load distributing
characteristics oI the component
layers
3. Have low Ilexural strength
4. Load is transIerred by grain to grain
contact
5. Have low completion cost but
repairing cost is high
6. Have low liIe span
7. SurIacing cannot be laid directly on
the sub grade but a sub base is
needed
8. No thermal stresses are induced as
the pavement have the ability to
contract and expand Ireely
9. Thats why expansion joints are not
needed
10.Strength oI the road is highly
dependent on the strength oI the sub
grade
11.Rolling oI the surIacing is needed
12.Road can be used Ior traIIic within
24 hours
13.Force oI Iriction is less DeIormation
1. DeIormation in the subgrade is not
transIerred to subsequent layers
2. Design is based on Ilexural strength or
slab action
3. Have high Ilexural strength
4. No such phenomenon oI grain to grain
load transIer exists
5. Have low repairing cost but completion
cost is high
6. LiIe span is more as compare to Ilexible
7. SurIacing can be directly laid on the sub
grade
8. Thermal stresses are more vulnerable to
be induced as the ability to contract and
expand is very less in concrete
9. Thats why expansion joints are needed
10.Strength oI the road is less dependent on
the strength oI the sub grade
11.Rolling oI the surIacing in not needed
12.Road cannot be used until 14 days oI
curing
13.Force oI Iriction is high
in the sub grade is not transIerred to
the upper layers.

WEARING COURSE (now reIerred to as SURFACE COURSE)

The WEARING COURSE (surIace course) is the top layer oI the ROAD PAVEMENT and as
such is (usually, but not always) designed to be impervious to the ingress oI water, have an even,
(N.B. "even" NOT smooth) RUNNING SURFACE, be durable, and have a high resistance to
skidding, and be chosen so as not to deIorm under the weight oI traIIic appropriate to the road.

Note, the designing oI wearing courses to be impervious is becoming less oI a Ieature with
"modern" wearing courses, especially with "THIN SURFACINGS".
The very "thinness" oI some proprietary materials and their open graded nature to provide
texture oI the "negative" kind and a claimed reduced noise running surIace mean that you can no
longer rely upon the wearing course to prevent water entering the road Iabric.
I have included HRA wearing course as the surIacing material in this example because I still
believe this material to give the best "whole liIe costing" where noise is not a serious Iactor in
the road design.
You always have the option oI using a 14mm precoat to reduce noise generated by the action oI
the tyre on the road surIace.


INTRODUCTION
When you read much oI what I write on surIace dressing it may seem a daunting process, with
possible dire consequences, so you may Iind it strange to hear that I like the process oI surIace
dressing. It is a most cost eIIective process, and a well established surIace dressing provides an
impervious, durable and saIe road surIace. But, it has got to be perIormed correctly on suitable
existing road surIaces, and the more people know about the process the more successIul it is
likely to be.
It is also likely that as much as 75 oI roads in rural counties, and this will include some
principal "A" roads, are likely to be well established surIace dressings that the motoring public
no longer associate with the somewhat "unpopular" initial laying process.
It would certainly be a lot less "unpopular" iI ALL members oI the motoring public would help
by abiding by the advisory speed limits at the time oI, and soon aIter, laying.
Probably the biggest rule oI surIace dressing is not to surIace dress sites that are not suitable Ior
surIace dressing.
But this type oI decision is part oI highways maintenance, not just relevant to surIace dressing,
i.e. you would not put a thin, paver laid, bituminous mixture surIacing on a road that had
underlying structural weakness, not iI you wanted it to obtain "best value", as the process would
be expensive and its' liIe would be short.
SurIace dressing is deIinitely not a "slap dash" process as most oI the general motoring public
perceive it, there is a great deal oI engineering knowledge and practice that is combined together
to produce a successIul surIace dressing.
This page is a concise bringing together oI the Iundamentals oI the surIace dressing process, Ior
a more in depth description/explanation oI the process access the,
Practical Guide to SurIace Dressing, where the process is discussed in some depth, and a list oI
publications where you can obtain a large amount oI Iurther inIormation press
CT (SURFACE DRESSING)
sing is to create a stable mosaic oI chippings securely attached to the road surIace.
ing the correct amount oI bitumen onto the road surIace Iollowed by the appropriate amount oI the
ccording to the soItness oI the road surIace.
d the hardness oI the road surIace, and you know the amount and type oI traIIic, you need to
9 to design the appropriate dressing Ior the site.
on Ior single-sized aggregate Ior surIace dressing.
'' e.g. grading, Ilakiness index, aggregate strength.

