1

FAKULTI PENDIDIKAN TEKNIKAL UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA BEG BERKUNCI 101, 86400, PARIT RAJA, BATU PAHAT, JOHOR DARUL TAKZIM

CONSUMER ELECTRONIC SYSTEM (MEV 18003)

ASSIGNMENT REVIEW ON IMAGE COMPRESSION TECHNIQUES AND ITS APPLICATION. REVIEW AT LEAST 20 PAPERS/JOURNALS.

NAME I/C NO MATRIC NO LEARNING CENTRE LECTURER

MD KHAIRUZAMAN BIN BAHARI 711013-01-6353 GB100142 POLISAS, KUANTAN EN. WAN SUHAIMIZAN BIN WAN ZAKI

CHAPTER 01: INTRODUCTION

A graphics file format is the format in which graphics data is stored in a file. Graphics file formats have come about from the need to store, organize and retrieve graphics data in an efficient and logical way. The way a block of data is stored is usually the single most important factor governing the speed with which it can be read, the space it takes up on disk and the ease with which it can be accessed by an application. A program must save its data in a reasonable format; otherwise, it runs the risk of being considered useless. Graphics files are an important transport mechanism that allows the interchange of visual data between software applications and computer systems. Traditionally, graphics refers to the production of a visual representation of a real or imaginary object created by methods known to graphic artists, such as writing, painting, imprinting and etching. The final result of the traditional graphics production process eventually appears on a 2D surface, such as paper or canvas. Computer graphics has expended the meaning of graphics to include any data intended for display on an output device, such as screen, printer, plotter, film decoder or videotape. In the practice of computer graphics, creation of a work is often separate from its representation. One way to put it is that a computer graphics process produces virtual output in memory, from which a representation of the work can be constructed or reconstructed from persistent graphics data save to file, possibly by the same program. An image is a visual representation of a real-world object, captured by an artist through the use of some sort of mechanical, electronic or photographic process. In computer graphics, the meaning of an image has been broadened somewhat to refer to an object that appears on an output device. Graphics data is rendered when a program draws an image on an output device.

The graphics production pipelines

GRAPHICS DATA Graphics data is traditionally divided into two classes: vector and bitmap. Vector data usually refers to a means of representing lines, polygons or curves (or any object that can be easily drawn with lines) by numerically specifying key points. Always associated with vector data are attribute information (such as color and line thickness information) and a set of conventions allowing a program to draw the desired objects.

Vector data Bitmap data is formed from set numerical values specifying the colors of individual pixels or picture elements (pels). Pixels are dots of color arranged on a regular grid in a pattern representing the form to be displayed.

Bitmap Data There are a number of different types of graphics file formats. Each types stores graphics data in a different way. Bitmap, vector and metafile formats are the most commonly used formats. However, there are other types of formats as well scene, animation, multimedia, hybrid, hypertext, hypermedia, 3D, virtual modeling reality language (VRML), audio, font and page description language (PDL).

IMAGE COMPRESSION Compression is the process used to reduce the physical size of a block of information. By compressing graphics data, were able to fit more information in a physical size of a block of information. Because graphics images usually require a very large amount of storage space, compression is an important consideration for graphics file formats. Almost every graphics file format uses some compression techniques. There are several ways to look at compression. We can talk about differences between physical and logical compression, symmetric and asymmetric compression and lossless and lossy compression. The most common methods of, or algorithms for, compression, which: Pixel packing - Not a method of data compression per se, but an efficient way to store data in contiguous bytes of memory. This method is used by the Macintosh PICT format and other formats that are capable of storing multiple 1-, 2- or 4bits pixels per byte of memory or disk space. Run-Length Encoding (RLE) A very common compression algorithm used by such bitmap formats as BMP, TIFF and PCX to reduce the amount of redundant graphics data. Lempel-Ziv-Welch (LZW) Used by GIF and TIFF, this algorithm is also a part of the v.42bis modem compression standard and of PostScript level 2. CCITT Encoding A form of data compression used for facsimile transmission and standardized by the CCITT. One particular standard is based on the keyed compression scheme introduced by David Huffman and known widely as Huffman Encoding. Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) A toolkit of compression methods used particularly for continuous-tone image data and multimedia. The baseline JPEG implementation uses an encoding scheme based on the Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) algorithm. Joint Bi-Level Image Experts Group (JBIG) - A method of compressing bi-level (two-color) image data, which is intended to replace the MR (Modified READ) and MMR (Modified modified READ) compression algorithms used by CCITT group 3 and Group 4. ART - A proprietary compression algorithm developed by Johnson-Grace that can be adapted to support audio, animation and full-motion video in the future. Fractal A mathematical process used to encode bitmaps containing a realworld image as a set of mathematical data that describes the fractal (similar, repeating patterns) properties of the image.

CHAPTER 2: JOURNAL REVIEW

JOURNAL #1

High Speed and Area Efficient 2D DWT Processor Based Image Compression
Sugreev Kaur and Rajesh Mehra
Faculty of ECE Department, National Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Chandigarh, India

Signal & Image Processing: An International Journal(SIPIJ) Vol.1, No.2, December 2010
With the increasing use of multimedia technologies, image compression requires higher performance. To address needs and requirements of multimedia and internet applications, many efficient image compression techniques, with considerably different features, have been developed. In recent years, many studies have been made on wavelets. An excellent overview of what wavelets have brought to the fields as diverse as biomedical applications, wireless communications, computer graphics or turbulence. Image compression is one of the most visible applications of wavelets. In a wavelet compression system, the entire image is transformed and compressed as a single data object rather than block by block as in a DCT-based compression system. It allows a uniform distribution of compression error across the entire image.

This paper presents a high speed and area efficient DWT processor based design for Image Compression applications. In this proposed design, pipelined partially serial architecture has been used to enhance the speed along with optimal utilization and resources available on target FPGA. The proposed model has been designed and simulated using Simulink and System Generator blocks, synthesized with Xilinx Synthesis tool (XST) and implemented on Spartan 2 and 3 based XC2S100-5tq144 and XC3S500E-4fg320 target device. DISCRETE WAVELET TRANSFORM (DWT) The Discrete Wavelet Transform, which is based on sub-band coding, is found to yield a fast computation of Wavelet Transform. It is easy to implement and reduces the computation time and resources required. The discrete wavelet transform uses filter banks for the construction of the multiresolution time-frequency plane. The Discrete Wavelet Transform analyzes the signal at different frequency bands with different resolutions by decomposing the signal into an approximation and detail information. The decomposition of the signal into different frequency bands obtained by successive high pass, g[n] and low pass, h[n] filtering of the time domain signal.

Figure1: Block diagram of proposed design The combination of high pass g[n] and low pass filter h[n] comprise a pair of analyzing filters. The output of each filter contains half the frequency content, but an equal amount of samples as the input signal. The two outputs together contain the same frequency content as the input signal; however the amount of data is doubled. Therefore down sampling by a factor two, denoted by 2, is applied to the outputs of the filters in the analysis bank. Reconstruction of the original signal is possible using the synthesis filter bank. In the synthesis bank the signals are up sampled ( 2) and passed through the filters g[n] and h[n]. The filters in the synthesis bank are based on the filters in the analysis bank. Proper choice of the combination of the analyzing filters and synthesizing filters will provide perfect reconstruction. Perfect reconstruction is defined by the output which is generally an estimate of the input, being exactly equal to the input applied. The decomposition process can be iterated with successive approximations being decomposed in return, so that one signal is broken down into many lower resolution components. Decomposition can be performed as ones requirement. The Two-Dimensional DWT (2D-DWT) is a multi level decomposition technique. It converts images from spatial domain to frequency domain. One-level of wavelet decomposition produces four filtered and sub-sampled images, referred to as sub bands. The subband image decomposition using wavelet transform has a lot of advantages. Generally, it profits analysis for non-stationary image signal and has high compression rate. And its transform field is represented multiresolution like human's visual system so that can progressively transmit data in low transmission rate line. DWT processes data on a variable time-frequency plane that matches progressively the lower frequency components to coarser time resolutions and the high-frequency components to finer time resolutions, thus achieving a multiresolution analysis. The Discrete Wavelet Transform has become powerful tool in a wide range of applications including image/video processing, numerical analysis and telecommunication. The advantage of DWT over existing transforms, such as discrete Fourier transform (DFT) and DCT, is

that the DWT performs a multiresolution analysis of a signal with localization in both time and frequency domain.

CONCLUSION In this paper, high speed and area efficient DWT processor based Image Compression model has been presented. The pipelined partially serial architecture is introduced to enhance the speed and area efficiency. The proposed design can operate at a maximum frequency of 231 MHz by consuming of 117mW power at 28C junction temperature. An improvement of 15% in speed has been achieved by consuming considerably less number of resources of Spartan 3E based XC3S500E-4fg320 FPGA device to provide cost effective solutions for real time image processing applications.

JOURNAL #2

Simple Fast and Adaptive Lossless Image Compression Algorithm

Roman Starosolski, December 20, 2006 Software, Practice and Experience, 2007, 37(1):65-91, DOI: 10.1002/spe.746 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. http://www.interscience.wiley.com This paper presents a new lossless image compression algorithm. To achieve the high compression speed it uses a linear prediction, modified Golomb-Rice code family, and a very fast prediction error modelling method. This paper compares the algorithm experimentally with others for medical and natural continuous tone greyscale images of depths of up to 16 bits. PROPOSED METHOD The algorithm is predictive and adaptive; it compresses continuous tone greyscale images. The image is processed in a raster-scan order. They firstly perform prediction using a predictor selected from affixed set of 9 simple linear predictors. Prediction errors are reordered to obtain probability distribution expected by the data model and the entropy coder, and then output as a sequence of residuum symbols. For encoding residuum symbols they use a family of prefix codes based on the Golomb-Rice family. For fast and adaptive modelling they use a simple context data model based on a model of the FELICS algorithm and the method of reduced model update frequency. The algorithm was designed to be simple and fast. There are no methods such as detection of smooth regions or bias cancellation being employed. Decompression is a simple reversal of the compression process. With respect to both time and memory complexity the algorithm is symmetric. The algorithm described herein originates from an algorithm designed for images of 8-bit depth, which obtained high compression speed but could not be just simply extended to higher bit depths. The presented predictive and adaptive lossless image compression algorithm was designed to achieve high compression speed. The prediction errors obtained using simple linear predictor are encoded using codes adaptively selected from the modified Golomb-Rice code family. As opposed to the unmodified Golomb-Rice codes, this family limits the codeword length and allows coding of incompressible data without expansion. Code selection is performed using a simple data model based on the model known from FELICS algorithm. Since updating the data model, although fast as compared to many other modelling methods, is the most complex element of the algorithm, the reduced model update frequency method that increases the compression speed by a couple of hundred percent at the cost of worsening the compression ratio by

about 0.5%. This method could probably be used for improving speed of other algorithms, in which data modelling is a considerable factor in the overall algorithm time complexity. The memory complexity is low algorithm's data structures into contemporary CPUs' cache memory. EXPERIMENTAL RESULT

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The described algorithm is especially good for: Big images, since it compresses them with the very high speed, over 60 MB/s on 3.06 GHz CPU, i.e., it needs less than 50CPU cycles per byte of image, Natural images of 16-bit depth, since it obtains for them very good compression ratio - it's ratio differs by couple percent from the ratio of the CALIC algorithm, Noisy images, since as opposed to the other algorithms, it causes almost no data expansion even if the image contains nothing, but noise. CONCLUSION Presented algorithm may improve the transmission through network when most other algorithms are too slow. The algorithm could also be used for compressing and decompressing, on the fly, large sets of images that are stored in memory for rapid access. The average compression speed on Intel Xeon 3.06 GHz CPU is 47 MB/s. For big images the speed is over 60 MB/s, i.e., the algorithm needs less than 50CPU cycles per byte of image. It is ideally suited for lossless compression of data to be transmitted from modern medical and general purpose image acquisition devices, that produce images of high bit depths, big sizes, usually containing certain amount of noise.

