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The Development of a Framework for Studying Ecotourism

Tomas H. Parks Mount Vernon Nazarene University Tomas A. Parks Mount Vernon Nazarene University Christine Allen Mount Vernon Nazarene University Ecotourism is a growing industry propelling economic growth and advancement in many lesser developed countries. Its appeal largely resides in its interaction with natural environments and educational experiences, while at the same time promoting sustainable development. However, there is currently a lack of standards in place for evaluating the diverse entrants in the ecotourism industry. Each enterprise has distinct goals and mindsets in place that result in very different levels of impact on the surrounding environment and community. The purpose of this article is to create a framework that identifies the standards necessary for studying ecotourism ventures.

Introduction
Modern advancements in information technology and countries infrastructures, coupled with increases in disposable incomes, have resulted in a rapidly growing tourism industry. The World Tourism Organization (WTO) claims that, at the start of the new millennium, tourism is firmly established as the number one industry in many countries and the fastest-growing economic sector in terms of foreign exchange earnings and job creation (World Tourism Organization, 2006). This is all a result of an increase in disposable income among developed countries. Because of this increase lesser developed countries are scrambling to upgrade IT and infrastructure in order to attract the billions of dollars being spent on tourism every year. The aforementioned advances have increased the proportion of the population that is well educated and has sufficient disposable income to travel abroad. The advances have also highlighted, through media and the Internet, indigenous cultures in remote places and raised the awareness of environmental issues associated with mass tourism. One example of this is the cruise ship issues with dumping untreated refuse directly into the ocean. Trends are shifting from mass tourism to smaller groups and participative authentic tourism. These trends are emerging as a result of changing consumer preferences for vacations. Mass tourism caters to the need to entertain people on vacation, and satisfies tourists desire to be pampered. The growing popularity of authentic tourism is based on a participative educational experience that is environmentally and socially responsible as well as sustainable. This category of tourism has become known as ecotourism. The term ecotourism was created and popularized by Hector Ceballos-Lascurain in 1983, and was initially meant to describe nature-based travel to relatively undisturbed

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areas with an emphasis placed on education. His concept has matured to a scientifically based approach to the planning, development, and management of sustainable tourism products and activities. In the purist vision of what ecotourism represents, a definition should include all of the following elements: Nature based Active participation Progressive educational travel Interpretation of natural environments Social and cultural components Involvement and returns for the local community Managed to be ecologically and environmentally sustainable

With the continuing growth in tourism and the emergence of ecotourism as a distinct segment within the tourist industry, it is increasingly important to understand the development of ecotourism. Ecotourism has become a major source of revenue for developing countries. However, the term ecotourism has been inconsistently applied to purist operations as well as crass commercial exploits. This lack of consistency has been problematic in tracking the development of this industry segment.

Review of Literature
Growth in Tourism Tourism has existed since biblical times when people traveled to far places to see culturally significant sites. During that time, travel and tourism were limited to individuals of status. With the passage of time, travel and tourism have become available to larger segments of the population, which is continuously growing as a result of increasing economic development and political stability in the world. Tourism has gained popularity as attitudes and social norms have changed to accept tourism as an outlet from the drudgery of daily routines. Several segments of tourism have gained popularity: Mass Tourism, Adventure Tourism and Nature Based Tourism. Mass tourism appeals to people who want to treat themselves to a vacation with many amenities that make their stay enjoyable. Understandably, mass tourism, by its very definition, is socially, financially, and geographically accessible to great numbers of people (Stebbins, 1997). This segment has been the largest segment, and is typified for many as a vacation with comforts they do not enjoy in their everyday life. Adventure tourism emerged as the choice of people attracted to activities like scuba diving, whitewater rafting or mountain biking, while still enjoying the comforts of home. It is described as appealing to an expanding proportion of the population who are seeking self-fulfillment and excitement through participating in physically and mentally stimulating activities, traveling to remote destinations or engaging in adrenaline-rush