Most aggregate properties (polished stone value, PSV, aggregate crushing value, ACV,
aggregate abrasion value, AAV) will be related to site conditions, e.g. amount, weight and speed
oI traIIic coupled with the characteristics oI the actual site, e.g. tight bends approaches to
junctions etc.
This process does allow the most economic use oI high speciIication (high PSV) aggregate on
perceived potential accident areas where the process is suitable, i.e. bends on roads in rural
areas.
Guidance on the required properties oI the aggregate Ior a particular site can now be Iound in the
latest edition oI,
TRL Road Note 39, ( the 6th. Edition was published early in 2008, keep up to date with this
publication )
and,
Design Manual Ior Roads and Brides - Volume 7:Pavement Design and Maintenance - Section
5:SurIacing and SurIacing Materials - HD 36/99:Part 1:SurIacing materials Ior new and
pavement construction, (in particular, Tables 3.1, and 3.2)

The image above shows the edge oI a surIace dressing application, showing the
original surIace, the sprayed layer oI bitumen binder, and the applied layer oI
surIace dressing chippings, in this case 6mm. chippings.
The surIace course receiving the surIace dressing in this case is a hot rolled
asphalt (HRA) and 20mm. precoats, and although this small area is in good
condition the surIacing was oI some age, over 15 years old, and the overall
surIace was starting to Iret but without serious Iailure oI the matrix oI the 40mm.
layer. ThereIore surIace dressing is the appropriate coat eIIective maintenance process to seal
and bind the Iretting surIace, and iI applied at the correct time to provide another 10 years oI liIe
Irom this surIacing material.
Some would question the use oI 6mm. chippings, but in this case the surIace had a high rate oI
spread oI 20mm precoats, and had been in place Ior 15 years without any sign oI wheel tracking.
So you did not really even have to perIorm the hardness test, to know this was a hard surIace and
that there would be little embedment oI chippings.
However the penetration/hardness test was perIormed and conIirmed it as being a hard surIace,
with 6mm. chippings being an option.
II the surIace course material matrix, i.e. the HRA, continued to retain its durability the 6mm.
surIace dressing could be used as a "pad coat" Ior a larger chipping in the Iuture.
You could have chosen a 10mm. racked in 3mm. iI you wished, but we regarded the increased
cost as unnecessary.
10MM racked in 3mm. would not have been wrong but may cause vehicle tyres to generate
slightly more noise.
The organisation that I worked Ior had done serious trials/research to indicate that 6mm. surIace
dressing on roads with good ride quality was a surIace that was amongst the "best" surIaces Ior
causing lower levels oI tyre generated noise.

SPRAYING BINDER
The binder is sprayed either as cutback bitumen, or more usually as a bitumen emulsion.
Spray bars are becoming more and more automated with regard to spraying width, but there are
still a lot oI sprayers about where the spraying width is controlled by the operator manually
switching individual spray nozzles, on the spray bar, on and oII to achieve the correct spraying
width.
The rate oI spray Irom the spray bar will be at a constant rate dependent upon the viscosity /
grade oI the particular binder and the temperature and pressure in the tank holding the bitumen.
Actual rate oI spread oI binder deposited on the road will be dependent upon the Iorward speed
oI the sprayer.

THE BINDER (BITUMEN EMULSION or CUTBACK BITUMEN)

BS 434:Part 1 : SpeciIication Ior bitumen road emulsions.
Composition and properties oI emulsions, including those used Ior surIace dressing.

BS 3690:Part 1 : SpeciIication Ior bitumens Ior roads and other paved areas.
Composition and properties oI bitumens, including cut-back bitumen Ior surIace dressing.

