MC0075 Computer Networks

Book ID: B0813 & B0814

Set-1
1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of synchronous and asynchronous transmission.
Ans:1

Synchronous & Asynchronous transmission:

Synchronous Transmission: Synchronous is any type of communication in which the parties communicating are "live" or present in the same space and time. A chat room where both parties must be at their computer, connected to the Internet, and using software to communicate in the chat room protocols is a synchronous method of communication. E-mail is an example of an asynchronous mode of communication where one party can send a note to another person and the recipient need not be online to receive the e-mail. The two ends of a link are synchronized, by carrying the transmitters clock information along with data. Bytes are transmitted continuously, if there are gaps then inserts idle bytes as padding Application: Used in high speed transmission example: HDLC Asynchronous transmission: Asynchronous refers to processes that proceed independently of each other until one process needs to "interrupt" the other process with a request. Using the client- server model, the server handles many asynchronous requests from its many clients. The client is often able to proceed with other work or must wait on the service requested from the server. Application: If channel is reliable, then suitable for high speed else low speed transmission Most common use is in the ASCII terminals

2. Describe the ISO-OSI reference model and discuss the importance of every layer.
Ans:2

The OSI Reference Model:

This reference model is proposed by International standard organization (ISO) as a first step towards standardization of the protocols used in various layers in 1983 by Day and Zimmermann. This model is called Open system Interconnection (OSI) reference model. It is referred OSI as it deals with connection open systems. That is the systems are open for communication with other systems. It consists of seven layers.

MC0075 Computer Networks

Book ID: B0813 & B0814
Each layer of the ISO-OSI reference model are discussed below: 1. Physical Layer This layer is the bottom most layer that is concerned with transmitting raw bits over the communication channel (physical medium). The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is received by other side as a 1 bit, and not as a 0 bit. It performs direct transmission of logical information that is digital bit streams into physical phenomena in the form of electronic pulses. Modulators/demodulators are used at this layer. The design issue here largely deals with mechanical, electrical, and procedural interfaces, and the physical transmission medium, which lies below this physical layer. In particular, it defines the relationship between a device and a physical medium. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, and cable specifications. Hubs, repeaters, network adapters and Host Bus Adapters are physical-layer devices. The major functions and services performed by the physical layer are: 2. Data Link Layer The Data Link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical layer. That is it makes sure that the message indeed reach the other end without corruption or without signal distortion and noise. It accomplishes this task by having the sender break the input data up into the frames called data frames. The DLL of transmitter, then transmits the frames sequentially, and processes acknowledgement frames sent back by the receiver. After processing acknowledgement frame, may be the transmitter needs to re-transmit a copy of the frame. So therefore the DLL at receiver is required to detect duplications of frames. This is the layer at which the bridges and switches operate. Connectivity is provided only among locally attached The data link layer might implement a sliding window flow control and acknowledgment mechanism to provide reliable delivery of frames; that is the case for SDLC and HDLC, and derivatives of HDLC such as LAPB and LAPD 3. Network Layer The Network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source to a destination via one or more networks while maintaining the quality of service requested by the Transport layer. The Network layer performs network routing functions, and might also perform fragmentation and reassembly, and report delivery errors. Routers operate at this layer sending data throughout the extended network and making the Internet possible. This is a logical addressing scheme values are chosen by the network engineer. The addressing scheme is hierarchical. The major tasks of network layer are listed It controls routes for individual message through the actual topology. Finds the best route. Finds alternate routes. It accomplishes buffering and deadlock handling. 4. Transport Layer The Transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable data transfer while relieving the upper layers of it. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/de-segmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state and connection oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail. The best known example of a layer 4 protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

MC0075 Computer Networks

Book ID: B0813 & B0814
The transport layer is the layer that converts messages into TCP segments or User Datagram Protocol, Stream Control Transmission Protocol. The major tasks of Transport layer are listed below: It locates the other party It creates a transport pipe between both end-users. It breaks the message into packets and reassembles them at the destination. It applies flow control to the packet stream. 5. Session Layer The Session layer controls the dialogues/connections (sessions) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for either full-duplex or halfduplex operation, and establishes check pointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for "graceful close" of sessions, which is a property of TCP, and also for session check pointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet protocols suite. The major tasks of session layer are listed It is responsible for the relation between two end-users. It maintains the integrity and controls the data exchanged between the end-use 6. Presentation Layer The Presentation layer transforms the data to provide a standard interface for the Application layer. MIME encoding, data encryption and similar manipulation of the presentation are done at this layer to present the data as a service or protocol developer sees fitThe major tasks of presentation layer are listed below: It translates the language used by the application layer. It makes the users as independent as possible, and then they can concentrate on conversation. 7. Application Layer (end users) The application layer is the seventh level of the seven-layer OSI model. It interfaces directly to the users and performs common application services for the application processes. It also issues requests to the presentation layer. Note carefully that this layer provides services to user-defined application processes, and not to the end user. The common application services sub layer provides functional elements including the Remote Operations Service Element Association Control, and Transaction Processing . Above the common application service sub layer are functions meaningful to user application programs, such as messaging , directory , file transfer , virtual terminal , and batch job manipulation.

