NAME: CHATHURA LAKMAL HEWAGE

STUDENT ID: 090418138

Introduction Daniel Bernoulli was a Dutch-Swiss mathematician and was one of the many prominent mathematicians in the Bernoulli family. He is particularly remembered for his applications in mathematics to mechanics, especially fluid mechanics, and for his pioneering work in probabilities and statistics. Bernoulli's work is still studied at length by many schools of science throughout the world. Giovanni Battista Venturi (March 15, 1746 - April 24, 1822) was an Italian physicist. He was the discoverer and eponym of Venturi effect. He was also the eponym of the Venturi pump and Venturi tube. Born in Bibbiano, he was a contemporary of Lagrange and Laplace, and a pupil of Lazzaro Spallanzani. He was ordained as a priest in 1769, and in the same year appointed as a teacher of logic at the seminary of Reggio Emilia. In 1774 he became a professor of geometry and philosophy at the University of Modena, where in 1776 he became professor of physics. Venturi was the first to call attention to the importance of Leonardo da Vinci as a scientist, and compiled and published many of Galileo's manuscripts and letters. He died at Reggio Emilia in April 1822. A pitot tube is a pressure measurement instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity. The pitot tube was invented by the French engineer Henri Pitot in the early 1700s and was modified to its modern form in the mid 1800s by French scientist Henry Darcy. It is widely used to determine the airspeed of an aircraft and to measure air and gas velocities in industrial applications.

Background Theory The foundation of Venturi design idea is based on the pressure drop across a Venturi-type constriction. The design, as depicted in Figure 1, consists of a main body tube, an obstruction to create a resistance pathway through the tube, connectors on either side to secure the tubing, and a loop of thinner tubing with ends on either side of the obstruction. This loop is transparent, calibrated, and contain water in order to act as a manometer. The theory behind this design is fairly simple; it relates the pressure difference across the resistance to the gas flow rate through the tube. Venturi consists of a gradually decreasing nozzle through which the fluid in a pipe is accelerated, followed by a gradually increasing diffuser section that allows the fluid to nearly regain its original pressure head. It can be used to measure the flow rate in the pipe, or it can be

used to pump a secondary fluid by aspirating it at the nozzle exit. The ability of the venturi tube to regain much of the original pressure head makes it especially useful in measuring the flow rate in systems which have a low pressure differential or pressure head that drives the fluid through the pipe. Conserving the pressure head decreases the amount of energy required to pump the fluid through the pipe. The fluid velocity must increase through the constriction to satisfy the equation of continuity, while its pressure must decrease due to conservation of energy: the gain in kinetic energy is balanced by a drop in pressure or a pressure gradient force. An equation for the drop in pressure due to the Venturi effect may be derived from a combination of Bernoulli's principle and the equation of continuity. The limiting case of the Venturi effect is when a fluid reaches the state of choked flow, where the fluid velocity approaches the local speed of sound. In choked flow the mass flow rate will not increase with a further decrease in the downstream pressure environment. However, mass flow rate for a compressible fluid can increase with increased upstream pressure, which will increase the density of the fluid through the constriction (though the velocity will remain constant). This is the principle of operation of a de Laval nozzle. Using Bernoulli's equation in the special case of incompressible flows (such as the flow of water or other liquid, or low speed flow of gas), the theoretical pressure drop (p1 p2) at the constriction would be given by:

where is the density of the fluid, v1 is the (slower) fluid velocity where the pipe is wider, v2 is the (faster) fluid velocity where the pipe is narrower (as seen in the figure). This assumes the flowing fluid (or other substance) is not significantly compressible - even though pressure varies, the density is assumed to remain approximately constant. Due to simplicity and dependability, the Venturi tube flow meter is often used in applications where it's necessary with higher Turn Down Rates, or lower pressure drops, than the orifice plate can provide. he basic pitot tube consists of a tube pointing directly into the fluid flow. As this tube contains fluid, a pressure can be measured; the moving fluid is brought to rest (stagnates) as there is no outlet to allow flow to continue. This pressure is

