DOC213538EN-B
Published By
Vaisala www.vaisala.com
Vaisala 2007-2010
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Table of Contents
SCOPE .........................................................................................................................................................1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 3 1. CALIBRATION REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................................... 9 1.1. Quality management standard ............................................................................................. 9 1.2. Traceability .................................................................................................................................. 10 1.3. Calibration documentation ................................................................................................... 11 Validity of calibration ............................................................................................................12 2. METROLOGY AND CALIBRATION SERVICES ................................................................. 13 2.1. International cooperation...................................................................................................... 14 Legal metrology ......................................................................................................................14 Metrology ...................................................................................................................................15 Accreditation ............................................................................................................................16 2.2. National measurement standard laboratories............................................................ 17 2.3. Commercial calibration services ...................................................................................... 17 Accredited laboratories .......................................................................................................17 Non-accredited calibration services and laboratories ...........................................18 2.4. In-house calibration ............................................................................................................... 18 Organization and management .......................................................................................18 Technical documentation....................................................................................................19 Choosing reference equipment........................................................................................19 3. CALIBRATION ACTIVITIES ....................................................................................................... 21 What should we do with the calibration results? ......................................................21 3.1. Choosing calibration method ............................................................................................ 23 When calibration is needed...............................................................................................24 Laboratory and field calibration......................................................................................24 Field spot checking...............................................................................................................28 3.2. Determining the calibration interval .............................................................................. 29 Lengthening the calibration interval ............................................................................ 30 Shortening the calibration interval................................................................................ 30 3.3. Choosing calibration points................................................................................................ 31 3.4. Calibration methods by the user ...................................................................................... 31 Temperature equilibrium ....................................................................................................33 Stabilization and sampling ................................................................................................34 Uncertainty estimation........................................................................................................35 Presenting the results ..........................................................................................................36
4. CALIBRATION IN PRACTICE................................................................................................... 37 4.1. Humidity calibration ............................................................................................................... 37 Choosing reference equipment.......................................................................................37 Relative humidity calibration ........................................................................................... 43 Dewpoint temperature calibration ............................................................................... 50 4.2. Temperature calibration ..................................................................................................... 54 ITS-90 Temperature Scale .................................................................................................55 Choosing reference equipment...................................................................................... 56 Temperature calibration methods................................................................................. 63 4.3. Pressure calibration.............................................................................................................. 66 Choosing reference equipment...................................................................................... 68 Pressure calibration methods...........................................................................................72 5. VAISALA CALIBRATION SERVICES .................................................................................... 75 APPENDIX A: TERMINOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 79 APPENDIX B: ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................. 91 APPENDIX C: UNCERTAINTY CALCULATION .................................................................... 93 REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................... 107
Scope
In todays knowledge driven world we want to understand and control things based on real data. Performing measurements with measurement equipment is one part of this quest in various fields. However, having measurement equipment in place is only part of the picture. One should always make sure that the data produced by the measurement equipment is reliable and accurate. Naturally the measurement equipment must also fit the purpose and be used in a correct way. This book was written to help the readers with the measurements they perform. The intent is to help the readers and their organizations determine the most appropriate activities that ensure the quality of their measurements. We hope this book provides the readers with a framework in which to place their own activities. This book serves as a generic introduction to calibration. We discuss the rationale behind calibration, and the factors that affect the need to calibrate. The book also provides some specific information on calibration of relative humidity, dewpoint temperature, temperature, and barometric pressure.
Scope 1
Introduction
What Time Is It?
It is a simple question but the answer is not so simple. What time is it exactly and how do you know it? Most people are used to calibrating and adjusting their watches whenever necessary. Working standards (i.e. clocks) are visible almost everywhere and making a comparison calibration is easy and almost an unconscious act. If the watch has drifted, we adjust it according to the reference that we trust. An official time is often available via television or Internet. Calibration and adjustment against official time provides us the traceability for time. Imagine how the world would operate if we did not have a common source for time? Everybody would have his or her own interpretation of time. Trains and planes would leave by the definition of time the operating companies use, and passengers would either catch or miss their carriage depending on time on their wristwatches. So perhaps calibration is not such a difficult topic. We actually do it in our private and working life all the time, and it is important, is it not?
Introduction 3
To learn more visit the website of International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) http://www.bipm.org/en/si/
4 Introduction
Introduction 5
6 Introduction
Distributed Manufacturing
If you produce products in multiple locations it is important to use optimal setups for the highest possible yield and quality in all locations. If certain locations or machines have problems with a setup that works well on others, it is possible that the measurement results are not the same. Introduction 7
What if your subcontractors send you mechanical components that do not fit into where they are supposed to? Operating on tight tolerances requires that all participants in the chain have calibrated equipment. Otherwise you end up adjusting, taking a little bit away, then things start to fit. But what happens when you decide to change subcontractors? You start all over again.
A baking company tried to bake their popular bread in another bakery.The recipe is the same, the raw materials used are the same, and the oven was set to the same temperature. However, the taste and structure of the bread was not the same.This could be because, the measurement information from the scales were different, and the temperature sensors controlling the ovens were showing different values. Traditionally, process industries would try to achieve the desired end result by trial and error, changing various parameters until the end result is acceptable. If the measurement equipment is calibrated properly, and the results are taken into account when using the recipes, the desired results could be reached immediately.
1. Calibration Requirements
Requirements for calibration systems are usually set locally by legislation and regulations, customer expectations, or own internal needs. In case the requirements are legally set, the calibration system must be designed to fulfill these requirements. In case the customer expectations or own internal needs are to be fulfilled, there are several Quality Management Standards (QMS) from which to choose from. A few of them are: ISO 9000:2000, QS 9000, ISO/TS 16949:2002 and Good Laboratory Practice (GLP). These all state the minimum requirements and guidance for the maintenance of measurement equipment. Under the selected QMS the measurement equipment maintenance system and actual calibration system is built. In case more effective measurement equipment maintenance system is needed the ISO 10012, ANSI/NCSL Z540 or ISO/IEC 17025 is selected.
1. Calibration Requirements 9
1.2. Traceability
Each calibration service provider must maintain an effective traceability chain. At the very least, the primary standard must be calibrated at an outside laboratory and then used for calibrations. In case the calibration service maintains working standards, all of them must be calibrated using primary standards including all supportive measurements. For instance, temperature of pressure balance is measured and the temperature correction is used for the pressure calculation. The thermometer used to measure this value must be calibrated. Another example is the measurement of the analog output of pressure transmitter with multimeters. The multimeter must be calibrated. To fulfill the definition of traceability all these measurements must also have valid uncertainty estimations.
10 1. Calibration Requirements
Ask for uncertainty when ordering calibration Some commercial calibration services do not include uncertainty estimations into calibration certificates if not ordered separately. Some calibration services are not able to calculate uncertainty at all. One should always consider the competence of these services.
1. Calibration Requirements 11
Validity of Calibration
Calibration Certificate presents the performance of the measurement equipment at the time of calibration and the conditions during calibration. After calibration the equipment should be sealed to protect the integrity of the calibration adjustments.
Recalibration Interval
The procedure for determining the recalibration interval should be defined in the QMS. The recalibration interval should be recorded into the measurement equipment maintenance system for each measurement equipment. Each measurement equipment should have a sticker that states the next calibration date. The calibration laboratory can provide this if agreed with the customer. There should be procedures in the QMS on how to handle and remove the measurement equipment from service when the calibration is overdue, or if the calibration sticker or calibration seal are broken or missing. There should be procedures in the QMS of how the use of the most demanding measurements is secured. Examples: Continuously using two independent measurement devices and comparing the readings Periodical comparison of a process unit with a working standard (Spot checking).
12 1. Calibration Requirements
International Cooperation
Legal Metrology
Legal metrology covers all the legislative, administrative and technical procedures established by or referenced by public authorities. It also covers all procedures implemented on their behalf in order to specify and to ensure, in a regulatory or contractual manner, the appropriate quality and credibility of measurements related to official controls, trade, health, safety and the environment. The International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) is an intergovernmental treaty organization coordinating legal metrology. The International Bureau of Legal Metrology (BIML) is the secretariat and headquarters of the OIML, ensuring both the day to day running of activities and the planning of longer term actions. OIML has developed a worldwide technical structure that provides its members with metrological guidelines for the elaboration of national and regional requirements concerning the manufacturer and use of measurement equipment for legal metrology applications. Regionally, the legal metrology is coordinated by Asia-Pacific Legal Metrology Forum (APLMF), Euro-Asian Cooperation of National Metrological Institutions (COOMET), Euro-Mediterranean Legal Metrology Forum (EMLMF), European Cooperation in legal metrology (WELMEC), Sistema Interamericano de Metrologia (SIM), and Southern African Development Community (SADCMEL). The National Legal Metrology Bodies implement the legal metrology.