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JOURNAL #3

Hybrid Methods of Image Compression-Encryption

M. Benabdellah . F. Regragui . E. H. Bouyakhf. J. of Commun. & Comput. Eng. ISSN 2090-6234, Volume 1, Issue 1-2, 2011 Modern Science Publishers www.m-sciences.com The networks have been developing strongly these last years and became inevitable for the modern communication. The images transmitted on these networks are particular data because of their large quantity of information. The transmission of the images thus raises a significant number of problems which the majority of them have no solution yet. We enumerate for example safety, confidentiality, integrity and the authenticity of these data during their transmission. Some medical applications require a strict association between the image and its contextual data. The protection of high resolution information (high frequencies of the images, details, scalable visualization) currently has a high demand. This paper presents of two new methods to make images transfer safe. The two methods are based on hybrid coding: use of compression by Faber-Schauder MultiScale Transform (FMT) and encryption by the two algorithms DES and AES. THE FABER-SCHAUDER MULTI-SCALE TRANSFORM (FMT) The Faber-Schauder wavelet transform is a simple multi-scale transformation with many interesting properties in image processing. In these properties, we advertise multi-scale edge detection, preservation of pixels ranges, elimination of the constant and the linear correlation. The principle of the visualization of images in the canonical base consists in placing each coefficient at the place where its basic function reaches its maximum. The same principle is naturally essential for the multi-scale base. The image obtained is a coherent one which resembles an outline representation of the original image (Figure). Indeed, the FMT transformation, like some wavelets transformation, has similarities with the canny outlines detector, where the outlines correspond to the local maximum in the module of transformation. In fact, in the case of the FMT transformation, on each scale, the value of each pixel is given by the calculation of the difference with its neighbouring of the preceding scale. Thus the areas which present a local peak for these differences correspond to a strong luminous transition for the values of grey, while the areas, where those differences are invalid, are associated with an area, where the level of grey is constant.

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Figure 1: Representation on mixed-scales and on separate scales of the image Lena. The coefficients are in the canonical base in (a) and (c) and in the Faber-Schauder multiscale base in (b) and (d). Comparing the performances of the FMT transformation with the standards method of compression, (JPEG), we will verify that we can reach good results of compression, without debasing the image. Those results are obtained when applying the multi-scale transformation to the whole image, while the DCT transformation, which is the basis of the JPEG method, is not effective when applied to reduced blocks pixels (generally applied to blocks of size 8 8 pixels), what involves the appearance of the blocks of artefacts on the images when the compression ratio is high. This phenomenon of artefacts blocks is not common in the FMT transformation (Figure 2).

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Figure 2: Degradation by FMT. The percentage of eliminated coefficients: (a) Archess original image, (b) 90%, (c) 93. DES ALGORITHM The Data Encryption Standard (DES) was jointly developed in 1974 by IBM and the U.S. government (US patent 3,962,539) to set a standard that everyone could use to securely communicate with each other. It operates on blocks of 64 bits using a secret key that is 56 bits long. DES started out as theLucifer algorithm developed by IBM. The US National Security Agency (NSA) made several modifications, after which it was adopted as Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) standard 46-3 and ANSI standard X3.92 [3]. This secret key encryption algorithm uses a key that is 56 bits, or seven characters long. At the time it was believed that trying out all 72, 057, 594, 037, 927, 936 possible keys (a seven with 16 zeros) would be impossible because computers could not possibly ever become fast enough. In 1998 the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) built a special-purpose machine that could decrypt a message by trying out all possible keys in less than three days. The Triple-DES variant was developed after it became clear that DES by itself was too easy to crack. It uses three 56-bit DES keys, giving a total key length of 168 bits. Encryption using Triple-DES is simply Encryption using DES with the first 56-bit key. Decryption using DES with the second 56-bit key. Encryption using DES with the third 56-bit key.

Because Triple-DES applies the DES algorithm three times (hence the name), TripleDES takes three times as long as standard DES. Decryption using Triple-DES is the same as the encryption, except it is executed in reverse.

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Figure 3: Diagram of DES Encryption: Encryption of a block of the message takes place in 16 stages or rounds AES ALGORITHM AES is the acronym of Advanced Encryption Standard, creates by Johan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen. It is a technique of encryption to symmetrical key. This algorithm provides a strong encryption and was selected by the National Institute of The Standards and Technology of the government American (NIST) like normalizes federal for the data processing (Federal Information Processing Standard) in November 2001 (FISP197), then in June 2003, the American government (NSA) announced that AES was sufficiently protected to protect the information classified up to the level TOP SECRET, which is the most level of safety defined for information which could cause exceptionally serious damage in the event of revelations with the public. Algorithm AES uses one the three lengths of key of coding (password) following: 128, 192 or 256. Each size of key of encryption uses a slightly different algorithm, thus the higher sizes of key offer not only one greater number of bits of

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jamming of the data but also an increased complexity of the algorithm. Algorithm AES is iterative (Figure). It can be cut out in 3 blocks: Initial Round. It is the first and the simplest of the stages. It counts only one operation: Add Key Round. N Rounds. N is the iteration count. This number varies according to the size of the key used. 128 bits for N = 9, 192 bits for N = 11, 256 bits for N = 13. This second stage consists of N iterations comprising each one the four following operations: Sub Bytes, Rows Shift, Mix Columns, add Key Round. Final Round. This stage is almost identical to the one of the N iterations. The only difference is that it does not comprise the operation Mix Columns.

Figure 4: Diagram of AES algorithm, version 128 bits. PRINCIPLE SCHEME OF PROPOSED COMPRESSION-ENCRYPTION The essential idea is to combine the compression and the encryption during the procedure. General diagram is given on figure as follow: It consists in carrying out an encryption after the stage of quantization and right before the stage of entropic coding. To restore the starting information, one decodes initially the quantified coefficients of the FMT matrix by the entropic decoder. Then, one deciphers them before the stage of quantization. Lastly, one applies the IFMT (reverse FMT) to restore the image.

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Figure 5: General diagram of proposed compression encryption approaches. CONCLUSION The FMT transformation is distinguished by its simplicity and its performances of seclusion of the information in the outline regions of the image. The mixed-scale visualization of the transformed images allows putting in evidence its properties, particularly, the possibilities of compression of the images and the improvement of the performances of the other standard methods of compression as JPEG and GIF. AES encryption algorithm leaves, in the stage of compression, homogeneous zones in the high frequencies. It is approximately twice faster to calculate (in software) and approximately 1022 times surer (in theory) that DES. However, even if it is easy to calculate, it is not enough to be taken into account in the current Wi-Fi charts. The standard 802.11i will thus require a renewal of the material to be able to make safe the networks of transmissions without wire. The comparison of FMT-AES method with the methods: FMT-DES, Quadtree-AES, DCT-partial encryption and DCT-RSA, showed well its good performance.

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JOURNAL #4

Image Compression and Water Marking Scheme Using Scalar Quantization

Kilari Veera Swamy, B.Chandra Mohan, Y.V.Bhaskar Reddy, S.Srinivas Kumar The International Journal of Next Generation Network (IJNGN), Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2010 This paper presents a new compression technique and image watermarking algorithm based on Contourlet Transform (CT). For image compression, an energy based quantization is used. Scalar quantization is explored for image watermarking. Double filter bank structure is used in CT. The Laplacian Pyramid (LP) is used to capture the point discontinuities, and then followed by a Directional Filter Bank (DFB) to link point discontinuities. The coefficients of down sampled low pass version of LP decomposed image are re-ordered in a pre-determined manner and prediction algorithm is used to reduce entropy (bits/pixel). In addition, the coefficients of CT are quantized based on the energy in the particular band. CONTOURLET TRANSFORM (CT) CT is considered for image compression and watermarking. For image compression, low pass version of LP decomposed image is re-ordered and prediction algorithm is applied. Further, all coefficients of CT are quantized using scalar quantization based on the energy in that particular band. CT is applied to the entire image. Hence, blocking artefacts gets reduced in CT than JPEG compressed image. If an image contains more contours, then CT outperforms WT. The watermark image is embedded in the low pass version of LP decomposition using scalar quantization technique. CT uses double filter bank structures for obtaining sparse expansion of typical images having smooth contours. In this double filter bank structure, Laplacian Pyramid (LP) is used to capture the point discontinuities, and Directional Filter Bank (DFB) is used to link these point discontinuities into linear structures. First stage of LP decomposition and second stage of DFB decomposition and is shown in Figure 1. One level LP decomposition is shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 1: Contourlet Filter Bank

Figure 2: One level LP decomposition CT gives two important properties: Directionality. The representation should contain much more directions. Anisotropy. To capture smooth contours in images, the representation contains basis elements using a variety of elongated shapes.

These two properties are useful for image compression, image watermarking, and Content Based Image Retrieval. In this method, image is decomposed using CT to obtain different bands. Down sampled low pass version of LP decomposed image is compressed in lossless procedure by steps, viz., topological reordering of coefficients, scanning, prediction and calculation of residues. Finally, all coefficients of CT are quantized.