3. Explain the following with respect to Data Communications:

A) Fourier analysis C) Maximum data rate of a channel B) Band limited signals

Ans:3
1. Fourier analysis: In 19th century, the French mathematician Fourier proved that any periodic function of time g (t) with period T can be constructed by summing a number of cosines and sins. (3.1)

MC0075 Computer Networks

Book ID: B0813 & B0814
Where f=1/T is the fundamental frequency, Such decomposition is called a Fourier series. 2. Band limited signals Consider the signal given in figure 3.1(a). Figure shows the signal that is the ASCII representation of the character b which consists of the bit pattern 01100010 along with its harmonics. and are the sine and cosine amplitudes of the n harmonics.
th

Figure 3.1: of original signal

(a)

binary

signal

(b-e)

Successive

approximation

Any transmission facility cannot pass all the harmonics and hence few of the harmonics are diminished and distorted. The bandwidth is restricted to low frequencies consisting of 1, 2, 4, and 8 harmonics and then transmitted. Figure 3.1(b) to 3.1(e) shows the spectra and reconstructed functions for these band-limited signals. Limiting the bandwidth limits the data rate even for perfect channels. However complex coding schemes that use several voltage levels do exist and can achieve higher data rates. 3. Maximum data rate of a channel In communications, it is not really the amount of noise that concerns us, but rather the amount of noise compared to the level of the desired signal. That is, it is the ratio of signal to noise power that is important, rather than the noise power alone. This Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR), usually expressed in decibel (dB), is one of the most important specifications of any communication system. If an arbitrary signal is passed through the Low pass filter of bandwidth H, the filtered signal can be completely reconstructed by making only 2H samples per second. Maximum data rate = 2H.log2 (V) bits per second. For a noisy channel with bandwidth is again H, knowing signal to noise ratio S/N, the maximum data rate according to Shannon is given as Maximum data rate = H.log2 (1+S/N) bits per second.

4. Explain what all facilities FTP offers beyond the transfer function?
Ans:4 a) Interactive Access: It provides an interactive interface that allows humans to easily interact with remote servers.

MC0075 Computer Networks

Book ID: B0813 & B0814
For ex: a user can ask for listing of all files in a directory on a remote machine. Also a client usually responds to the input help by showing the user information about possible commands that can be invoked. b) Format specification: FTP allows the client to specify the type of format of stored data. For ex:the user can specify whether a file contains test or binary integers and whether a text file use ASCII or EBCDIC character sets. c) Authentication control: FTP requires clients to authorize themselves by sending a login name and password to the server before requesting file transfers. the server refuse access to clients that cannot supply a valid login and password. 5. What is the use of IDENTIFIER and SEQUENCE NUMBER fields of echo request and echo reply message? Explain

Ans:5
Echo Request and Echo Reply message format: The echo request contains an optional data area. The echo reply contains the copy of the data sent in the request message. The field OPTIONALDATA is a variable length that contains data to be returned to the original sender. An echo reply always returns exactly the same data as ws to receive in the request. Field IDENTIFIER and SEQUENCE NUMBER are used by the sender to match replies to requests. The value of the TYPE field specifies whether it is echo request when equal to 8 or echo reply when equal to 0. 6. In what conditions is ARP protocol used? Explain Ans:6 ARP protocol In computer networking, the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is the standard method for finding a hosts hardware address when only its network layer address is known. ARP is primarily used to translate IP addresses to Ethernet MAC addresses. It is also used for IP over other LAN technologies, such as Token Ring, FDDI, or IEEE 802.11, and for IP over ATM. ARP is used in four cases of two hosts communicating: 1. When two hosts are on the same network and one desires to send a packet to the other 2. When two hosts are on different networks and must use a gateway/router to reach the other host 3. When a router needs to forward a packet for one host through another router 4. When a router needs to forward a packet from one host to the destination host on the same network The first case is used when two hosts are on the same physical network. That is, they can directly communicate without going through a router. The last three cases are the most used over the Internet as two computers on the internet are typically separated by more than 3 hops. Imagine computer A sends a packet to computer D and there are two routers, B & C, between them. Case 2 covers A sending to B; case 3 covers B sending to C; and case 4 covers C sending to D. ARP is defined in RFC 826. It is a current Internet Standard, STD 37.