Metrology
National metrology institutes (NMIs) are essential when proving the uniformity of measurements and their traceability to the International System of Units (SI). Currently, in 2006 64 institutes from 45 Member States 18 Associates of the CGPM and 2 international organizations that are covering a further 101 institutes designated by the signatory bodies have signed so-called Mutual Recognition Arrangement (CIPM MRA) for national measurement standards and for calibration and measurement certificates issued by NMIs. To be a member in the MRA, the NMIs have to prove their technical capability by participating into so called key comparisons. BIPM maintains database of all NMIs including the measurement ranges and uncertainties approved.
Accreditation
Accreditation systems are developed for global recognition of laboratories and inspection facilities, thus facilitating acceptance of test, inspection and calibration data accompanying goods across national borders. ILAC (International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation) and IAF (International Accreditation Forum, Inc.) are the main organizations for global cooperation of laboratory and inspection accreditation bodies working closely with the ISO (International Organization for Standardization). EA (European Accreditation) in Europe, NVLAP (National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program) in North America and APLAC (Asian Pacific Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation) in Asia are the main regional coordinating organizations. These organizations develop regionally the accreditation system with the national accreditation bodies by so called Multilateral Agreements (MLA) which provide a means for goods and services to cross regional boundaries and boundaries throughout the world.
What is the Accreditation Process? A test report, inspection report, or a certificate issued by an accredited body in one country is recognized as equivalent to a report or a certificate issued by an accredited body in any of the countries signatories to the MLA.Accreditation bodies recognize that they operate in an equivalent way and that they deliver equivalent accreditations, providing the same level of competence and confidence. The MLA makes accreditation a passport which facilitates access to international markets through co-operation with ILAC (International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation) and IAF (International Accreditation Forum).
16 2.1. Metrology & Calibration Services
EA MRA (European co-operation for Accreditation for Calibration and Testing : + NATA(Australia) + BMWA(Austria) + BKO(Belgium) + CGCRE/INMETRO(Brazil) + CAI(Czech Republic) + DANAK(Denmark) + FINAS(Finland) + COFRAC(France) + DKD, DACH, DAP, DATech(Germany) + ESYD(Greece) + INAB(Ireland) + ISRAC(Israel) + SINAL, SIT(Italy) + A2LA(USA) + IANZ(New Zealand) + RvA(Netherlands) + NA(Norway) + PCA(Poland) + RENAR(Romania) + SNAS(Slovakia) + SA(Slovenia) + SAC-SINGLAS(Singapore) + SANAS(South Africa) + ENAC(Spain) + SWEDAC(Sweden) + SAS(Switzerland) + UKAS(UK)
APLAC MRA (Asia Pacific Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation) : + NATA(Australia) + SCC, CASEAL(Canada) + CNAL(China) + HKAS(Hong Kong, China) + NABL(India) + KAN(Indonesia) + JAB, IA JAPAN(Japan) + KOLAS(Korea) + DSM(Malaysia) + IANZ(New Zealand) + SAC-SINGLAS(Singapore) + TAF(Chinese Taipei) + DMSc, TLAS/TISI(Tailand) + A2LA, IAS, NVLAP(USA) + BOA/VILAS(Vietnam) + EMA(Mexico) + BPSLAS(Philippines) Other : + OAA(Argentina) + ONARC(Cuba) + NLAB(Egypt)
Technical Documentation
Technical documentation should contain reference equipment, facilities, conditions, verification and maintenance of the reference equipment. Technical documentation should also contain: Traceability Uncertainty calculations Calibration instructions Stability of the reference equipment.
3. Calibration Activities
What is needed to set up an effective measurement equipment maintenance system? Plan and decide List all measurement equipment Determine the need for calibration for each unit Choose calibration method and interval Identify each unit and its calibration status. Act as planned Perform the calibrations as planned Keep record of the calibrations and calibration results Analyze Check if the calibration results require corrective actions Adjust the calibration intervals if needed Review the effectiveness of the system periodically.
Check list : Add to equipment list Identify Choose calibration method Choose calibration interval
3. Calibration Activities 21
OK. Calibration is not needed. I'll just mark and use it.
No calibration
Oh! One year has gone. I have to send the instrument for calibration.
Check list : Update equipment list Archive the certificate Check stability Set new reminder
22 3. Calibration Activities
+4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 0 10 20 30 CASE 1 CASE 2
CASE 3
40
50
60
Case 1: Instrument is in specications, no adjustments: No actions. Please check the calibration curve if there is correction that should be taken into account before taking the instrument into service. Case 2: Instrument is in specications, adjusted: No actions. Sometimes it is practical to adjust the instrument during each calibration to maintain the optimum performance. Case 3: Instrument is not in specications, adjusted: Reduce calibration interval. Check if it was affecting the production. Check other similar instruments. NOTE: If an instrument is not in specications repeatedly, even if it has been adjusted, reject the instrument. Check other similar instruments.
3. Calibration Activities 23
Calibration before use For units used infrequently or which are not in active usage but held as spare equipment For new units For repaired units Calibration if needed For units used in other service than production, inspection, repairing or testing of products but which can be taken into such service if needed
Inspection before use For units not calibrated but which should be inspected or adjusted before use (like adjustment of null detector) No calibration For units which do not need calibration
3. Calibration Activities 25
ATTENTION: Before inserting a hand-held meter or other working standard into a process, make sure that the operating conditions do not exceed its specifications.
Calibration is made at one-point against the working standard by placing the working standard as close to the UUC as possible. Stabilization time must be allowed to reach temperature equilibrium between the working standard and the UUC. Attention must be paid to the proximity of the working standard to the UUC, temperature gradients, air flow, pressure differences, and any other factors that could influence the calibration results. One-point calibration is an effective way to maintain a sensors performance for operating conditions that do not vary. Sensors that are constantly maintained at one temperature, one humidity, one pressure and so on would be ideal cases for onepoint calibration.
26 3. Calibration Activities
Potential Action
No actions needed Perform one-point field calibration Perform multi-point field or laboratory calibration Unit needs to be serviced
28 3. Calibration Activities
Month 6 9 12 24 36 60
3. Calibration Activities 29
30 3. Calibration Activities
3. Calibration Activities 31
How to handle the calibration of in-house calibration equipment itself should be thought out as well. How and where is the reference standard calibrated? Calibrators are very elaborate and will require a highly accurate calibration in order to maintain their specified accuracy. Outsourcing the calibration of the reference standards is typically an optimal approach. However, the expense can be high and the turnaround time can be long. This means downtime for the users normal calibration. Purchasing of even more measurement equipment will be required to bring the calibration of almost all measurement equipment in house. There may always be equipment that requires calibration from outside sources. Users may opt to send references directly to a National laboratory. This is the typical method for a high-end laboratory. Calibration at a National laboratory can be very expensive and may have an extremely long turnaround time. The calibration traceability chain can be very confusing, especially when more links are added. Below is an example of a traceability chain for installed humidity and temperature units.
32 3. Calibration Activities
Temperature Equilibrium
The often spoken term temperature equilibrium is important but usually impossible to reach in most calibrations. When temperature equilibrium occurs, all of the components in the system are at same temperature and no heat flows occur. Usually there are heat-producing elements in the system like motors, electronics, operator or light sources. Also note that the heat radiated from the operators body is a heat producing element. To minimize the errors due to temperature differences, the system should be allowed to stabilize for a sufficient amount of time, so that all parts of the system have reached their own equilibrium: Ensure that the electronics have been powered long enough to reach their nominal operating temperature. Ensure that the environment (air conditioning and lighting) is stable. No spot lights or sun should be shining directly into the measurement area. The number and variation of people in the measurement area is limited to a minimum, and the measurement system is protected from the heat produced by the operator if needed.