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PROPOSED IMAGE COMPRESSION METHOD In this method, image is decomposed using CT to obtain different bands. Down sampled low pass version of LP decomposed image is compressed in lossless procedure by steps, viz., topological reordering of coefficients, scanning, prediction and calculation of residues. Finally, all coefficients of CT are quantized. TOPOLOGICAL RE-ORDERING The rearrangement of coefficients is based purely upon coefficient position, rather than a function of coefficient value, hence it is designated as topological re-ordering. The advantage of re-ordering is better accessibility of the successive coefficients for the estimation of current coefficient value. Various re-ordering possibilities are given in an earlier work. Re-ordering scheme used in this work is given in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Square re-ordering scheme SCANNING, PREDICTION AND RESIDUES Transformed image coefficients can be processed by different scanning techniques. The raster scan consists of processing the matrix by scanning the image matrix from left to right within each row and top to bottom in a matrix. Ideally, the value guessed for the current coefficient P should depend on its neighbours. Notation of neighbouring coefficients of P is shown in Figure 4. Prediction is based on one or combination of the neighbouring coefficients. West coefficient (W) is used for estimating the current coefficient value P. This is a simple technique when the coefficient values are uniform. Residual is the difference between actual and estimated coefficients. Pseudo code for the algorithm is given below to find the residual matrix for low pass version of LP decomposed image. NW W N P NE E

Figure 4: Notation of neighbouring coefficients of P

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The reverse of the above procedure is considered to reconstruct the original reordered matrix. In both the cases, if P is the first coefficient to be scanned in the beginning of the matrix then the error at P is defined to be of same value. PROPOSED IMAGE WATERMARKING ALGORITHM The image watermark embedding algorithm is as follows. The cover image f (i, j) is decomposed into low pass image and directional subbands by using CT decomposition. The low pass image f lo(i, j) coefficients are quantized using following rule: z = mod( f lo (i, j),Q) If w(i, j) = 0 & z <Q/ 2; No modification in f lo (i, j) If w(i, j) = 0 & z >= Q/ 2 f lo (i, j) = f lo (i, j) - Q/ 2 If w(i, j) = 1& z >=Q/ 2 No modification in f lo (i, j) If w(i, j) = 1& z < Q/ 2 f lo (i, j) = f lo (i, j) + Q/ 2

Here, Q is the quantization coefficient and may be selected based the experimentation on cover image. This is usually a trial and error process. After modifying f (i, j) lo , inverse CT is applied with the modified f (i, j) lo and the watermarked image f (i, j)'is obtained. The image watermarking extraction algorithm is as follows: The watermarked image f (i, j)' is decomposed into low pass image and directional subbands by using CT decomposition. The watermark image is extracted by using the following rule: z' = mod( f lo (i, j)',Q) If z < Q/ 2 , w(i, j) = 0 If z >=Q/ 2 , w(i, j) = 1 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Experiments are performed on six grey images to verify the proposed method. These six images are represented by 8 bits/pixel and size is 512 x 512. Images used for experiments are shown in Figure 5.

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Figure 5: Images (Lena, mandrill, Zelda, Peppers, Airplane, Barbara)

Results in Table 1, indicating that blocking artefacts are more in JPEG than the proposed method at the same compression ratio. PSNR values in dB are 37.0625 and 38.0159 for Lena and Zelda images for the proposed method. These values for JPEG are 36.9238 and 37.9238 dB. Almost at the same PSNR and compression ratio, the proposed method gives better images in terms of reduced blocking artifacts. By using WT the Score values for Mandrill and Barbara are 9.22 and 9.07 respectively. For other imagescore values are same as CT. Mandrill and Barbara contains more contours. Hence, CT is more effective in capturing smooth contours and geometric structures in images than wavelet transform. CONCLUSION The superiority of proposed algorithm to JPEG is observed in terms of reduced blocking artefacts. The results are also compared with wavelet transform (WT). Superiority of CT to WT is observed when the image contains more contours. The watermark image is embedded in the low pass image of contourlet decomposition. The watermark can be extracted with minimum error. In terms of PSNR, the visual quality of the watermarked image is exceptional. The proposed algorithm is robust to many image attacks and suitable for copyright protection applications.

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JOURNAL #5

Fractal Image Coding for Emission Tomography Image Compression

Koon-Pong Wong Department of PET and Nuclear Medicine, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, NSW 2050, Sydney, Australia Basser Department of Computer Science, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Sydney, Australia
0-7803-7324-3/02/$17.00 2002 IEEE

With the increasing use of teleradiology systems, large amount of data is acquired and transmitted, thus raising the issue of medical image compression. The goal of image compression is to represent an image with as few numbers of bits as possible while preserving the quality required for the given application. Standard lossless compression schemes can only yield a compression ratio of about 2:1 that is insufficient to compress volumetric tomography image data. Common standards available in industry for lossy image compression are usually used in non-medical applications and their application to medical image compression is still under investigation. Fractal image coding is a new compression technique that has received much attention recently. This study investigates the feasibility of applying fractal image coding approach to nuclear medicine image compression. Quadtree-based partition scheme was used in the encoding phase to partition an image frame into small irregular segments that after decoding process yield an approximate image to the original. Our preliminary results show that compression ratios higher than 10:1 can be achieved in clinical images. It was also found that there is no diagnostic loss in the parametric images computed from the reconstructed images as compared to those obtained from the original raw data. We conclude that fractal image coding could be used to compress tomography images and it may be useful in telemedicine. FRACTAL IMAGE CODING A fractal is a geometric form which has self-similar irregular details. The idea of fractal image coding is based on the assumption that a large amount of self-similarity is present in the image at the microscopic or block-image level. Thus, the image redundancies can be exploited by means of block-based self-affine transformations. This is different from common transform coding approaches where a single invertible transform maps the image to a set of uncorrelated coefficients among which only the dominant ones are retained and further processed for storage and transmission. A generic model of fractal compression system is shown in Figure 1. In the encoding phase, an image is partitioned into a number of disjoint blocks of size called range blocks and a number of blocks of size called domain blocks. For each range block, the best matching

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domain block is searched in the domain pool (a collection of domain blocks) by performing a set of transformations on the blocks so that a given metric (e.g. root mean square) is minimised. Data compression is achieved by storing only the set of transformations, i.e. the fractal code, which contains the complete information required to reconstruct the image. The reconstruction (or approximation) of the original image is obtained by iterating the set of transformations on an arbitrary initial image.

Figure 1: A generic model of a fractal compression system QUADTREE PARTITIONING The first practical block-based fractal coding scheme was developed by Jacquin. The weakness of this approach is that some regions of the image may not be covered well due to the use of range blocks of fixed size. A quadtree-based fractal encoding scheme is an extension of the Jacquins method and was used in this study. A quadtree partition is a representation of an image as a tree in which each node corresponds to a square of the image. Each node contains four sub-nodes, corresponding to the four identical size quadrants of the square. The root of the tree is the original image. After some initial numbers of partitions are performed, the squares at the nodes (i.e. range blocks) are compared with domain blocks (which are twice the range size) in the domain pool. The size of the domain block is shrunk by pixel averaging to match the range size, and the affine transformation (offset and scaling) of the pixel values is found by minimising the root mean squares (RMS) difference between the range pixel values and the transformed domain pixel values. Apart from offset and scaling, a domain block has eight possible isometric orientations (4 rotations and reflection with 4 rotations) to match a given range block. Thus the domain pool can be thought of as being enlarged by including all rotations and reflections of each domain block. All the possible domain blocks are explored and compared with a range. If the depth of the quadtree is less than an assumed maximum depth and if the optimal RMS difference is larger than a threshold, the range block is further subdivided into four quadrants and the process is then repeated until the optimal RMS is less than the threshold. The set of transformations and domains are stored and the encoding process is completed. Decoding process is done by iterating the set of transformations on an arbitrary initial image and the quadtree partition is used to determine the ranges in the image. For each range block, the size of the domain block that maps to it is shrunk by two via 2 2

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pixel averaging. The pixel values of the shrunken domain block are then placed in the location in the range determined by the orientation information after scaling and offsetting. Computing all the range blocks constitutes one iteration. After several iterations, the reconstructed image will be very close to the original image. HUMAN FDG-PET STUDY To evaluate the performance of fractal image coding, a typical oncological FDG-PET scan was examined. The FDG-PET scan was done in a female patient, six months after resection of a malignant primary brain tumour in the right parieto-occipital lobe. A partly necrotic hypermetabolic lesion was found in the right parieto-occipital lobe that was consistent with tumour recurrence. The patient was injected with 400 MBq of FDG and a dynamic sequence of 22 frames was acquired over 60 min on an ECAT 951R whole-body PET tomography (CTI/Siemens, Knoxville, TN). Images were reconstructed on a 128 128 matrix using filtered back projection with a Shepp and Logan filter cut-off at 0.5 of the Nyquist frequency and were attenuation corrected with a post-injection transmission method . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figure 2 shows the compression ratios for the 31 planes of dynamic images. The maximum compression ratio in this sample is about 8:1 but the individual frame can be compressed up to 28:1 or even higher, as shown in Figure 3. Due to noise that reduces interpixel correlation and the tracer distribution is time-varying, there are some fluctuations in the compression ratios. Parametric images of K were computed for all planes and some representatives are shown in Figure 4. There are no appreciable differences between the K images computed from raw PET data (top row) and the reconstructed data (bottom row) as all the lesions are visible. Thus, the diagnostic information is preserved in the parametric images.

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Figure 4: Parametric images of k (in ml/g/min) generated with raw dynamic images (top row) and with dynamic images decoded from compressed data (bottom row) in some selected planes. CONCLUSION The preliminary results demonstrate the feasibility of PET image compression using fractal image coding. The parametric images generated from the decompressed images are visually identical to those generated from the original data without loss of diagnostic information. As a conclusion, the fractal image compression could be used to compress tomography images and it may be useful in PACS and telemedicine.

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JOURNAL #6

Image Cluster Compression Using Partitioned Iterated Function Systems and Efficient Inter-Image Similarity Features
Matthias Kramm Institute for Computer Science, Technical University of Munich Third International IEEE Conference on Signal-Image Technologies and Internet-Based System 978-0-7695-3122-9/08 $25.00 2008 IEEE When dealing with large scale image archive systems, efficient data compression is crucial for the economic storage of data. Currently, most image compression algorithms only work on a per-picture basis however most image databases (both private and commercial) contain high redundancies between images, especially when a lot of images of the same objects, persons, locations, or made with the same camera, exist. In order to exploit those correlations, its desirable to apply image compression not only to individual images, but also to groups of images, in order to gain better compression rates by exploiting inter-image redundancies. This paper proposes to employ a multi-image fractal Partitioned Iterated Function System (PIFS) for compressing image groups and exploiting correlations between images. In order to partition an image database into optimal groups to be compressed with this algorithm, a number of metrics are derived based on the normalized compression distance (NCD) of the PIFS algorithm. THE COMPRESSION ALGORITHM PIFS algorithms work by adaptively splitting an image I into a number of nonoverlapping rectangular range blocks R1 . . . Rn (using a quadtree algorithm with an error threshold _max), and then mapping each range block R onto a domain block D (with D being selected from a number of rectangular overlapping domain blocks D1, . . . , Dm from the same image) which is scaled to the dimensions of R by an affine transform, resulting in a block , and is henceforth processed by a contrast scaling c and a luminance shift l: Rxy = Dxy + l

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Figure 1: Cross references between PIFS compressed images of an image group IMAGE SIMILARITY Image databases typically consist of tens of thousands of images. The algorithm needs to compress all images in a group as a whole2, and, more importantly, also needs to decompress the whole group in order to retrieve a single image. Hence, its desirable to split the input data into manageable clusters. Here, the opportunity presents itself to organize the clusters in a way that compression is optimized, i.e., that relevance is paid to the fact which images benefit most from each other if placed into the same cluster. In order to partition the database in such a way, a metric specifying a kind of compression distance between to images need to be devised (so that the clustering algorithm will know which images are similar and should be placed in the same group). Using the normalized compression distance (NCD), this can be expressed as

with CI1,...,In the compressed filesize of compressing images I1, I2, . . . , In together, and CIk the filesize of a compression run on just a single image.

