Applied Geophysics I Borehole Logging and Core Logging

SCOPE: Basic Principles and Applications of downhole geophysical surveying

Introduction: Why logging? Borehole logging (in-situ) - lithological characteristics (density, vp) - hydraulic properties (porosity, permeability, fluid content) - thermal properties (temperature, thermal conductivity) Core logging: Magnetic properties, optical properties (dating of polarity zones, susceptibility records, color reflectance records)

Log = (continuous) downhole/downcore profile of a physical parameter

1. Whats borehole logging good for?

To identify geological interfaces in the subsurface To correlate geological information between boreholes To obtain information on the in-situ properties of the wallrock

Lithology/Geologic Structure Stratigraphic Correlation/Depositional Environment Hazardous Waste Evaluation Porosity/Permeability Estimation Water Saturation, Formation Factor Grain Size, Grain Sorting Formation Fractures, Solution Cavities Borehole Diameter Depth to Groundwater Groundwater Producing or Receiving Zones Water Quality Elastic Properties of Sediments and Bedrock Well Construction Information Bedrock Ripability

Invasion of drilling fluid into wall rock => Mud cake

Methods used in borehole logging are based on .... Self potential (spontaneous polarisation) Electrical resistivity Natural and induced radioactivity Sonic velocity Temperature NMR

1. Self potential (SP) log

Induced electrical potential difference: different salinities of formaton water and mud filtrate cause ions to migrate from the high salinity fluid to the low salinity fluid. Cl- anions migrate more readily than Na+, which produces a potential difference (DIFFUSION POTENTIAL) SP most pronounced at boundary between sand(stone) and shale: here, membrane polarization effect in shale (permeable to Na+, but not to Cl-) produces membrane (NERNST) potential; when formation water has higher salinity than the drilling mud, shale has a positive SP Measurement of V between electrode on the sonde and a grounded electrode at the surface Also to measure pore-water salinity

Methods used in borehole logging are based on .... SP Electrical resistivity Natural and induced radioactivity Sonic velocity Temperature NMR

2. (Electrical) resistivity logs

Different downhole electrode configurations
A) Normal electrode configurations: similar to electrical surveying (ES) 1 set of C & P electrodes on logging sonde, the other set near the top of the hole. Short normal 0.4 m spacing between C&P on sonde Long normal 1.6 m spacing, for deeper penetration + Yields sharp interfaces - but not necessarily at their actual depth position - too large to measure thin beds

B) Lateral electrode configurations

C) Microlog (wall resistivity log) Electrodes against the wall, 4 cm apart from each other + good to register very thin beds and calibrate resistivity of mud cake (=> also qualitative indication that formations are permeable) - shallow penetration (< few cms)

D) Focussed-Current Logs produces circular current discs (~ 1 m thick) that penetrate the formation laterally instead of flowing up the walls. + penetration depth: 3m + good vertical resolution + output proportional to app. resistivity

Comparison of normal, lateral, and focusing electrode (Laterolog 7) logs

Methods used in borehole logging are based on .... SP Electrical resistivity Natural and induced radioactivity Sonic velocity Temperature NMR

3. Nuclear logs
3 Principles: 1) 2) 3) Detection of -radiation resulting from natural radioactivity Measure absorption of -radiation emitted by controlled -source Measure penetration of -radiation emitted by controlled neutron source

source Only -radiation and neutrons have appreciable penetrating power Interaction of -rays with matter:
Interaction of -rays with matter: ctric conversion (> 0.2 MeV) ) Z3.6 Z3.6

1a) Gamma-ray log: Detection of -radiation resulting from natural radioactivity record number of nuclear decay events over a fixed time interval. => Logging rate must be slow enough to get a statistically valid number of decay events + to measure Uranium and shale content + allows for sharp definition of formation interfaces

1b)

Natural gamma-ray spectroscopy (K, U, Th)

to identify radioactive minerals and clay types

2 Density log (Gamma-gamma log)

A source of -radiation, such as 57Co (t1/2=272 d, 122 keV -energy), is lowered down with a detector. Absorption of -radiation is proportional to bulk density. Bulk density is decreased by porosity + fast count rate (2 km/hr) + Compton scattering Z
(elements have 0,5 e- per atomic weight unit, H has 1 e- p. a.w.u)