3. Calibration Activities 33
34 3. Calibration Activities
Uncertainty Estimation
Uncertainty comes from three main sources: The reference used, the unit under calibration (UUC) itself, and the calibration process used. Some of the uncertainty factors are listed below: Uncertainty of the reference is composed of calibration uncertainty, long-term and short-term stability, resolution and the effect of influence quantities. Uncertainty of the UUC is composed of repeatability, linearity, hysteresis and short-term stability, resolution and the influence quantities. The calibration process itself may cause uncertainty; like the uncertainty of the height correction used in a pressure calibration, the temperature uniformity in a climate chamber during a temperature calibration or the pressure correction used in a dewpoint calibration. For more information, see Appendix C.
3. Calibration Activities 35
Correction - Error - Deviation - Difference Be careful when interpreting the calibration results: Error = Reading - Reference value Correction = Reference value - Reading Deviation or difference can be calculated either way.
4. Calibration in Practice
This chapter will look at practical calibration for measurement equipment of relative humidity, dewpoint temperature, temperature, and pressure.
4. Calibration in Practice 37
4 The effect of the enhancement factor is very small and the uncertainty in the
dewpoint temperature due to the uncertainty of the enhancement factor is usually negligible.
Formula 1
f (p sat , t d,sat ) e w ( t d,sat ) = p sat f (p meas , t d,meas ) e w ( t d,meas ) p meas
Formula Explanations 2
f(psat,td,sat) the enhancement factor of moist gas at psat and td,sat p ew(td,sat) lative humidity [%RH] = vapor pressure of moist gas at td,sat the saturation w 100 Re p ws f(pmeas,td,meas) the enhancement factor of moist gas at pmeas and td,meas ew(td,meas)
Formula 3
w
f (p t , t t ) e s ( t t ) In divided flow generators, dry gas is separated into two or more flow paths and one of them is then fed through a saturator. The measured gas is then a mixture of the Formula 4 saturated and dry gas.
Formula 5 In very low dewpoint ranges, the saturator can be replaced with a dilution
element which produces constant flow of water molecules into the gas flow. r r In very w ( t d ) = e high dewpoint ranges the saturator can) be replaced withvanpevaporation p = x v p or e w ( t f = p = x Mv Mv element where water is heated to produce steam which is then added to the gas +r +r Ma Ma flow.
40 4. Calibration in Practice
Climate Chambers
A climate chamber is usually a chamber with an air circulator and heat and moisture control systems. It is usually easy to use and does not need to be filled with liquid. However, stability and uniformity of temperature and humidity inside the chamber are usually not so good.
Reference Equipment
Gravimetric hygrometers are the most accurate reference equipment. 2t generators are commonly used in national laboratories. 2p and 2t/2p generators are usually not classified as reference equipment. Dewpoint meters or condensing hygrometers are the most commonly used reference equipment. In this meter the gas sample is fed into the measurement chamber where the sensing element is cooled until dew/frost occurs. The temperature of the surface is then measured with Pt-100 sensor element installed into the sensing element.
4 Dewpoint meters are generally stable and accurate equipment. 7 Dewpoint meters are quite slow in stabilization after humidity changes. 7 Sometimes dewpoint meters do not find the dewpoint at all and need the
operator to fix the problem.
7 In ranges from 0 to -20 C the dew may be in the form of water, or ice, or both,
which may cause significant error if it is not noticed.
7 Dewpoint meters need periodic cleaning. 7 Dewpoint meters may need an additional cooling system for the lowest
measurement points.
7 The temperature of the additional coolant may affect the dewpoint meter
reading causing significant errors.
4. Calibration in Practice 41
444 44 4 4 8 4
Accuracy
444 44 44 44 4 4
Stability
888 8 444 44 4 44
Use
88 44 44 44 888 44
Automatization
4 4 4 444 4 444
Maintenance
8 8 4 44 444 8
Price
444 44
444 44
888 4
888 4
88 8
888 8
In some cases, the generators may be used as references with extra careful operation and a separate control equipment monitoring the output of the generator.
42 4. Calibration in Practice
Formula 2
Re lative humidity [%RH] = pw 100 p ws
Relative humidity is strongly temperature-dependent. Pressure will also change the Formula 3 relative humidity. For example, if a process is kept at a constant temperature, the relative humidity will increase by a factor of two if the pressure is doubled. f (p t , t d ) e s ( t d ) Uw = 100 % f (p t , t t ) e s ( t t )
r r e w ( t d ) as p = x v p or e w grains p = xv p Usually expressed= grams per cubic meter (or ( t f ) = per cubic foot) of air, it can Mv Mv easily be confused with mixing ratio. +r +r Ma Ma
Formula 7
t [C] = T[K ] 273 .15 K
4. Calibration in Practice 43
Formula 8
44 4. Calibration in Practice
ATTENTION: Consider temperature and humidity distribution, and airflow inside the chamber, place the hygrometer in an effective location. Pay attention to heat generation of equipment that will be brought into the chamber simultaneously.
4. Calibration in Practice 45
Formula 3
Uw = f (p t , t d ) e s ( t d ) 100 % f (p t , t t ) e s ( t t )
Formula and Temperature values 4 pressure values in the chamber are indispensable for calculation. Enhancement factor [f] is often handled as f = 1. r = r w (p, t d ) Formula 5
e w ( t d ) = r p = xv p Mv +r Ma or e w ( t f ) = r p = xv p Mv +r Ma
Formula 6
1K= Ttp 273 .16
46 4. Calibration in Practice
Formula 7
Hygrometer
Place both the UUC and the reference hygrometer into the chamber of a humidity generator, or, supply moist air (gas) generated by a humidity generator to both the UUC and the hygrometer. This enables comparing the indicated value of the UUC to the value of the reference hygrometer.
One-Point Calibration
In a one-point calibration the reference sensor and calibrated sensor are placed closely together in a stable environment. After stabilization the readings can be taken. A one-point calibration may also be done in a process where the reference sensor is placed near the UUC sensor in actual process conditions. In case the one-point calibration is made in room conditions the reference and calibrated sensor must be protected from direct light sources, like lighting or sun, and stabilization should be ensured with a fan circulating air to the sensors.
Full Calibration
To perform a full range calibration, controlled temperature and humidity generation equipment are needed. A humidity generator, climate chamber or a saturated salt solution calibrator may be used. In a full calibration, the measurement points (usually 3 or more points) are selected equally spaced throughout the measurement range and usually performed from the lowest humidity to the highest humidity. These measurements are then repeated backwards from the highest humidity to the lowest humidity.
48 4. Calibration in Practice
Common Mistakes
Temperature Equilibrium is Not Reached
In case the Unit Under Calibration (UUC) has been recently moved from some other environment into the measurement environment, it may not have had sufficient time to stabilize to the temperature of the measurement conditions. This may cause up to 6 %/ C error in the relative humidity value.
The Temperature or Humidity is Measured in a Different Location Than the UUC Sensor
An error will occur if there is temperature difference between the reference sensor and the UUC sensor.
4. Calibration in Practice 49
Formula 1
p sat f (p meas , t d,meas ) e w ( t d,meas ) p meas p sat f (p sat , t d,sat ) e w ( t d,sat ) = f (p meas , t d,meas ) e w ( t d,meas ) p meas Formula 2 (td) and frostpoint temperature (tf) are used to present the Dewpoint temperature amount of water in a gas, usually air, but also in other gases. Typically the lowest Formula 2 p C measured tf values vary from -100 to -60w and highest measured td values vary Re lative humidity [%RH] = 100 from 60 to 85 C. p ws p Re lative humidity [%RH] = w 100 p ws The thermodynamic dewpoint temperature Formula 3 td of moist air, at pressure p, and mixing ratio r, is the thermodynamic temperature Formula 3t ) e ( t ) f (p , s d where the U w = ratiodrw of the saturated mixing t 100 % f (p t , t equivalent. ) e s (t t ) air (against water)p , t t ) e ( t ) are f( t d s d Uw = 100 % f (p t , t t ) e s ( t t )
Formula 1
Formula 4
w d
Formulat 4) r = r (p,
r = r w (p, t between dewpoint temperature td, mixing ratio r and pressure p is: The correspondence d )
Formula 5 Formula 5
e w ( t d ) =
Formula 6 Formula 6
Explanations 1K=
1K ew(td)=
r p = xv p Mv r+r e w ( t d ) = M a p = xv p Mv +r Ma Ttp
or or
r p = xv p Mv r+r e w ( t f ) = M a p = xv p Mv +r Ma e w ( t f ) =
saturation vapor pressure of saturated air (against ice) at ew(tf) Formula[K ] 273.15 K temperature tf 7 frostpoint t [C] = T Mv molar mass of water vapor t [ Ma C] = T[K ] 273 .15 K of dry air molar mass xv
Formula 7
273 .16 Ttp saturation vapor pressure of saturated air (against water) at dewpoint temperature td 273 .16
Formula 8
Preparations
Before calibration the entire measurement system must be purged of water vapor. Usually, this is done by flushing the system with dry gas. The drying process can be accelerated by heating the tubing during flushing.
