Soc Psychol Educ (2011) 14:119134 DOI 10.

1007/s11218-010-9133-z

Do materialism, intrinsic aspirations, and meaning in life predict students meanings of education?
Donna Henderson-King Amanda M. Mitchell

Received: 11 August 2009 / Accepted: 11 May 2010 / Published online: 26 June 2010 Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010

Abstract Though there is a deep literature on factors that predict college attendance and on the effects of college attendance on students development, there has been little research on what education actually means to students themselves. This study was conducted to examine whether materialism, intrinsic aspirations, and the search for meaning in life predicted a set of ten meanings that students are known to associate with their education. Multiple regression analyses indicated that students who were high on materialism viewed their education as an opportunity to gain independence, a chance to establish relationships, and a source of stress. Individuals high on intrinsic aspirations were more likely to see education as a time for career preparation, gaining independence, exploring future life directions, learning, engaging in personal growth, establishing social relationships, and learning skills to make a difference in the world, but they were less likely to view education as an escape from future responsibilities. As expected, the ndings also revealed that individuals who sought meaning in life viewed education as a way to gain independence, explore life directions, engage in personal growth, establish relationships, learn skills that will help change the world, and escape future responsibilities. Keywords Meaning Materialism Intrinsic aspirations Education Undergraduate students

D. Henderson-King (B A. M. Mitchell ) Psychology Department, Grand Valley State University, 2224 Au Sable Hall, Allendale, MI 49401, USA e-mail: hendersd@gvsu.edu A. M. Mitchell 300 Ruth St., Auburn, MI 48611, USA e-mail: Mitchell.Amanda.M@gmail.com

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1 Introduction Undergraduate students vary in the meaning they make of their university education (Antikainen et al. 1995; Bui 2002; Henderson-King and Smith 2006; Weiner 1999). For example, previous research has found that the meaning of education (i.e., the inner significance that university education holds for individual students) may be construed as the path to a desired career or as an escape from future responsibilities. Moreover, individual students can hold multiple meanings of the university experience (e.g., learning about oneself, learning how to use ones talents and skills to make meaningful contributions, and achieving greater independence and autonomy). In the current study we explore psychological constructs that predict the meanings undergraduate students ascribe to their education. Specifically, we build on previous research by considering whether materialism, intrinsic aspirations, and seeking meaning in life are related to the particular meanings that students make of their university education. An extensive body of research has focussed on how students are affected by their university experience. Researchers have identied factors that have an impact on the likelihood that students will pursue higher education, and have also considered how the university experience affects the cognitive, psychosocial, intellectual, and moral development of undergraduate students (see Pascarella and Terenzini 1991, for an extensive review). There have been relatively few studies focussing on the specic meanings that students associate with their education, though prior research suggests that students vary in this regard. Astin (1993) developed a typology of rst-year students by clustering students based on similar characteristics such as academic abilities and leadership skills. Students were classied into seven types: the scholar, the social activist, the artist, the hedonist, the leader, the status striver, and the uncommitted student. Given that these groups differed in their interests and foci, it seems reasonable to suggest that these particular types of students may vary in what their university experience means to them. Previous studies of the meaning of education have tended to focus on specic student samples, such as students with disabilities (Weiner 1999) and rst-generation students (Bui 2002). In addition, researchers have examined cultural and demographic factors related to students perceptions of university education. For instance, Antikainen et al. (1995) examined generational difference in meanings of education; and, Fryberg and Markus (2007) compared the perceived purpose of education among American Indians, European Americans, and Asian Americans. Thus, researchers have conducted comparative research on specic groups, but few studies have focussed on a general student population or investigated the broad array of possible meanings that students might bring to their university experience. In a survey of undergraduate students at a mid-sized Midwestern university, Henderson-King and Smith (2006) identied ten possible meanings of university education. In this research, and in a subsequent study (Krypel and Henderson-King in press), students endorsed the following meanings of education, ordered from the most to least strongly endorsed. Students viewed their education as (1) career preparation and opportunities for greater income and career advancement; (2) a time to become more independent and mature into adulthood; (3) a time to explore possible directions in life and plan for the future; (4) an opportunity for learning (e.g., the chance