MC0075 Computer Networks

Book ID: B0813 & B0814

Set-2
1.Discuss the physical description of the different transmission medium. Ans: Physical description of the different transmission medium. A) Twisted pair They are least expensive and most widely used. They are easier to work with but limited in terms of data rate and distance. It consists of insulated cu wires arranged in regular spiral pattern . cm. the thickness of wires may be 0.40.9mm.twisted pair can be used for both analog and digital transmission. For analog signals, amplifiers are required about everyn5-6km. It commonly used telephone network and is the workhouse for communication. b) Coaxial cable Coaxial cable consists of two conductors but constructed to permit it to operate over a wider range frequency. It consists of hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner wire conductor. the outer conductor is covered with a jacket or shield. The physical description of coaxial cable has a diameter of from 1 to 2.5 cm. because Of its shielded, concentric construction .coaxial cable can be used over long distance And support more stations on a shared line than twisted pair. c) Optical fiber An optical fiber has a cylindrical shape and consists of three concentric section; the core, the cladding and the jacket. The core is the inner most section and consists of one or more very thin strands, made of glass or plastic. The core has diameter in the range of 8 to 100 cm. various glasses and plastics can be used to make optical fibers. 2. Describe the following Medium Access Control Sub Layers Multiple access protocols A) Pure ALOHA Ans: Pure ALOHA : The ALOHA network was created at the University of Hawaii in 1970 under the leadership of Norman Abramson. The Aloha protocol is an OSI layer 2 protocol for LAN networks with broadcast topology. The first version of the protocol was basic: If you have data to send, send the data If the message collides with another transmission, try resending later The Aloha protocol is an OSI layer 2 protocol used for LAN. A user is assumed to be always in two states: typing or waiting. The station transmits a frame and checks the channel to see f it was successful. If so the user sees the B) Slotted ALOHA

MC0075 Computer Networks

Book ID: B0813 & B0814
reply and continues to type. If the frame transmission is not successful, the user waits and retransmits the frame over and over until it has been successfully sent. Slotted ALOHA or Impure ALOHA An improvement to the original Aloha protocol was Slotted Aloha. It is in 1972, Roberts published a method to double the throughput of an pure ALOHA by uses discrete timeslots. His proposal was to divide the time into discrete slots corresponding to one frame time. This approach requires the users to agree to the frame boundaries. To achieve synchronization one special station emits a pip at the start of each interval similar to a clock. Thus the capacity of slotted ALOHA increased to the maximum throughput of 36.8%.

3. Discuss the different types of noise.

Ans:3

Noise:
Noise is a third impairment. It can be define as unwanted energy from sources other than the transmitter. Thermal noise is caused by the random motion of the electrons in a wire and is unavoidable. Consider a signal as shown in figure 3.5, to which a noise shown in figure 3.6, is added may be in the channel.

Figure 3.5: Signal

Figure 3.6: Noise

Figure 3.7: Signal + Noise At the receiver, the signal is recovered from the received signal and is shown in figure 3.7. That is signals are reconstructed by sampling. Increased data rate implies "shorter" bits with higher sensitivity to noise Source of Noise Thermal: Agitates the electrons in conductors, and is a function of the temperature. It is often referred to as white noise, because it affects uniformly the different frequencies. Intermodulation:

MC0075 Computer Networks

Book ID: B0813 & B0814
Results from interference of different frequencies sharing the same medium. It is caused by a component malfunction or a signal with excessive strength is used. For example, the mixing of signals at frequencies f1 and f2 might produce energy at the frequency f1 + f2. This derived signal could interfere with an intended signal at frequency f1 + f2. Cross talk: Similarly cross talk is a noise where foreign signal enters the path of the transmitted signal. That is, cross talk is caused due to the inductive coupling between two wires that are close to each other. Sometime when talking on the telephone, you can hear another conversation in the background. That is cross talk. Impulse: These are noise owing to irregular disturbances, such as lightning, flawed communication elements. It is a primary source of error in digital data. 4. What is Non-repudiation? Define cryptanalysis.