The measurement system, tubing and fittings must be of a suitable material for
the measurement range. For the lowest dewpoints, use electro-polished stainless steel tubing with a minimum number of fittings, preferably welded connections or leak free fitting types.
Calibration
Select the measurement points (usually 3 or more points) equally spaced throughout the measurement range. The calibration is usually performed beginning with the lowest dewpoint temperature and proceeding to the highest dewpoint temperature. The measurement of hysteresis with condensing type dewpoint meters is not necessary. Other type sensors would need the hysteresis measurement but it is difficult to produce at the lowest dewpoint temperatures due to extremely long stabilization times. In these cases the hysteresis should be estimated and added into the uncertainty estimations. After changing the dewpoint temperature the stabilization time must be sufficient to allow the measurement system, reference and the UUC to reach equilibrium.
4. Calibration in Practice 51
Common Mistakes
Condensation in the System
7 When condensed water remains in the system, the dewpoint temperature readings, after condensation, are higher than the true reading.
5 degrees Celsius above the highest generated dewpoint temperature before starting humidity generation.
7 Sometimes condensation is water or ice or a mixture of both. How to avoid these errors - always use the mirror microscope to investigate
the dew layer on the mirror. It should be constant and smooth over the whole surface. Ensure that the microscope covers the full mirror and not just a part of it. In case the dew is not satisfactory, the mirror should be heated until it dries, cleaned if needed and re-cooled to get a new dewpoint value.
52 4. Calibration in Practice
Condensation occurs over half of mirror, one large crystal and rest without condensation.This was measured at -60 C dewpoint and this fault was about 1.5 C error in dewpoint.
This was measured at -60 C dewpoint and this fault was about 1 C error in dewpoint.
4. Calibration in Practice 53
Formula 2 Formula 4
Formula 5 Formula 3
Formula 4 Formula 6
r = r w (p, t d ) Ttp 1K= 273 . Formula 516
e w ( t d ) Explanations=
Ttp
Formula 7 r
r p = x v p or e w ( t f ) = p = xv p Mv Mv t [C] = T[K ] 273 .15 K the M + r thermodynamic temperature at M + r the Triple Point of Water a a [K]
Formula 8 quantities in The International System of Units (SI) and derived Celsius and Formula 6 they are defined using the following equations (formula 7 and Fahrenheit t [F] =8).8 t[C] + 32 1 (t) Ttp 1K= 273 .16 Formula 9 Formula 7
F p= A= T[K ] 273 .15 K t [C]
Formula 10 Formula 8
1 t [F] = 1.(8 + t[C]+32 a + a ) 2 u= 3
Formula 9
p= F A
Formula 10
54 4. Calibration in Practice 1 (a + + a ) 2 u=
As the thermodynamic temperature itself is not a practical unit of measurement, the realization of temperature is made using the International Temperature Scale, ITS-90. The scale is based on so called fixed points such as triple points, freezing points or melting points of pure materials. The thermodynamic temperatures at these points are determined experimentally and the values are agreed upon by all those who use this scale. Between these points so called interpolation equipment is used, in range from -259 to 962 C a 25.5 ohm Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometer (SPRT) is used. This is a specially designed and manufactured platinum thermometer that follows closely the interpolation equations presented in the ITS-90. Typically SPRT 25 is used up to 420 C or 660 C and a specially designed High Temperature Platinum Resistance Thermometer (HTPRT) is used at the higher temperatures.
4. Calibration in Practice 55
In a full fixed-point calibration, the points needed for each range are defined and
the interpolation equations are given in the ITS-90 scale documentation.
stability test. If drift in the sensor is observed, then send the sensor for a full calibration. In cases where fixed-point calibration was chosen, the full system should be chosen to support the highest accuracy calibrations.
4 The best available accuracy is achieved with Fixed Points. 7 Fixed Points are expensive and complex to use.
56 4. Calibration in Practice
Calibration Baths
deep chamber and high circulation using alcohol, water or oil as a medium, depending on the temperature. Salt is also used at the highest temperatures. Especially designed, so-called, Micro Baths are also available for smaller thermometers. best calibration baths.
4 The best available stability and uniformity of temperature is achieved with the
The stability of the bath may be improved with an especially designed temperature stabilization block. Each sensor should be tested for optimum immersion. Test is done by simply calibrating the end points while immersing the sensor, for example, at 5 cm increments. Once the results remain the same for the next immersion level, the correct immersion level has been found for this kind of sensor. proper protection.
7 Some thermometer sensors are not immersible into a liquid medium without
Most bath manufacturers recommend methanol, but good industrial grade ethanol is usually suitable for all baths, please ask your local supplier. If methanol is used the work space should be ventilated and the bath operators or other people should not be exposed to the fumes during filling, operation or changing of the fluid. Storage and disposal of all bath fluids should be done according to the local regulations.
4. Calibration in Practice 57
Climate Chamber
A climate chamber is usually a chamber with an air circulator and a heat control system. Sometimes, humidity may also be controlled.
4 A climate chamber is usually easy to use and does not need any liquid filling. 4 A climate chamber is suitable for the calibration of large thermometers. With a
window on the door they also can be used for chart recorders or thermometers having only a visual display.
7 Stability and uniformity of temperature inside the chamber is usually poor. Stability and uniformity of temperature inside the chamber may be improved by
placing a special measurement chamber inside the climate chamber.
A dry block calibrator is a small calibration furnace with a vertical well for
thermometer sensors and they usually have a very low immersion depth. The measurement range is usually from room temperature up to 650 C but some equipment can go down to -40 C. liquid filling.
4 The dry block calibrator is portable, usually easy to use and does not need any 7 Low immersion depth, suitable only for very thin sensors.
Ovens
Ovens are used at higher temperatures. Only specially designed vertical calibration ovens with several temperature controlled zones should be used for calibration.
4 Ovens reach the highest calibration temperatures. 7 An oven without air circulation will have high temperature gradients and the
gradients should be investigated carefully before use.
58 4. Calibration in Practice
4 The best available temperature measurement accuracy is achieved with an 7 An SPRT thermometer is an extremely fragile piece of equipment and needs
careful operation.
7 An SPRT-25 thermometer usually requires the use of the triple point of water. 7 Calculations of SPRT-25 thermometer are complex. 7 Needs an accurate resistance measurement bridge.
Pt-100 Sensor or Precision Thermistor
Pt-100 sensors or precision thermistors are generally used in the range from -100 to 200 C.
4 Pt-100 sensors or precision thermistors are usually robust and easy to use. 7 Stability of a Pt-100 sensor is not known before it has undergone several
calibrations.
4. Calibration in Practice 59
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
Liquid-in-glass thermometers may be used in the range from -200 to 500 C.
comparison to temperature is used to measure temperature. The liquid may be an organic liquid in the lowest temperatures, for example mercury/thallium down to -56 C and mercury down to -38 C. calibration interval.
4 Liquid-in-glass thermometers are generally stable allowing up to a three year 7 The use of mercury is not allowed in several countries. 7 Liquid-in-glass thermometers are fragile and the measurement range is limited. Liquid-in-glass thermometers are usually used as a pair of two thermometers. Different kinds of liquids are used, but only mercury or mercury/thallium
thermometers are reliable. observer.
60 4. Calibration in Practice
Resistance Bridges
In a resistance bridge, the measured resistance is compared to a reference resistance, either internal or external.
4 Most accurate resistance measurement method. 7 Does not give direct temperature readings. 7 Needs calibrated reference resistance.
Thermometer Display Units
There are many different especially designed thermometer display units to choose from.
If the Pt-100 sensor or thermistor is connected to a thermometer, they should 4 Gives direct temperature reading, no additional calculations needed.