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to develop critical thinking skills and be exposed to new concepts and diverse cultures); (5) an opportunity for personal growth, self-knowledge, and self-understanding; (6) a step in the natural progression of life (e.g., the next step after high school); (7) social opportunities (e.g., a time to establish new relationships and become involved with extracurricular activities); (8) an opportunity to learn new skills for making a difference in the world; (9) a source of stress; and (10) an escape from future responsibilities or a stressful home environment. While it was not the case that students emphasized only a single meaning to the exclusion of others, they did vary as individuals in the degree to which they endorsed each of these ten meanings. Thus, it is possible for individual students to hold multiple meanings of education; indeed, most do. In the current research we do not classify students according to the meaning they endorse most strongly; rather, we examine the degree to which each meaning is related to other psychological constructs. Henderson-King and Smith (2006) also examined predictors of each of these meanings of education, and found that several distinct types of academic motivation (Amabile et al. 1986, 1994) predicted students meanings of education. Students who reported that they engaged in academic work for the inherent enjoyment involved in it were more likely to see education as career preparation; as an opportunity for developing independence, nding their future direction, and self-growth; as a time for learning in general, and for learning how to change the world; and as a chance to make social connections. Students motivated by grades or other compensation were more likely to see education as career preparation; and, those who were motivated by recognition and praise from external sources were more likely to view their education as career preparation, the next step in life, the opportunity to make social connections, a source of stress, and as an escape. Henderson-King and Smith (2006) also found that academic values predicted students meanings of education. For example, students who valued intellectualism and those who valued academic achievement were more likely to see education as a time for learning, an opportunity for self-growth, and a way to learn how to change the world; whereas those who valued social status tended to see education as career preparation and as a way to make social connections. Krypel and Henderson-King (in press) found that meanings of education were related to students perceived stress, their optimism, and their coping styles. As might be expected, students who reported higher stress levels were more likely to see their university experience as a source of stress. On the other hand, those who were optimistic were less likely to see education as a source of stress or as an escape, but more likely to see it as the next step in life and as an opportunity for making social connections. Thus, there is evidence that students vary in the degree to which they hold these meanings of education, and there is growing evidence that these meanings are linked to psychological factors on which students vary individually. Previous research on psychological correlates of these meanings of education has focussed specifically on academic motivations and academic values. The question of whether meanings of education are associated with broader motivational orientations and values remains unanswered. Our goal in this study was to extend the current literature by pursuing this question. Specifically, we chose to examine whether materialism, intrinsic motivation in general, and seeking meaning in life would predict students meanings of education.

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1.1 Materialism It is well documented that materialism is negatively related to life satisfaction and psychological well-being (Belk 1985; Kasser and Ryan 1993, 1996; Kasser 2002; Tatzel 2002, 2003). Kasser et al. (Kasser and Ryan 1993, 1996; Kasser 2002) conceptualize materialism as the quest for wealth, fame or social recognition, and an attractive image, and have argued that high levels of materialism result in a preoccupation with acquisition and externally-driven gratication that tends to be temporary and selfperpetuating. Thus, materialists become focussed on goals for which the fulllment is short-lived and ultimately unsatisfying. Kasser (2002) argues that it is important to consider both extrinsic and intrinsic aspirations when examining relationships between materialism and other psychological constructs. Thus, he developed the Aspiration Index (Kasser and Ryan 1996; Kasser 2007) to assess both materialism (e.g., extrinsic aspirations, such as striving for nancial gain, fame or popularity, and an appealing image) and intrinsic aspirations (e.g., striving for acceptance of ones self, positive relationships with family and friends, and a strong sense of connection with ones community). Materialist adolescents are known to experience a variety of psychological disorders, including depression, anxiety, and attention deficit disorder, at a higher rate (Cohen and Cohen 1996). With specic regard to education, materialist students do not function well in school compared to those driven by intrinsic motivations such as self-acceptance, and an interest in personal relationships and the good of the community (Kasser 2002). Due to the importance of materialism and intrinsic motivation to life satisfaction and psychological well-being, we chose to examine whether materialism and intrinsic aspirations were related to the meanings that education holds in the lives of undergraduate students. We expected that materialism, because of its emphasis on nancial and material gain, would be positively related to seeing education as career preparation. Similarly, to the degree that independence is construed as nancial self-sufciency, we expected materialism to be positively related to seeing ones university education as a route to independence. Based on the notion that social recognition is central to those with materialist aspirations, and on the nding that valuing social status was related to the view of education as an opportunity to develop social connections (HendersonKing and Smith 2006), we also expected that materialism would be positively related to seeing education as an opportunity to make social connections. Furthermore, given previous research indicating an association between materialism and anxiety (Cohen and Cohen 1996), we anticipated a positive relationship between materialism and seeing education as a source of stress. Compared to materialism, intrinsic motivations spring from inner concerns with self-fulllment and self-acceptance (involving, for example, the pursuit of ones own psychological development), and are grounded more deeply in an interest in positive relationships and the well-being of ones community (Kasser 2002). Accordingly, we expected intrinsic motivations to be positively related to meanings of education that could further self-fulllment and self-development. We predicted that intrinsically motivated students would be more likely to see education as an opportunity to explore future directions, to learn, and to pursue self-growth. Also, because intrinsic motivation is characterized by an interest in relationships and ones community, we expected

