Materials Science and Engineering A287 (2000) 107 115 www.elsevier.

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Deformation twinning and its possible inuence on the ductile brittle transition temperature of ferritic steels
& Tibor Smida *, Jan Bosansky
Welding Research Institute, Racianska 71, 832 59 Bratisla6a, Slo6ak Republic Received 14 September 1999; received in revised form 7 December 1999

Abstract The occurrence of deformation twins in the ductile-to-brittle transition (DBT) temperature region of technically pure polycrystalline bcc Fe was observed under different testing conditions. Based on the results of mechanical tests, scanning electron microscopy and fractographical analysis, it is proposed that in the transition region of polycrystalline bcc Fe a mechanism of cleavage can operate, which is similar to that proposed by Biggs, Pratt and Hull for single crystals at cryogenic temperatures. The occurrence of deformation twins at DBT temperature was also proved in three ferritic structural steels. These results imply that deformation twinning could possibly play a signicant role in the DBT of some polycrystalline ferritic structural steels as well. 2000 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Deformation twinning; Ductilebrittle transition; Temperature; Cleavage crack initiation; Ferritic steels

1. Introduction The transition temperature of structural materials is the temperature at which a sudden drop of total energy of failure, caused by the change in fracture mechanism from ductile to brittle occurs. Even though the change of fracture properties at low temperatures has been known for more than a century, the fundamentals controlling the transition temperature have not yet been adequately explained [1]. From a microscopic viewpoint, the cleavage crack nucleates when the stress is locally raised to the level necessary for separation of the two neighboring atomic planes (cohesive or theoretic strength). Zener in 1948 [2] proposed that dislocations piled up against a barrier could act as an effective stress raiser. Several models of dislocation-induced cleavage crack initiation were proposed in the following years, e.g. those of Cottrel and Smith. Based on tensile tests of single crystals of ARMCO iron at 183C Biggs and Pratt [3] suggested in 1958, that a cleavage crack could initiate from dislocations piled up at a twin boundary.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +421-7-49246488; fax: + 421-74924669. & E-mail address: smida.tibor@vuz.sk (T. Smida)

A little later Hull [4,5] reported a cleavage crack initiation in silicon iron single crystals at 196C on the intersection of growing twins and proposed the same mechanism also for polycrystalline silicon iron at temperatures 196 and 253C. Moreover, it is known that the fracture stress at very low temperatures in polycrystalline bcc Fe is often regarded as the stress required for deformation twinning [6]. According to Grifths and Owen [7], cleavage at these temperatures is twin nucleated, whereas at higher temperatures, slip nucleated cleavage takes place. In 1981 Reid [8] reviewed many experiments, linking the occurrence of brittle fracture in bcc metals to deformation twinning, and he concluded that no conclusive evidence showing both spatial and temporal association was available. Nowadays it is generally accepted that cleavage in ferritic steel starts at a brittle secondary particle fractured in the stress eld of dislocations piled up at the particle during plastic straining [9]. For the given stress conditions, the probability of initiation and propagation of the cleavage crack will then be directly related to the number and size of brittle (carbidic) particles in the matrix. The cleavage crack nucleus expands by cleavage mechanism, when the crack tip moves too fast

0921-5093/00/$ - see front matter 2000 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 9 2 1 - 5 0 9 3 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 8 2 8 - 5

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for its blunting due to the emission of dislocations from the sharp crack tip or absorption of moving dislocations from its vicinity [10,11]. The initial propagation of cleavage crack is controlled by the rst interfaces, i.e. particle/matrix or the rst grain boundary. Fractographic photos in which a ruptured brittle carbidic particle can be observed in the onset of cleavage (e.g. [12]) frequently illustrate the above-mentioned mechanism of the initiation of cleavage crack. Despite the fact that much is known about the mechanical properties and microstructural parameters which control the transition curve in metallic materials, the fundamental question, which basic factors determine the temperature and shape of the BDT remains unanswered [11]. It can thus be concluded that even if the possible participation of twinning at cleavage is generally admitted at very low temperatures, they are not supposed to play any signicant role in the DBT temperature region of structural materials. However, the presented experimental results indicate that even at relatively high DBT temperatures there is a correlation between the deformation mode (twinning) and fracture mode (cleavage) under various deformation conditions. Thus deformation twinning can probably play an important role in the DBT of polycrystalline bcc Fe and some low carbon ferritic steels as well.

tensile tests with strain rates 102 s 1: at specimens as above, crosshead speed 1 m s 1 standard Charpy impact tests

