MAKTAB RENDAH SAINS MARA PENGKALAN HULU,PERAK.

BIOLOGY NOTES (CHAPTER 2-4)

NAME:NURULAISYAH BT. ZAKARIA

CLASS:504 COLLEGE NO. :08074

CHAPTER 2:

LOCOMOTION AND SUPPORT

Form 5: Chapter 2 Locomotion and Support 2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals Chapter 2: Locomotion and Support2.1 Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals Support System and Locomotion1. Provided by a skeleton .2. Types of skeleton: a) Exoskeleton shell- insects and crabs- importance: i) supports important body organs

ii) protects the internal structures from damage iii) allows movementiv) waxy cuticles found on the surface of insects preventswater loss. b) Endoskeleton bones and cartilage- vertebrates- importance: i) maintaining body shape ii) supporting soft tissue iii) protecting internal organs from injury iv) stores mineral (calcium and phosphorus) v) produce blood cellsc) Hydrostatic skeleton internal watery fluids held under pressure contained withinconfined spaces in the body surrounded by the muscles.- caterpillar and earthworm. The human skeleton 1. Parts: a) axial skeleton b) appendicular skeletonThe axial skeleton: 1.Consists of a) skull b) vertebral column c) the ribs d) sternum 2. Skull consist of: a) Cranial bones enclose and protect the brain b) Facial bones protect and provide support for the entrances to the digestive systemand respiratory system c) Suture immovable joints which securely hold bones that make up the skull d) Jaw movable joint

3. Vertebral column (spine or backbone) a) composed of vertebrae. b) encloses and protects the spinal cord. c) supports the head d) serves as a point of attachment for the ribs, pelvic girdle and the muscles of the back and neck. e) cervical, thoracic and lumbar are moveable. f) sacrum and coccyx are immovable. g) invertebral discs in the vertebrae permits movement of the vertebral column andabsorb vertical shock. h) varies in size and shape. i) vertebral foramen encloses the spinal cords.

4. Cervical vertebrae a) Have transverse formaen through which blood vessels and nerve pass. 5. Thoracic vertebra a) Have spinous processes that are long directed downwards. b) Spinous and transverse processes serve as points of attachment of muscles andligaments. 6. Lumbar vertebra: a) Largest and strongest. b) Have large centrums which bear the weight of the lower back.

7. Thorax: a) thoracic cage (consists of ribs and the sternum) b) encloses and protects the organs in the thoracic cavity and upper abdominal cavity. The appendicular skeleton 1. Consists of :a) Pectoral girdle clavicle and scapula b) Humerus upper arm, longest bone c) Ulna d) Radius e) Carpals wrist f) Metacarpals palm of the hand g) Phalanges fingers and toefinger

g) Pelvic girdle consists of two hip bones which provide strong and stable support for the vertebral column. h) Femur thigh bone, longest, heaviest and strongest i) Tibia j) Fibula k) Patella kneecap l) Tarsals ankle m) Metatarsals foot The structure of a joint 1. Joint a place where two or more bones meet. 2. Ligaments Hold bones together and allow them to move 3. Synovial joint: a) Joint that contains a cavity filled with fluid that allow free movement. b) 4 features joint capsule (joint enclosure, reinforced and strengthened with ligaments)- lined with thin synovial membrane (inner surface of the capsule)- secretes synovial fluid lubricant which reduces friction between the ends of

the bones)- covered with cartilage 4. Cartilage cushions the joint, absorbs shock and reduces friction between the ends of the bones. 5. Joints:a) Hinge joint knee, elbow, finger and toe.- allows the leg to swing back and forth (one plane).- 180 degree b) Ball and socket joint rotational movement of bones in all directions.- shoulder and hip joint.- 360 degree.

How movement is brought about in a limb 1. Skeletal muscle are responsible for voluntary movements of the body. 2. A muscle is attached to at least two bones across joints through tendons. 3. Tendons are tough, strong and inelastic strands of dense connective tissues. 4. Skeletal muscle produce movements by pulling on tendons attached to bones. 5. A muscle can only pull 6. It pulls when it contracts. 7. A pair of muscle (antagonistic muscle) work together to allow coordinated movementof the skeletal joints. 8. This means when one muscle contracts, the other muscle relaxes. 9. Bending and straightening of the arm a) When the biceps contract. b) The tendons transmit the pulling force produced by the contraction to the forearm. c) At the same time, the triceps relaxes. d) As a result, the elbow joint flexes or bends and the forearm moves upwards. e) This causes the bending and straightening of the arm.

The structure of a muscle 1. A skeletal muscle such as the biceps consists of bundles of muscle fibres and largesupply of nerves and blood vessels. 2. A muscle fibre is a single, long cylindrical cell that contains many nuclei. 3. A muscle fibre is made up of bundles of smaller units called myofibrils. 4. Each myofibril is made up of actin and myosin ( protein filaments). 5. The interaction of both these proteins causes muscle contractions. 6. Muscle contraction involves the nervous systema and requires energy.

