ME 380 Aircraft Design Design Methodologies

Design

Three stages of design Conceptual design

Method

Preliminary design
Numbers

Detail design
Nuts & bolts

Key issue?
Cost

Design Stages Conceptual design (1% of team)

Competing concepts evaluated Performance goals established Preferred concepts selected Refined sizing of concept Design examined/verified Modified as needed What drives the design? Will it work? What will it look like? Optimization Wind tunnel tests Cost estimates Flight control Components/systems tests Manufacturing Certification

Preliminary design (9% of team)

Detail design (90% of team)

Final detail design Drawings/CAD Detailed performance Only minor changes

One Approach NASA Design Circle (from Paul Gelhausen)

Civil Aircraft Process From John McMasters (Boeing)

Aircraft - Mission Focused

Mission Requirements

What does it need to do?

Conceptual Design

What do we think it will look like? What do the equations tell us?

Sizing & Performance Optimization Weights, Aero, Propulsion, etc.

Usually, there are many aircraft designs that can fulfill the mission requirements - thus, there is not a one way to design an aircraft, but some will be better than others.

Design Process Basic Criteria for Design Steps 1. Mission Objectives 2. Cost/Economy/Funding 3. Available (or near-term) Technology 4. Trade-Offs (Analysis) 5. Simulation, Testing & Prototyping

Cost Cost is established very early in the design Requirements drive the cost
Pushing limits to available technology (or not-yet-there) Requirement creep

Death Spiral Example: F-22

Evolution of Aircraft Cost . . .

Augustines Laws

. . . Extrapolated
Augustines Laws

The Modern Aircraft Design Dilemma

Technology Cycle

Aircraft Development Cycle

Aircraft Development Cycle

Technology Cycle

From Paul Metz, Lockheed-Martin

Why a New Aircraft?

Fills a need (mission or market niche) New aircraft may
Fill a new need, or Replace an old product that filled a need

In the latter case, the new aircraft may perform the same function
Better Cheaper Have new features Satisfy changing conditions in the market

Design Iteration

DESIGN

BUILD

TEST

Design Methodologies

Detailed Design Phases

Spiral Development

Risk Reduction Risk reduction is an important phase of the design process - what steps will you take to ensure that the design will work? Risk is tied to performance and cost - high risk usually means high payoff also effects schedule if failure occurs!

Development Effort Examples

QuickTime and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture.

Annual production volume Sales lifetime Sales price Number of unique parts Development time Internal development team External development team Development cost Production Investment

100,000 40 years $3 3 1 year 3

100,000 3 years $200 35 2 years 5

4,000,000 2 years $200 200 1.5 years 100

100,000 6 years $19,000 10,000 5 years 800

50 30 years $130 million 130,000 15 years 6,800

3 $150,000 $150,000

10 $750,000 $1,000,000

75 $50,000,000 $25,000,000

800 $400,000,000 $500,000,000

10,000 $3,000,000,000 $3,000,000,000

Design Methodology Empirical design method (one of many ways)

Estimate weight (TOW or Wo) based on known payload
o GTOW, TOW:Gross Take-Off Weight

Estimate wing size based known speed and lift coefficient Select wing shape and aspect ratio based upon type of aircraft Select c.g. location based on static margin requirements (stability) as given distance from a.c.
o c.g.: center of gravity o a.c.: aerodynamic center, also called neutral point

Select wing twist, if any Size control surfaces based upon tail distance from c.g. Iterate

Need baseline data - use benchmarking and basic physics (L=W & T=D, Great Flight, etc.)

10

Weight Estimate Weight is made up of the vehicle structure, payload, fuel, and avionics

GTOW = W o = W structure + W payload + W fuel + W engine + W avionics

Fuel Reserve/Trapped Fuel Expendable Payload Payload Structure

Weight Breakdown Unfortunately, fuel is a function of time, but assume constant for now for simplicity

GTOW = W o = W structure + W payload + W fuel + W engine + W avionics

For a given vehicle, the structure is a fraction of the total weight, typically somewhere between 0.25 to 0.35 (but can be as high as 0.75)

W structure = XW o

Thus, combining and rearranging

Wo =

W payload + W fuel + W engine + W avionics 1 X

For a given payload and engine (with assumed fuel use and time of flight), TOW can be estimated

11

Sample Weight Breakdown - Extreme Case The MLB Bat Micro-Aerial Vehicle

Wing Sizing Once W o is estimated, one can estimate the required wing size for a given weight and desired velocity using the definition of lift coefficient

CL =

L
1 2 2 U S

~1 CL CD
stall

L = Wo S=
2 C L U

2Wo

Choose these

CL 0 1

CM

12

Making the Best Design How do you design the best airplane for the defined mission? Answer these questions -

1. What do you mean by best? 2. How can you estimate values so we can compare two designs in a quantitative meaningful way? (Such that one design is definitively better than the other.) 3. How do you select design variables that yield an optimum design. These are in order of importance, because you cant answer #2 without first answering #1, and you cant answer #3 without first answering #2.

What do you design for? Which of these is better? Better at what?

13

Design Points The optimum design is a function of many things

We arent there yet - need to learn more!

Payload (persons)

Concept Example: Wings

Wegener

14

Wing Design & Effect on Performance Construct Design Table to compare effect of design parameters on performance specifications
Performance Spec. Stall speed Rate of climb Ceiling TO/Landing Low Altitude Max Speed Gust handling High M M>1 Maneuvering M<1 Maneuvering Sweep + + + + + + AR + + + + 0 Wing Area + + + + + Wing Thickness + + 0 Wing Camber + + + 0 -

Concept Example: Tail Types

Raymer

15

Concept Example: VTOL Types

Man in the Plane Design the plane around the person, including seats, environmental conditioning, gages, controls, cockpit, canopy, AND aircraft limits (attitude & acceleration), among others

McDonnell XF85-Goblin In UAV design, we do not have to design the plane around the crew, just around the payload

16

Some Design Points

Design for Efficiency Design for Performance Design for Stability

Design for Efficiency L/D

Profile efficiency (maximize L/D in 2-D) Planform efficiency (maximize L/D in 3-D) Fuselage efficiency (clean and streamlined) Propulsion efficiency (highly efficient engines/thust generation) Required thrust = created drag L/D often referred to as finesse

17

 Be cautious of extremes

and sometimes other concerns take priority

18

Design for Performance Many ways to measure performance; what are you looking for?
Speed? (Vmax, Vstall) Range? Endurance? (See plot of V vs Cl/Cd) R/C? (Excess power: R/C=(TV-DV)/W) Acceleration? (Excess thrust) Altitude? (Absolute and service ceiling, 100 fpm)

Design for Stability Not a requirement!

Design for instability sometimes preferable

What is stability?
Handling? Control? Both?

Stability can be related to maneuverability, which is another performance metric.

Longitudinal stability
Stability about the pitch axis: horizontal stability

Lateral stability
Stability about the yaw axis: vertical stabilizer

Roll stability
Stability about the roll axis: bi-lateral symmetry, wing design (dihedral), ailerons, keel effect,

19