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Figure 2: NCD Image similarity based on PIFS- Images are not similar to itself under the fractal NCD metric, if domain blocks are always larger than region blocks. CLUSTERING OF IMAGES It considered a number of different clustering algorithms, which all have different advantages and disadvantages, and which will described in the following. MST clustering: An algorithm which calculates the spanning tree from the distance metric, and then splits the tree into clusters by cutting off edges. nCut clustering: A hierarchical method which treats the complete data set as one big cluster, and then starts splitting the nodes into two halves until the desired number of clusters is reached (Splitting is done by optimizing the nCut metric. SAHN clustering: Another hierarchical method, which in each step, combines a node (or cluster) and another node (or cluster), depending on which two nodes/clusters have the smallest distance to each other. Distances between clusters are evaluated using the sum over all distances between all nodes of both clusters, divided by the number of such distances. Relational k-Means: An extension of the classical k-Means of multidimensional data [21], which computes centres not by the arithmetic mean, but by finding a median node with the lowest mean distance to all other nodes. Random clustering: Distributes nodes between clusters arbitrarily. This algorithm was included for comparison purposes.

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CONCLUSION In this paper, a new image cluster compression algorithm derived based on Fractal Partitioned Iterated Function Systems (PIFS) for multi-image compression, which is able to outperform its single-image variant considerably. This paper also presented methods for splitting image databases into manageable groups for compression with said algorithm. Using a feature-based metric, very large image databases can be partitioned into manageable clusters for being compressed with the multi-image PIFS algorithm. If the number of images is smaller and further compression efficiency is needed, the images can be clustered using a more expensive metric, which clusters images using an approximation of the Normalized Compression Distance (NCD) and produces better cluster configurations, at the cost of more computing time.

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JOURNAL #7

A Pseudo Lossless Image Compression Method

Tzong-Jer Chen, Keh-Shih Chuang

2010 3rd International Congress on Image and Signal Processing (CISP2010) 978-1-4244-6516-3/10/$26.00 2010 IEEE To present a pseudo lossless compression which modifies the noise component of the bit data to enhance the compression without affecting image quality? The hypothesis behind the study is that the bit data contaminated by noise can be manipulated without affecting image quality. The compression method comprises of three steps: To estimate the noise level for each pixel, To identify those bits contaminated by noise and replace them with zero, To perform a lossless data compression on the processed image. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Figure 1: The procedures of pseudo error-free image compression

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IMAGES 19 body images from computerized tomography (CT) 19 brain images from magnetic resonance (MR) 19 mammograms.

Both CT and MR data sets were from a serial 3D study. The CT images were from a GE 9800 scanner with an image size of 512512 and 12 bits deep. The MR images were from a GE Signa 1.5 T scanner with a size of 512512. The mammographic images were digitized from film at a size of 20482048 with an Eikonix 1412 12 bits CCD camera. The images have been cropped to 10241024 for better storage. ESTIMATION OF NOISE LEVEL Standard deviation can be used to estimate the noise for the smoothed parts of the image. Due to the difference of gray levels between objects, the standard deviations calculated directly from original image tend to overestimate the noise levels near boundary. Define a residual image as the subtraction between the original and its signal component images. The signal component image is obtained by median filtering the original image with a 3 3 window. The subtraction can effectively remove the signal part and leave the noise part in the residual image. Thus the noise levels are the same in both residual and original images. We can then estimate the noise level by the standard deviation calculated from the residual image with a 5 5 window. NOISE BITS AND ZEROED IMAGE The number of noise bits can be estimated by simply taking the logarithm of the noise level. Let n(x,y) be the noise level of a pixel, then the number of bits contaminated by noise is [log2 n(x,y)], where [x] is the greatest integer function. Note that these noise bits occupy the least significant parts in the bit data of the pixel value. Since the noise bits do not contain any structural information, we can modify them without deteriorating image quality. In this study, we set all the noise bits of an image to zero. Performing a reversible compression on these images will yield better compression ratio than on the original images. REVERSIBLE IMAGE COMPESSION Image compression consists of two steps: decorrelation and encoding. A common characteristic of radiological images is that neighbouring pixels have a high degree of correlation, which is considered redundant from the viewpoint of image information. Redundancy in the image is first subtracted from the original image to obtain a new image called a decorrelated image. In this study, decorrelation is performed by the

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subtraction between adjacent pixels. The subtraction is a one dimensional version of the differential pulse code modulation (DPCM). The encoding step is to assign a binary code word to each pixel value of the decorrelated image. The assignment is made in such a way that, on the average, the data rate (bits/pixel) is as close as possible to the entropy of the decorrelated image. The arithmetic coding was used in this study. It assigns a code word to each symbol an interval of real numbers between 0 and 1. It exploits the distribution of the image histogram, by assigning short intervals to the most frequently occurring amplitudes and longer intervals to the others. In theory, arithmetic coding scheme can achieve compression bound established by information entropy. CONCLUSION The compression ratios are 3.10, 5.24, and 6.60 for CT, MRI, and digitized mammograms respectively, for the new method which shows a 36.8%, 62.7% and 125% increase for the three data sets than original data. The processed images are evaluated by two image enhancing techniques: window/level and zoom. They are indistinguishable from original images. The proposed method demonstrates an improvement more than 40% in compression ratio than original image without deterioration in image quality. The qualities of processed images are the same as compared with those images by lossy JPEG2000 image compression at compression ratio around 10.

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JOURNAL #8

A New Fast and Efficient Image Codec Based on Set Partitioning in Hierarchical Trees
Amir Said, William A. Pearlman IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology, Vol6, June 1996 Presented in part at the IEEE Int. Symp. on Circuits and Systems, Chicago, IL, May 1993 Embedded zerotree wavelet (EZW) coding, introduced by J. M. Shapiro, is a very effective and computationally simple technique for image compression. Here we offer an alternative explanation of the principles of its operation, so that the reasons for its excellent performance can be better understood. These principles are partial ordering by magnitude with a set partitioning sorting algorithm, ordered bit plane transmission, and exploitation of self-similarity across different scales of an image wavelet transform. Moreover, we present a new and different implementation, based on set partitioning in hierarchical trees (SPIHT), which provides even better performance than our previously reported extension of the EZW that surpassed the performance of the original EZW. The image coding results, calculated from actual file sizes and images reconstructed by the decoding algorithm, are either comparable to or surpass previous results obtained through much more sophisticated and computationally complex methods. In addition, the new coding and decoding procedures are extremely fast, and they can be made even faster, with only small loss in performance, by omitting entropy coding of the bit stream by arithmetic code. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This paper presented an algorithm that operates through set partitioning in hierarchical trees (SPIHT) and accomplishes completely embedded coding. This SPIHT algorithm uses the principles of partial ordering by magnitude, set partitioning by significance of magnitudes with respect to a sequence of octavely decreasing thresholds, ordered bit plane transmission and self-similarity across scale in an image wavelet transform. The realization of these principles in matched coding and decoding algorithms is a new one and is shown to be more effective than in previous implementations of EZW coding. The image coding results in most cases surpass those reported previously on the same images, which use much more complex algorithms and do not possess the embedded coding property and precise rate control. It seems that the results of this coding algorithm with its embedded code and fast execution are so impressive that it is a serious candidate for standardization in future image compression systems.

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JOURNAL #9

Study on Huber Fractal Image Compression

Jyh-Horng Jeng, Senior Member, IEEE, Chun-Chieh Tseng, and Jer-Guang Hsieh IEEE transactions on image processing, vol. 18, no. 5, may 2009 1057-7149/$25.00 2009 IEEE In this paper, a new similarity measure for fractal image compression (FIC) is introduced. In the proposed Huber fractal image compression (HFIC), the linear Huber regression technique from robust statistics is embedded into the encoding procedure of the fractal image compression. When the original image is corrupted by noises, we argue that the fractal image compression scheme should be insensitive to those noises presented in the corrupted image. This leads to a new concept of robust fractal image compression. The proposed HFIC is one of our attempts toward the design of robust fractal image compression. The main disadvantage of HFIC is the high computational cost. To overcome this drawback, particle swarm optimization (PSO) technique is utilized to reduce the searching time. FRACTAL IMAGE COMPRESSION The fundamental idea of fractal image compression is the partitioned iteration function system (PIFS) with the underlying theory founded by the fixed-point theorem and the Collage theorem. In the coding process, we set the size of coding unit as . For encoding an gray level image, there are non-overlapping blocks forming the range pool. Let the contractivity of the fractal coding be a fixed value 2. Thus, the domain pool is composed of the set of overlapping blocks, each of which has size. For the case of 256X256 image with 8X8 coding unit, the range pool contains 1024 range blocks, and the domain pool contains 58081 domain blocks of size 16X16. For each range block in the range pool, the fractal transformation is constructed by searching in the domain pool for the best match. LINEAR HUBER REGRESSOR The least squares (LS) techniques are popular skills for linear regression due to their elegant theoretical foundation and ease of implementation. The LS regression makes an assumption that the model has normally distributed errors. However, as many applications involve heavier-than-Gaussian tailed distributions, the final fitted model is influenced much by the outliers. Since most linear regressions use the I2-norm, the hidden outliers under the samples will ruin the estimates rashly. Fortunately, robust regression provides an alternative. Mestimation and least trimmed squares (LTS) are two popular robust methods. Hubers method produces an M-estimator which is a compromise between least squares and least absolute deviation (LAD) regression.

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HUBER FRACTAL IMAGE COMPRESSION

Figure 1: Flowchart of coding a range block in HFIC. The best contrast scaling p and the brightness offset q can be obtained by minimizing with the aid of the iteratively reweighted least squares (IRWLS) technique. The main steps of IRWLS for the estimation of the contrast scaling and the brightness offset for given u and v are described as follows: Initialize and . Evaluate the residual ei =vi - ui - for each i. Estimate the scale parameter c. Obtain the weights. Compute new and . Calculate the total cost . If meets stopping criterion, then stop. Otherwise, go to step 2.

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PSO-BASED HUBER FRACTAL IMAGE COMPRESSION Full search HFIC can exactly find the best domain block corresponding to each range block, but it is very time-consuming. PSO can provide a faster way to encode the range blocks. PSO is a population-based algorithm for searching global optimum. The original idea of PSO is the simulation of a simplified social behaviour. It ties to artificial life, like bird flocking or fish schooling, and has some common features of evolutionary computation such as fitness evaluation.

Figure 2: Block Diagram of PSO The block diagram of PSO is depicted in Figure 2 and the main steps are given as follows. Set the swarm size and the coefficients c1 and c2. Initialize the position and the velocity of each particle randomly. Set the initial individual best position and set the initial swarm best # position z by current best immediately after the initialization. Update the velocity and the position of each particle. Evaluate the fitness value of zj for each j. Update if better fitness is found. Find the new best position of the whole swarm. Update z# if the fitness of the new best position is better than that of the previous swarm. If the stopping criterion is met, then stop. Otherwise, go to step 3. CONCLUSION Simulation results have shown that HFIC has good robustness against the outliers caused by salt and pepper noise, but does not show significant improvement in image quality for bell-shaped noises such as Gaussian and Laplace noises. In order to render the proposed method practical, we have used the PSO method to speed up the encoder in this study. The PSO method can effectively reduce the encoding time while retaining the quality of the retrieved image.