=> content of pore water fluid - small penetration (~ 10 cm)

e=b 2 Z/A e = electron density b = bulk density

Photo-electric crosssection index, Pe Pe=Z3.6/10

3) Neutron logging (=>hydrogen index) Neutrons are slowed and scattered by collisions with hydrogen atoms primarily found in water or hydrocarbons filling pore spaces. High porosity, saturated rocks will have a low neutron count. Some hydrated minerals such as gypsum also have a low neutron count

Source: Am (-source) + Be 4 9 12 1 2He + 4Be -> 6C + 0n

Neutron log

Methods used in borehole logging are based on .... SP Electrical resistivity Natural and induced radioactivity Sonic velocity Temperature NMR

4. Elastic-wave (acoustic) methods

1) Sonic log transmitter generates wave several modes, which are subsequently picked up by the receivers => measures travel times and seismic velocities, respectively (similar to the refraction method) - used for reflection analysis and surface to depth travel times 2) Borehole televiewer: Ultrasonic transmitter-receiver is rotated in the borehole as the sonde is raised. Ultrasonic beam does not penetrate into the formation, but is reflected from the borehole wall. The receiver records the amplitude of reflection from the borehole wall. => Used to study fractures

Methods used in borehole logging are based on .... SP Electrical resistivity Natural and induced radioactivity Sonic velocity Temperature NMR

5. Thermal logging
1) to determine heat flow 2) to locate thermal anomalies caused by fluid flow 3) abnormal radioactivity 4) oxidation regions

Methods used in borehole logging are based on .... SP Electrical resistivity Natural and induced radioactivity Sonic velocity Temperature NMR

5. NMR logging

1) Nuclear magnetic resonance Sensitive to the protons in fluids that are free to move in pore spaces => The amplitude of the signal is a measure of the amount of fluid (hydrogen) that is free to move in the rocks pore space In combination with data from other logs, the NMR log permits estimates of - the irreducible water saturation (trapped water locked in the pore space) - the permeability - the residual oil saturation (oil that cannot be flushed out by invading fluids) in the invaded zone

Summary SP: Resistivity: -activity: : Neutron: NMR: Sonic: Calliper: Shale-Sandstone boundaries Effects of water and the salinity of the water Potassium (K - 40) and Uranium => shales, sylvite Density Pore fluid hydrogen (H2O, hydrocarbon) content; (however, affected by lithology) freely moving H2O or hydrocarbon in pore space Hardness and compacton Hardness, fissures, faults

Important: Use a combination of at least 2 logs http://www.connect.slb.com/Docs/connect/reference/Chartbook/ http://www.oilfield.slb.com/content/services/testing/data/

Case Study: Well-logging in coal exploration

Peat: semi-carbonized plant remains in a water-saturated environment such as a bog (anaerobic decay) Lignite (brown coal), (25-35% C + fibres) used for electric power generation

Degree of coalification, fuel value

Sub-bituminous coal (35-45% C) Bituminous coal (45-86%) => Carboniferous for coke production Anthracite (86-98 %, semi-metallic-luster) for home heating

Density of Coal (in g/cm)

Peat (dry-wet) Lignite (dry) Bituminous coal Anthracite for comparison: Petroleum Evaporites Halite (NaCl) Anhydrite (CaSO4) Gypsum (CaSO42H2O) Sylvite (KCl)

0.4-0.8 1.1-1.25 1.2-1.5 1.34-1.8

0.6-0.9

2.1-2.6 2.7-3.0 2.2-2.6 2

Fingerprints of coal (see handouts) => first hint: low gamma-ray activity => to rule out sandstone density log (): low bulk density not so unique: neutron log => large values due to high H content
Density-log needed to rule out evaporites with crystalline water such as gypsum, CaSO42 H2O, or carnallite, KMgCl3 6H2O

resistivity: may be deceptive

lignite and anthracite give low resistivity, whilst sub-bituminous and bituminous coal can vary from low to high. (Remember that sandstone can give low values, too)

gamma

gammagamma

Neutron log

resistivity

sonic

overall