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experiences as part of their tourist experience (Swarbrooke, Beard, Leckie, & Pomfret, 2003). Typically it encompasses physical challenge, education, and contact with nature (Newsome, Moore, & Dowling, 2002). Nature based tourism includes activities like camping, biking, hiking, and canoeing. This segment of tourism typically focuses on interacting with nature and may not include many of the amenities desired in mass tourism. It is a broad term in which the whole landscape and surrounds is the primary focus for tours and it is more holistic in its embrace of the environment (Newsome, Moore, & Dowling, 2002). Approximately 20-25 percent of leisure travel is classified as nature based tourism (Giannecchini, 1993). Ecotourism is a subset under nature based tourism, and is the fastest growing segment of tourism today. Tourism proves that it is a dominant player in the economy today, as for many countries it resides as the number one industry and it is quickly establishing itself at the forefront of foreign exchange earnings and job creation (World Tourism Organization, 2006). According to the U.S. Department of Commerce, international arrivals to the U.S. reached 51.1 million in 2006, which is up four percent from 2005 (Office of Travel & Tourism Industries, 2007). Plus, growth is not just happening in the U.S., as demonstrated by the fact that 2006 set tourism arrival records for 56 markets (Office of Travel & Tourism Industries, 2007). With the continuing development of countries in the world and the rise in the number of middle class people this trend can only be expected to continue. The growth in tourism directly influences the lives of many people and affects numerous other industries. Tourism makes a huge contribution to national and local economies, cultures, and the use of their resources. Not only does it directly affect employment, investment in infrastructure, and tax revenues, but tourism growth is primarily centered on developing countries, stimulating a more equivalent economic disbursement (World Tourism Organization, 2006). Indirectly, tourism also influences construction, retailing, agriculture and manufacturing. Changing Dimensions / Aspects of Tourism You could view early tourism as nature based tourism because there was no commercialization and people relied directly on nature to support their existence. This reality raised everyones cognizance to the importance of maintaining the environment. Even Charles Darwin focused his work on nature and sustainable environments. As technology, industrialization and modernization improved mans standard of living, they also changed the demographics of developed and developing nations. People moved from their country farms into towns and cities to work in factories. Living in cities and working in factories increased peoples anxiety and disenchantment with work, and caused alienation from nature. People sought an outlet for their anxiety by demanding a vacation where they could escape from their daily lives. The answer was found in mass tourism, which provided an affordable solution that appealed to a large percent of the population. An industry was created by catering to the needs of

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people who wanted to forget the mundane, monotonous and overstimulating reality of urban and work life, and satisfy their need to find simplicity, beauty and relaxation (Giannecchini, 1993). This industry paid little attention to preserving the very nature that made its product desirable. Mass tourism frequently led to resource depletion and negative impacts on the values of local people and their cultural heritage. Pollution and over use, which degraded the beauty of many of the sites, became common occurrences. Environmental groups highlighted the mismanagement and abuse of nature caused by the mass tourism industry, and individuals alike. Modern technology brought the negative affects on nature to everyones doorstep through television and the Internet. Schools involved children in preserving nature through educational experiences like planting trees and adopting highways. The exposure to education about nature has shaped the attitudes of a generation who now are consumers and taxpayers demanding an earth friendly approach to tourism. Concern for preserving nature is now on the front burner and is often touted by politicians running for office. The responsibility to ensure a sustainable environment is felt and embraced by much of the populace of the developed nations. This can be seen in recycling programs, laws to reduce emissions and global support for preservation programs. All of this has led to the emergence, and now rapid growth, of nature based tourism, also known as Green Travel, Responsible Tourism, Soft Tourism and Ecotourism. What is Ecotourism? Ecotourism is tourism based principally on nature and natural resources. In further definition, the travel industry commonly defines ecotourism as purposeful travel that creates an understanding of culture and natural history, while safeguarding the integrity of the ecosystem and producing economic benefits that encourage conservation. More specifically, a composite of several proposed definitions of ecotourism results in the following foundational explanation: an activity where the authorities, the tourism industry, tourists and local people co-operate to make it possible for tourists to travel to genuine areas in order to admire, study and enjoy nature and culture in a way that does not exploit the resource, but contributes to sustainable development. (Bjrk, 2000) In theory, ecotourism provides an intimate experience with natural environments, combined with an educational element or learning experience. This is usually accomplished with small groups of people and a knowledgeable leader to explain the nature or culture being visited. Ecotourism can range in scope from a few hours of nature appreciation to a long duration tour taking months. A one-hour presentation of marine biology on a cruise of the Great Barrier Reef, a guided tour with a ranger in a national park, or a week long vacation snorkeling in Belize are all examples of ecotourism. Nature based travel is geared toward the individuals who are concerned with and want to understand and preserve