the stagnation pressure of the fluid, also known as the total pressure or (particularly in aviation) the pitot pressure. In industry, the velocities being measured are often those flowing in ducts and tubing where measurements by an anemometer would be difficult to obtain. In these kinds of measurements, the most practical instrument to use is the pitot tube. The pitot tube can be inserted through a small hole in the duct with the pitot connected to a U-tube water gauge or some other differential pressure gauge for determining the velocity inside the ducted wind tunnel. One use of this technique is to determine the amount of cooling that is happening to a room. Methods As for the experiment apparatus, consists of a circular pipe fed at the inlet with air from a variable speed pump. The outlet of the pipe is to the atmosphere. The pipe narrows to form a venturi and there are pressure tapping's to a water manometer upstream and downstream of this downstream there is a pitot tube which can be traversed across the pipe and positioned using a scale this is also connected to a water manometer . The experiment was carried on for different speeds and readings of water levels in the venturi manometer were taken same procedure was carried out for the pitot tube in intervals on 2mm. In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principal state that for an in viscid flow, an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure of a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. Bernoulli's principal can be applied in various types of fluid flow, resulting in what is loosely denoted as Bernoulli's equation. In fact there an different forms of the Bernoulli equations for different types of flow. The simple form of Bernoulli principal is valid for incompressible flows (e.g.:- most liquid flows) and also for compressible flows (e.g.:- gases) moving at low mach numbers. Bernoulli's principal can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy. This states that in a steady flow the sum of all forms of mechanical energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all points on that streamline. this requires that the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy remain constant. If the fluid is flowing out of a reservoir. The sum of all forms of energy is the same on all streamlines because in a reservoir. The energy per unit mass is the same everywhere. As well as the velocity distribution, derivable straightaway from Bernoulli's principal, one way also want to know the pressure distribution. In deriving an equation for this, we will now confine attention to steady flow. However we will derive it in the first place for any steady in viscid flow. The Bernoulli's equation relate the variation of speed and variation of pressure along a streamline. For steady flow we have a fixed streamline pattern.

System that is readily understood in terms of Bernoulli's equation is the venturi tube. Indeed, this provides the simples convenient demonstration of the relationship between speed and pressure. A pipe with a fluid passing through at high Reynolds number in thin boundary layers has a constriction in it-a short length of reduced diameter. Because of continuity, the speed increase at the constriction and so the pressure is reduced. According to the equation the pressures on either side of the constriction should be the same but because of same viscous effects, the downstream pressure is a little lower. Likewise for the Pitot tube measurements were taken from bottom to the centre by plotting a graph V(r).r that gives a straight line by calculating area under the graph mass flow rate were calculated. Diagrams

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Results

For Pitot tube

Low Speed(80) r (mm) 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.0148 V.r 0.000 0.024 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125 0.151 0.187 V (m/s) 11.513 12.211 12.413 12.479 12.546 12.546 12.546 12.612 h * 10^-3 h 0.008 0.009 0.0093 0.0094 0.0095 0.0095 0.0095 0.0096

8 9 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.6

V.r
0.200

0.180

0.160

0.140

0.120

0.100

V.r

0.080

0.060

0.040

0.020

0.000 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016

Medium Speed(120) r (mm) 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.0148

V.r 0.000 0.042 0.086 0.130 0.174 0.218 0.261 0.323

V (m/s) 19.563 21.150 21.539 21.654 21.768 21.768 21.768 21.806

h*10^-3 h 0.0231 0.027 0.028 0.0283 0.0286 0.0286 0.0286 0.0287

23.1 27 28 28.3 28.6 28.6 28.6 28.7

V.r
0.350

0.300

0.250

0.200

V.r 0.150

0.100

0.050

0.000 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016

High Speed (160) r (mm) 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.0148

V.r 0.000 0.056 0.114 0.172 0.230 0.289 0.348 0.431

V (m/s) 25.743 27.786 28.493 28.724 28.782 28.868 28.983 29.125

h*10^-3 0.04 0.0466 0.049 0.0498 0.05 0.0503 0.0507 0.051

h 40 46.6 49 49.8 50 50.3 50.7 51

V.r
0.500

0.450

0.400

0.350

0.300

0.250

V.r

0.200

0.150

0.100

0.050

0.000 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016

Error percentage (Pitot tube and the Venturi)