Note (1)
BS EN 12591 : 2000 : Bitumen and bituminous binders : SpeciIication Ior paving grade
bitumens ,
has superseded BS 3690, but reIerence to BS 3690 may still be present in some contract
documents.

SURFACE DRESSING CHIPPINGS
The chippings need to be oI the correct size appropriate to the soItness oI the road surIace and
the nature oI the traIIic that drives over the road. (Consult Road Note 39)
It is also most important that you select the aggregate source Irom which the chippings are
produced to provide the required Polished Stone Vale (PSV) and the Aggregate Abrasion Value
(AAV), these values will depend upon the speed oI the traIIic on the length oI the road, the
nature oI the site (e.g. tight bends), and the type oI traIIic.

Note (2)
II you have not yet acquainted yourselves with the change in the way surIace dressing chippings
are speciIied I Ieel you should do so as quickly as possible.
With the introduction oI,
BS EN 13043 : 2002 : Aggregates Ior bituminous mixtures and surIace treatments Ior roads,
airIields and other traIIicked areas
and
PD 6682-2 : 2003 : Aggregates - Part 2 : Aggregates Ior bituminous mixtures and surIace
treatments Ior roads, airIields and other traIIicked areas - Guidance on the use oI BS EN 13043,
replacing BS 63, although BS 63 was withdrawn in June 2004, it has brought a signiIicant
potential change in the nature oI the chippings you could be receiving, especially with regard to
increased amounts oI "oversize" chippings.
DEPOT TRAY TEST (Know the amount oI binder you are spraying, and its evenness oI
distribution.)

This is the depot tray test where the sprayer is run Ior one minute at standard temperature and
pressure settings, in to the main tray which consists oI a number oI individual and separate
long narrow strips. By dipping each strip the evenness oI distribution can be determined and
by addition oI all individual dips, and knowing the tray dimensions, the overall rate oI
discharge oI the spray bar can be Iound.
Click here Ior up to date pictures showing that this test is still used today.
B.S. 1707 : Hot binder distributors Ior road surIace dressing.
Gives deIinition oI what is required on the binder "sprayer'' to IulIill speciIication, details oI
Depot Tray Test, sampling recording sheets, etc..
However I believe the Depot Tray Test is soon to be discontinued as British Standard, see
Note(1) above, so I am no longer too sure how you obtain Binder Sprayer certiIication /
accreditation.
It is necessary to know the rate oI discharge oI the spray bar Ior each grade oI binder it is
proposed to use so that you can establish a "speed chart" Ior the sprayer to achieve particular
amounts oI binder sprayed on each square metre.

Speed (metres per min.) rate oI binder delivery in litres per min. / |spray width (metres) x
binder depth (mms.)|
Example :-
Speed (metres per min.) 215 litres per minute
---------------------
|2.134 metres x 1.2mms.|

84 metres per minute
N.B. 1 litre per sq. metre 1.0mm. depth oI binder , 1.5 litres per sq. metre 1.5mm. depth oI
binder , ETC.
A test to replace the depot try test is the carpet tile test, although the carpet tile is now an
absorbent pad, this is a test perIormed on site and reduces the amount oI time the sprayer is not
actually spraying, personally I preIer the Depot Tray Test.

SPREADING CHIPPINGS
This method oI spreading the chippings means you can still be traveling Iorward, and with the
wheels oI the spreader traveling over chippings not bitumen.

SPREADING CHIPPINGS
The chipping spreader actually tows the lorry containing the chippings and the chippings are
slowly discharged into the hopper oI the chipping spreader.
They are then conveyed up to the spreading mechanism and spread onto the bitumen in Iront oI
the spreader wheels.
There are still a Iew "tailgate" spreaders which are actually attached to the back oI the lorries
that transport the chippings.
The lorry has to travel continually in reverse with an operative walking by the side oI the
tailgate controlling the rate oI discharge with a ratchet mechanism attached to the tailgate.
This is not a particularly accurate way oI controlling the rate oI spread oI chippings.


