Central Institute Of English And Foregin Languages (CIEFL)

O In order to bring about substantial improvement in the standards oI teaching/learning oI english ,the
Govt is giving assistance through the CIEFL Hyderabad Ior the setting up oI at least one district center
Ior english language in each state.
O %enty six district centers ere initially sanctioned.
O %here ere eleven district centers in operation as on 31st march,1998 in diIIerent parts oI the country.
O %he Govt is also providing assistance to regional Institutes oI english and english language teaching
institutes oI diIIerent states through the CIEFL Ior strenghening them.
O %here are at present to Regional Institutes oI English and nine english language teaching institutes.
O part Irom this, grants are also given to Voluntary Organisations/individuals Ior publication & purchase
oI books in English language.
Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL)
Central institute oI indian languages,mysore a subordinate oIIice has been helping in evolving and
implementing the language policy oI the government oI india and coordinating the development oI indian
languages by conducting research in the areas oI language analysis ,language pedagogy language technology
and language use in society ,a bias toards problem solving and National integration .
Central Institute OI Indian language has Iolloing three schemes
SCHEME- I
%he Iirst scheme is Ior the development oI indian languages through, developing manpoer, production oI
materials in modern indian languages including tribal languages.
O %ribal and indian border languages
O Socio linguistics
O !honetics
O !sycho linguistics
O Materials production and training
O Evaluation and testing
O istance education
O Educational technology
O Lexicography
O %ranslation
SCHEME-II
%he second scheme is Ior the implementation oI three languages Iormula system .%his is done through training
oI teachers oI the secondary schools deputed by various states and U%s. %he RLCs conduct various teacher
training programme and prepare instructional materials.%he 10 months intensive course in indian languages
began in july in diIIerent centers.%he torget oI admission Ior this course is
SRLC:120,ERLC:80,WRLC:60,NRLC:60, URC: each 40,total :400.
SCHEME III
%he scheme provides Iinancial assistance to individuals and voluntary organisations Ior publication in indian
languages.(other than hindi ,urudu,sindhi,sanskrit,english) inclusive oI tribal languages.%he Iirst grants in aid
meeting as held on mysore 10.9.1998 hich recommended purchase oI 99 books and Ior publication
assistance Ior 8 manuscripts.

ENDRIYA HINDI SHIHAN MANDAL ,AGRA:

%he Kendriya Hindi shikhan mandal gra, is an autonomous institution established by the
government oI India under overall control oI the ministry oI human resource development (epartment oI
Education). %he Mandal runs 'kendriya Hindi Sansthan under its aegis ith it headquarters at gra and
centres at elhi, Hyderabad, Mysore, Guhati & Shillong.
%he sansthan conducts Hindi Shikshan Nishnat (MEd), Hindi Shikshan !arangat(Bed), Hindi
Shikshan !raveen, 4 year Hindi Shikshan iploma and Intensive Hindi teaching orientation courses. %he
Sansthan also runs courses Ior the teaching oI Hindi to Ioreigners at gra under the scheme oI '!ropagation oI
Hindi broad. %he Sansthan also oIIers in- service training to teachers.
%he tribal language research unit is orking on the development oI the language teaching materials Ior
Nagaland. %he language technology and audio visual unit is involved in the preparation oI remedial audio
material Ior various linguistic areas especially Ior northern eastern region.
%he institute also publishes research oriented material related ith hindi language & literature. %he
institute has published 8 books, 2 journals and 66 lessons Ior correspondence course in the discipline oI applied
linguistics, language teaching & literature.
%HE ROLE OF ENGLISH IN GLOBALIZA%ION
Globalisation encourages the individual to alienate themselves Irom their local domains and nationalistic
Ieelings and opt Ior global products.
English is no being marketed as a global producers. English language teaching become an industry. %o cope
ith the situation, a huge monetary and illectual investment goes into English language teaching on the globe.
%he premise oI this paper is that globalization ill enhance this process consequently aIIecting the language
ecology and creating linguistic inequality transparent ith economic inequality.
Even though the conceptualization oI the situation as murder` oI languages should portion that there is no
changes oI extinction or devaluation oI the languages oI the less developed economics in the ake oI
globalization is also not tenable.
GLOBLIZ%ION & I%`S IM!C% ON LNGUGE
%he question oI globalization can be ansered,
By explaining the process oI hybridization and emergence oI ne languages or
By charging out the ne Iunction oI languages and their development.
By explaining the roles oI languages in the bilingual contexts and the sociolinguistic issues oI languages shiIt
etc.
lthough the three ansers are interdependent the relative priorities oI the researcher ould diIIer. %he present
paper deals ith the last problem. %hat is sociolinguistic explanation oI the interrelations beteen languages in
the already bilingual contexts. %he explanation is oI greater concern to the recent part.
It deals ith the probabilities oI language shiIt or language attrition and language maintenance in India. %his
discussion is signiIicant Ior language planning and policy.

Globalization is the packaged politics oI breaking national and political boundaries to the advantage oI the
poerIul part oI the globe. %he ideologically lauded discourse oI Globalization is the colonial story oI 'hite
man`s burden.
INDIVIDUALIZED INS%RUC%ION
n individual child learns in a manner that is uniquely his on. Each child learns has his on learning style.
Individualization is instructional process, hereby both the teacher and the student become responsible, and co-
operative.
Individualized Instruction Meaning and eIinition
Individualization oI instruction mean that the teacher orks on a personal one to one bases ith each student.
Individualization can also mean the tailoring oI instruction to the particular needs and abilities oI the learner. II
learners are orking alone at their on place, e can say individualization has taken place. slo learner
spends more time on a particular lesson in a short time.
%he Iolloing are the diIIerent meanings oI the term, hich have been given by diIIerent educationists ho
have orked in the Iield oI individualizing instruction.
Individualization oI instruction can mean that the teacher orks on a personal, one to one, basis ith
each student. %his essentially means a tutorial system, hich is normally Iolloed in teacher pupil
relationship.
Individualization can also mean the tailoring oI instruction to the particular need and abilities oI the
learner.
Individualization is deemed to have taken place iI learners are orking alone at their on pace.
In the last individualization may imply a system oI instruction in hich any or all oI the Iolloing
Iactors are adapted to the needs oI each individual student. %he Iactors are, pace, medium oI presentation, study
style, context and evaluation technique.
Methods oI Individualized Instruction
%hough e kno that individualization oI instruction ill deIinitely bring about improvement in quality oI
education, in our country steps had not been taken so Iar to implement this. II e ant to implement this e
have to think oI methods oI achieving this. %he Iolloing methods could be used.
O !rogrammed Instruction
O %eaching Machine
O Computer ssisted Instruction
O !ersonalized System OI Instruction
O Learner Controlled Instruction.
Conclusion
ll these method require proper learning materials, use oI technology, and expertise on the part oI the teachers.
For the successIul conduct oI individualized instruction the teacher pupil ratio should not be beyond 1:20 or
1:25. He should permit students to come Iorard ell their ideas ant there should be good interaction beteen
the teacher and the learners. He should encourage the learners to ask questions. %hus the sprit oI
individualization could be attempted.
%5es of Programming:

(i) Linear !rogramming

(ii) Branching !rogramming

(i) (a). Learner programming or Extrinsic !rogramming:

%his is based on the ideas put Iorth by B.F. Skinner. In s linear programme, the subject matter is divided into
quite small pieces oI knoledge knon as Irames. Each learner has to go through all the Irames, in the same
sequence along a single path or line. Response oI the Iirst Irame is immediately conIirmed beIore he goes to the
second Irame. %he correct response oI the previous Irame appears alongside the Iorthcoming Irame. In this type
oI programme the chances oI giving correct responses is high.
In linear programming a Irame ill have the Iolloing three aspects.
(i) Stimulus : %here is stimulus hich the learner needs and is motivated to respond.
(ii) Response : Iter reading the Irame the learner responds, this response is the second component oI a
Irame.
(iii) ReinIorcement : %he learner compares his response ith the response oI the programmer and thus gets
reinIorcement.
Which a Irame is prepared the language used should be simple and the Irame should provide motivation to the
learner. lso no ambiguous statement should be present in a Irame. With all these important Iacts in mind only
the programme should start-riting the Irames oI a programme.
Simple Irame :
Frame 1: %he device through hich the input is given to the system is called input device .------------------------
device is used Ior inputting the inIormation. (input)
Frame 2: %he output is got ith the help oI output devices and the devices through hich the inIormation is got
Irom the system is called device. (output)
Frame 3: Floppy is an device. (input/output)
Frame 4: Monitor is an device. (output)
(i) (a) Branching or Intrinsic style oI programming:
%his style oI programming oes credit to Norman Croder, and is called Croderian style. Branching or
Intrinsic type oI programming has been deIined as ' a programme hich adopts to the need oI the students
ithout the medium oI extrinsic device such as computer. %his style oI programming is called intrinsic
because the learner ithin himselI makes the decision to adopt the instruction to his needs according to his
background oI the subject. %he principle underlying this style oI programming is that diIIerent students need
diIIerent instructional materials and that learning is communication. He Iavours larger areas oI material at a
time to the learner. His technique oI communication is quite diIIerent Irom skinner`s ho believes in breaking
the subject matter into stimulus response chains. In branching, the student`s choice determines hat material he
ill see next. %he learner controls the exact sequence that he ants to Iollo among the available branches in
the programme.

In branching programming, the inIormation is not broken into small steps, but instead it is presented in large
steps. %he mode oI response is diIIerent in branching programme. %he student has to select the correct response
Irom the Iour or Iive choice given. %he student is routed through the branches according to his response.
%he procedure oI riting a Irame sequence in a branching programme is diIIerent Irom that oI the linear
programme. %here are to types oI branches main stem and remedial Irames. First, that programmer should
rite the main sequence oI Irames ith multiple choice ansers, aIter hich he should try it on a small group
oI target population and decide hich parts oI the programme are likely to cause greater amount oI diIIiculty
and require remedial Irames.
(ii) (b). Features oI Branching styles :
1.In branching programme a Irame is larger and more inIormation is presented. step may consist oI 2 to 3
paragraph or even a Iull page. %he programmer can sho his style oI riting.
2.Multiple choice questions are asked. II the learner`s response is correct, he is conIirmed, iI not he is taken to
the Irame hich tells Iim hy he is rong.
3.Croder vies that teaching is communication and hence he concentrates his attention upon the improvement
oI communication.
4.Learner has Ireedom to choose his on path oI action according to the background oI the subject matter.
5.Students are more alert and concentration is high.
6.Croder believes that making errors is basic to learning. So detection and correction oI errors is emphasized.
7.%he critical Ieature oI branching model is the Iact that the material presented to each student is continuously
controlled by the learner`s perIormance is ansering questions.
8.In branching programme, hen the materials is presented in the Iorm oI a book, it is called a scrambled text-
book.
9.It is very useIul in concept learning or here the material is given in large steps.
S%UDY SILLS
Note-making in the process herein the individuals are asked to make a note oI important points Irom reIerence
books, nespapers, reports etc., and then prepare a brieI summary oI them. %he students may be encouraged to
prepare summaries oI long reports or to prepare a brieI note Irom the reIerence books or nespapers. %hey
should also be trained to narrate or describe a good number oI events in a nutshell in short span oI time. Note-
making involves reading, comprehension and analysis. Sometimes people need to read a particular piece oI
ork repeatedly in order to get a thorough understanding oI the subject. %hen they may be asked to give a gist
oI ideas contained therein. %he students may be encouraged to make a note oI important events Irom the books,
reports, nespapers etc. that they read regularly. Not-making activity ill help them to sharpen their
concentration and identiIy important inIormation leaving the irrelevant matter. While making notes Iirst person
narration has to be re-ritten in the third person. Note-making activity ill develop in them the necessary study
skills.

Characteristics of Note-taking/making Skills
While preparing the notes, the draIt should be precise. It should

Include essential points

Ignore all irrelevant inIormation and minor points
!resent the text in a nutshell
Use abbreviations and symbols
!rovide the essence oI the hole topic
Help to recapitulate the hole text at a later date
Help to give instant comprehension Ior the readers
!rocess Involved in Note-taking/making
%he person interested in developing note-taking/making skills should
read the hole text, at least tice
decide the title Ior the text
reduce the text into an outline retaining all the salient points
Structure the hole text by dividing it into main and sup-points on the basis oI the title given to the text.
prepare the note in such a manner that it should give scope Ior the riter/reader to reconstruct the
original passage at a later date
Maintain logical sequence oI ideas given in the text.
Advantages of Note-taking/ making individual
%o organize the thoughts in a logical and sequential order
%o provide a quick reIerence oI the text beIore one goes to give a lecture on the given topic.
%o have a gist oI ideas reIlected in the text.
%o revise the given text and make it suitable to the context
%o Iacilitate easy recapitulation oI the text
%o reconstruct the %o preserve a large text in a concise and compact Iorm text depending on the mode oI
presentation
%o develop the skills oI comprehension, analysis and presentation oI a text suitable to the occasion.
%he teachers in the secondary schools should cultivate the habits oI note-taking/making among their students
right Irom the early stages so that the students ill be able to communicate their ideas eIIectively. %hey may be
encouraged to practice a lot in developing these skills both in the classroom and Irom the surroundings.