Discussion The calculations that we performed for our venturi design helped us in several different ways. Firstly, we were provided with an insight into the relationship between different parts of the tube. The calculations illustrated that by decreasing the diameter of the obstruction we would be able to measure smaller flow rates through the tube more accurately . It was evident that if the diameter of the obstruction was too small in comparison with the diameter of the main hole this would cause an unreasonable magnitude of pressure difference. Flow measurement is critical in determining the variations in pressure along with manometer heights, and a considerable amount of measurements are required

in this application. Additionally, accurate flow measurement are also required. Flows throughout the process should be regulated near the desired values with minimum variability. Flow system requires energy which was supplied by a pump generating a pressure difference as the driving force. Firstly, the experiment was carried out only for the venturi section using three different velocities and the height differences were taken using the same procedure as the Pitot tube to increase accuracy of the experiment. The Pitot tube was displaced every at 2mm intervals until it reached the centre of 14.8mm for velocity and three V(r).r. Graphs were plotted for the calculations introducing the coefficient of discharge( as this in turn could increase the accuracy of the experiment. In accordance with the Bernoulli principal for incompressible flow three main equations were derived to calculate the mass flow rate in the venturi section and Pitot section. Several assumptions were made in this section. Firstly, the density of air is the same inside the venturi tube, there is no surface friction in the venturi and Pitot tube and finally the potential energy was disregarded in this account when pitot tube was displaced in 2mm intervals. Comparing the mass flow rate in the venturi and Pitot tubes the error was calculated and all three were less than 10%. Therefore we can assume the margin of error to be minimal.

Conclusion The venturi tube is important as a core fully designed constriction. The pressure differences can be related quantitatively to the flow rate and this provides a means of measuring flow rates through pipelines. As for the Pitot tube in industries, the velocities being measured are often those flowing in ducts and tubing where measurements by an anemometer would be difficult to obtain. In these measurements the most practical instrument to use is the pitot tube. The pitot tube can be inserted through a small hole in the duct with the pitot connected to a U-tube water gauge or some other differential pressure gauge for determining the velocity inside the ducted wind tunnel. One use of this technique is to determine the accurate temperature within a room. In conclusion the Venturi and Pitot tubes are important instruments owing to their important benefits in modern applications.

Reference http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com http://www.pc-education.mcmaster.ca http://www.flowmeterdirectory.com http://www.grc.nasa.gov Alan Vardy Fluid principals Rolf H Sampershy , Allan J Awasta, E Dward G houatmann Fluid Flow

Wiley Hoboken Fundamentals of fluid mechanics 6th edition

Appendix Applying the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 in Figure 1 gives:

Here and refer respectively to the pressure at sections 1 and 2. and are the mean air velocity at these sections. is the air density. and are the heights of 1 and 2 above a datum. If the datum is taken as the venturi pipe centreline then Substituting this into equation 1 and re-arranging:

(2

By continuity the mass flow rate, m, is given by:

A1 and A2 are the pipe cross-sectional areas at sections 1 and 2 respectively. Rearranging equation 3 gives:

Substituting equation 4 into equation 2 gives:

Equalising pressures in the two manometer arms as shown in Figure 1:

is the density of the water in the manometer. Since the density of air is very much less than that of water i.e. then equation 6 can be written as:

Substituting equation 7 into equation 5 and rearranging gives:

(8

The mass flow rate, can then be found from equation 3

The Pitot Tube Points 3 and 4 are shown widely separated in Figure 1 for clarity. In reality they are very close together. Applying Bernoulli's equation between points 3 and 4 gives:

(Note that

since points 3 and 4 are almost coincident)

The fluid has been brought to rest at the tip of the Pitot tube (the "stagnation point") so = 0. Thus equation 9 can be written as:

But, using a similar analysis to that for the venturi manometer in equations 6 and 7:

thus substituting equation 11 into equation 10 and rearranging;

Consider the pipe cross-section shown in Figure 4. The velocity will fall from a maximum on the pipe centre-line (r=0) to zero at the pipe boundary (r=R). Since the flow distribution is symmetrical, the velocity will be the same for any fixed distance, r, from the pipe centre where 0 r R. Thus the increment of mass flow the centre-line, as shown in Figure 4 is:

V(r) is the velocity at distance r from the centre-line. The element of area is a thin annulus and so:

Substituting equation 14 into equation 15:

In order to obtain the total mass flow rate the incremental flow rates must be summed from the centre-line to the edge of the pipe, thus:

can be found by plotting a graph of V(r).r

The value of the integral

against r for the velocity traverse results.

triangle area =

Figure 4