EXAMPLE OF A SUCCESSFUL 6MM.DRESSING
The image to the leIt is a photograph oI a successIul 6mm. surIace dressing, about one year aIter
dressing, click the image to produce an enlargement.
I hope that you will notice that the use oI a "good" 6mm. chipping does produce signiIicant
macrotexture, but do not Iail to choose a chipping oI appropriate polished stone value (PSV),
and appropriate aggregate abrasion (AAV) Ior the site conditions.
Do not oIIer a general poor criticism oI 6mm. surIace dressings just because you have designed
them badly, or applied them to the wrong surIace, or the wrong site.
In my opinion a 6mm. chipping is the best option Ior the Iirst dressing on most "hard" surIaces,
and that includes 20mm. binder course as a strengthening running surIace, on rural roads.



9.5 Lapisan Salut

9.5.1 Salut Perdana

Salut ini adalah satu lapisan nipis bitumen cair yang disembur kepada permukaan sub-tapak yang
bersih dan kering. Ia berIungsi untuk menusuk dan mengikat debu dan aggregate serta
meningkatkan ikatan antara lapisan tapak dan permukaan. Ia juga bertindak sebagai salutan yang
kalis air. Bahan-bahan salut perdana perlulah dari bahan yang diluluskan. Aggregate dalam salut
perdana hendaklah mempunyai saiz antara 12.5mm hingga 19mm.

Semasa diangkut ke tapak, ianya hendaklah ditutupi bagi mengelakkan keadaan cuaca yang
buruk dan juga untuk mengurangkan kehilangan suhu sepanjang perjalanan. Salut tersebut
perlulah dihampar secepat yang mungkin. Kemudian ia akan dipadatkan dengan ketebalan yang
tertentu.

9.5.2 Salut Jelujur (Tack Coat)

Satu lapisan nipis bitumen cecair yang disembur di atas lapisan berbitumen berIungsi untuk
meningkatkan ikatan diantara lapisan berbitumen. Bitumen disembur dengan kadar 0.25 - 0.55
liter bagi setiap meter persegi.

Ia akan dipadatkan dengan penggelek dengan 8 kali laluan yang mempunyai berat 8 tan. Batuan
yang jenis berderaian (20mm nominal) akan digunakan dalam proses ini bagi mengisi ruang-
ruang kosong. Seterusnya, permukaan akan diturap dengan 80/100 bitumen asli dengan kadar
4.08 liter setiap meter persegi. Satu lapisan batuan (19mm nominal) yang nipis di hampar secara
kasar untuk menutupi keseluruhan permukaan tadi dan kemudian dipadatkan.

Akhir sekali, satu lapisan debu kuari atau pasir sungai yang nipis akan disembur ke seluruh
permukaan dan dipadatkan. Perlu diingat, semburan berlebihan hendaklah dielakkan kerana
ianya boleh menyebabkan masalah lelehan bitumen pada permukaan jalan. Lapisan pengikat
hanya akan dihampar ke atas jalan yang telah dibersihkan dan disalut dengan selut perdana.
Penghamparan mestilah dilakukan di dalam keadaan cuaca yang kering.




SurIace Course
The surIace course is the layer in contact with traIIic loads and normally contains the highest
quality materials. It provides characteristics such as Iriction, smoothness, noise control, rut and
shoving resistance and drainage. In addition, it serves to prevent the entrance oI excessive
quantities oI surIace water into the underlying base, subbase and subgrade (NAPA, 2001). This
top structural layer oI material is sometimes subdivided into two layers (NAPA, 2001):
Wearing Course. This is the layer in direct contact with traIIic loads. It is meant to take the
brunt oI traIIic wear and can be removed and replaced as it becomes worn. A properly
designed (and Iunded) preservation program should be able to identiIy pavement surIace
distress while it is still conIined to the wearing course. This way, the wearing course can be
rehabilitated beIore distress propagates into the underlying intermediate/binder course.
Intermediate/Binder Course. This layer provides the bulk oI the HMA structure. Its chieI
purpose is to distribute load.