%eaching Reference skills

Language learning is basically a skill. In order to retain interest among the students in learning a language,
especially a Ioreign language like English, the teacher has to combine a variety oI skills and present the
inIormation in an eIIective manner. %o achieve this objective, the teacher has to take up a lot oI reIerence ork
himselI/herselI and also make his/her students take up a search Ior sources Ior getting the needed inIormation.
In language learning, every child is expected to acquire mastery over some supplementary skills through
reIerence materials. %hese supplementary skills are otherise knon as ReIerence skills.` %here are so many
reIerence materials like dictionaries and other source materials, Encyclopedias, Yearbooks, %hesaurus,
%elephone irectories, maps, charts and schedules oI various kinds. %he main purpose oI these materials is
utilitarian in nature. %he ReIerence skills, hen developed properly, ould certainly help the children improve
their ability in the use oI English language.
Dictionar
%he teacher should make his students learn to reIer to a dictionary eIIiciently and quickly. He should make
them understand the techniques adopted by some oI the standard dictionaries Ior easy reIerence. Some oI the
techniques Iolloed in the dictionaries are (1) the lphabetical order oI ords, (2) the Guide ords at the top oI
each page, (3) the abbreviations used Ior diIIerent purposes in the usage, (4) the Key to entries at the beginning,
(5) the detailed Guide at the end; and (6) the ppendices.
%he students should be trained to consult diIIerent ords Iolloing the alphabetical order. %hey should also be
trained to Iollo this order even in respect oI the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th ......... letters hen the Iormer letter oI the
alphabet is the same Ior to or more ords. Similarly, they should also be trained to consult the to Guide
ords provided in bold typeone at the leIt corner and the other at the right corner at the top oI every page.
%he ord on the leIt is the Iirst ord oI that page and that on the right is the last ord on that page. %he
students, hole consult the dictionary, should kno that they can see on that page all the ords occurring
beteen those to guide ords.
%he students may be instructed to get themselves acquainted ith the abbreviations used in the dictionary Ior
various purposes. %he ampliIication oI these abbreviations is generally given in the introductory pages oI a
dictionary. In addition, e also Iind the Key to entries` also on these pages. %he Key to entries` provides us
ith the symbols relating to grammatical inIormation, reIerences to usage and meanings oI ords in diIIerent
contexts.
Similarly, a detailed Guide to entries is generally provided at the end oI the dictionary. %his gives us the
inIormation relating to the types oI Guide ords, verb patterns, synonyms oI the Guide ord and other
combining Iorms. ppendices also Iollo the Guide to entries. %he teachers should make the students
understand these techniques thoroughly to enable them consult a dictionary eIIiciently as a part oI their learning
language skills.
Advantages of a dictionar
good dictionary provides us ith
spelling, phonetic transcription, syllable division and stress oI a ord
%he diIIerences beteen British and merican spelling
%he diIIerences beteen British and merican pronunciation
%he grammar oI a ord (hether a particular ord is used as noun, verb, adjective or adverb)
iIIerent meanings associated ith a ord ith diIIerences in the context

%hus, a dictionary can be understood as one oI the important reIerence manuals one can use in one`s
on alk oI liIe. %his helps an individual get a thorough command over the language.
%heasaurus
%heasaurus is one oI the important reIerence manuals a learner can use at an advanced stage. thesaurus is a
book containing a stock oI ords, synonyms and antonyms. It is diIIerent Irom a dictionary in the sense that it
does not deIine a ord or give the meaning or usage oI ord. Hoever, it Iollos the alphabetical order in the
arrangement oI ords and contains abbreviations. thesaurus helps the learner to Iind the related ords hen
he has one oI the meanings oI diIIerent ords; it helps to increase the vocabulary oI the learners. theasaurus
and a dictionary are complementary to each other. Both the manuals are used at higher levels oI learning.
Encclo5edias
Encyclopedias are a kind oI reIerence manuals herein e come across more inIormation on a particular topic,
subject or author. %hese encyclopedias run into many volumes and contain a lot oI inIormation relating to the
subject concerned. %he last volume is called the Index volume. %hese encyclopedias are knon as quick
reIerence manuals.
In most oI the big libraries, e Iind encyclopedias like Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia mericana,
Columbia Encyclopedia etc., Further, e also Iind certain subject-speciIic encyclopedias like Encyclopedia oI
Science, Encyclopedia oI griculture, Encyclopedia oI Education etc. Encyclopedias cater to the needs oI the
advanced learners, teachers, research orkers etc. %he publishers oI the Encyclopedias bring out supplements
every year ith a vie to update the inIormation contained therein. %hese supplements are knon as
Yearbooks`.
PIC%URES FOR LANGUAGE LEARNING
Listening is as much important as speaking, reading and riting. Listening is so signiIicant that one must be
skilled in ho to listen, hy to listen, hen to listen and to hat and to hom to listen. Listening is a skill oI
learning in the teaching and learning process
Either made by the teacher or brought Ior classroom teaching can be divided into to categories.
%hose designed primarily Ior classroom teaching
%hose used primarily Ior decorating the classroom and giving a back ground that conveys a visual
impression oI the country.
Whether the language is spoken, both are important, but they have diIIerent uses and should be handled
diIIerently.
!ictures are the cheapest and easily available teaching aids. %hese can be handled judiciously to present a
lot oI inIormation.!ictures,photographs,art pictures,etc, are used to present grammatical structures, vocabulary
or content. sometimes pictures may mislead the students. so the teacher should be very careIul in using pictures.
verbal or ritten statement accompanying the pictures are shon to them. %hese pictures also provide the
systematic cultural experience necessary Ior a Iull understanding and use oI the language. Selection oI pictures
and the order oI presentation are the to crucial aspects oI using pictures to teach English in the loer classes.