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the planets natural beauty. The basis for promoting this type of educational travel is that it is assumed anyone who sees a rain forest or a 200-year-old tree will value and appreciate it, and want to preserve it. It is generally accepted that ecotourisms primary appeal as a conservation and development tool is that it can, in theory, provide local economic benefits while also maintaining ecological integrity through low-impact, non-consumptive use of local resources (Stem et al., 2003). When properly regulated, ecotourism can provide numerous benefits including: long-term sustainable resource conservation, a more socially and environmentally acceptable approach for development, the empowerment of local people, increased employment, the fostering of greater public and private cooperation, and opportunities for scientific and educational research (Kusler, 1990; Boo, 1990). In fact, ecotourism can consistently provide a return per hectare competitive with current land uses [and] often financially supports protected areas through tourism related park fees (Stem et al., 2003). Proponents for ecotourism assert the following derived benefits: v Travelers experience real culture and lifestyles rather than an artificial facsimile v It enhances understanding across cultures v Tourist dollars benefit the local providers of services and products v It encourages local landowners to develop low-impact tourist facilities v It supports traditional lifestyles and helps preserve them for future generations v It promotes environmental awareness, education, and protection of natural resources v It provides economic incentives to stop poaching and to protect wildlife Examples are cited to demonstrate the success and growing popularity of ecotourism. Since tourists vote with their money, the country of Belize is a frequent example of the positive affects of ecotourism. Most, if not all, tourism in Belize is nature based. Its tourism receipts increased from 166 million dollars (US) in 2000 to 204 million dollars in 2005 (United Nations Statistical Division, 2007). Belize tourism is its number one foreign exchange earner and is considered the mainstay of the economy (Central Intelligence Agency, 2007). Ecotourism Segments Ecotourism is segmented into three types: historic, flora and fauna, and aquatic. Historic is a broad segment, which encompasses many activities including: visiting a museum, touring a battlefield, examining architecture, and exploring ancient ruins or other historic sites. This type of tourism provides opportunities for people to experience the cultural aspects of the areas they are visiting, by sampling local cuisine, learning about local dress, traditions, and dance. An example of this segment would be the slave battlefields, graveyards, and museums of the Virgin Islands. This tourist site highlights

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and educates people about the 400-year flow of African slaves across the Atlantic. The islands were a regular stop between 1500 and 1870 for the traders heading for the New World. The Flora and Fauna segment encompasses the plant and animal life indigenous to an area. This segment is gaining popularity as peoples awareness is raised to the affects of industrialization and modernization. Every developed country has evolved through phases to modernize and develop infrastructure. During these periods, natural resources are inefficiently consumed and environmental damages are common. In the impoverished nations struggling to develop, the need for energy expands rapidly making haste more important than waste. The lack of capital excludes these nations from modern technology and methods. As a result, forests are cleared and mining for minerals leaves ecosystems devastated. The balance required to support the wildlife is disturbed and reduces the population of animals, plants, insects, birds and reptiles. An example of flora and fauna tourism would be traveling to a rainforest in Trinidad to learn about and experience the species that can only exist in this environment. The Aquatic segment is represented by the ecosystems found in or on water. This is the newest of the segments to gain widespread interest. This segment typically includes activities like snorkeling, scuba diving, and tours on glass bottom boats. Tropical fish and coral reefs are popular attractions. This segment covers lakes and fresh water tributaries, salt-water ecosystems, as well as wetlands, and aquatic life. Opponents to Ecotourism Not everyone views ecotourism in a favorable light. Many critics have spoken out against ecotourism, stating it is good in theory, but the actual execution commonly harms rather than preserves nature or the cultural aspect it is planned to sustain. Most countries lack standards for what can be called Eco, and lack legislation to protect the sites from overuse or degradation. The increased number of visitors often exceeds the carrying capacity for these sites and the tourists damage or destroy the natural areas. The equitable involvement of local people and businesses in the planning, executing, and managing of an ecoutourist project is rarely accomplished. Ecotourism is not a new form of travel dedicated to sustainable environments, but rather a powerful marketing tool currently being utilized to sell a whole range of products which may, or may not, conform to any definition of ecotourism (Bandy, 1996). Many tourism providers are calling their product or service Eco without altering their approach; in other words, they are repackaging the same product or service with the Eco label. Virtually anything with Eco in the title can be sold at an inflated price. Travel companies advertising and promotion of ecotourism sites propagates an attitude that the pristine areas are rapidly disappearing like dinosaurs to extinction. This further feeds a frenzy-like rush to experience these sites before they no longer exist due to increasing overuse. Stem et al. further delves into this concept by explaining that a great paradox in ecotourism, however, is that its success many actually lead to its demise. Although ecotourism relies upon a minimal impact approach to tourism, successful