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intrinsically motivated students to think about education as an opportunity to develop social connections, and as a time to learn how to make changes in the world. 1.2 Meaning in life Individuals differ in the degree to which they seek and experience meaning in their lives. By meaning in life, we refer to the sense that people make of their lives and the significance they nd in their own existence (Steger et al. 2006). While the precise nature of such meanings may vary considerably across individuals, it is possible to ascertain in a broader sense the degree to which people actively search for meaning in their lives and achieve an understanding of the purpose and significance of their lives. Steger et al. (2006) developed a measure designed to assess both seeking and experiencing meaning in life, and found evidence of variation in individuals tendency to engage in both seeking and nding meaning. Having a sense of meaning in life has long been recognized as an important motivator of human behavior (Frankl 1963; Maddi 1970), and there is considerable evidence that meaningfulness is positively related to what are commonly regarded as positive psychological phenomena (Wong and Fry 1998). For example, people who have a sense of meaning and purpose tend to be happier and higher in well-being (McGregor and Little 1998; Zika and Chamberlain 1987). Human beings seek to discern or construct meaning in their lives and may be especially likely to do so following experiences such as trauma or loss (e.g., see Taylor 1983), or during particular life phases (Reker et al. 1987). Of particular relevance for the current study, the psychological task of identity formation during adolescence and early adulthood (Erikson 1968) may generate heightened attempts to make meaning, at least for those who engage in exploration (Marcia 1966). Thus, seeking meaning in life may be a central developmental task for at least some individuals in their late teens and twenties, and among students for whom this is the case the university experience may be viewed as a vehicle through which meaning can be sought. Thus, we entertained the question of whether students who were engaged in a search for meaning were likely to view their education in ways that would foster or correspond with such a search. To the extent that independence is construed as being able to entertain a variety of views and develop an autonomous perspective about values, goals, and issues, we expected that seeking meaning in life would be positively related to the view that education is a route to independence. In addition, we expected that seeking meaning in life would be positively related to viewing education as a time for exploring future directions, for learning, and for personal growth, and as a chance to learn how to effect change in the world. 1.3 Age Previous research has considered the relationship between both age and year in school with students meanings of education (Henderson-King and Smith 2006), and age has consistently emerged as a significant predictor. Across two studies, older students were less likely to view education as a way to gain independence, explore future directions in life, engage in personal growth, make social connections, and as the next step in