VALUES OF PIC%URES:

O !ictures are necessary Ior a proper understanding oI the language. %hey are the best aids, next only to
concrete objects themselves. %hey are the cheapest and most readily available.
O %hey assume greater importance aIter the introduction oI English as a second language. %hey reduce the
use oI the mother-tongue in the English class Ior saves a lot oI time.
O !ictures illustrate actions that cannot be perIormed in class.
O %hey explain much oI the background oI a language.
O %he child is spontaneously interested in pictures and pays greater attention to and interest in the pictures
and the lessons. !ictures are useIul in the creation oI an English atmosphere in the classroom.
O !ictures are useIul in the teaching oI all types oI lessons inIormative, descriptive, narrative or reIlexive.
%hey develop taste and artistic imagination.
O But there are certain limitations oI picture also. bstract ords are not picturable. %here are other ords
and expressions beyond the scope oI pictorial illustration. %he importance and place oI verbal
explanation in English teaching cannot be reduced or underestimated English cannot be learnt through
dumb shos alone.
%HE USE OF PIC%URES:
O picture can be used to explain the meaning oI ords and expression. %hey can be used as illustrative
material.
O %hey can be used at stages oI the lesson, motivation, development, revie and Iollo up ork.
O Oral and ritten ork can be based on pictures.|!icture question|
O !icture dramatization is interesting ork.
O For drill and repetitive ork in the prose, lesson, pictures are useIul. For eliciting appreciation, teaching
grammar and serializing events oI a story, pictures can be used.
O But over use oI pictures has its on dangers. Independent recall oI the ords and expression denoted by
pictures is sendered diIIicult in some cases. II ords are taught through pictures alone, the vocabulary oI
pupils ill be narro in range and small in the nature oI ords.
O !ictures should be visible to hole class. %hey must be hung in good light an vantage position. !icture
boards may be used Ior simultaneous display, or serial display oI a set oI pictures. %he positions oI
permanent pictures may be changed seasonally and periodically Ior imaginary variety. Ne pictures
may replace older ones. %he teacher can encourage pupils on private collection oI pictures relevant to
the lessons.
Language acquisition
Language acquisition is very similar to the process children use in acquiring Iirst and second languages.
"Language acquisition does not require extensive use oI conscious grammatical rules, and does not require
tedious drill." -Stephen Krashen
"cquisition requires meaningIul interaction in the target language - natural communication - in hich speakers
are concerned not ith the Iorm oI their utterances but ith the messages they are conveying and
understanding." Stephen Krashen
"%he best methods are thereIore those that supply 'comprehensible input' in lo anxiety situations, containing
messages that students really ant to hear. %hese methods do not Iorce early production in the second language,
but allo students to produce hen they are 'ready', recognizing that improvement comes Irom supplying
communicative and comprehensible input, and not Irom Iorcing and correcting production." Stephen Krashen
"In the real orld, conversations ith sympathetic native speakers ho are illing to help the acquirer
understand are very helpIul." Stephen Krashen.

Second language acquisition is deIined as the learning and adoption oI a language that is not our native
language.
Language acquisition needs
O It requires meaningIul interaction in the target language natural communication in hich speakers are
concerned not ith the Iorm oI their utterances but ith the messages they are conveying and
understanding.
O Error correction and explicit teaching oI rules are not relevant to language acquisition, but caretakers
and native speakers can modiIy their utterances addressed to acquirers to help them understand, and
these modiIications are thought to help the acquisition process.
O It has been hypothesized that there is a Iairly stable order oI acquisition oI structures in language
acquisition, that is, one can see clear. ll ne learners oI English progress through the same stages to
acquire language. Hoever, the length oI time each students spends at a particular stage may vary
greatly.
Stages of second language develo5ment:
Stage I -%he Silent Stage (OR) Receptive Stage (OR) !reproduction Stage
O Students oIten have up to 500 "receptive" ords (ords they can understand, but may not be
comIortable using) and can understand ne ords that are made comprehensible to them.
O %his stage oIten involves a "silent period" during hich students may not speak, but can respond using a
variety oI strategies including pointing to an object, picture, or person; perIorming an act, such as
standing up or closing a door; gesturing or nodding; or responding ith a simple "yes" or "no." %eachers
should not Iorce students to speak until they are ready to do so.
Stage II-%he Early !roduction Stage
O Students have usually developed close to 1,000 receptive/active ords (that is, ords they are able to
understand and use).
O uring this stage students can usually speak in one- or to-ord phrases, and can demonstrate
comprehension oI ne material by giving short ansers to simple yes/no, either/or, or ho/hat/here
questions.
Stage III-%he Speech Emergence Stage
O Students have usually developed approximately 3,000 ords and can use short phrases and simple
sentences to communicate.
O Students begin to use dialogue and can ask simple questions, such as "Can I go to the restroom?" and are
also able to anser simple questions. Students may produce longer sentences, but oIten ith
grammatical errors that can interIere ith their communication.
Stage IV- %he Intermediate Language or !roIiciency Stage
O Intermediate proIiciency may take up to another year aIter speech emergence.
O Students have typically developed close to 6,000 ords and are beginning to make complex
statements, state opinions, ask Ior clariIication, share their thoughts, and speak at greater length.
Stage V-%he dvanced Language-!roIiciency Stage
O Gaining advanced proIiciency in a second language can typically take Irom Iive to seven years.

O By this stage students have developed some specialized content-area vocabulary and can participate
Iully in grade-level classroom activities iI given occasional extra support.
O Students can speak English using grammar and vocabulary comparable to that oI same-age native
speakers.
Factors Affecting the Second Language Acquisition

%he Iolloing Iactors aIIecting the second language acquisition. etermine hether ea h Iactor is related
Mainly to the student, to the Iamily or to the environment oI the se ond ulture. Use the Iolloing code:
S Iactors primarily in the student
F Iactors primarily in the Iamily
E Iactors primarily in the environment oI the second culture
O ge
O Socio economic status
O Classroom culture
O Cognitive development in home language
O Family support
O Whether environment provides adequate L2 input
O Literacy level
O Stage in acculturation
O Whether school environment provides language use opportunities
O Maintenance oI home language
O Motivation
O Expectations oI child
O Sense oI identity in the classroom
O Ho host culture vies student`s culture
O !roIiciency in the home language
O Facility ith English and ability to help child
O Role models in the community
O ate oI arrival in the U.S.
O !ersonality
O Whether student has enough opportunities to use English
O Reason Ior coming to the U.S.
O ttitudes toard second culture
O Literacy in home language
O %eacher`s expectations
O !reIerred learning styles
Contextual Factors in Second Language Acquisition
While many discussions about learning a second language Iocus on teaching methodologies, little emphasis is
given to the contextual Iactors -- individual, social, and societal -- that aIIect students' learning. %hese
contextual Iactors can be considered Irom the perspective oI the language, the learner, and the learning process.