Digital Multimeters
A digital multimeter may be used to measure the resistance of the temperature sensor.
be calibrated as a pair, and the calibration coefficients stored in the memory of the thermometer.
calibration with multimeter and the coefficients for the calibration equation are given on the certificate, the following should be taken into consideration:
Proper calibration of the resistance range of the multimeter. The measurement current should not exceed the recommended current of the
sensor to avoid self-heating. 4. Calibration in Practice 61
Calibration Methods Full fixed point calibration Single fixed point calibration Comparison calibration in bath
Temperature Generation Fixed points Calibration baths Climate chamber Dry block calibrator Ovens Reference Sensor SPRT thermometer Pt-100 sensor or precision thermistor Liquid-in-glass thermometer Display Unit Resistance bridge Thermometer Digital multimeter
444 444 44 4 44 4
One-Point Calibration
Traditionally the ice-point (0.00 C) is used as a control or adjustment point for some thermometers. The stability of liquid-in-glass thermometers and platinum sensors are controlled with frequent ice-point measurements and appropriate corrections calculated. In one-point calibration the reference sensor and UUC sensor are placed closely together in a stable temperature environment. After stabilization the readings are taken. A one-point calibration may also be done in a process where the reference sensor is placed near the UUC sensor in actual process conditions. In cases where the one-point calibration is made at room temperature the reference and calibrated sensor must be protected from direct light sources, like lighting or sun, and stabilization should be ensured with a fan circulating air to the sensors. 4. Calibration in Practice 63
Full Calibration
To perform a full range calibration, a controlled temperature generator is needed. This may be a calibration bath, climate chamber or dry block calibrator. In full calibration the measurement points (usually 3 or more points) are selected equally spaced throughout the measurement range. These are usually performed beginning with the lowest temperature and proceeding to the highest temperature. Hysteresis of modern temperature sensors is negligible and does not need to be measured. After changing the temperature set-point, the stabilization time must be sufficient to allow the medium, reference and the UUC to reach equilibrium.
Sensor construction and dimensions should be suitable for bath calibration. The sensor may have to be protected before immersing into the bath liquid.
Calibration in Climate Chamber or Dry Block Calibrator
The reference and UUC sensor are placed into the calibration chamber and after stabilization, the reading of the reference and UUC sensors are taken. In this case, the thermal contact between air and the sensor is weak, in comparison to a calibration in liquid, and heat conducted through the connecting wires may cause large errors.
64 4. Calibration in Practice
Common Mistakes
System Not Stabilized Before Measurement
7 In cases where system is not stabilized before taking measurements, the refer To avoid these errors, carefully wait for the system to stabilize before taking
any measurements.
ence and the UUC reading may differ significantly as the sensors have different time constants and follow the change at different rates.
7 In cases where the sensor is not immersed deep enough into the temperature To avoid these errors, calibrate the sensor at end point temperatures while
chamber, heat is conducted via the wires and significant errors can occur. This may happen in baths, dry wells, ovens and climate chambers.
immersing the sensor, for example, at 5cm increments. Once the results remain the same for the next immersion level, the correct immersion level has been found for this kind of sensor.
4. Calibration in Practice 65
66 4. Calibration in Practice
Formula 7
t [C] = T[K ] 273 .15 K
Formula 8
The tendency ] = expansion+of a compressed gas or liquid is called pressure t [F of 1.8 t[C] 32 p [Pa] and it is defined using equation:
Formula 9
p= F A
In a system the pressure p is the fraction of the force F [N] caused by the tendency Formula 10 of expansion of the compressed gas (or liquid) against surface and the area of that surface A [m2]. 1 (a + + a ) 2 u= Most pressure equipment in this pressure range measure the force that affects the 3 pressure sensor.
4. Calibration in Practice 67
4 The best available accuracy is achievable with the best Pressure Balances. 4 Pressure Balances are extremely stable equipment allowing even three year
calibration interval depending on the accuracy needed.
7 The local gravity has to be measured for pressure calculation (local gravity can
be calculated instead of measurement if the accuracy demand is not critical).
7 Pressure Balance is temperature dependent and needs stable conditions. 7 When operating Pressure Balance in absolute pressure mode a calibrated
Vacuum Meter is needed. needed.
7 The operation of the Pressure Balance is manual, therefore a trained operator is 7 Needs periodical cleaning. 7 The pressure calculations are very complex (including residual pressure,
gravity, temperature corrections, and uncertainty estimation).
68 4. Calibration in Practice
7 Needs daily gain calibration with a calibration mass. 7 Needs periodical cleaning.
Mercury Manometer
In mercury manometer the measured pressure is lifting mercury in column and the height of the mercury column is measured with various means. Traditionally, a scale is attached and the readings are observed manually. Modern mercury manometers use ultrasonic or laser measurement systems for the measurement height of the column.
4 Mercury manometers are generally stable equipment allowing even three year
calibration intervals depending on the construction (so called dual cistern manometers).
7 Mercury is highly toxic and needs to be installed in a ventilated room. 7 Mercury gets contaminated and needs to be periodically cleaned. 7 The density of mercury changes due to the amount of dissolved air, therefore, the
dissolved air needs to be removed periodically.
7 The local gravity has to be measured for pressure calculations (local gravity can 7 Mercury is very temperature dependent and needs stable conditions. 7 The pressure calculations are very complex (gravity and temperature
corrections).
single cistern manometers). As the mercury evaporates the readings will drift accordingly and it needs to be recalibrated after refilling. Due to the evaporation these manometers should be calibrated annually. keep it low enough.
7 The vacuum on the dual cistern manometer should be periodically pumped to 7 The reading of the Mercury Manometer is manual, and needs a trained observer. 7 Mercury Manometers are extremely difficult to transfer for calibration and are not
suitable as traveling standards. 4. Calibration in Practice 69
Electrical Transfer Standard and Electrical Transfer Standard Integrated into a Pressure Controller
Electrical transfer standards have a sort of sensor attached with the display unit or with the digital output.
4 Electrical transfer standards are generally easy to use and easy to transport. 4 Best electrical transfer standards are as accurate as high class pressure
balances.
7 The reference should not be sensitive to damage during transportation. 7 The reference adjusted for optimum accuracy during calibration. 7 At least two references are needed for cross-checking and checking before and
after transportation.
70 4. Calibration in Practice
88 4 888 44 44
88 8 4 444 4
444
444
444
88
44
444
444
444
888
4. Calibration in Practice 71
72 4. Calibration in Practice
Full Calibration
When performing a full calibration, a pressure generating system is needed. The reference and the UUC are connected into a closed pressure system at the same level and the readings are taken at adjusted pressure levels. In full calibration the measurement points (usually from 5 to 11 points) are selected equally spaced from the measurement range. The calibration is performed for increasing and decreasing pressures using the same pressure adjustment rate and stabilization times to measure the hysteresis of the UUC. When changing the pressure, the maximum pressure change rate should not be exceeded to avoid damages. Rapid pressure changes also cause adiabatic temperature changes in the system causing long stabilization times. Pressure balance, mercury manometer or electrical transfer standard may be used as a reference in full calibration. Pressure can be adjusted using a simple hand pump, vacuum pump and pressure supply with adjustment valves or a pressure controller. Sometimes the references may be integrated into the pressure controller.
The results of full calibrations are usually correction curves from where the
correction at measurement points is taken and added to the reading of the UUC. Some UUCs can be adjusted using offset and gain corrections, leaving the unlinearity not corrected while some units can be adjusted for optimum linearity and accuracy.
4. Calibration in Practice 73
Common Mistakes
Leak in Pressure System
7 Leaks in the system may cause significant errors. How to avoid these errors - before starting the calibration, perform a leak test at
the highest and lowest measured pressure each time new equipment is added to the system. A leak test may be performed by adjusting the pressure, closing system and monitoring the reference reading if the pressure remains. In case leaks occur, they should be fixed before calibration.
Why the Reference and UUC Should be at the Same Level Hydrostatic pressure effects any pressure system and in case the reference and UUC are at different levels the appropriate correction should be used.
74 4. Calibration in Practice
Calibration Services
Relative humidity, dewpoint temperature, barometric pressure and carbon dioxide calibration services are available globally from our regional service centers. We cooperate with world class courier companies to make international logistics fast and trouble-free.
Accreditation symbol
Appendix A: Terminology
Accreditation (Laboratory)
Formal recognition that a laboratory is competent to carry out specific tests or calibrations. Notes: 1. Accreditation is normally awarded following successful laboratory assessment and is followed by appropriate surveillance. 2. The competence of the laboratory is stated in the accreditation decision, covering: best measurement capability, physical quantity, calibration method and measurement range.