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life. Thus, in an attempt to replicate these ndings, in the current study we chose to include age in our analyses. 2 Method 2.1 Participants Participants were 232 (173 identied as female and 56 as male) undergraduate students at Grand Valley State University. All participants were enrolled in an introductory psychology course and received research participation credit. Approximately 85% identied as White, 7% as African American, 2% as Hispanic, 1% as Asian, and 3% as other; 2% did not indicate racial or ethnic identication. Participants mean age was 19. Seventy-two percent were rst-year students, 16% were second-year students, 3% were third-year students, 4% were fourth-year students and above, and 6% did not report their year in school. 2.2 Materials and procedure Data were collected in two phases. In an online prescreening survey students completed the Meaning of Education questionnaire (Henderson-King and Smith 2006) and the Aspiration Index (Kasser 2007). In subsequently conducted sessions that typically included about 15 participants, students completed a survey including the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (Steger et al. 2006) and demographic items. 2.2.1 Meaning of education The 86-item Meaning of Education (MOE; Henderson-King and Smith 2006) questionnaire was used to assess students meanings of education. Participants responded to each item on a 10-point scale (1 = agree not at all; 10 = agree very much). The MOE is comprised of 10 subscales: Career, Independence, Direction, Learning, Self, Next Step, Social, World, Stress, and Escape. A sample item and the number of items included in each subscale can be found in the Appendix. A mean score was calculated for each subscale so that higher scores indicated stronger endorsement of a particular meaning. Cronbachs alpha coefcients ranged from .77 to .93; coefcients for each subscale are included in the Appendix. 2.2.2 Meaning in life The Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ; Steger et al. 2006) was used to assess meaning in participants lives. The MLQ is comprised of two subscales: Search and Presence. The Search subscale measures how much individuals engage in seeking meaning in their lives (e.g., I am always searching for something that makes my life feel significant). The Presence subscale measures the degree to which individuals report having an understanding of the purpose and meaning in their lives (e.g., I have discovered a satisfying life purpose). Participants responded to the 10-item measure

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(5 items per subscale) using a scale that ranged from 1 (absolutely untrue) to 7 (absolutely true). The MLQ has demonstrated validity and good reliability for both subscales. The Cronbachs alpha coefcients were .88 for Search and .87 for Presence. 2.2.3 Materialism The 35-item Aspiration Index (Kasser and Ryan 1996; Kasser 2007) was used to measure how much emphasis participants place on materialist and nonmaterialist orientations. The Aspiration Index consists of seven 5-item categories of personal goals. The categories of nancial success, social recognition, and physical attractiveness combine to form the subscale for extrinsic aspirations, which served as our measure of Materialism. The categories of self-acceptance, afliation, and community feeling combine to form the subscale for Intrinsic Aspirations. A seventh category for physical tness does not clearly t with either of these subscales and was not included in the analyses for this study. The original Aspiration Index required participants to respond to items on three dimensions: personal importance, the degree to which each goal had already been achieved, and the likelihood of achieving each goal in the future. Administration and analysis of the components of the scale are exible (Kasser 2007), and for the purposes of the current study we used an abbreviated version in which participants rated only the importance of particular goals using a scale from 1 (not at all) to 7 (very important). Mean scores were calculated for Materialism and Intrinsic Aspirations so that higher scores indicated higher levels of each construct. The Cronbachs alpha coefcients were .91 and .86 for Materialism and Intrinsic Aspirations, respectively. 2.2.4 Demographic variables Participants were asked demographic questions regarding their age, sex, race/ethnicity, and year in school. 3 Results We developed an analytic strategy in which we aimed to predict each of the meanings of education using three primary predictor variables: Materialism, Intrinsic Aspirations, and Search. However, because the search for meaning may co-occur with the presence of meaning for some individuals (Steger et al. 2006), we decided to control for the presence of meaning and thus, included Presence as a predictor. In addition, because students ranged from 18 to 28 years of age we also controlled for age. Because sex seldom emerged as a significant predictor in previous studies, we did not include it in the current analyses (Henderson-King and Smith 2006; Krypel and Henderson-King in press). Means and standard deviations for all variables are presented in Table 1. Intercorrelations among the predictor variables are in Table 2, and zero-order Pearson correlations between outcome and predictor variables are presented in Table 3. As can be seen in Table 3, Materialism was positively related to Independence, Next Step, Social, Stress, and Escape. Nonmaterialism was positively related to Career,

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126 Table 1 Means, standard deviations, and ranges for all variables M MOE Career Independence Direction Learning Self Next Step Social World Stress Escape Materialism Intrinsic aspirations MLQ search MLQ presence Age

D. Henderson-King, A. M. Mitchell SD Range

7.91 7.90 7.49 7.60 7.20 7.15 6.57 6.79 4.60 3.93 3.49 6.09 4.81 4.85 19.00

1.14 1.70 1.74 1.38 1.53 1.89 1.47 1.27 1.56 1.40 1.07 .61 1.32 1.11 1.62

110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 17 17 17 17 1828

Table 2 Intercorrelations among predictor variables

Predictors

Materialism

Intrinsic aspirations .24 .09 .05

Search

Presence

Intrinsic aspirations .05 Search Presence * p < .01; ** p < .001 Age .08 .11 .07 .29 .01 .01

Independence, Direction, Learning, Self, Next Step, Social, and World. Search was positively related to Independence, Direction, Learning, Self, Social, and World, but negatively related to Escape. In addition, Presence was negatively related to Escape, and Age was negatively related to Independence, Next Step, and Social. We conducted a set of multiple linear regression analyses in which each of the meanings of education was entered as the dependent variable. For each analysis the predictor variables were Materialism, Intrinsic, Search, Presence, and Age. Beta coefcients and R 2 for all regression results are presented in Table 4.