Two grain sizes of bcc Fe (ASTM 6.1 and ASTM 4.3) were prepared by annealing at 900 and 1200C for 30 min. The occurrence of deformation twins with respect to the fracture mode was evaluated on the metallographicaly polished surfaces of test specimens, on cleavage fracture surfaces and in few cases on polished and etched cross sections of test specimens. The results are given in Table 1. The results in Table 1 can be summarized as follows: 1. Occurrence of deformation twins at constant strain rate slightly precedes the transition temperature. (The results of tensile tests of coarse-grained bcc Fe with strain rate 102 s 1 at temperatures 100, 110 and 125C. The prevailing ductile fracture at 110C with shallow dimples and cleavage facets shown in Fig. 1, indicate that the testing temperature was near the upper limit of DBT region). 2. Increased grain size promotes deformation twinning as well as the DBT. (The results of tensile tests of bcc Fe with different grain size and strain rate 102 s 1 at 100 and 125C). 3. Increased strain rate promotes deformation twinning as well as the DBT. (The results of tensile tests of coarse grained bcc Fe at 125C with strain rates 102 and 10 3 s 1).

2. Experimental

2.1. Fracture appearance and deformation twinning in bcc Fe

The chemical composition of bcc Fe in wt.% was as follows: 0.03 C, 0.19 Mn, 0.13 Si, 0.027 P and 0.027 S. The following mechanical tests were carried out in the temperature range from + 20 to 196C: tensile tests with strain rates 3 10 3 s 1 (electrohydraulic test machine): at specimens, cross-section 2 25 mm, the width of deformed area reduced to 5 mm, crosshead speed 0.03 mm s 1
Table 1 Fracture mode and twinning at different testing conditions in a-Fea Grain size ASTM Impact test Tensile tests Strain rate: 102 s1 Temperature (C) +20 4.3 6.1
a

The mechanical tests of bcc Fe thus showed that in all cases the cleavage failure of the specimen was associated with deformation twinning independently of temperature, strain rate and grain size, and that twinning appeared at slightly higher temperatures than the DBT temperature. Furthermore, twins were also observed in regions without visible slip bands, i.e. they had to form in the very early stages of plastic deformation. In specimens with ductile fracture modes, the twins were not revealed.

Strain rate: 103

60 T/ B

100 NT/D NT/D

110 T/B facets NT/D

125 T/B NT/D

196 T/B T/B

125 NT/D NT/D

196 T/B T/B

T/mainly B

T, deformation twinning; NT, no twinning; B, brittle fracture; B facets, brittle facets; D, ductile fracture.

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Fig. 1. SEM image of shallow dimples and cleavage facets on the fracture surface of a-Fe tensile specimen tested at 110C, strain rate 102 s 1.

Fig. 2. SEM image of the at surface of a twin on the pre-polished a-Fe tensile specimen tested at 196C, strain rate 10 3 s 1.

2.2. Scanning electron microscopy obser6ations of twins in bcc Fe

Characteristic features of deformation twins and their interaction with slip systems were analyzed on the pre-polished surfaces of test specimens as well as on fracture surfaces.

Deformation twins, as observed on the pre-polished surfaces of test specimens, frequently formed parallel agglomerations. Intersecting twins were more rare. The surface of twins varied from at (Fig. 2) to heavily wrinkled (Fig. 3) the wrinkles probably being the result of slip in twins. In some cases the slip bands in the vicinity of twin boundary diminished (Fig. 4), in

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others they entered the twin (Fig. 5). A frequently observed zigzag shape of one of the twin boundaries was repeatedly associated with microcracks. The size of microcracks varied from cavity to crack nucleus along the whole boundary (Figs. 2 4). Cavities on intersecting twins were rare. Fractographical analysis did not reveal carbidic (or other brittle) secondary particles in the site of cleavage

(re)initiation. According to morphology and distribution of slip bands on cleavage facets (cleavage rivers), the re-initiation of cleavage took place either on the grain boundary (Fig. 6) or on the twin boundary (Fig. 7). Similarly to the observations of polished surfaces of test specimens, slip bands on the fracture surfaces in some cases ran through the twin boundary (Fig. 8), whilst in other cases they were blocked (Figs. 7 and 9).

Fig. 3. SEM image of the wrinkled surface of a twin on the pre-polished a-Fe tensile specimen tested at 196C, strain rate 10 3 s 1.

Fig. 4. SEM image of slip bands diminishing in the vicinity of the twin. Pre-polished surface of a-Fe tensile specimen tested at 196C, strain rate 10 3 s 1.