%his digest discusses these perspectives as they relate to learning any second language, ith a particular Iocus
on ho they aIIect adolescent learners oI English as a second language.
Language
Several Iactors related to students' Iirst and second languages shape their second language learning. %hese
Iactors include the linguistic distance beteen the to languages, students' level oI proIiciency in the native
language and their knoledge oI the second language, the dialect oI the native language spoken by the students
(i.e., hether it is standard or nonstandard), the relative status oI the students' language in the community, and
societal attitudes toard the students' native language.
Language distance
SpeciIic languages can be more or less diIIicult to learn, depending on ho diIIerent Irom or similar they are to
the languages the learner already knos. t the eIense Language Institute in Monterey, CaliIornia, Ior
example, languages are placed in Iour categories depending on their average learning diIIiculty Irom the
perspective oI a native English speaker. %he basic intensive language course, hich brings a student to an
intermediate level, can be as short as 24 eeks Ior languages such as utch or Spanish, hich are Indo
European languages and use the same riting system as English, or as long as 65 eeks Ior languages such as
rabic, Korean, or Vietnamese, hich are members oI other language Iamilies and use diIIerent riting
systems.
Native language 5roficienc
%he student's level oI proIiciency in the native language -- including not only oral language and literacy, but
also meta linguistic development, training in Iormal and academic Ieatures oI language use, and knoledge oI
rhetorical patterns and variations in genre and style -- aIIects acquisition oI a second language. %he more
academically sophisticated the student's native language knoledge and abilities, the easier it ill be Ior that
student to learn a second language. %his helps explain hy Ioreign exchange students tend to be successIul in
merican high school classes: %hey already have high school level proIiciency in their native language.
nowledge of the second language
Students' prior knoledge oI the second language is oI course a signiIicant Iactor in their current learning. High
school students learning English as a second language in a U.S. classroom may possess skills ranging Irom
conversational Iluency acquired Irom contacts ith the English-speaking orld to Iormal knoledge obtained
in English as a Ioreign language classes in their countries oI origin. %he extent and type oI prior knoledge is
an essential consideration in planning instruction. For example, a student ith inIormal conversational English
skills may have little understanding oI English grammatical systems and may need speciIic instruction in
English grammar.
Dialect and register
Learners may need to learn a dialect and a Iormal register in school that are diIIerent Irom those they encounter
in their daily lives. %his involves acquiring speech patterns that may diIIer signiIicantly Irom those they are
Iamiliar ith and value as members oI a particular social group or speech community.

Language status
Consideration oI dialects and registers oI a language and oI the relationships beteen to languages includes
the relative prestige oI diIIerent languages and dialects and oI the cultures and ethnic groups associated ith
them. Students hose Iirst language has a lo status vis a vis the second may lose their Iirst language, perhaps
Ieeling they have to give up their on linguistic and cultural background to join the more prestigious society
associated ith the target language.
Language attitudes
Language attitudes in the learner, the peer group, the school, the neighborhood, and society at large can have an
enormous eIIect on the second language learning process, both positive and negative. It is vital that teachers and
students examine and understand these attitudes. In particular, they need to understand that learning a second
language does not mean giving up one's Iirst language or dialect. Rather, it involves adding a ne language or
dialect to one's repertoire.
%his is true even Ior students engaged in Iormal study oI their Iirst language. For example, students in Spanish
Ior native speakers classes may Ieel bad hen teachers tell them that the ays they speak Spanish are not right.
Clearly, this is an issue oI dialect diIIerence. School (in this case, classroom Spanish) requires Iormal registers
and standard dialects, hile conversation ith Iriends and relatives may call Ior inIormal registers and
nonstandard dialects. II their ays oI talking outside oI school are valued hen used in appropriate contexts,
students are more likely to be open to learning a ne language or dialect, knoing that the ne discourses ill
expand their communicative repertoires rather than displace their Iamiliar ays oI communicating.
%he Learner
Students come Irom diverse backgrounds and have diverse needs and goals. With adolescent language learners,
Iactors such as peer pressure, the presence oI role models, and the level oI home support can strongly aIIect the
desire and ability to learn a second language.
Diverse needs
basic educational principle is that ne learning should be based on prior experiences and existing skills.
lthough this principle is knon and generally agreed upon by educators, in practice it is oIten overshadoed
by the administrative convenience oI the linear curriculum and the single textbook. Homogeneous curricula and
materials are problematic enough iI all learners are Irom a single language and cultural background, but they are
indeIensible given the great diversity in today's classrooms. Such diversity requires a diIIerent conception oI
curricula and a diIIerent approach to materials. iIIerentiation and individualization are not a luxury in this
context: %hey are a necessity.
Diverse goals
Learners' goals may determine ho they use the language being learned, ho native-like their pronunciation
ill be, ho lexically elaborate and grammatically accurate their utterances ill be, and ho much energy they
ill expend to understand messages in the target language. Learners' goals can vary Irom holly integrative --
the desire to assimilate and become a Iull member oI the English-speaking orld -- to primarily instrumental --
oriented toard speciIic goals such as academic or proIessional success (Gardner, 1989). Educators orking
ith English language learners must also consider hether the communities in hich their students live, ork,
and study accept them, support their eIIorts, and oIIer them genuine English-learning opportunities.