Closeness of the agreement between the result of a measurement and a true value of the measurand. Notes: 1. Accuracy is a qualitative concept. 2. The term precision should not be used for accuracy.
Appendix A: Terminology 79
Calibration
Set of operations that establish, under specified conditions, the relationship between values of quantities indicated by a measurement instrument or measurement system, or values represented by a material measure or a reference material, and the corresponding values realized by standards. Notes: 1. The result of a calibration permits either the assignment of values of measurands to the indications or the determination of corrections with respect to indications. 2. A calibration may also determine other metrological properties such as the effect of influence quantities. 3. The result of a calibration may be recorded in a document, sometimes called a Calibration Certificate or a Calibration Report.
Correction
Value added algebraically to the uncorrected result of a measurement (reading) to compensate for systematic error. Notes: 1. The correction is equal to the negative of the estimated systematic error. 2. Since the systematic error cannot be known perfectly, the compensation cannot be complete.
Correction Factor
Numerical factor by which the uncorrected result of a measurement is multiplied to compensate for systematic error. Note: Since the systematic error cannot be known perfectly, the compensation cannot be complete.
80 Appendix A: Terminology
Indicating Instrument
Digital Measurement Instrument
Measurement instrument that provides a digitized output or display. Note: This term relates to the form of presentation of the output or display, not to the principle of operation of the instrument.
Displaying
Indicating Device
Part of a measurement instrument that displays an indication. Notes: 1. This term may include the device by which the value supplied by a material measure is displayed or set. 2. An analogue displaying device provides an analogue display: a digital displaying device provides a digital display. 3. A form of presentation of the display either by means of a digital display in which the least significant digit moves continuously, thus permitting interpolation, or by means of a digital display supplemented by a scale and index, is called a semi-digital display. 4. The English term readout device is used as a general descriptor of the means whereby the response of measurement instrument is made available.
Appendix A: Terminology 81
Error
Result of a measurement (reading) minus a true value of the measurand. Note: Since a true value can not be determined a conventional true value is used.
Hysteresis Error
The maximum deviation between the two calibration curves of the measured variable as obtained by an upscale going traverse and a downing traverse over the full range and subtracting the value of dead band.
82 Appendix A: Terminology
Linearity Error
The absolute value of the maximum deviation between the calibration curve and the specified straight line. Note: Linearity error should be qualified. When expressed simply as linearity, it is assumed to be independent linearity error.
Random Error
Result of a measurement minus the mean that would result from an infinite number of measurements of the same measurand carried out under repeatability conditions. Notes: 1. Random error is equal to error minus systematic error. 2. Because only a finite number of measurements can be made, it is only possible to determine an estimate of random error.
Hysteresis
The property of a device whereby it gives different output values in relation to its input values depending on the directional sequence in which the input values have been applied. Note: Hysteresis is calculated as correction downwards - correction upwards.
Independent Linearity
The closeness to which the calibration curve can be adjusted to approximate the specified straight line so that the maximum deviation is minimized (best fit).
Linearity
The closeness to which a calibration curves approximates a specified straight line. Note: Linearity should be qualified. When expressed simply as linearity, it is assumed to be independent linearity. Appendix A: Terminology 83
Material Measure
Device intended to reproduce or supply, in a permanent manner during its use, one or more known values of a given quantity. Example: Weight, standard electrical resistor or capacitor, gauge block, standard signal generator and reference material.
Measurand
Particular quantity subjects to measurement.
Measurement Equipment
Measurement equipment are equipment used in measurement and they may be actively measurement instruments like measurement instruments, -transducers, -sensors or material measures like weights, standard resistor or capacitors, gauge blocks or reference materials and so on.
Measurement Instrument
Instrument that is intended to be used to make measurements, alone or in conjunction with supplementary device(s) like sensors.
84 Appendix A: Terminology
Measurement Transducer
Device that provides an output quantity having a determined relationship to the input quantity. Example: Thermocouple, current transformer, strain gauge, pH electrode.
Recording Device
Part of a measurement instrument that provides record of an indication.
Appendix A: Terminology 85
Primary Standard
Standard that is designated or widely acknowledged as having the highest metrological qualities and whose value is accepted without reference to other standards of the same quantity.
Secondary Standard
Standard whose value is assigned by comparison with a primary standard of the same quantity.
Reference Standard
Standard, generally having the highest metrological quality available at a given location or in a given organization, from which measurements made which are derived.
Transfer Standard
Standard used as an intermediary to compare standards.
Travelling Standard
Standard, sometimes of special construction, intended for transport between different locations.
Working Standard
Standard that is used routinely to calibrate or check material measures, measurement instruments or reference materials. 86 Appendix A: Terminology
Response Time
Time interval between the instant when a stimulus is subjected to a specified abrupt change and the instant when the response reaches and remains within specified limits around its final steady value.
Appendix A: Terminology 87
Sensor
Element of a measurement instrument or measurement chain that is directly affected by the measurand. Example: Pt-100 sensor element, humidity sensor. Note: In some fields the term detector is used for this concept.
Stability/Unstability
Ability of a measurement instrument to maintain constant its metrological characteristic with time. Notes: 1. Short-term stability (noise) is usually attributed to time periods less than 24 hours and long-term stability (drift) to longer time periods. 2. Where stability with respect to a quantity other than time is considered, this should be stated explicitly.
Systematic Error
Mean that would result from an infinite number of measurements of the same measurand carried out under repeatability conditions minus a true value of the measurand. Notes: 1. Systematic error is equal to error minus random error. 2. Like true value, systematic error and its causes cannot be completely known.
88 Appendix A: Terminology
Appendix A: Terminology 89
Appendix B: Abbreviations
A2LA APLAC APLMF BIML BIPM CGPM CIPM COOMET DMM EA EMLMF GLP HTPRT IAF ILAC ISO JCSS MLA MOU MRA NIST NMI NPL NVLAP OIML PRT PTB QMS SI SIM SPRT UUC UUT WELMEC American Association for Laboratory Accreditation, USA Asian Pacific Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation Asia-Pacific Legal Metrology Forum Bureau International de Mtrologie Lgale (International Bureau of Legal Metrology) Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau of Weights and Measures) Confrence Gnrale des Poids et Mesures (General Conference on Weights and Measures) Comit International des Poids et Mesures (International Committee for Weights and Measures) Euro-Asian Cooperation of National Metrological Institutions Digital multimeter European Accreditation Euro-Mediterranean Legal Metrology Forum Good Laboratory Practice High Temperature Platinum Resistance Thermometer International Accreditation Forum, Inc. International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation International Organization for Standardization Japan Calibration Service System Multilateral Agreement Memorandum of Understanding Mutual Recognition Arrangement National Institute of Standards and Technology, USA National Metrology Institute National Physical Laboratory, UK National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program Organisation Internationale de Mtrologie Lgale (International Organization of Legal Metrology) Platinum Resistance Thermometer Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt Quality Management Standard Systme International dUnits (International System of Units) Sistema Interamericano de Metrologia Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometer Unit Under Calibration Unit Under Test European Cooperation in Legal Metrology
Appendix B: Abbreviations 91
General
The statement of the result of a measurement is complete only if it contains both the values attributed to the measurand and the uncertainty of measurement associated with that value. The uncertainty of measurement is a parameter, associated with the result of a measurement, which characterizes the dispersion of the values that could reasonably be attributed to the measurand. Uncertainty is given using the same unit and precision as the measurement result. Example: 75.5 %RH 2.0 %RH, (k = 2) The statement of the result of a measurement is complete only if it contains both the values attributed to the measurand and the uncertainty of measurement associated with that value.
Uncertainty types
There are two different methods on evaluating uncertainty: 1. Type A method is based on statistical methods. 2. Type B method is based on other methods.
Formula 9
p=
F A
Example 2: 75.0, 75.0, 75.0, 75.0, 75.0, 75.0, 75.0, 75.0, 75.0, 75.0 The average of the observed values is 75.00 The standard deviation of the observed values is 0.00 that is of course not true as we know the measured values are somewhere between 74.95 and 75.05 and that why the type B should be used. In this case the calculation would be:
Formula 11
1 (0.05 + ( 0.05 )) 2 0.05 u= = = 0.023 3 3 In this case the minimum value for uncertainty would be 0.023.