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Fig. 5. SEM image of slip bands entering the twin. Pre-polished surface of a-Fe tensile specimen tested at 196C, strain rate 10 3 s 1.

The twin in Fig. 9 represents an interesting case in which slip dislocations succeeded in surmounting the rst twin boundary, but were stopped on the other. The origin of the zigzag shape of the twin boundary can be illustrated in Fig. 10. The jagged boundary with microcracks is obviously a consequence of the active slip system intersecting the energy barrier on the twin boundary, which blocks the further movement of slip dislocations.

average grain diameter of acicular ferrite and upper bainite of only several mm. However, a detailed fractographic analysis of Charpy V-notch test specimens tested at 60C revealed the patterns morphologically corresponding to twins (Fig. 12). The cleavage river pattern in Fig. 12 proves the re-initiation of cleavage fracture on the twin boundary.

2.3. Twinning at DBT temperature in some low carbon ferritic structural steels
The occurrence of deformation twins in the DBT region has, up until now, been analyzed in three previously tested ferritic structural steels with chemical composition in Table 2. Most of the results are given in more detail elsewhere [13]. Twinning at transition temperature was found in two ferritic pearlitic steels differing in the amount of pearlite, KODUR E 380 and 22K. An example of deformation twins in the vicinity of fracture surface, as revealed on the polished and etched cross section of Charpy V-notch test specimen of the steel 22K tested at transition temperature, is given in Fig. 11. Several parallel twins run through the entire ferritic grain. The third steel (KODUR E 700 TS, 0.11 wt.% C) presented an interesting case, since the tensile tests at 196C led to a completely ductile mode of fracture [13]. KODUR E 700 TS is an extremely ne grained thermomechanically treated high strength steel with

Fig. 6. SEM image of reinitiation of a cleavage crack on the grain boundary. Fracture surface of a-Fe Charpy V-notch specimen tested at 60C.

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Fig. 7. SEM image of reinitiation of a cleavage crack on the twin boundary. Fracture surface of a-Fe Charpy V-notch specimen tested at 60C.

Fig. 8. SEM image of slip bands running through the twin. Fracture surface of a-Fe Charpy V-notch specimen tested at 60C.

3. Discussion Based on the results of the mechanical tests and the microscopic observations of technically pure polycrystalline bcc Fe, it can be summarized that in the whole range of testing temperatures and strain rates, cleavage

fracture was always associated with deformation twinning. Twins were also observed in coarse-grained bcc Fe tested at 110C (strain rate 102 s 1) with mainly ductile fracture surface. Shallow dimples and cleavage facets on the fracture surface however, indicate that the testing temperature was near the upper limit of DBT

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Fig. 9. SEM image of slip bands crossing one of the twin boundaries and blocked on the other. Fracture surface of a-Fe Charpy V-notch specimen tested at 60C.

region. Deformation twinning thus very likely occurs at temperatures slightly higher than the transition temperature, i.e. temperature at which 50% of fracture surface is ductile. Furthermore, the twins seemed to form in the very early stages of plastic deformation. On the other hand, the deformation twins were not observed in the test specimens with entirely ductile fracture. The above mentioned results logically imply the question whether twinning is related to DBT of bcc Fe or twinning and DBT are two independent processes (as suggested by Reid [8]), which happen to occur in the same temperature and strain rate range. The scanning electron microscopic observations revealed that matrix slip dislocations can in some cases enter the twin (slip systems crossing the deformation twin), whereas in others they were blocked by the twin boundary (slip systems interrupted on the twin boundary). From the crystallographic point of view the transition of matrix slip dislocations through the twin boundary is in general always possible [14]. The transition of matrix dislocation generates a step in the twin boundary (twinning dislocation) and a slip dislocation in the twin, which can cross through the twin back to the matrix by the same mechanism. According to kinematic calculations, however, the twin boundary always represents a signicant energetic barrier for matrix dislocations [15,16]. The dissociation of matrix slip dislocation into a twinning dislocation and the slip dislocation in the twin or vice versa (dissociation of slip dislocation in the twin to twinning dislo-

cation and slip dislocation in the matrix) is energetically highly unfavorable. The increased strain rate, decreased temperature, and probably also, the unfavorable mutual orientation of slip system intersecting the twin will thus support the piling up of dislocations in front of the twin boundary.

Fig. 10. SEM image of the origin of microcracks and zigzag shape of the twin boundary. Slip bands intersecting the impassable twin boundary on the fracture surface of a-Fe Charpy V-notch specimen tested at 60C.