Consequences of impaired musculoskeletal system on support and locomotion 1. Muscle crampDefinition: sudden contraction of one or more muscles which results in a sudden, intense pain and inability to use the affected muscle. Causes: - common among endurance athletes. - inadequate stretching and muscle fatigue. 2. Muscular dystrophyDefinition: Caused by the progressive degeneration and weakness of the skeletal musclesThat control movement. Causes: - mutated gene which is found on the X chromosome and mainly affects the boys.

3. OsteoporosisDefinition: Common bone disorder, especially among elderly women. The bones becomethinner, more brittle and more porous. Causes: - Loss of bone mass begins after the age of 30 and accelerates greatly around theage 45 .- If dietary intake of the of phosphate and calcium is insufficient. - Bone production and bone tissue will suffer resulting in brittle and fragile bones. Symptoms: - fractures of the vertebrae, wrist or hips - loss of height and stooped posture

Prevention:

- Adequae intake of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D. - Regular exercise Arthritis Definition: - Decreased production of synovial fluid in joints and cartilage between bones become thinner (osteoarthritis), and ligaments shorten and lose some of their elasticity. - Suffer from a painful and stiff knee which restricts daily activities likewalking.

The mechanism of locomotion in animals Locomotion in an animal with a hydrostatic skeleton (earthworm) 1. Earthworms have a hydrostatic skeleton (the force of contraction is applied to a coelum(fluid filled chamber). 2. Coelom is surrounded by two antagonistic muscle: a) circular muscles surround the chamber b) longitudinal muscles extend from one end to the other. 3. Thinner and longer: -When circular muscle contract and the longitudinal muscle relax. 4. Shorter and thicker: - When circular muscle relax and the longitudinal muscle contract. 5. The muscles contract rhythmically to produce peristaltic waves which begins at thefront and move towards the end of the body.

6. Earthworm has chaetae (bristles) which anchor parts of the body to the ground so thatother parts can be pulled towards it.

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Locomotion in an animal with exoskeleton (grasshopper) 1. A grasshopper uses three legs to support the body off the ground, while the other threelegs move together to make successive steps while walking. 2. The flexor and extensor (antagonistic) muscles are attached to the internal surface of the exoskeleton. 3. Flexor muscles bend a joint. 4. Extensor muscles straighten it. 5. The rear legs of a grasshopper are long and muscular and is adapted for hopping.

6. Sitting position: When the flexor muscle contracts, the lower leg is pulled towards the body. The hind leg is folded in a Z shape and ready for a jump. 7. Jump: When the extensor muscle contracts, the leg jerks backwards, propelling thegrasshopper forward and upward into the air.

Locomotion in an animal with an endoskeleton (fish) 1. Why can a fish swim in a viscous and dense environment: a) body wight is supported by water to overcome gravity. b) sleek and streamlined body to overcome resistance. c) overlapping scales on the body of a fish face backwards to overcome resistance .d) covered by slimy coating to minimize frictional drag and maintains a smooth flow of water.

2. Vertebral column of the fish is moved from side to side by the contraction andrelaxation of myotomes. 3. Myotomes W shaped muscle blocks that make up each side of the body of a fish andcarry out opposite action. 4. Alternating waves of contraction and relaxation pass down the myotomes on either side of the body from the head to the tail. 5. These cause different parts of the body to be swept from side to side pushing water backwards and sideways and the body forwards. 6. Tendency for a fish to become unstable in water during movement, leading to: -a) yawing sideways movement b) pitching vertical plane movement c) rolling transverse plane movement 7. Movements are countered by fins. Caudal fin provides thrust and controls the fishsdirection.

8. These movements are countered by: -a) yawing resisted by the median (dorsal and ventral) fin b) rolling resisted by median fin c) Pitching resisted by paired pelvic fin and pectoral fin which acts as brakes andrudders. . 9Bony fish have swim bladders to help them maintain buoyancy in the water. 10. The swim bladder is a sac inside the abdomen that contains gas. 11. Controlling the amount of gas in the swim bladder, a fish can change its buoyancy sothat it has the same relative density as the surrounding water.

2.2 Appreciating a Healthy Muscoskeletal System 1. Adequte calcium intake 2. Physical activities and exercise strengthen joint structures, increase muscular performance and delay the progress of arthritis.

2.3 Support in Plants 1. Why? a) Plant grows and it produces more leaves. b) Grow tall therefore needs to withstand the forces of gravity. c) Spreading of leaves and branches horizontally. 2. Aquatic plants are supported by buoyancy and support.

Support in aquatic and terrestrial plants Submerged plants1. Hydrilla sp. have thin, narrow and flexible leaves. 2. This type of leaves provide little resistance to water flows, plants can be tugged at and pulled by water currents without being damaged. 3. Air sacs inside the leaves and stems keep the plant floating close to the surface toobtain maximum sunlight. 4. Their stems have no woody tissues. Floating plants 1. Water hyacinth ( Eichornia crassipes ) have broad leaves that are firm but flexibleenough to resist tearing by wave action.