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JOURNAL #10

High Quality document image compression with DjVu

Lon Botton, Patrick Haffner, Paul G. Howard, Patrice Simard, Yoshua Bengio and Yann LeCun AT&T Labs, Lincroft, NJ, July 13, 1998 This paper presented a new image compression technique called DjVu" that is specifically geared towards the compression of high-resolution, high-quality images of scanned documents in color. This enables fast transmission of document images over low-speed connections, while faithfully reproducing the visual aspect of the document, including color, fonts, pictures, and paper texture. The DjVu compressor separates the text and drawings, which needs a high spatial resolution, from the pictures and backgrounds, which are smoother and can be coded at a lower spatial resolution. Then, several novel techniques are used to maximize the compression ratio: the bi-level foreground image is encoded with AT&T's proposal to the new JBIG2 fax standard, and a new wavelet-based compression method is used for the backgrounds and pictures. Both techniques use a new adaptive binary arithmetic coder called the Z-coder. A typical magazine page in color at 300dpi can be compressed down to between 40 to 60 KB, approximately 5 to 10 times better than JPEG for a similar level of subjective quality. A real-time, memory efficient version of the decoder was implemented, and is available as a plug-in for popular web browsers. THE DJVU COMPRESSION FORMAT The elements that compose a DjVu encoded image file are: The text and drawings, also called the mask, are represented by a single bitmap whose bits indicate whether the corresponding pixel in the document image has been classified as a foreground or a background pixel. This bitmap typically contains all the text and the high-contrast components of the drawings. It is coded at 300dpi using an algorithm called JB2, which is a variation of AT&T's JBIG2 fax standard. The background is coded at 100dpi using the wavelet-based compression algorithm called IW44. The foreground contains the color of the text and line drawings. It generally contains large areas of contiguous pixes with almost identical colors. This image is coded as a low-resolution image using the same IW44 algorithm. The last step of all compression algorithms is entropy coding. The efficiency of IW44 and JB2 heavily draws on their use of an efficient binary adaptive arithmetic coder called the ZP-coder [Bottou et al., 1998 ].

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OPTIMIZATION OF THE COMPRESSION RATE DjVu achieves high compression ratios by using new compression algorithms for the mask layer as well as for the background and foreground layers. Here are some of the novel techniques used by DjVu: the soft pattern matching algorithm, used in the JB2 bilevel image compression algorithm for the mask layer; the sparse set representation of wavelet coefficients used by the IW44 wavelet-based encoder; a multi-scale successive projections algorithm, which avoids spending bits to code the parts of the background image that are covered by foreground objects. The new algorithms used in DjVu such as the foreground/background/mask separation algorithm, the soft pattern matching algorithm, and the wavelet masking technique. RESULTS AND COMPARISONS WITH OTHER METHODS

Table 1: Test document images. The third column gives the number of documents per category, the fourth columns reports the total file size used by the raw RGB images

Table 2: Description of the 3 DjVu sub images

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Table 3: Ratios beween the total raw file size and the total compossed file size for each document category, compression format are CCITT G4, lossless and lossy JB2 CONCLUSION DjVu is a highly efficient compression format , combined together with a browser that enables fast internet access, can achieves compression ratios 5 to 10 times higher than JPEG. Multi-scale bicolor clustering performs a foreground/ background/mask separation that is more general than the standard text/image segmentation. With the soft pattern matching algorithms, our lossy JBIG2 compression ratios are on average twice those of lossless JBIG1, the best existing standard for bi-level images. The ZP-coder is faster than other approximate arithmetic coders, and yields, on average, better compression. The multi-scale successive projections algorithm for wavelet decomposition of partially masked images significantly reduces the compressed file sizes and can handle arbitrarily complex masks with reasonable computational requirements. All these algorithms have been integrated into a standalone DjVu encoder.

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JOURNAL #11

JPEG-2000: A New Still Image Compression Standard

Al-Shaykh, O.K.; Moccagatta, I.; Homer Chen (1998) Conference Record of the Thirty-Second Asilomar Conference on Digital Object Identifier: Page(s): 99 - 103 vol.1 This paper described the status and directions of the emerging ISO/IEC JPEG-2000 image compression coding standard. This new work item of the Joint Photographic Expert Group (JPEG) 2000 is intended to create a unified coding standard for different types of still images (bi-level, gray-level, color) with different characteristics (natural, medical, remote sensing, text). This paper also presented an overview of the various aspects of JPEG-2000 and highlights new functionalities supported by this emerging standard and its potential applications. JPEG-2000 REQUIREMENTS JPEG-2000 attempts to achieve a digital image compression standard that would satisfy the requirements of many applications using as limited a number of tools as possible. Such applications include image databases, digital photography, faxing, scanning, printing, medical imaging, remote sensing, wireless multimedia, and World Wide Web applications. The following are the basic requirements of JPEG-2000: Efficient coding JPEG-2000 is required to provide significantly better coding efficiency than JPEG-baseline. Spatial and quality scalability JPEG-2000 bit stream is going to be scalable in resolution and quality. Complexity JPEG-2000 should be able to satisfy applications with limited memory and processing powers. Line and block applications JPEG-2000 should be able to compress images that are acquired in a raster order (scanners) or decoded in line order (printers). It should also address block based imaging. Robustness JPEG-2000 should be robust to transmission errors. JPEG-2000 PERFORMANCE: CODING EFFICIENCY The current JPEG-2000 has different coding options. One coding option is for selection between the scalar quantization (SQ) and the Trellis coded quantization (TCQ). Table 1 shows the peak signal to noise ratio (PSNR) results of the two methods for the test image Bike in Figure 1 which was a 2048 x 2560 gray levels image. In this particular example, SQ performs better than TCQ. However, this is not always the case. For

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example, some tests have shown that TCQ performs better than SQ for synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images.

Figure 1: Test image Bike Bit Rate (bpp) 0.0625 0.1250 0.2500 0.5000 1.0000 PSNR TCQ 22.95
25.65 28.87 32.86

SQ 23.15 25.76 29.32 33.32 38.12

37.79

Table 1: Test image Bike: comparison of SQ and TCQ coding efficiency. JPEG-2000 PERFORMANCE: ERROR ROBUSTNESS A bit-stream packetization approach has been adopted to make JPEG-2000 robust to channel degradation. This approach does not affect the coding efficiency and the spatial/quality scalability features of the compression algorithm, and it only requires minimal overhead. The bit-stream packetization approach organizes the data stream into packets. Each packet consists of a packet header, followed by a number of encoding units. The header contains a resynchronization marker (RM) and an encoding unit

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identification number(s). The resynchronization marker has to be uniquely decodable from the bit-stream. The coding unit ID associates the data contained in the current package to an absolute position in the subbandsequence hit-plane domain. Encoder and decoder can perform resynchronization at the subbandsequence level or bit-plane level. Table 2 shows the JPEG-2000 packetization performance. The JPEG2000 coder is used to compress the 2048x2056, 8-bpp gray scale images Bike and Woman at a rate of 0.5 bpp. Uncorrupted decoding results in a PSNR = 32.86 dB for Bike, and PSNR = 33.29 for Woman. Trellis quantizer and the rate control implemented in the JPEG-2000 Verification Model have been used to generate those results. In the table, the performance is expressed in terms of average PSNR over 50 random errors. Corrupted Stream with Error Res. Test Images Res Marker at Res Marker at Subband Lev. Bitplane Lev. Ave. PSNR (dB) Ave. PSNR (dB) 14.60 19.18 17.70 21.68

Bike Woman

Table 2: Simulation results obtained when corrupting bit-streams of test images coded at 0.5 pbb with random errors (BER 10e-4) CONCLUSIONS As a conclusion, JPEG-2000 attempts to achieve better compression efficiency than JPEG-baseline and provide scalability and error resilience. Currently, the JPEG-2000 committee is working on reducing the complexity and memory requirement of the tools accepted in the Verification Model. This may result in replacement or modifications of some of the tools in the future. JPEG-2000 has a great potential to provide many useful functionalities with a single standard.

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JOURNAL #12

The LOCO-I Lossless Image Compression Algorithm: Principles and Standardization into JPEG-LS
Marcelo J. Weinberger, Gadiel Seroussi, Guillermo Sapiro IEEE Transactions On Image Processing, Vol. 9, No. 8, August 2000 LOCO-I (LOw COmplexity LOssless Compression for Images) is the algorithm at the core of the new ISO/ITU standard for lossless and near-lossless compression of continuous-tone images, JPEG-LS. It is conceived as a low complexity projection of the universal context modeling paradigm, matching its modeling unit to a simple coding unit. By combining simplicity with the compression potential of context models, the algorithm enjoys the best of both worlds. It is based on a simple fixed context model, which approaches the capability of the more complex universal techniques for capturing high-order dependencies. The model is tuned for efficient performance in conjunction with an extended family of Golomb-type codes, which are adaptively chosen, and an embedded alphabet extension for coding of low-entropy image regions. LOCO-I attains compression ratios similar or superior to those obtained with state-of-the-art schemes based on arithmetic coding. Moreover, it is within a few percentage points of the best available compression ratios, at a much lower complexity level. MODELING PRINCIPLES OF LOCO-I
The model of LOCO-I is shown in Figure 1. In lossless image compression schemes, the probability assignment is generally broken into the following components: A prediction step, in which a value x
t+1

is guessed for the next sample x

t

t+1

based on

a finite subset (a causal template) of the available past data x . The determination of a context in which x
t+1

occurs. The context is, again, a function =x x ,

t+1

of a (possibly different) causal template. A probabilistic model for the prediction residual (or error signal) conditioned on the context of x
t+1

t+1

t+1

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Figure 1: Model of LOCO-I

Table 1: Compression results on new image test set (in bits/sample) CONCLUSION The model is tuned for efficient performance in conjunction with an extended family of Golomb-type codes, which are adaptively chosen and an embedded alphabet extension for coding of low-entropy image regions.