Ans:4
Non-repudiation: Non-repudiation, or more specifically non-repudiation of origin, is an important aspect of digital signatures. By this property an entity that has signed some information cannot at a later time deny having signed it. Similarly, access to the public key only does not enable a fraudulent party to fake a valid signature. It deals with signatures. Not denying or reneging. Digital signatures and certificates provide nonrepudiation because they guarantee the authenticity of a document or message. As a result, the sending parties cannot deny that they sent it (they cannot repudiate it). Nonrepudiation can also be used to ensure that an e-mail message was opened. Example: how does one prove that the order was placed by the customer. Cryptanalysis: The main constraint on cryptography is the ability of the code to perform the necessary transformation. From the top-secret military files, to the protection of private notes between friends, various entities over the years have found themselves in need of disguises for their transmissions for many different reasons. This practice of disguising or scrambling messages is called encryption. In cryptography, a digital signature or digital signature scheme is a type of asymmetric cryptography used to simulate the security properties of a signature in digital, rather than written, form. Digital signature schemes normally give two algorithms, one for signing which involves the users secret or private key, and one for verifying signatures which involves the users public key. The output of the signature process is called the "digital signature." 5. Explain mask-address pair used in update message. Discuss importance of path attributes. Ans: Update message The BGP peers after establishing a TCP connection sends OPEN message and acknowledge then. Then use UPDATE message to advertise new destinations that are reachable or withdraw previous advertisement when a destination has become unreachable. Each UPDATE message is divided into two parts:

MC0075 Computer Networks

Book ID: B0813 & B0814
1. List of previously advertised destinations that are being withdrawn 2. List of new destinations being advertised. Fields labeled variable do not have fixed size. Update message contains following fields: WITHDRAWN LEN: is a 2-byte that specifies the size of withdrawn destinations field. If no withdrawn destination then its value =0 WITHDRAWN DESTINATIONS: IP addresses of withdrawn destinations. PATH LEN: is similar to WITHDRAWN LEN, but it specifies the length of path attributes that are associated with new destinations being advertised. PATH ATTRIBUTES: it gives the additional information of new destinations. It is discussed in detail below Importance of path attributes: 1. Path information allows a receiver to check for routing loops. The sender can specify exact path through AS to the destination. If any AS is listed more than once then there is a routing loop. 2. Path information allows a receiver to implement policy constraints. A receiver can examine the path so that they should not pass through untrusted AS. 3. Path information allows a receiver to know the source of all routes. 6. Explain the following with respect to E-Mail: A) Architecture Ans: E-Mail Electronic mail or e-mail, as it is known by its fans became known to the public at large and its use grew exponentially. The first e-mail systems consisted of file transfer protocols, with the convention that the first line of the message contained the recipients address. It is a store and forward method of composing, sending, storing, and receiving messages over electronic communication systems. The term e-mail applies both to the Internet email system based on the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and to intranet systems allowing users within one organization to e-mail each other. 1 Architecture: E-mail system normally consists of two sub systems 1. The user agents 2. The message transfer agents The user agents allow people to read and send e-mails. The message transfer agents move the messages from source to destination. The user agents are local programs that provide a command based, menu-based, or graphical method for interacting with e-mail system. The message transfer agents are daemons, which are processes that run in background. Their job is to move datagram e-mail through system. A key idea in e-mail system is the distinction between the envelope and its contents. The envelope encapsulates the message. It contains all the information needed for transporting the message like destinations address, priority, and security level, all of which are distinct from the message itself. The message transport agents use the envelope for routing. The message inside the envelope consists of two major sections: B) Header format

MC0075 Computer Networks

Book ID: B0813 & B0814

The header contains control information for the user agents. It is structured into fields such as summary, sender, receiver, and other information about the e-mail. Body: The body is entirely for human recipient. The message itself as unstructured text; sometimes containing a signature block at the end 2 Header format The header is separated from the body by a blank line. Envelopes and messages are illustrated in figure 8.1.

Fig. 8.1: E-mail envelopes and messages The message header fields that are used in an example of figure 8.1. consists of following fields From: The e-mail address, and optionally name, of the sender of the message. To: one or more e-mail addresses, and optionally name, of the receivers of the message. Subject: A brief summary of the contents of the message. Date: The local time and date when the message was originally sent.