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endeavors may draw increasing interest and a correspondingly higher number of tourists (2003). Thus, resources are consumed and the local environment is impacted in potentially destructive manners. The critics assert that the ecotourism industry is growing rapidly, but that very few examples can be exhibited to show the industry is making positive contributions to preserving or sustaining environments. Many ecotourism projects ignore their responsibility to enhance the lives of the indigenous people and the profits seep back to hotel chains or developers from other countries. When the projects are planned and developed without the local people and businesses influence, we tend to see projects that focus on profits instead of environmental protection. This is why the critics believe ecotourism is nothing more than a clever marketing ploy. Evaluating Ecotourism To evaluate ecotourism, we should consider it at two levels: the individual providers and site level, and at a tourist industry level. A lack of formal global standards for certifying or classifying ecotourism makes comparing providers and sites challenging. At the provider and site level, individuals planning an ecotourism trip should determine for themselves which providers and sites will satisfy their expectations. A few simple questions may help determine which providers and sites are striving to provide an earth friendly experience, and which are renaming their standard package to exploit an opportunity to attract new visitors. The following considerations may provide information for evaluating a trip before you make a reservation: The ownership of the destination The amount of local collaboration and content The involvement with local conservation efforts The providers set of standards or code of ethics The sites use of recycling and conservation initiatives The size and number of groups that visit the destination The promoters educational materials about the places and people to be visited The providers efforts to prepare travelers to minimize their impact on sensitive environments and cultures At the tourist industry level, we should focus on the global impact and influence that ecotourism does or could have. For example, has and will ecotourism contribute measurably to preserving environments and cultures for future generations? Has ecotourism involved, and contributed to, improving the economic well being of the indigenous people in areas being developed? Is the industry taking measures to standardize and self regulate the ecotourism industry to ensure sustainability? How does ecotourism fit, and to what extent will it influence the tourism industry as a whole in the future?

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After looking at these questions it can be concluded that there are vastly different approaches available for embarking on an ecotourism endeavor. In order to evaluate the diverse methods present, one must examine the results desired from the enterprise. What is really the underlying goal or mindset of the providers? What is the fundamental basis for the providers operations? The classification of ecotourism resides on a continuum focusing one end on a vigilant concern for the environment and focusing the other end on the environments lucrative prospects. Thus, the following table will illustrate the disparity between the protective Purist approach, the balanced-perspective Pragmatist approach, and the commercially exploitive Profiteer approach to ecotourism. Together these distinct viewpoints outline a standard for classifying a broad range of ecotourism ventures.