3.1 Materialism As expected, regression analyses indicated that Materialism was a positive predictor of Independence, = .15, p < .01; Social, = .22, p < .001; and Stress,

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Table 3 Zero-order correlations for meanings of education with predictor variables Direction .08 .25 .24 .10 .13 .11 .06 .21 .18 .01 .08 .34 .04 .14 .06 .48 .04 .44 .18 .24 .22 .38 .21 .05 .17 Learning Self Next Step Social World .03 .50 .19 .15 .16 Stress .27 .07 .06 .11 .13 Escape .41 .11 .19 .18 .13

Predictors

Career

Independence

Materialism Intrinsic aspirations Search Presence Age

.07 .41

.17 .29

.14 .04 .04

.21 .01 .28

* p < .01; ** p < .001

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Direction .06 .21 .17 .06 .11 .10 .07 .04 .05 .22 .06 .08 .18 .12 .25 .00 .12 .26 .13 .08 .13 .22 .04 .46 .03 .38 .18 .22 .22 .34 Learning Self Next Step Social World .06 .45 .13 .16 .12 .28 Stress .25 .06 .04 .06 .12 .07 Escape .37 .13 .16 .08 .11 .21

Table 4 Beta coefcients for meanings of education regressed on materialism, intrinsic aspirations, presence, search, and age

Predictors

Career

Independence

Materialism Intrinsic aspirations Search Presence Age Adjusted R 2

.09 .40

.15 .25

.05 .03 .01 .16

.15 .05 .25 .19

* p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001

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= .25, p < .001. However, no support was found for our prediction that Materialism would be positively related to Career, = .09, ns. 3.1.1 Intrinsic aspirations As expected, Intrinsic Aspirations was a positive predictor of Direction, = .21, p<.01; Learning, = .46, p<.001; Self, = .38, p<.001; Social, = .34, p<.001; and World, = .45, p<.001. In addition, Intrinsic Aspirations positively predicted Career, = .40, p<.001, and negatively predicted Escape, = .13, p<.05. 3.1.2 Search As expected, Search was a positive predictor of Independence, = .15, p<.05; Direction, = .17, p<.01; Self, = .25, p<.001; and World, = .13, p<.05. In addition, Search was a positive predictor of Social, = .13, p<.05, and Escape, = .16, p<.01. However, Search did not predict Learning, = .07, ns. 3.1.3 Presence Presence was included in order to control for the presence of meaning in life. Regression analyses revealed that Presence was a positive predictor of World, = .16, p < .01. 3.2 Age Age was also included in the regression analyses. Age was negatively related to Independence, = .19, p < .001; Self, = .12, p < .05; and Next Step, = .18, p < .01. 4 Discussion It is important to note that data from the current study are correlational, and thus claims about causation are inappropriate. With that in mind, ndings from this study conrm that materialism, intrinsic aspirations, and the search for meaning in life are important predictors of the meanings that students hold for their education. Consistent with our predictions, regression analyses indicated that students who were high on materialism viewed their education as the opportunity to gain their independence, a time to establish relationships, and as a source of stress. Individuals high on intrinsic aspirations were more likely to see education as a time to gain independence, explore future life directions, learn, engage in personal growth, increase social connections, and learn skills to make a difference in the world. As expected, the ndings also revealed that individuals who sought meaning in life viewed education as a way to gain independence, explore life directions, engage in personal growth, and learn skills