2.Aerenchyma tissues (spongy tissues with large air spaces between the cells) in thestems and leaves provide buoyancy so that the plants can float on the surface of thewater. Herbaceous plants (Terresterial plants) 1. Support provided by the turgidity of the parenchyma and collenchyma cells. 2. Turgor pressure of the fluid content in the central vacuole pushes the cell membraneand the cell contents against the cell wall, creating support for the stem, root and leaves. 3. The thickening of the cell walls with cellulose and pectin in collenchyma cells provideadditional mechanical strength. Woody plants 1. Support provided by sclerenchyma and xylem tissues. 2. Sclerenchyma tissue is composed of cells with secondary cell walls that are usuallylignified which support non-growing parts of plants. 3. Two types of sclerenchyma tissue: a) fibres long, straight and thin - found around vascular tissues b) sclereids short, circular and irregular shaped- found in fruit and seeds 4. During primary growth development, the cell walls of xylem vessels and tracheids arethickened with lignin and forms vessels . 5. Type of vessels: -a) annular (ring shaped) vessel - b) spiral vessel c) scalariform (ladder like) vessel d) pitted vessel 6. Secondary growth of xylem results in the formation of wood which makes the plantstronger and and provides support..

7. Other supporting structures: a) Buttress root roots that come out from the lower part of the trunk and grow into theground, providing support for the tree. b) Creepers, vines and lianas use other trees for support.

CHAPTER 3:

COORDINATION AND RESPONSE

Figures 1 and Figures show the components and organisation of the nervous system

Chapter 3 ( Coordination and Response )

1. Organism respond to both external and internal stimuli to adapt to charges in the externalenvironment and for survival. 2. The process that involves the reception of stimuli by the receptors, the intergration of that information and the subsequent responses of the organism is called coordination. 3. The coordination process starts with the receptors receiving the stimulus and ends with theeffectors producing a respone towards the stimulus. 4. Coordination in humans involves the nervous system and the endocrine system. 5. The nervous system consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system:a) The central nervious system is made up of the brain and the spinal cord.b) The peripheral nervous system is mode up of the cranial nerves and the spinal verves.

The basic unit of the vervous system is the nerve cells called neurones. 1.There are three types of neurones: a) afferent neurone which carries nerve impulses from the receptor to central nervous system. b) efferent neurone which carries nerve impulses from the central nervous system to the efferent neurone .c) interneurone which links the afferent neurone to the efferent neurone. 1. Synapse is a narrow gap between two neurones in contact. 2. Reflex action is an automatic response which does not involve the brain.

1. The pathway of nerve impulses from receptor to effector to produce a reflex action is called thereflex arc. 2. In a raflex action, the receptor detects the stimulus that are transmitted by the afferent neuroneto the spinal cord across a synapse, which are then transmitted by the efferent neurone to theeffector to produce an autonomic response. 3. Nerve impulses are transmitted by the neurone in the form of electric signals but are thentranmitted across a synapse in the form of chemical signals by neurotransmitters.

4. E xamples of reflex actions are knee jerk and withdrawal from a hot object.

5. Coordination ny hormones involves the endocrine system. 6. The endocrine system coordinates the physiological processes of the body through hormones.

1. The endocrine system consists of endocrine glands: Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.The hormones are then carried bt the blood to the target organs, tissue and cells to produce a response. Homeostasis is the process of regulating the physical and chemical factors in the internalenvironment. It is inderpendent of unfavourable and fluctuating external conditions.

2. E xamples of processes regulated by homeostasis are : a) regulation of blood osmatic pressure(by kidneys) b) regulation of blood sugar level (by liver and pancreas) c) regulation of body temperature (by skin).

1. Homeostasis occurs by negative feedback system. A deviation from the normal level is detected and then the negative feedback mechanism is triggered to restore it to the normal level. 2. The kidneys are involved in regulating the water nalance in the blood or the bloodosmotic pressure. 3. Hence, the kidneys funcion as the osmoregulation and excretory organs.

4. Coordination by the nervous system is affected it to the drugs and alcohol.Drugs and alcohol affect the functions of the transmitter and alter the transmission of nerveimpulses. 5. Tropism is a growth response of the shoot tips and root tips towards an external stimulus.Thedirection of the response depends on the direction of the stimulus. 6. Tropism is controlled by the plant hormone called auxins. Auxins are produced in shoot tip which will diffuse away from the unilateral light into theshaded region of the elongation zone.A higher concentration of auxins in the shaded region of theshoot tip promotes cells elongation. 7. Hence, the shaded region grows faster and causes the shoot tobend and grow towards the light,showing positive phototropism. 8. Roots grow downwards towards the pull of gravity,showing positive geotropism. 9. Auxins are used in agriculture to produce fruits from ovaries without fertilisation through the process called parthenocarpy.

10. Ethylene is a plant hormone in the form of gas that is used in agriculture to stimulate theripening of fruits.