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JOURNAL #13

Image Compression Using the Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT)

Andrew B. Watson, NASA Ames Research Center Mathematica Journal, 4(1), 1994, p. 81-88 The rapid growth of digital imaging applications, including desktop publishing, multimedia, teleconferencing, and high definition television (HDTV) has increased the need for effective and standardized image compression techniques. Among the emerging standards are JPEG, for compression of still images [Wallace 1991]; MPEG, for compression of motion video [Puri 1992]; and CCITT H.261 (also known as Px64), for compression of video telephony and teleconferencing. All three of these standards employ a basic technique known as the discrete cosine transform (DCT). Developed by Ahmed, Natarajan, and Rao [1974], the DCT is a close relative of the discrete Fourier transform (DFT). The discrete cosine transform (DCT) is a technique for converting a signal into elementary frequency components. It is widely used in image compression. Its application to image compression was pioneered by Chen and Pratt [1984]. The goal of this paper is to illustrate the use of Mathematica in image processing and to provide the reader with the basic tools for further exploration of this subject. THE ONE-DIMENSIONAL DISCRETE COSINE TRANSFORM The discrete cosine transform of a list of n real numbers s(x), x = 0, ..., n - 1, is the list of length n given by:

Each element of the transformed list S(u) is the inner (dot) product of the input list s(x) and a basis vector. The constant factors are chosen so that the basis vectors are orthogonal and normalized. The eight basis vectors for n = 8 are shown in Figure 1. The DCT can be written as the product of a vector (the input list) and the nXn orthogonal matrix whose rows are the basis vectors.

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THE TWO-DIMENSIONAL DCT The one-dimensional DCT is useful in processing one-dimensional signals such as speech waveforms. For analysis of two dimensional (2D) signals such as images, we need a 2D version of the DCT. For an nXm matrix s, the 2D DCT is computed in a simple way: The 1D DCT is applied to each row of s and then to each column of the result. Thus, the transform of s is given by:

Since the 2D DCT can be computed by applying 1D transforms separately to the rows and columns, we say that the 2D DCT is separable in the two dimensions. As in the one-dimensional case, each element S(u, v) of the transform is the inner product of the input and a basis function, but in this case, the basic functions are nXm matrices. Each two-dimensional basis matrix is the outer product of two of the onedimensional basis vectors. For n = m = 8, the following expression creates an 8X8 array of the 8X8 basis matrices. 2D BLOCKED DCT To this point, we have defined functions to compute the DCT of a list of length n = 8 and the 2D DCT of an 8X 8 array. We have restricted our attention to this case partly for simplicity of exposition, and partly because when it is used for image compression, the DCT is typically restricted to this size. Rather than taking the transformation of the image as a whole, the DCT is applied separately to 8X 8 blocks of the image. We call this a blocked DCT. To compute a blocked DCT, we do not actually have to divide the image into blocks. Since the 2D DCT is separable, we can partition each row into lists of length 8, apply the DCT to them, rejoin the resulting lists, and then transpose the whole image and repeat the process.

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CONCLUSION DCT-based image compression relies on two techniques to reduce the data required to represent the image. The first is quantization of the images DCT coefficients; the second is entropy coding of the quantized coefficients. Quantization is the process of reducing the number of possible values of a quantity, thereby reducing the number of bits needed to represent it. Entropy coding is a technique for representing the quantized data as compactly as possible. Most of the computation time required transforming, quantizing, dequantizing, and reconstruct an image is spent on forward and inverse DCT calculations. Because these transforms are applied to blocks, the time required is proportional to the size of the image. On a SUN Sparcstation 2, the timings increase (at a rate of 0.005 second/pixel) from about 20 seconds for a 642 pixel image to about 320 seconds for 2562 pixels. These times are much longer than for comparable functions written in a low-level language such as C. However, for the purposes for which our code was developed, namely education, algorithm development, and prototyping other applications, the timings are acceptable.

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JOURNAL #14

Lossless Grey-scale Image Compression using Source Symbols Reduction and Huffman Coding
C. Saravanan, R. Ponalagusamy International Journal of Image Processing (IJIP), Volume (3): Issue (5) The image compression highly used in all applications like medical imaging, satellite imaging, etc. The image compression helps to reduce the size of the image, so that the compressed image could be sent over the computer network from one place to another in short amount of time. Also, the compressed image helps to store more number of images on the storage device. Its well known that the Huffmans algorithm is generating minimum redundancy codes compared to other algorithms [6-11]. The Huffman coding has effectively used in text, image, video compression, and conferencing system such as, JPEG, MPEG-2, MPEG-4, and H.263 etc. The Huffman coding technique collects unique symbols from the source image and calculates its probability value for each symbol and sorts the symbols based on its probability value. Further, from the lowest probability value symbol to the highest probability value symbol, two symbols combined at a time to form a binary tree. Moreover, allocates zero to the left node and one to the right node starting from the root of the tree. PROPOSED COMPRESSION TECHNIQUE The number of source symbols is a key factor in achieving compression ratio. A new compression technique proposed to reduce the number of source symbols. The source symbols combined together in the same order from left to right to form a less number of new source symbols. The average number Lavg of bits required to represent a symbol is defined as,

where, rk is the discrete random variable for k=1,2,L with associated probabilities pr(rk). The number of bits used to represent each value of rk is l(rk). The number of bits required to represent an image is calculated by number of symbols multiplied by Lavg . In the Huffman coding, probability of each symbols is 0.125 and Lavg = 4.175. In the proposed technique, probability of each symbol is 0.5 and Lavg=1.0. The Lavg confirms that the proposed technique achieves better compression than the Huffman Coding.

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Figure 1: Proposed Compression Technique The different stages of newly proposed compression technique are shown in figure 1. The source image applied by source symbols reduction technique then the output undergoes the Huffman encoding which generates compressed image. In order to get the original image, the Huffman decoding applied and an expansion of source symbols takes place to reproduce the image. EXPERIMENTAL RESULT Five different test images with different redundancy developed for experiment from 0% to 80% in step size of 20% redundancy. The Huffman coding could not be applied on data with 100% redundancy or single source symbol. The test images with 16 rows and 16 columns will have totally 256 symbols. The images are 8 bit grey-scale and the symbol values range from 0 to 255. To represent each symbol eight bit is required. Therefore, size of an image becomes 256 x 8 = 2048 bit

Table 1: Huffman Coding Compression Result Table 1 shows the different images developed for the experiment and corresponding compression results using the regular Huffman Coding and the proposed technique. The images are increasing in redundancy 0% to 80% from top to bottom in the table.

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Table 2: Compression Ratio versus Time Table 2 shows the comparison between these two techniques. Compression Ratio (CR) is defined as:

Table 3: Compression test results for chart.tif Table 3 shows the compression result using Huffman coding, and the proposed technique for one of the standard image chart.tif. The proposed technique has achieved better compressed size than the Huffman coding. CONCLUSIONS The present experiment reveals that the proposed technique achieves better compression ratio than the Huffman Coding. The experiment also reveals that the compression ratio in Huffman Coding is almost close with the experimental images. Whereas, the proposed compression technique Source Symbols Reduction and Huffman Coding enhance the performance of the Huffman Coding. This enables us to achieve better compression ratio compared to the Huffman coding. Further, the source symbols reduction could be applied on any source data which uses Huffman coding to achieve better compression ratio. Therefore, the experiment confirms that the proposed technique produces higher lossless compression than the Huffman Coding. Thus, the proposed technique will be suitable for compression of text, image and video files.

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JOURNAL #15

Y. Chakrapani, K. Soundara Rajan ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 1, February 2009 ISSN 1819-6608 In this paper the technique of Genetic Algorithm (GA) is applied for Fractal Image Compression (FIC). With the help of this evolutionary algorithm effort is made to reduce the search complexity of matching between range block and domain block. One of the image compression techniques in the spatial domain is Fractal Image Compression but the main drawback of FIC is that it involves more computational time due to global search. In order to improve the computational time and also the acceptable quality of the decoded image, Genetic algorithm is proposed. GA is a search and optimisation method developed by mimicking the evolutionary principles and chromosomal processing in natural genetics. GAs are general purpose optimization techniques based on principles inspired from the biological evolution using metaphors of mechanisms such as natural selection, genetic recombination and survival of the fittest. FRACTAL IMAGE ENCODING The main theory of fractal image coding is based on iterated function system, attractor theorem and Collage theorem.

Genetic Algorithm Applied To Fractal Image Compression

Figure 1: Domain- Range block transformations

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Figure 2: Flow Chart of Fractal Image Encoding The basic algorithm for fractal encoding is as follows: The image is partitioned into non overlapping range cells {Ri} which may be rectangular or any other shape such as triangles. The image is covered with a sequence of possibly overlapping domain cells. The domain cells occur in variety of sizes and they may be in large number. For each range cell the domain cell and corresponding transformation that best covers the range cell is identified. The transformations are generally the affined transformations. For the best match the transformation parameters such as contrast and brightness are adjusted as shown in Figure 1. The code for fractal encoded image is a list consisting of information for each range cell which includes the location of range cell, the domain that map onto that range cell and parameters that describe the transformation mapping the domain onto the range. GENETIC ALGORITHM Genetic algorithms are procedures based on the principles of natural selection and natural genetics that have proved to be very efficient in searching for approximations to global optima in large and complex spaces in relatively short time. The basic components of GA are: Representation of problem to be solved; Genetic operators (selection, crossover, mutation); Fitness function; and Initialization procedure.

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Table 1: Genetic Algorithms Parameters The algorithm for the genetic algorithm can be represented as follows: As the genetic algorithm takes pairs of strings, a random number of strings is created depending upon the necessity and also note down their decoded values along with setting a maximum allowable generation number max. Using the mapping to find out the corresponding values of above created strings. Using these values, the fitness function values are found out. The process of reproduction is carried out on the strings to create a mating pool. The process of crossover and mutation is also carried out on the strings with probabilities of 0.8 and 0.05 respectively. After the termination criteria is met with, the value of string with minimum fitness function value is considered as optimum value. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS This work is carried out in MATLAB version 7.0 on Pentium-4 processor with 1.73 GHz and 256 MB RAM and the original image is classical 128128 Lena and Barbara face image coded with 8 bits per pixel. An optimal bit allocation strategy for GA is as follows: 14 bits for the location of matched domain block (horizontal and vertical coordinate), 3 bits for isomorphic types. For each of the range block fractal coding includes 17 bits allocation.

Table 2: Coding Scheme Comparison with GA and SA

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Figure 3: (a) Original image

(b) Reconstructed image using GA

Figure 4: (a) Original image

(b) Reconstructed image using GA

CONCLUSIONS In this paper the concept of GA is applied to FIC. Instead of global searching in FIC the evolutionary computational technique like GA is implemented which shortens the search space. Experimental results show that the GA gives better performance over traditional exhaustive search in the case of fractal image compression. Normally the PSNR ratio for a decoded image should be very high to have a better image. Based on Table 2 it can be seen that the PSNR and Compression ratio are better in the case of decoded image using GA over the one obtained by exhaustive search technique. The performance of GA can be further improved by introducing the concept of elitism which copies the best string in one generation into the second generation.