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to help change the world. Thus, materialism, intrinsic aspirations, and the search for meaning predicted the meanings of education in ways that were consistent with our expectations. In addition, age and the presence of meaning emerged as significant predictors; we refer to these ndings below, as well as several other ndings that were not specifically predicted. Our ndings highlight the power of intrinsic motivation to predict meaning of education; intrinsic aspirations predicted all of the meanings of education except stress, and in almost all cases emerged as the strongest predictor. Although materialism was also related to several meanings of education, the current study suggests that, in terms of aspirations, what matters most in predicting such students meanings of education is the degree to which their values are grounded in an interest in their own psychological development, their relationships with others, and their wider community. Materialism was a significant predictor of several meanings of education, but interestingly it did not predict the degree to which students see education as career preparation. This deviates somewhat from a previous study in which extrinsic academic motivation did predict viewing education as career preparation (Henderson-King and Smith 2006). The current ndings suggest that when students construe their university experience as career preparation, they are not necessarily focussing primarily on the nancial aspect of an intended career. Thus, although educators sometimes bemoan an increased career emphasis among undergraduate students and equate such a shift with the consumer mentality that has ourished in an increasingly materialist culture, our ndings suggest that the conation of career focus and nancial aspirations may be erroneous. Students with a career-focussed view of education may be anticipating their future careers not necessarily as a source of nancial gain, but rather with a desire for work that provides personal fulllment and opportunities for making positive contributions to others well-being. Students might also be focussed on the skills they will develop and the ways in which they will grow as individuals and professionals in their future careers. Future examinations of this topic could benet from a more nely-tuned analysis of these and other orientations that students typically take toward their future work lives. Interestingly, materialism and intrinsic aspirations both predicted viewing education as the next step in life. Materialist individuals strive for wealth, social recognition, and an attractive image (Kasser and Ryan 1996), and materialist students may view a university degree as a necessary step in pursuing their ultimate goals. While intrinsically motivated individuals may differ from materialists in their long-term aspirations, they may similarly see a post-secondary degree as a requirement to achieve their goals and, therefore, as the next sensible step in life. Thus, regardless of students specic long-term goals, individuals who are goal-oriented (i.e., high on either materialism or intrinsic aspirations) are likely to see a university degree as a necessary step along the path toward achieving those goals. There were several interesting ndings regarding the meaning of escape. First, intrinsic aspirations were negatively related to viewing education as a means of escape. Though it does seem reasonable that students who are strongly motivated by desires for self-acceptance, afliation, and an interest in their community, would be internally driven to see education in terms of personal growth or developing skills to better their community, we did not anticipate that they would be significantly less likely to see it

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as an escape. However, our ndings suggest that students who are able to recognize a connection between the skills and information they are learning, and the application of these skills and information in other settings, may view their university experience as a welcome springboard to future productive lives rather than as an escape from the responsibilities of adulthood. A second interesting nding was that materialist students were more likely to see education as an escape. It may be the case that on their horizon these students see a lifetime lled with the pressures of accumulating money, status, and the trappings of the good life. If so, their undergraduate years may be perceived as a hiatus from the demands of materialist pursuits. Moreover, students who are nancially supported by their parents may have disposable income that can be spent on luxury items and status symbols rather than on basic living expenses. Interestingly, the search for meaning in life also positively predicted viewing education as a means of escape. We surmise that students who are searching for meaning may see their university years as a time to reect on lifes biggest questions; indeed, the search for meaning was positively related to views of education consistent with such reection. Although popular images of college life often emphasize its social aspects (e.g., partying and relationships), another image suggests that the undergraduate years are a time for discovering and exploring ones own priorities and life perspectives. Students who seek meaning in their lives may be especially prone to think about their education as time of discovery and exploration. They may experience their education as a period of escape precisely because it affords them the luxury of delaying adult responsibilities in the interest of pursuing their own philosophy of life. We found that students who already had a sense of meaning in life were more likely to say that education meant gaining skills that could help them to make a difference in the world. If having a sense of meaning serves to motivate behavior (Frankl 1963; Maddi 1970), then such students may be particularly ready to engage in activities designed to shape their environments in ways that match their construals of the world and their place in it. Their academic work and extracurricular activities may be motivated and shaped by these construals, and consequently they may be more likely than other students to make clear connections between what they are doing in university and what they will be doing in their post-graduate lives. Although one view of the undergraduate experience is that it provides students with the opportunity to develop a sense of meaning and life goals, the current ndings suggest that students who already have some sense of meaning may have an advantage in university because they can more clearly see the potential for application of that which they are learning. Viewing education as a way to change the world stands out in the current study because it is positively predicted by the presence of meaning in life, the search for meaning, and intrinsic aspirations. Past research has found the enjoyment of academic work, as well as valuing intellectualism and academic achievement to also positively predict this particular meaning of education (HendersonKing and Smith 2006). Whether seeing education as a way to change the world translates into student engagement and actual academic achievement merits further investigation.