Formula 12
C 1 = 4.1 10 8
Typically uncertainty is composed from the uncertainties of the reference, Formula 13 calibration and unit under calibration. Refer to the following terms below:
2 2 2 u= Reference: u1 + u 2 + ...u n Calibration uncertainty from certificate Long-term stability Formula 14 Short-term stability + effect of environmental conditions Resolution, linearity, hysteresis t = (t + t ) t + t correction reference reference
( reading
reading
Calibration: After the measurement results Deviation of Formula 14 the explanations Effect of environmental conditions
Unit Under Calibration: Resolution Short-term stability + effect of environmental conditions Hysteresis Linearity Repeatability
Formula 12
10.4 ppm / 3 = 6.0 ppm
Formula 13
u = 0.05 C = 0.05 C 0.82 10 6 C 1 = 4.1 10 8
Formula 14
2 2 u = u1 u 2 2 Formula+15 + ...u n
Formula 15
[(t ref,i + t ref ) (t read,i + t read )] b + t dev = (tt rnd = i=1 t + t stab + t hom t correction + reference + reference ) (tn reading + t reading )
b + ndev + t rnd = i=1 98 Appendix tC: Uncertainty Calculation n EXAMPLE + t this be formula (should t t ref ,i t read ref read,i +
[( nt ref,i + t ref ) (t read,i + t read )] n i=1 b + t dev + t rnd = [(t ref ,i + t ref ) (t read,i + t read )] + t stab + t hom n
+ t stab + t hom
) ( )16?) ] [( n i =1 b = [(t )] + t stab + t hom t dev t rnd + t ) (t + t R t = R calref ,i R calref + n read,i + R + read t R stab + R ,t
In table below the uncertainties are calculated from the actual measurement data:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
0.0 0.5 1.6 2.8 3.8 4.6 5.6 8.2 9.4 10.3 12.4 14.4 16.4 18.5 21.6 0.52 1.12 1.15 1.02 0.75 1.09 2.53 1.18 0.94 2.12 2.02 1.95 2.07 3.08
0.0 5.4 4.2 0.8 -1.1 2.8 0.2 0.1 -1.2 0.6 -0.1 0.4 -0.1 0.5 0.2 10.4 3.8 0.7 -1.1 3.8 0.2 0.1 -1.0 0.6 -0.1 0.2 -0.1 0.2 0.1 6.0 2.2 0.4 0.6 2.2 0.1 0.0 0.6 0.4 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0
Sometimes it is difficult to say if the variation is due calibration uncertainty or longterm stability. After several calibrations the long-term drift can be estimated from the measurement data (see the seven latest results in the figure below). When this kind of stable situation is reached there is no need to update the uncertainty estimations annually as long as the drift remains smaller in recalibrations.
Formula 13
u = 0.05 C = 0.05 C 0.82 10 6 C 1 = 4.1 10 8
Where is the temperature coefficient of the reference resistor. Formula 14 The uncertainty caused by the uncertainty of the temperature coefficient of the reference resistor. The coefficient = 0.75 10-6 C is given by the manufac2 u = u2 u2 turer without1any estimation of uncertainty. To define the uncertainty, the coef2 Formula+15 + ...u n ficient was measured and the uncertainty estimated, the measured coefficient was found to be15= 0.82 n -6 C-1 0.03 10-6 C-1. 10 Formula and The calibration temperaturest ref ,i + from 22.4read,23.7 C t read the temperature durvary t ref t to i + ing use maydev = (tt rnd = i=1to t20.5 C. )This means that the maximum + t hom b + t vary + from 19.5+ + t stab temperat correction reference reference tn reading + t reading ture difference is 4.2 C. The resistance uncertainty due to the uncertainty of the Formula 15 n temperature coefficient is: t t 15 t t read ,i read Formula ref + -1 ref 0.13 10,i-6 + 16 4.2 C 0.03=1 10-6 C = . i n b= + t stab + t hom t dev t rnd The uncertainty caused by the temperaturet uncertainty of the reference resistor nt ref ,i + t ref read,i + t read n during use. The temperature is measured but the temperature varies according i=1 b + t dev + t rnd = t ref + t ref t read + t read + t stab + t hom to room temperature (from 19.5 ,ito 20.5 C). It is,iestimated that the uncertainty n b + tndev +temperature value is 0.3 C. The resistance uncertainty tdue to t rnd = i=1 + t stab + hom of the EXAMPLE (should this be formula 16?) measured n t ref ,i the ttemperature+is: t read + ref t read,i the uncertainty of n 0.3 C b 0.82=1 10refCt= 0.25 t read-6i . = =i R t -6+,i + -1 ref + R 10 , + R + read + t stab + t hom t dev t rnd t + Rt R cal,t n stab R t i =1 cal b= + t stab + t hom t dev t rnd n
2.
[(
) (
) (
)]
[(
)]
3.
[( [(
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
)] )]
[( [(
)] )]
EXAMPLE After EXAMPLE the explanations 16?) Formula 17 (should this be formulaare not correct, please check the original EXAMPLE (should this be formula 16?) R t = R cal + be ,t + R Rcal should R calRcal,t stab + R + R t
R t = R cal + R cal,t + R stab + R + R t
100
Formula 18be Formula 17? should this After EXAMPLE the explanations are not correct, please check the original R t = ( t cal t ) After EXAMPLE the explanations are not correct, please check the original Rcal should be Rcal,t Appendix C: Uncertainty Calculation Aftershould be Rcal,t explanations are not correct, please check my notes Rcal this formula the should this be Formula 17? ( t is measured temperature) should this be Formula 17?
Formula 14
2 2 u = u1 u 2 2 Formula+15 + ...u n
Formula Explanations 15
u1 ...un u
[(t ref,i + t ref ) (t read,i + t read )] b + t dev = (t rnd t correction + reference + t reference ) (tn reading + t reading )
hom
[( nt ref,i + t ref ) (t read,i + t read )] n i=1 b + t dev + t rnd = [(t ref ,i + t ref ) (t read,i + t read )] + t stab + t hom n
b + t + t =
i=1
ref ,i ref read,i read n i =1 b = [(t ref ,i + t ref ) (t read,i + t read )] + t stab + t hom t dev t rnd R t = R cal + R cal,t + n stab + R + R t R
b=
i =1
+ t stab + t hom
EXAMPLE After EXAMPLE the explanations 16?) Formula 17 (should this be formulaare not correct, please check the original EXAMPLE (should this be formula 16?) R t = R cal + be ,t + R Rcal should R calRcal,t stab + R + R t
R t = R cal + R cal,t + R stab + R + R t
Formula 18be Formula 17? should this After EXAMPLE the explanations are not correct, please check the original Appendix C: Uncertainty Calculation 101 R t = ( t cal t ) After EXAMPLE the explanations are not correct, please check the original Rcal should be Rcal,t
Formula 12
10.4 ppm / 3 = 6.0 ppm
Formula 13
u = 0.05 C = 0. MeasurementModel 05 C 0.82 10 6 C 1 = 4.1 10 8
The modern uncertainty calculation is based on measurement model where all Formula 14 the uncertainty factors are presented as corrections. The uncertainties of these corrections are multiplied with the appropriate sensitivity coefficients before 2 calculating the square 2 + ...of2 the sums of squares of the components: u = u1 u 2 Formula+15root u n
n b= + t stab + t t t ( ) t read + t 10hom dev rnd n u = 0.05 C = 0. C 0.82 10 6 C,i1 = 4.1 read 8 05 i=1 b corrections are (t ref ,i + t ref uncertainty is t read + t using After all the + t dev + t rnd =determinedthe ) nt read,i + calculated stab + t hom i=1 b + tndev + t stab + t hom uncertainty budget.+ t rnd = Formula 14 (should this be formula 16?) n EXAMPLE + t ) t (t ref ,i ref read,i + t read
[(t ref,i + t ref ) (t read,i + t read )] b + ppm= t rnd = 6.0+ppm t dev + (t 3 = i=1 t + t stab + t hom t correction / reference 10.4 reference ) (tn reading + t reading )
15 Formula 12
[ [
( (
)] )]
b = i=1 (t + t stab + t hom t dev t rnd + t ) t + t R 2 +15 + ...,u 2 R stab R u R u t= =i=11calref ,i2 R calrefn n read,i + R + read t u t + Formula + 2 b= + t stab + t hom t dev t rnd n
n
[ [
( (
)] )]
t explanations 16?) EXAMPLE After EXAMPLE the ref, + ref ) (t read,i not t read )] Formula 17 (should[(thisi be tformulaare + correct, please check the original i=1 ba measurement modelthis be formula 16?) t Example of correction = (ttreference + t referencetemperature calibration: + t stab + t hom t + t dev + (should used in ) (tn EXAMPLE rnd = reading + reading ) R t = n cal 15R calR R stab + R + R t R + be ,t + Rcal should Formula cal,t R t = R [(t ref ,i + t ref + Rread,i + R t read t)] + cal 15 R cal,t ) (t stab + + R Formula 16 n Formula 18be Formula 17? b = i=1 + t stab + t hom t dev t rnd should this [( nt explanations are not t read )] After EXAMPLE nthe ref,i + t ref ) (t read,i + correct, please check the original bR = ( t + t ) = i=1 + t t EXAMPLE the explanations are not t read )] t stab t hom After dev cal t rnd [(t ref,i + t ref ) n(t read,i + correct,+please+check the original b + should be i=1 + t stab + t hom Rcal tndev + t rnd = R n EXAMPLE + t )cal,t(this be formula )16?) ref [(t ref ,i (should explanations ] Aftern this formulacal,tt read,i + t readare not correct, please check my notes the Rcal should be R b i=1 + should[(t ref ,i + t ref + Rread,i + R + read )] + t stab + t hom t dev t rnd ( t=is this be Formula 17? t R measured ) (t R t = R cal + R caltemperature) n stab ,t t i =1 b= + t stab + t hom t dev t rnd should this be Formula 17?