Trait
Goal #1 Goal #2 Goal # Size Owners

PURIST
Preserve Maintain Educate Small Locals

PRAGMATIST
Support Sustain Entertain Medium Expatriates

PROFITEERS
Expend Profit Exploit Large Outsiders

Conclusion
Ecotourism has a place and a contribution to make in preserving sites and cultures. Mass tourism and ecotourism will continue coexisting and growing as popular vacation outlets. Mass tourism will continue to satisfy the needs of the time and cost sensitive travelers who want to escape for a little while. Large hotels with many amenities will still be in demand as people flock to the shore to cool off from the cities summer swelter. Mass tourism takes advantage of economies of scale and will continue to attract a large demand by individuals and families seeking the biggest bang for their vacation buck. It is certain ecotourism has a huge opportunity to influence the tourism industry as a whole. The message of ecotourism to preserve nature for future generations is one few people will fail to relate to and support. The growing popularity of this message will undoubtedly cause a responsible reaction from the mass tourism industry to green up its products. Most likely environmental awareness to resource consumption and waste disposal will be given a much higher priority in the mass tourism industry. These initiatives are not only good marketing tools, but also effective cost management programs. Ecotourism will establish itself to fill a niche market for environmentally conscious and wealthy individuals. Ecotourism in the purist form will regulate and manage the number of people to ensure the providers dont exceed carrying capacities and jeopardize sustainability. This scenario presents a cost inhibitive problem for many people. In limiting the number of people who can visit a site, the cost per person will need to be proportionately larger to accomplish the environmental and local involvement goals of ecotourism. The inflated cost to experience an ecotour will help regulate the visitation

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to the sites; however, it will also return us to biblical times when only people of wealth or status are able to experience these sites in person. To prevent a loss of relevancy there must be a regulating body that declares a destination either eco or mass tourism. This would prevent to a large extent the copycat and exploitative fakes. Thus, establishing standards for classifying ecotourism will support the industry in its current and future endeavors, promoting a more consistent and clear characterization of operations as well as a more defined assessment of both environmental and community impact.

References
Bandy, J. (1996). Managing the other of nature: Sustainability, spectacle, and global regimes of capital in ecotourism. Public Culture, 8(3), 539-66. Bjrk, P. (2000). Ecotourism from a conceptual perspective, an extended definition of a unique tourism form. International Journal of Tourism Research, 2(3), 189-202. Boo, E. (1990). Ecotourism: The potentials and pitfalls (Vol. 2). Baltimore, Maryland: World Wildlife Fund. Central Intelligence Agency. (2007). The world factbook: Belize. Retrived December 21, 2007, from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ bh.html. Giannecchini, J. (1993). Ecotourism: New partners, new relationships. Conservation Biology, 7(2), 429-432. Kusler, J. (1990). Ecotourism & resource conservation: Introduction to issues. Paper presented at the 2nd International Symposium on Ecotourism & Resource Conservation, Miami, FL, November, 1990. In Ecotourism and Resource conservation: A Collection of Papers. Compiled by John Kusler. pp. 2-8. Newsome, D., Moore, S. A., & Dowling, R. K. (2002). Natural area tourism: Ecology, impacts and management. England: Channel View Publications. Office of Travel & Tourism Industries. (2007). International arrivals to the United States for fourth quarter and annual 2006. U.S. Department of Commerce. Retrieved November 12, 2007, from http://tinet.ita.doc.gov/view/a-2006-400/index.html. Stebbins, R.A. (1997). Identity and cultural tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 24(2), 450-452. Stem, C. J., Lassoie, J. P., Lee, D. R., Deshler, D. D., & Schelhas, J. W. (2003). Community participation in ecotourism benefits: The link to conservation practices and perspectives. Society and Natural Resources, 16, 387-413. Swarbrooke, J., Beard, C., Leckie, S., Pomfret, G. (2003). Adventure tourism: The new frontier. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. United Nations Statistical Division. (2007). Tourism receipts, international, million US$ (UNWTO/SYB51). Retrieved December 21, 2007, from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cdb/ cdb_years_on_top.asp?srID=28300&Ct1ID=&crID=84&yrID=2000%2C2001%2C20 02%2C2003%2C2004%2C2005.

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World Tourism Organization. (2006). About the world tourism organization (UNWTOOMT). Retrieved October 11, 2007, from http://www.world-tourism.org/aboutwto/ eng/menu.html. Contact email address: tparks@mvnu.edu