Peer grou5s
%eenagers tend to be heavily inIluenced by their peer groups. In second language learning, peer pressure oIten
undermines the goals set by parents and teachers. !eer pressure oIten reduces the desire oI the student to ork
toard native pronunciation, because the sounds oI the target language may be regarded as strange. For learners
oI English as a second language, speaking like a native speaker may unconsciously be regarded as a sign oI no
longer belonging to their native-language peer group. In orking ith secondary school students, it is important
to keep these peer inIluences in mind and to Ioster a positive image Ior proIiciency in a second language.
Role models
Students need to have positive and realistic role models ho demonstrate the value oI being proIicient in more
than one language. It is also helpIul Ior students to read literature about the personal experiences oI people Irom
diverse language and dialect backgrounds. %hrough discussions oI the challenges experienced by others,
students can develop a better understanding oI their on challenges.
Home su55ort
Support Irom home is very important Ior successIul second language learning. Some educators believe that
parents oI English language learners should speak only English in the home (see, e.g., recommendations made
in Rodriguez, 1982). Hoever, Iar more important than speaking English is that parents value both the native
language and English, communicate ith their children in hichever language is most comIortable, and sho
support Ior and interest in their children's progress.
%he Learning Process
When e think oI second language development as a learning process, e need to remember that diIIerent
students have diIIerent learning styles, that intrinsic motivation aids learning, and that the quality oI classroom
interaction matters a great deal.
Learning stles
Research has shon that individuals vary greatly in the ays they learn a second language (Skehan, 1989).
Some learners are more analytically oriented and thrive on picking apart ords and sentences. Others are more
globally oriented, needing to experience overall patterns oI language in meaningIul contexts beIore making
sense oI the linguistic parts and Iorms. Some learners are more visually oriented, others more geared to sounds.
Motivation
ccording to eci and Ryan (1985), intrinsic motivation is related to basic human needs Ior competence,
autonomy, and relatedness. Intrinsically motivated activities are those that the learner engages in Ior their on
sake because oI their value, interest, and challenge. Such activities present the best possible opportunities Ior
learning.
Classroom interaction
Language learning does not occur as a result oI the transmission oI Iacts about language or Irom a succession oI
rote memorization drills. It is the result oI opportunities Ior meaningIul interaction ith others in the target
language. %hereIore, lecturing and recitation are not the most appropriate modes oI language use in the second
language classroom. %eachers need to move toard more richly interactive language use, such as that Iound in

instructional conversations (%harp & Gallimore, 1988) and collaborative classroom ork (dger, Kalyanpur,
!eterson, & Bridger, 1995).
Conclusion
While this digest has Iocused on the second language acquisition process Irom the perspective oI the language,
the learner, and the learning process, it is important to point out that the larger social and cultural contexts oI
second language development have a tremendous impact on second language learning, especially Ior immigrant
students. %he status oI students' ethnic groups in relation to the larger culture can help or hinder the acquisition
oI the language oI mainstream society.
Audio visual aids
O udio visual aids are teaching aids by means oI hich learning process is Iacilitated and the senses are
used eIIectively and appropriately.
O It helps in stimulation, motivation and classiIication.
O It helps in teaching, but cannot replace class teaching. It is useIul in reducing the mother tongue in
english class room
Importance oI V ids
O It motivates the children eIIectively.
O Make learning easily
O Helps to change the atmosphere oI the class room
%Y!ES OF V IS
O udio visual aids are divided into uditory, Visual, udio visual and activity aids.
O Radio and tape recorder are the example Ior auditory aids
O Objects and models are the example Ior activity aids
O %elevision and projector are the example Ior audio visual aids
O !ictures are the examples Ior the visual aids
%ELEVISION
O %elevision is a poerIul medium, it is one oI the most V aids.
O %he part oI %V in the Iield oI education is still to be divided
O School administrators are used it idely
O Open circuit %V and closed circuit %V are the types oI television used in the schools
GRMO!HONE
O Words are the oldest oI the audio aids in the Iield oI education
O %he art oI speech developed, spoken ords started sincerely serving the purpose oI conveying thoughts
and ideas
O %he gramophone really proved an eIIective aid in teaching music, the correct accents, intonation oI
diIIerent language
RIO

O Radio, a ireless transmitting station. It is also good to use the ord 'Broadcasting
O Radio cannot and ill not replace the teacher role
O It is an aid to the learner
O Radio teachers should read the script they rite
O Radio lessons should be directly related to the school curriculum
%!E RECORER
O %ape recorder is a portable , easily operated mechanical device in the schools
O It is chieIly useIul in the 'creative Iacility. It gives the teacher and the opportunity it gives to access
speech training , reading, drama, poetry in Ioreign language, composition.
!IC%URE
O %hese are highly important phase oI V aids
O !ictures are impressive, readily available to all the teachers as a mean oI communication and ideas
O It emphasize key ideas and impression
O %he characteristics oI pictures are- clarity, size, artistic quality, interest
O Nespaper, cartoons , magazines are the examples Ior the picture aids
!ROJEC%OR
O ll the optical aids or machines hich can thro the image oI the given object on the screen or all can
be termed as projected aids
O Slide projector , OH!, epidiascope, Iilmstrip and micro projectors are the examples oI the projected aids
O Radio, chalk board, museum, Ilannel graph are the examples oI the non-projected aids
CONCLUSION
O It ill result in eIIective teaching iI the teacher use the V aids hile teaching
O It can develop creativity and imagination poer among the students
O It also bring attentiveness among the student.
O EIIective learning occurs only hen V aids are used in the class
EVALUA%ION IN ENGLISH
Evaluation, teaching and learning are the three corners oI the education system.
Evaluation is concerned ith Iinding out ho much students have learnt Iorm the process oI teaching.
Evaluation is a continuous process and is an integral part oI teaching.
It goes on during lessons and units and is cumulative.
cumulative record is maintained Ior all students.
%ests and examinations are the tools oI evaluation.
%ests grade and rank students.
But the larger objective oI evaluation is to test eIIiciency oI teaching, judge the progress oI students and to
discover their achievements and evaluate the entire schooling system.
%here are to kinds oI evaluation:

1) Criterion-ReIerenced Evaluation: %he individual student`s perIormance is evaluated ithout reIerence to the
perIormance levels oI other students in the group.
%he evaluation is method is related to the mastery and development tests and the criterion or standard oI
perIormance is not related to that oI other students.
2) Non-ReIerenced Evaluation: %he individual student`s perIormance is assessed relative to the perIormance oI
other students in the group.
Students are aarded marks and relative ranks in this method oI evaluation.
!UR!OSE OF EVLU%ION
1) Evaluation is necessary in order to aard an qualiIication or Ior selection and placement.
2) For predicting Iuture progress.
3) For measuring the value oI teaching methods and procedures.
4) For measuring aptitude.
5) For diagnosing individual or group diIIiculties.
6) %o test hether students have learnt hat has been taught.
7) For monitoring the language teaching programme Ior evaluating hether students have acquired the skills iI
listening, speaking, reading and riting.
8) For testing the useIulness oI teaching English procedures Ior the development oI the Iour skills.
9) For ascertaining the extent and degree oI speciIic acquisition oI the Iour linguistic skills.
10) Evaluating the appropriateness oI the learning experiences provided through the teaching programme
improving the rate and level oI English acquisition.
11) Locating areas oI strengths and eakness ith reIerence to learning objectives.
CHARAC%ERIS%ICS OF A GOOD %ES% IN ENGLISH
good test in English includes the Iolloing:
1) It is uniIorm Ior all students.
2) It tests only hat has been taught.
3) It conIorms closely to the declared objectives oI the course
4) It is neither too diIIicult nor too easy.
5) %he ansers are Iairly and easily scorable.
6) %he ork done by students is acknoledged.
7) %he language oI the question is deIinite. Essay type questions should speciIy the length oI ansers required.
8)%he question paper should be capable oI being completed in the prescribedtime by the average student.