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JOURNAL #16

An Image CompletionMethod Using Decomposition

Bekir Dizdaroglu EURASIP Journal on Advances in Signal Processing Volume 2011, Article ID 831724, 15 pages doi:10.1155/2011/831724 This study presents a hybrid technique for simultaneously completing images by using geometry and texture components of input data. The approaches using inpainting methods based on partial differential equations (PDEs) to fill in large image regions usually fail if these regions contain textures. On the other hand, texture synthesis algorithms sometimes fail due to complex structures and textures in the image. However, this study, suggesting a hybrid method using both techniques, produces satisfactory results in completing the missing parts of images. In the proposed method, the given image is decomposed into two components. The geometry component, obtained by using the regularization PDE based on a trace operator, was inpainted by a tensor-driven PDE algorithm that takes curvatures of line integral curves into account, and the texture component, obtained by subtracting the given image from the geometry component, was reconstructed by the modified exemplar-based inpainting algorithm. Both of these methods work on colour information. The main contribution of this paper is that it uses decomposition and montage stages together which provides superior results compared with the existing methods. THE PROPOSED METHOD The proposed method contains image decomposition, inpainting and texture synthesis. IMAGE DECOMPOSITION Let I : n be a multivalued (color) image (n = 3), defined on domain Ii : represents the image channel i of I (1 i n): for all p .
2

, and

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Figure 1: Chosen parts of decomposed components of the input image and the output images: the geometry images (a) and (b) and the texture images (c) and (d), and the output images (e) and (f) are obtained by the method by A. Buades et. al (left side) and the proposed method (right side). The suggested technique for image decomposition is used to generate the image geometry. Results given in Figure 1 are obtained using decomposition and montage algorithms. Unlike the method presented in A. Buades,T.M. Le, J.-M. Morel, and L.A. Vese, Fast cartoon + texture image filters, IEEE Transactions on Image Processing, vol. 19, no. 8, pp. 19781986, 2010, the proposed method assembles the texture and geometry components successfully and generate the output image almost the same as the input, which is shown in the figure. INPAINTING The trace-based-method behaves locally as an oriented Gaussian smoothing filter. The strength and orientation of this smoothing filter is directly related with the tensor T. This method preserves edges; but, it tends to cause unacceptable rounding effects on curved structures such as corners. It is because the 2D Gaussian kernel does not consider curvatures. For this reason, Tschumperle proposed another technique which can be considered filtering the image locally with the normalized 1-dimensional (1D) Gaussian kernel. In this technique, the smoothing geometry tensor field T is split into sum of vector fields, and then line integral convolutions (LICs) is performed on the image with each of these vector fields.

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Figure 2: A test image for completing artificially degraded regions (a), the constrained DE-based-method (b), and the modified exemplar based inpainting method (c), and the proposed method (d). TEXTURE SYNTHESIS The texture synthesis method is based on the existing image inpainting method presented in A. Criminisi, P. Perez, and K. Toyama, Region filling and object removal by exemplar-based image inpainting, IEEE Transactions on Image Processing, vol. 13, no. 9, pp. 12001212, 2004. However, unlike the proposed method, color information is not taken into account in the existing algorithm, while obtaining the data term and attempting to find the best sample patch in the search region.

Figure 3: A chosen part of the completed texture image, shows the result of texture synthesis operation suggested in the study on the texture image.

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CONCLUSION This study proposes a method that combines the advantages of inpainting and texture synthesis approaches. Both approaches are separately applied to decomposed images. Results of both approaches are then combined to reconstruct the output image. The result shows that the output image is of acceptable quality. As a future task automatic search capability could be developed for search regions in the modified exemplar-based inpainting method since the dimension of the search region is manually arranged at present. The proposed method also generates color scattering and blurring effects on some of the filling regions. These drawbacks can also be eliminated in another future task. The research conduct on the current modified exemplar based inpainting algorithm to restore old motion picture films by extending the spatiotemporal domain. Actually, there is no need to apply the proposed method, based on decomposition, on the film frames, because adequate information to fill in the degraded region of the current frame could be found in the previous and next frames. So blotches are easily concealed by using the modified exemplar based-method because they do not appear in the same spatial locations in successive frames, and the computational complexity can be reduced as well.

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JOURNAL #17

An Adaptive Multiresolution-Based Multispectral Image Compression Method

Jonathan Delcourt, Alamin Mansouri, Tadeusz Sliwa, Yvon Voisin International Journal of Future Generation Communication and Networking Vol. 3, No. 4, December, 2010

Multispectral images are widely used in geoscience and remote sensing. Their use in other applications field like medical imagery, quality control in industry, meteorology, and exact colour measurements are increasing. One of the most efficient compression methods for monochrome images is the JPEG 2000 [15]. However, its extension to multispectral images needs to be adapted and yields to different methods. These methods depend on the manner of which one considers the multispectral cube: Each image band of the multispectral image is considered separately (2D wavelets + 2D SPIHT), The whole cube is considered as input (3D wavelets + 3D SPIHT). PROPOSED MULTIRESOLUTION ANALYSIS We propose to substitute the wavelet transform by building an adequate multiresolution analysis adapted to the image compression aim. We build our multiresolution analysis within the lifting-scheme framework which allows to produce easily second generation multiresolution analyses [6,7]. Indeed, the advantage of such framework is that the inverse transform is explicitly defined and its value is exactly computed, whatever are the applied filters. We limit here the demonstration and illustration to the case of a scheme built on a couple of filters, one for prediction and one for update. The idea we aim to exploit consist in adapting the predict filter for each stage of the analysis in that way we minimize the energy hold by the detail signal and reduce more again the nonzero elements after the quantization stage. However, we risk in doing so to lose the error propagation control during the inverse transform. Indeed, ideal compression requires building perfect orthogonal transforms. But when we generate adaptive filters we cannot guarantee the orthogonality condition nor to be near. In order to reduce such a problem effect, we add a term expressing the constraint of near-orthogonality that we resolve using an optimization under constraints method. EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS We compare the adaptive multiresolution proposed approach to the classical JPEG 2000wavelets within two compression strategies (Multi-2D and Full 3D). We thus obtain four compression methods: Multi-2D (M2D), multiresolution Multi-2D (MRM2D), Full 3D(F3D) and multiresolution Full 3D (MR-F3D) methods. We discuss separately methods belonging to the same strategy regarding different metrics. Figure 1

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depicts the results interms of PSNR and UIQI while the figure 2 gives compact representation containing all metrics for the bitrate of 1 bpp. For the Multi-2D methods: In terms of PSNR and spectral fidelity, M2D method gives better results than MR-M2D method except for 64*64 where this trend is inverted. The point of inversion is 0.7 bpp for PSNR, and 0.5 bpp for spectral fidelity. In terms of UIQI, M2D method gives worse results than MR-M2D. This metric is more based on structural distortion than error sensitivity. In terms of K-means, M2D and MR-M2D methods give quite similar results. Small differences can be noted for 128*128 image size where M2D method have slightly better results than MR-M2D method for bitrate values upper than 0.25 bpp. This trend is inverted for 256*256 image size. For the Full 3D methods: For all images sizes and for the majority of metrics MR-F3D gives quite better results than F3D. This difference of results is particularly high for small bitrates and increase with image's spatial dimensions. F3D method outperforms the MR-F3D only in terms of K-means for 256*256 image size for bitrate values upper or equal at 0.5 bpp. CONCLUSION This paper deals with the problem of multispectral image compression. In particular, it propose to substitute the built-in JPEG 2000 wavelet transform by an adequate multiresolution analysis that researcher devise within the Lifting-Scheme framework. This analysis was implemented within two compression methods: Multi- 2D and Full 3D methods, and compared with the classical JPEG 2000. The two strategies are combined with a PCA decorrelation stage to optimize their performance. For a consistent evaluation, they use a framework gathering four families of metrics including the largely used PSNR. The experiments showed the proposed approach is more appropriate for multispectral image compression especially within the Full 3D strategy for images with large spatial dimensions.

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JOURNAL #18

Image Compression with Adaptive Arithmetic Coding

S. Nigar Sulthana, Mahesh Chandra 2010 International Journal of Computer Applications (0975 - 8887) Volume 1 No. 18 The explosive growth of remote sensing technology, internet and multimedia systems poses great challenge in handling huge amount of data .These huge amounts of data bring about the problems in transmission bandwidth, storage and processing, so efficient compression is indispensable. Generally, data compression algorithms can be classified into three separate stages: transform, quantization and entropy coding. The transform projects the original image onto a set of basis functions, thereby removing the redundancy due to the inter pixel dependencies in a given image. Quantization is done based on the embedded zero tree coding (EZW) proposed by Shapiro. Entropy coding is by sophisticated arithmetic coder to achieve high compression. The performance of the arithmetic coder is directly related to coding gain. Two major problems stand out as hurdles to efficient arithmetic coding are: The modelling complexity grows exponentially with respect to the order of the Markov model, which exploits the redundancy between data symbols by context modelling, Need of a practical context modelling technique. In this paper a histogram based static source model on the EZWs significant map output has been developed that addresses the above two practical problems.

An image compression method using the wavelet transform, zero tree coding and adaptive arithmetic coding has been proposed. Here a novel static zeroth order adaptive arithmetic coder is being explored to improve the compression ratio. The proposed method decomposes an image into several subband images using the discrete wavelet transform, decorrelated coefficients quantized by Shapiros embedded zerotree wavelet algorithm and encoded using static zeroth order adaptive arithmetic coder. WAVELET TRANSFORM The basic idea of wavelet transform is to represent any arbitrary function as a superposition of a wavelet basis. The wavelet basis is formed by dilation and translation of a special function, which is called the mother wavelet. The wavelet transform gives a spatial and frequency representation of signals. The wavelet transform can be implemented by a two channel perfect reconstruction (PR) filter bank. A filter bank is a set of analysis and synthesis filters which are connected by sampling operators. The wavelet transform of a signal can be obtained by repeatedly applying a PR filter bank to the signal in a pyramidal scheme resulting in a dyadic decomposition. In a dyadic

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decomposition the lowest frequency band is decomposed in a recursive fashion and the number of these recursive steps is referred as levels. Two levels, 1-D wavelet decomposition is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Two Levels of 1-D Wavelet Decomposition The filter used to compute discrete wavelet transform for the image compression described in this paper is 9/7 tap linear phase biorthogonal filter with the decomposition level five. These filters were chosen because in addition to their good localization properties, they produced good results empirically. ZERO TREE CODING In a dyadic wavelet decomposition explained in the previous section every coefficient is related to a set of coefficients at the next finer level that correspond to the same spatial location in the image. A coefficient at a coarse level is called parent, whereas its spatially related coefficients at the next finer level are referred as its children. The dependency is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 3: Three level zerotree dependency

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The procedure of zero tree coding is as follows. First the threshold T is determined by finding wavelet coefficient with the largest magnitude and setting the threshold to the integer power of 2 less than or equal to this value. The scanning of coefficients is performed in such a way that no child node is scanned before its parent. For an N-scale transform, the scan begins at the lowest frequency subband LLN and scans subbands HLN, LHN and HHN at which point it moves on to scale N-1. Every coefficient is checked to determine whether its magnitude is greater than or equal to T, i.e.., whether it is significant with respect to the threshold. If a coefficient is found to be significant, it is coded as either positive significant (P) or negative significant (N) depending on its sign, and is placed on the list of significant coefficients. If the coefficient is not significant, then all its descendants are examined to see whether a significant descendant exists. If no significant descendants exist, it is coded as zerotree root (Z). If there exists a significant descendant, it is coded as isolated zero (T). The coefficients that descend from a zerotree root are not significant and need not be coded. ADAPTIVE ARITHMETIC CODING Arithmetic coding is a lossless data compression technique that encodes the input data by creating a string code that represents a fractional value between 0 and 1 on the real number line. Due to its high compression performance, arithmetic coding is used so ubiquitously in practice that it has become an indispensable part of any compression system. It encourages a clear separation between the model for representing the data and the encoding of information with respect to that model. It accommodates adaptive models easily and computationally efficient. The simplest model is a memory less one, in which the data symbols are considered as independent random variables. The maximum compression achievable by arithmetic coding is quantified in Shannons noiseless source coding theorem, which states that the average code length is lower bounded by the entropy associated with the model. As entropy, the amount of compression is always referred to a mode; the fundamental problem in addressing arithmetic coder design is to build good models. In the proposed approach as the bit streams resulting from the subordinate passes of the zerotree coding are hardly compressible even by higher order entropy coding, the bit streams of subordinate passes are outputted as they are. Arithmetic coding is performed only on the four letter strings resulting from dominant passes of the zerotree coding. Probability of each of the four letters occurring in the zerotree coding is statically calculated using histogram based zeroth order Markov model for the outputs of the dominant passes and this is done for each successive threshold separately. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS The proposed adaptive arithmetic coder is used for wavelet based image compression. The PSNR numbers for the proposed arithmetic coder coupled with the EZW algorithm

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at various bit rates on the standard 512X512 lena test image are listed in Table 1. The proposed scheme achieves upto 10% bit rate saving than the memoryless model which is comparable with the results obtained by high order context modeling.