R t = ( t cal t )
R t = ( t cal EXAMPLE t ) the explanations 16?) After all uncertainty17 (shouldestimated, a uncertainty budget must be built. After EXAMPLE Formula factors are this be formulaare not correct, please check
the original After this formula the explanations are not correct, please check my notes EXAMPLE (should this be formula 16?) ( t is R +formula the explanations are not correct, please check my notes Aftermeasured temperature) R t = this be ,t + R cal Rcal should R calRcal,t stab + R + R t ( t is R + R temperature)R + R R = measured + R +
t cal cal,t stab t
Formula 18be Formula 17? 102 Appendix C: Uncertainty Calculation should this
After EXAMPLE the explanations are not correct, please check the original R t = ( t cal t ) After EXAMPLE the explanations are not correct, please check the original
t ref ,i + t ref t read,i + t read n 2 2 2=1 i u = dev + t + = b + tu1 + u 2 rnd...u n t ref ,i + t ref t read,i + t read + t stab + t hom n i=1 b + tndev + t rnd = + t stab + t hom n t ref ,i + t ref n t read,i + t read n t ref ,i + t t read i + t read b = i=1 t ref ,i + t ref i= t read,i + ref t read ,+ t stab + t hom t dev t rnd R + =tR cal++R cal,t + 1 n stab + R + R t b t i=dev = tt rnd = + Rt hom t = 1 reference t reading++t readingt + t stab + tt reference t stab + hom t uncertainty. bcorrection rnd Normal probability means type A uncertainty andn Rectangular means type Bdev n n
Formula 15
[( n [(
[(( )
) ( ) ( ) (
)] )] )]
[(
n R + =tndev ++R cal,t + 1 R stab + R + R t b t R cal t rnd = i= Explanations (t 18bet ) this be formula 16?) n EXAMPLE (should t Formula ref ,i + Formula 17? should this t read ref read,i +
Rcal Rcal,t Rstab R Rt
Formula 15 [(t 15 Formula ref ,i + t ref ) (t read,i + t read )] 16 EXAMPLE After 1EXAMPLE nthe explanations 16?)t stab + t hom t dev t rnd Formula 17 (should this be formulaare not correct, please check the original b = i= + [(this + ref ) (t read,i + EXAMPLE (shouldnt ref,i betformula 16?) t read )] n i=1 R + = R cal++rnd [ stab + ref ( read b t dev be , + R Rcal tshouldt R cal=t Rcal,t(t ref,i + tR ) + tR t ,i + t read )] + t stab + t hom
+ t stab + t hom
) (
)]
the = EXAMPLE Aftercorrectiondue temperature uncertaintyinstab + t homplease check the original bR t i=1( t cal t ) the explanations are notcalibration t dev t rnd = + t correct, n Rcal correction due cal,t the should be R stability of the reference resistor the this formula the Aftercorrection due cal,t explanations are not correct, please check my notes Rcal should be R uncertainty of the temperature coefficient EXAMPLE (should this be of the temperature of the please check the 16?) Aftercorrection Formula 17? Formula 17be due uncertaintyformulaare not correct, reference resistor original should this ( tthe measured temperature) is EXAMPLE the explanations EXAMPLEbe Formula 17? formula 16?) (should this should this R + R beR + R R t = should be R R cal + t Rcal= ( t cal t ) cal,t cal,t stab + t
( )] [ n i =1 Aftervalue givent in calibration t readare not correct, please check the original EXAMPLE) the read,i + explanations )] + t stab + t hom t dev t rnd b the [(t = + (t R t = R calref ,i R calref + n stab + R + R t R + ,t
Formula 18be Formula 17? should this After this formula the explanations are not correct, please check my notes After EXAMPLE the explanations are not correct, please check the original ( t is measured temperature) After this formula the explanations are not correct, please check my notes R t = ( t cal t ) After EXAMPLE the explanations are not correct, please check the original ( t is measured temperature) Rcal should be Rcal,t Aftershould be Rcal,t explanations are not correct, please check my notes Rcal this formula the ExplanationsmeasuredFormula 17? should this be temperature) ( t is should this be Formula 17? the temperature during calibration, tcal = 23.45 C tcal
t
t cal the measured temperature, tcal = 20.28 C
R = ( t
t)
the temperature coefficient of the reference resistor, After this formula the explanations are not correct, = 0.82 10-6 C-1
please check my notes ( t is measured temperature) After this formula the explanations are not correct, please check my notes ( t is measured temperature)
R t = ( t cal t )
Uncertainty Budget
Quantity Xi Rcal Rcal, t Rstab R Rt Rt Estimate xj 25.000017 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 -0.0000026 25.000014 Combined uncertainty Expanded uncertainty (k=2) 5.0 10-5 1.0 10-4 Standard Uncertainty u (xj) 5.0 10-6 0.05 C 1.8 10-6 0.03 10-6 C-1 3.17 C 0.3 C Probability Distribution normal normal rectangular special rectangular Sensitivity coefficient cj 1 0.82 10-6 C-1 1 1 0.82 10-6 C-1 Uncertainty Contribution u(yi) [] 5.0 10-6 4.110-8 1.8 10-6 9.5 10-7 2.5 10-7
Expanded Uncertainty
The combined uncertainty (u) is multiplied with a coverage factor (k) to get the expanded uncertainty (U). The value for coverage factor k = 2, means that the confidence level of the expanded uncertainty is 95 %. The expanded uncertainty is given with the measurement result and coverage factor. Example: 75.5 %RH 2.0 %RH, (k = 2)
Presenting Uncertainty
No rounding is made in sub-calculations. The uncertainty is usually given with two significant digits after the decimal point: 1000.22 hPa 0.15 hPa instead of 1000.22 hPa 0.15127 hPa. The expanded uncertainty may be rounded downwards if the rounded amount is less than 5% of the uncertainty value. All other values should be rounded upwards. 0.106 hPa should be rounded to 0.2 hPa instead of 0.1 hPa, which as 5% of 0.106 hPa is 0.0053 hPa and if rounded to 0.1 hPa the rounded part 0.006 > 0.0053 hPa.
References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Japan Industrial Standard / JIS Z 8806. 2001 Japan Industrial Standard / JIS B 7920. 2000 Humidity Measurement by Sensor Research Society Humidity Measurement & Sensor Manual / October, 1989 Japan Testing Machinery Association Standardization of Measurement & Control Technology of Environmental Testing Machinery / 1994 A guide to the measurement of humidity / ISBN 0-904457-24-9, NPL, 1996 Expression of the Uncertainty of Measurement in Calibration / EA-4/02 International Vocabulary of Basic and General Terms in Metrology / ISO 1993
10. Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation. / WMO No. 8. World Meteorological 11. Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization / Geneva, Switzerland, 1983 Fifth edition. 12. International Organization for Standardization (http://www.iso.org/iso/en/ ISOOnline.frontpage) / accessed on 20.03.2006 13. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (http://www.bipm.fr/en/home/) / accessed on 17.03.2006
References 107
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