9) %he question paper should be careIully designed ith the examiner clear about hich skill or particular topic
he is testing. One item should test only one skill.
10) It should be a judicious combination oI objective type questions and short anser questions and essay type
questions.
11) I is suggested that 50 marks should be allotted do essay type questions and the remaining 50 be divided
beteen objective type and short anser type questions.s
%Y!ES OF %ES%S N EXMIN%IONS IN ENGLISH
%here are to kinds oI tests and examinations in English:
1. %RI%IONL OR ESSY %Y!E
ll the questions are oI the essay type.
%hese have no been Iound to be Irustrating and unreliable.
It has been suggested that tests be a it should be a judicious combination oI objective type questions and short
anser questions and essay type questions.
ue eightage should be given to all types oI questions, Ior example, 50 marks should be allotted to essay
type questions and the remaining 50 be divided beteen objective type and short anser type questions.
2. NEW %Y!E
In the modern approach oI evaluation, oral and ritten types oI tests are advocated.
3. ORL
Oral test evaluate reading, comprehension, expression.
Reading tests are conducted by the teacher asking the students to read a passage one by one.
%he teacher noted their pronunciation, stress, speed and intonation.
%HE LANGUAGE LABORA%ORY
eIinition and scope a language lab
language laboratory is a separate room here students may practice speaking and listening ith the aid oI
tape recorders, earphones, microphones and\or other sound equipments chieIly as an audio-lingual supplement
to the class ork
Language laboratories are designed Ior teaching oI languages.
language laboratory usually contains play-back and recording equipment Ior students to practice the
languages, they are studying.
It is a place mainly Ior improving listening skill through 'audio machinery.
%he language lab provides good models oI the speech in the target language Ior imitation and manipulation by
the student.

%his increases the poer oI the teacher ho is not a native speaker oI the second language and ho has not
achieved complete native pronunciation.
It also increases the ability to listen by permitting the students to hear a variety oI speakers oI the language.
So it is also called the 'listening library.
%HE LB S N I
1) %he teacher is clearly thought oI as the central Iigure teaching the student.
2) %he lab is one more aid, not the central component oI teaching.
3) %he lab materials are designed to supplement the class ork selectively.
4) %he materials are not complete lessons.
HOW %O USE %HE LB
Lab materials have to be prepared ith more care than any other materials Ior teaching.
%hey must be clear, graded, purposeIul and based on linguistic Iacts and psychological principles oI learning.
Merely recording something to use in the lab does not make it a good exercise.
%he materials Ior language lab should be partial materials rather than complete lessons.
%hey should be, Ior example, exercise Ior the diIIicult problems that ill require extra-ork that ould take too
much time in class.
!%ING CLSSROOM RILLS %O BB USE
Lab materials are practice exercises in hich the student may:
1) Listen and speak to sho improvement in the classroom later.
2) Listen and speak ith selI-correction Irom the reinIorcing response that Iollos his on attempt on the tape.
3) Listen and rite either in dictation or in a response oI some kind such as identiIication oI a number or a
ord.
4) Students do a good deal oI listening in any lab drill.
5) %hey listen to good models ith proper pronunciation, pause and intonation patterns.
6) Moreover, listening skill hich is mostly neglected during the classroom activities is given adequate
importance.
O!ER%ION N MINIS%R%ION
language lab requires three types oI ork.
1) Language teaching and direction
2) Electronic design, supply, repair and maintenance
3) Routine handling oI tapes and traIIic.

language teacher must select or prepare the materials Ior the use in the lab.
He should monitor the ork oI the students and should decide hat operations the lab must be designed to
perIorm.
He should be able to explain the Iunctions oI the lab equipments to his pupils.
LIMI%%IONS
%hough language lab occupies the most prominent place among the technological aids in language teaching, it
has its on limitations.
It is more diIIicult and expensive to produce good materials Ior the language lab.
%he prepared materials soon become outdated.
%he English teacher is not in a position to spend more time in preparing suitable lab materials besides preparing
the lessons Ior the class, giving tests, doing correction orks, etc.
BLUE PRIN%
%he blue print is a document that gives a complete Iunctional picture oI the test.It shos the distribution oI the
questions to diIIerent objectives areas on content and Iorms oI question and also the distribution oI marks to
each question.
%he teacher should prepare an integrated eightage table knon as Blue print.
%he teacher should give eightage to the Iour aspects. %hey are
%he objectives
%he content areas
%he Iorm oI questions
%he level oI diIIiculty
%his eightage is determined by the number oI items and their corresponding marks to be entered in the
summary.
%he teacher may also give options and mention them in the blue print but the marks oI optional questions are
not included.
%he Iorms oI item includes
1) Essay type (E)
2) Short anser type (S)
3) Objective type (O) according to the nature oI the unit.
Item Analsis
Item analysis is done to improve the eIIiciency, reliability and validity oI test items in a scientiIic manner.
Item nalysis in test construction is a process by hich,

1.%he diIIiculty level oI an item &

2.%he discriminating poer oI the item determined.
%he difficult level of an item
%his indicates hether an item is too easy or too diIIicult to anser.
%he Iormula Ior item diIIiculty is,
R/Nx100
- %he diIIiculty index
R- %he no.oI high scoring and lo scoring students ho choose the correct response.
N- %he total number oI students in both groups.
%he discriminating 5ower of an item
%his indicates hether an item diIIerentiates beteen the high scorers and the lo scorers.
%he Iormula Ior item discrimination is,
R1-R2/N
R1- %he number oI right responses given by the high scoring students.
R2- %he number oI right responses given by the lo scoring students.
N- Number oI students in each group.
Characteristics of a Good test
Validit
test is said to be valid hen it measures hat it intends to measure.II reading comprehension should be
measured means it should measure only reading comprehension, not other skills at the same time.
Reliabilit
test is said to be reliable iI the scores attained by a student on a particular occasion are likely to be very
similar to the scores obtained by the same student aIter a lapse oI time.Even hen the anser script is valued by
to or more examiners, it should yield almost the same score.
Practicabilit
%eacher should see that the test prepared by them should practicable Ior administration.%he test should be
neither too long nor too short.n average student should be able to complete it ithin the stipulated time.
Objectivit
good test should be speciIic in nature.%he responses expected Irom the students should be stated speciIically
in the scoring key.It ill yield the same score irrespective oI the examiner ho values the anser script.
Scorabilit
%he test peper prepared should be supplemented ith the scoring key and marking scheme.It provides scope Ior
scientiIic valuation.