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In previous research age was found to be a negative predictor of viewing education as gaining independence, nding direction in life, experiencing self-growth, making social connections, and as the next step in life. In the current study, we replicated most of these ndings. Thus, based on multiple studies including a variety of predictors, it appears that older students are less likely to view education as a time to gain independence, engage in personal growth, make social connections, and as the next step in life. It is not surprising that the further students are removed from the transition from high school to college, the less likely they are to see their university experience as simply an obvious next step along their life path or as a way to gain independence. The latter meaning, in particular, seems particularly germane to younger students whove just begun to deal with the freedom and responsibilities of an independent life. Older, more advanced students might be expected to construct meanings that capture a different set of educational purposes and experiences associated with their personal aspirations and experiences. Moreover, major life events and transitions are marked by predictable psychological responses (Stewart 1982), beginning with a receptive emotional stance and a sense of openness to change. Starting college is one such life transition. When students rst enter college, they may be more open to the educational setting as offering the potential for personal growth and change; however, the openness to change that characterizes transitional life experiences diminishes as students age and adapt to university life (Stewart 1982). Results from the current study (i.e., that older students are less likely to see education as a time for personal growth) suggest that students phenomenological experience of their education may be consistent with what is known about the adaptation to life change. It would be useful to identify additional psychosocial correlates of these meanings of education. In particular, research on student engagement, achievement, and retention might reveal that particular meanings are associated with student success, and additional research on the predictors of such meanings (e.g., parental and peer inuences) might help to identify how students could be encouraged to see education in ways that will ultimately benet them. Future research should examine the meanings of education and their predictors in universities that are more diverse in various areas across the country and across cultures. In the present study, as in previous research (Henderson-King and Smith 2006), age was negatively associated with seeing education as the chance to grow as a person, and as the next step in life. Longitudinal research would allow us to track the variability in meanings for students as they progress through their university experience. It could also be fruitful to examine the intergenerational transmission of meanings of education. Though we have some evidence of difference in meanings across generations (Antikainen et al. 1995), little is known about how views of education are passed from one generation to the next.

Appendix

See Table 5.

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Meanings of education Table 5 Descriptions, sample items, and alpha coefcients for MOE subscales Meaning Career Description Education as a way to prepare for a career, and to enhance future earnings and chances of promotion The opportunity to mature, increase independence, and prove that one is an adult Provides a chance to explore the direction ones life might take; a chance to plan for the future Learning to think critically; being exposed to new ideas and cultural diversity Provides opportunities to know and understand oneself better, discover ones passions, and grow as an individual The natural next step to take after completing high school; the obvious thing to do A way to enhance ones social life, develop friendships and become involved in extracurricular activities Learning skills that will enable one to make a difference in the world A source of stress in ones life A chance to escape from the responsibilities of adulthood or from a stressful home situation; not the real world Sample item Prepares you for a future career

133

Alpha .88

Independence

Proving to yourself and others that you are an adult A way of guring out what to do in life The opportunity to engage in intellectual growth The process of self-discovery

.89

Direction

.93

Learning

.93

Self

.93

Next Step

The natural next step in life

.77

Social

A good way of meeting people and making new friends

.90

World Stress Escape

Helps people to make the world a better place Creates anxiety and a sense of pressure Biding time before life really begins

.82 .89 .80

References
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Author Biographies
Donna Henderson-King received her doctorate in Social Psychology at the University of Michigan and is currently an Associate Professor at Grand Valley State University. Her published research related to education has focussed on educational inuences on feminist consciousness and intergroup tolerance, as well as meanings of education. She is currently working on research examining the need for cognition and religiosity as predictors of students meanings of education. Amanda M. Mitchell has a B.S. in Psychology from Grand Valley State University. She has been involved with research on the meaning of education, as well as attitudes about cosmetic surgery, for two and a half years. She will soon begin a doctoral program in Counseling Psychology at the University of Louisville.

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