Table 1: Coding results for lena 512 X 512 CONCLUSION The proposed adaptive arithmetic entropy coding technique for wavelet based image compression gives comparable results as that of systems using higher order context modelling. Studies are underway on obtaining an optimum context assigning method according to the local and global features of the image.

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JOURNAL #19

A Survey on Lossless Compression for Medical Images M.Ferni Ukrit, A.Umamageswari, Dr.G.R.Suresh
International Journal of Computer Applications (0975 8887) Volume 31 No.8, October 2011 Medical Image Compression is very important in the present world for efficient archiving and transmission of images. Compression is the process of coding that will effectively reduce the total number of bits needed to represent certain information.

Figure 1: Simple Compression Technique Basically two types of compression are available: Lossy Compression: In this compression there is loss of information and the original image is not recovered exactly. This is irreversible. Most lossy data compression formats suffer from generation loss: repeatedly compressing and decompressing the file cause it to progressively loss quality. Lossless Compression: The goal of lossless image compression is to represent an image signed with the smallest possible number of bits without loss of any information, thereby speeding up transmission and minimizing storage requirement. This reproduces the original image without any quality loss. This is irreversible. This involves two steps: o Modelling - Generates a statistical model for the input data. Statistical modelling algorithm for text includes Burrow-wheeler transform, LZ77, LZW and PPM. o Coding-Maps the input data to bit strings. Encoding algorithm to produce bit sequences are Huffman coding and arithmetic coding.

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Figure 2: Lossless Compression LOSSLESS MEDICAL IMAGE COMPRESSION TECHNIQUES Medical Images are captured in large amount and stored. There are several lossless image compression algorithms for the applications of compressing medical images. In this lossless JPEG, JPEG-LS, JPEG 2000, PNG and CALIC are tested as an image data set. In this paper an image set of 382 medical images which are organized to 20 groups. In this study we have characterized the various compression algorithm and implementation. Lossless JPEG: This describes the predictive image compression algorithm with Huffman or arithmetic entropy coder. JPEG-LS: This describes low complexity image compression algorithm with entropy coding and the algorithm used is LOCO-I. This is developed with the aim of providing low complexity lossless and near lossless image compressions. JPEG-2000: This describes the algorithm based on wavelet transform image decomposition and arithmetic coding. This supports both lossy and lossless compression, this produce higher quality final image. PNG: This describes a predictive image compression algorithm using LZ77 and Huffman coding. CALIC: This describes Arithmetic Entropy codes which has high compression ratio. When tested with all these algorithms JPEG-LS has best Compression Speed (CS) and Compression Ratio (CR).

Table 1: Comparison of CS and CR for various algorithms

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JPEG-LS JPEG-LS are simple and efficient baseline algorithm which consists of two independent and distinct stages called modelling and encoding. This is developed with the aim of providing a low complexity lossless and near lossless image compression. This can obtain good decorrelation. The core of JPEG-LS is based on LOCO- I algorithm that relies on prediction, residual modelling and context-based coding of the residuals. Most of the low complexity of this technique comes from the assumption that prediction residuals follow a two-sided geometric distribution called Discrete Laplace Distribution and from the use of Golomb-like codes which are known to be approximately optimal for geometric distributions. INTERFRAME CODING Interframe coding is a compression applied to a sequence of video frames rather than a single image. This exploits similarities between successive frames, known as temporal redundancy to reduce the volume of data required to describe the sequence. . Several interframe compression techniques describe sequence by reusing parts of frames to construct new frames. Sub sampling can be applied to video as an interframe compression technique by transmitting only some of the frames. Difference coding or conditional replenishment is a very simple interframe compression process during which each frame of a sequence is compared with its predecessor and only pixels that have changes are updated. Only a fraction of pixel values are transmitted. MOTION VECTOR Motion vector is the key element in motion estimation process. It is used to represent a macro block in a picture based on the position of this macro block in another picture called the reference picture. In video editing, motion vectors are used to compress video by storing the changes to an image from one frame to next. When motion vector is applied to an image, we can synthesize the next image called motion compensation. This is used to compress video by storing the changes to an image from one frame to next frame. To improve the quality of the compressed medical image sequence, motion vector sharing is used. CONCLUSION In this paper we performed a survey on various lossless compressing techniques. For medical images various compression algorithm like Lossless JPEG, JPEG-LS, JPEG 2000, PNG and CALIC are used and JPEG-LS is found to be the best algorithm based on compression speed and compression ratio. For medical image sequences using JPEGLS and Interframe coding, the quality can be improved and to avoid the coding loss and significant increase of computational cost like, correlation estimation approach is used.

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JOURNAL #20

Umit Guz EURASIP Journal on Advances in Signal Processing Volume 2011, Article ID 730694, 20 pages In this paper, a novel image compression method based on generation of the so-called classified energy and pattern blocks (CEPB) is introduced and evaluation results are presented. The CEPB is constructed using the training images and then located at both the transmitter and receiver sides of the communication system. Then the energy and pattern blocks of input images to be reconstructed are determined by the same way in the construction of the CEPB. This process is also associated with a matching procedure to determine the index numbers of the classified energy and pattern blocks in the CEPB which best represents (matches) the energy and pattern blocks of the input images. Encoding parameters are block scaling coefficient and index numbers of energy and pattern blocks determined for each block of the input images. These parameters are sent from the transmitter part to the receiver part and the classified energy and pattern blocks associated with the index numbers are pulled from the CEPB. Then the input image is reconstructed block by block in the receiver part using a mathematical model that is proposed. METHOD The method proposed consists of three major parts: construction of the classified energy and pattern blocks (CEPBs), construction of the energy and pattern blocks of the input image to be reconstructed and obtaining the encoding parameters (encoding process) and reconstruction (decoding) process using the mathematical model proposed. CONSTRUCTION OF THE CLASSIFIED ENERGY AND PATTERN BLOCKS (CEPB) Very limited number of image samples (training set) was chosen from the whole image set (image database) to construct the CEPB. In order to do this, energy and pattern blocks of each image files in the training set are obtained and then concatenate energy blocks and pattern blocks separately. After an elimination process which eliminates the similar energy and pattern blocks in their classes, a classified (or unique) CEPB are obtained as illustrated in Figure 1.

A Novel Image CompressionMethod Based on Classified Energy and Pattern Building Blocks

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Figure 1: Construction process of the CEPB ENCODING PROCESS In this part, the energy and pattern blocks are constructed using the same process applied in the construction of the CEPB excluding the main elimination part. In this process, energy and pattern blocks of the input image are compared to the blocks located in the CEPB using a matching algorithm and encoding parameters are determined. The encoding parameters for each block are the optimum scaling coefficient and the index numbers of best representative classified energy and pattern blocks in the CEPB which matches the energy and pattern blocks of the input image to be reconstructed, respectively. The scheme of the encoding process is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Encoding process RECONSTRUCTION (DECODING) PROCESS This part includes the image reconstruction (or decoding) process. The input images (or test images) are reconstructed block by block using the best representative parameters which are called block scaling coefficient (BSC), classified energy block index (IE) and classified pattern block index (IP) based on the mathematical model as presented in the following section. The scheme of the decoding process is presented in Figure 3.

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Figure 3: Decoding process EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS Data Set: In this paper, 67 gray-scale, 8 bits/pixel, 512 512 JPEG images were used. The experiments were implemented in two groups. In the first group of experiments the size of the image blocks is LIBV = i j = 8 8 = 64 while in the second LIBV = i j = 16 16 = 256. Evaluation Metrics: Even though the HVS is the most reliable assessment tool to measure the quality of an image, the subjective quality measurement methods based on HVS such as mean opinion score (MOS) are not practical. Almost all the works in the literature consider the PSNR and MSE as an evaluation metrics to measure the quality of the image. They can predict perceived image and video quality automatically. Therefore, as a starting point at least for the comparisons, the performance of the newly proposed method is measured using PSNR and MSE metrics. Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR): the ratio between the signals maximum power and the power of the signals noise. The higher PSNR means better quality of the reconstructed image. The PSNR can be computed as

Where b is the largest possible value of the image signal (typically 255 or 1). The PSNR is given in decibel units (dB).

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Mean Squared Error (MSE): represents the cumulative squared error between the original and the reconstructed image, whereas PSNR represents a measure of the peak error. The MSE can be described as the mean of the square of the differences in the pixel values between the corresponding pixels of the two images. MSE can be written as:

Where Im(m, n) and _Im(m, n) are the original and the reconstructed images, respectively. MN is the dimension of the images. In our experiments the dimension of the images is 512 512. CONCLUSIONS In this paper, a new image compression algorithm based on the classified energy and pattern block (CEPB) sets is proposed. In the method, first the CEB and CPB sets are constructed and any image data can be reconstructed block by block using a block scaling coefficient and the index numbers of the classified energy and pattern blocks placed in the CEB and CPB. The CEB and CPB sets are constructed for different sizes of image blocks such as 8 by 8 or 16 by 16 with respect to different compression ratios desired. At the end of a series of the experimental works, the evaluation results show that the proposed method provides high compression ratios such as 21.33 : 1, 85.33 : 1 while preserving the image quality at 2730.5 dB level on the average. When the compression ratio versus image quality (PSNR) results in the proposed method compared to the other works, it seems that the method is superior to the DCT and DWT particularly at low bit rates or high compression ratios. For the time being, the performance of the newly proposed method is measured using PSNR and MSE metrics and in the next paper on the comparative results of this work, the other quality assessment metrics such as SSIM will also be considered.