Clarit
%he question in a good test should be precise and clear.%he instructions Ior each question should also be stated
clearly in simple terms.
Economical
good test should be prepared ith a minimum expenditure. %he teacher should avoid Irequent administration
oI standardized tests hich are very expensive. %hey should use teacher made tests Ior all practical purposes.
Difficult level
%he question in a good test should cater to the needs oI all categories oI students in the classroom. %he test
paper contains a Ie diIIiculty items, more number oI moderately diIIicult items hich the average students
can anser and the rest easy item. %his helps to identiIy the eaker students to provide special coaching in the
diIIiculty areas.
Com5rehensive in nature
%he test paper should cover the hole syllabus. %he teacher should see that all the units taught should be given
due importance hile preparing test items. Interesting to the pupils %he question paper should create interest
among the pupils. %here should be variety in the mode oI questioning. It should encourage reIlective thinking
on the part oI the students hile ansering the items.
BARRIERS %O EFFEC%IVE COMMUNICA%ION
.E. Mc.Farland has deIined Communication as the process oI meaningIul interaction among
human beings. More speciIically, it is the process by hich meanings are perceived and understandings are
reached among human being. But there may be some Iaults /barriers in the communication system that prevents
the message Irom reaching the receiver, these barriers are as Iollos:-
1. LNGUGE BRRIER
iIIerent languages, vocabulary, accent, dialect represents a national/ regional barriers. Semantic gaps
are ords having similar pronunciation but multiple meanings like- round; badly expressed message, rong
interpretation and unqualiIied assumptions. %he use oI diIIicult or inappropriate ords/ poorly explained or
misunderstood messages can result in conIusion.
2. CUL%URL BRRIERS
ge, education, gender, social status, economic position, cultural background, temperament, health,
beauty, popularity, religion, political belieI, ethics, values, motives, assumptions, aspirations, rules/regulations,
standards, priorities can separate one person Irom another and create a barrier.
3. INIVIUL BRRIER
It may be a result oI an individual's perceptual and personal discomIort. Even hen to persons have
experienced the same event their mental perception may/may not be identical hich acts as a barrier. Style,
selective perception, halo eIIect, poor attention and retention, deIensiveness, close mindedness, insuIIicient
Iiltration are the Individual or !sychological barrier.
4. ORGNIZ%IONL BRRIER
It includes !oor Organization's culture, climate, stringent rules, regulations, status, relationship,
complexity, inadequate Iacilities/ opportunities oI groth and improvement; hereas; the nature oI the internal

and external environment like large orking areas physically separated Irom others, poor lightening, staII
shortage, outdated equipments and background noise are !hysical Organizational Barrier.
5. IN%ER!ERSONL BRRIER: -
Barriers Irom Employers are :- Lack oI %rust in employees; Lack oI Knoledge oI non-verbal clues like
Iacial expression, body language, gestures, postures, eye contact; diIIerent experiences; shortage oI time Ior
employees; no consideration Ior employee needs; ish to capture authority; Iear oI losing poer oI control;
bypassing and inIormational overloading, hile Barriers Irom Employees includes Lack oI Motivation, lack oI
co-operation, trust, Iear oI penalty and poor relationship ith the employer.
6. %%I%UINL BRRIER
It comes about as a result oI problems ith staII in the organisation. Limitation in physical and mental
ability, intelligence, understanding, pre-conceived notions, and distrusted source divides the attention and create
a mechanical barrier hich aIIects the attitude and opinion.
7. CHNNEL BRRIER
II the length oI the communication is long, or the medium selected is inappropriate, the communication
might break up; it can also be a result oI the inter-personal conIlicts beteen the sender and receiver; lack oI
interest to communicate; inIormation sharing or access problems hich can hamper the channel and aIIect the
clarity, accuracy and eIIectiveness.
Barriers to Effective Communication
barriers to eIIective communication that destroys any type oI relationship. Be sure to overcome these
roadblocks iI you ant happy relationships.
1. Criticizing. Criticism involves judgmental states that usually put don a person. "on't do it that ay",
"You're rong", "You're not very good at...", and "You need to lose eight" are a Ie simple criticisms. We
think criticism changes people, though it only reveals our on problems. Kill this barrier beIore it kills your
relationships.
2. Labeling. Labels are names. n extreme Iorm oI labels is name-calling. "You're a jerk", "You are silly", and
"I think you're mean" are some examples oI labeling. Labeling is a barrier to communication because it
categorizes people. It assumes people to have characteristics and destroys uniqueness that makes an enjoyable
relationship.
3. iagnosing. diagnosis is one oI the more complex barriers to eIIective communication. It involves reading
into a person's behavior. I call it "playing the amateur psychologist". Some examples oI the diagnosing barrier
are: "You're just jealous about...", "You need to be happier", and "Stop trying to antagonize me."
4. !raising. !eople are alays surprised hen they hear praise is a communication barrier. !raise is not alays
a barrier because it depends on ho it is given. !raise is so oIten poorly given as it makes people - especially
children - dependent on receiving verbal reards. "You're a good boy", "I love you Ior doing hat you did",
and "You're a lovely person because you think about me". Learn to praise a person's behavior, and be speciIic,
to avoid evaluative praise and making people dependent on your praise.
5. Ordering. Orders are controlling statements to get people doing something. %hey are akin to dictatorship. "Go
ash the dishes", "Stop complaining", and "Stop Iighting ith..." Orders Iorce people to comply based on
authoritative poer. %he result is resistant change and resentment. It is very common Ior people to rebel against
orders so they regain their Ireedom. !sychologists call this "psychological reactance".

6. %hreatening. threat is similar to an order, except it has emphasis on punishment. "Go ash the dishes or I
on't cook Ior you tomorro night", "Stop complaining or you'll be sent to your room", "Stop Iighting ith... or
you'll be grounded". Just like orders, threats create Iear, temporary results, and resentment - hile killing a
relationship.
7. Questioning. Ho could questioning be a barrier to eIIective communication? Like praise, there are types oI
questioning that make it a roadblock to good relationship communication. Rhetorical questions is one common
Iorm oI poor questioning. Examples include, "Why do you disobey me?" "Why do you alays do rong?" and
"What about my needs? You constantly ignore them."