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Table 2 Chemical composition of ferritic structural steels (wt.%) Steel E-380 22K E-700 C 0.082 0.21 0.11 Mn 0.92 0.86 1.81 Si 0.3 0.37 0.04 P 0.015 0.021 0.012 S 0.014 0.019 0.01 Ni Al 0.05 0.3 0.09 0.03 0.06 Ti Nb 0.029 Mo 0.12 0.36 B 0.004

The intersection of slip systems with unfavorably oriented deformation twin leads very probably to the typical zigzag shape of twin boundary with frequent nucleation of microcraks. This assumption (rst proposed by Hull [4]) is in agreement with the conclusions of the work of Keh [17], according to which, similar local deection of twin boundary was associated with high dislocation density and explained via the interaction of slip with the twin boundary during its growth. It can therefore be concluded that our experimental results indicating the possibility of dislocations piling up against the unfavorable oriented twin boundary at DBT temperature, are in agreement with the literature data. Dislocations piled up in a sufciently large amount against the twin boundary can lead to (re)initiation of cleavage fracture, as indicated by cleavage river patterns in Figs. 7, 9, 10 and 12. However, this would mean that a mechanism of cleavage crack (re)initiation proposed by Biggs and Pratt [3] for single crystals of ARMCO iron and Hull [4] for silicon iron at cryogenic temperatures can also operate in DBT temperature region of polycrystalline bcc Fe. The fractographic analysis of brittle test specimens of bcc Fe did not prove the reinitiation of cleavage fracture on the brittle secondary particles. Even though this could partly be the consequence of low concentration of secondary particles in the matrix, Figs. 7 and 9 indicate that the cleavage reinitiation is easier and more likely on the twin boundary compared to secondary particle. In these gures a brittle (undeformable) particle in the active slip system proved to be harmless, whilst the close twin boundary reinitiated the cleavage. The stress raising efciency of the twin boundary must then exceed that of the brittle secondary particle and, at least in some cases, also that of grain boundary. The validity of the above suggested cleavage crack reinitiation model could not be fully veried for ferritic structural steels. However, the deformation twinning proved in the DBT region of three different ferritic steels suggests, that the role of deformation twinning with respect to the change of fracture mode at transition temperature can be underestimated. The relation between deformation twinning and the transition temperature has also recently been shown in some low carbon austenitic (fcc) steels [18,19], with microcracks initiated at the intersection of twins. The probable correlation between the twinning and cleavage

Fig. 11. Light micrograph of twins on the metalographically polished and etched cross section of 22K ferritic steel. Charpy V-notch specimen tested at transition temperature.

Fig. 12. SEM image of a twin on the fracture surface of E 700 TS ferritic steel. Charpy V-notch specimen tested at 60C.

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fracture is supported also by atomic simulations in bcc Fe [20,21], according to which the twinning and fracture are cooperating processes at high strain rates [20] or low temperatures [21] and sufciently high stresses.

Acknowledgements We wish to express our sincere thanks to Ing. Anna Machova, CSc. (Institute of Thermomechanics, AS CR, Prague, Czech Republic) and to Dr Ivan Saxl (Institute of mathematics, AS CR, Prague, Czech Republic) for their helpful discussions and useful advice concerning the possible interaction of slip dislocations with the twin boundary.

4. Concluding remark Our experimental results indicate that DBT of bcc Fe and some ferritic steels can be closely related to the occurrence of deformation twinning. Although the interaction of slip dislocations with a deformation twin is known to be one of the basic mechanisms of cleavage crack initiation, nowadays it is not thought to play a signicant role in the DBT of polycrystalline structural materials. An unequivocal relation of deformation twinning to the change of mechanism of fracture from ductile to brittle has, up until now, been demonstrated only for single crystals of ARMCO iron [3] and silicon iron [4] at cryogenic temperatures. Based on the results of the experiments, it can be suggested that the model of cleavage crack reinitiation on the twin boundary proposed by Biggs and Pratt can also operate in polycrystalline bcc materials at relatively high temperatures. The results of the fractographical analysis of cleaved specimens indicate that the stress raising efciency of twin boundaries in the course of plastic deformation can exceed that of secondary particles and the grain boundary. Concerning the found invariance of the correlation between the deformation mode (twinning) and the fracture mode (cleavage) under various deformation conditions, the deformation twins could play a signicant role in DBT of some polycrystalline ferritic structural steels.

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