Topics

Optical Interconnect and Sensing

Dr. How T. Lin Endicott Interconnect Technologies

Light Fundamentals Common Optical Components for Light Emission and Detection and Transmission Optical Interconnect Principle Optical Interconnects
Fiber Optics Optical Waveguides

Optical Sensing with FBG (Fiber Bragg Grating Sensing)

Principle Applications

Disadvantages of Electrical Interconnects/Sensors

Physical Problems (at high frequencies/high noise environments)
Cross-talk CrossSignal Distortion Electromagnetic Interference Reflections High Power Consumption High Latency (RC Delay) Limited Bandwidth

Why Optics ?
Advantages: Capable to provide high bandwidths Free from electrical short-circuits shortLow-loss transmission at high frequencies LowImmune to electromagnetic interference Essentially no crosstalk between adjacent signals No impedance matching required Successful long-haul telecommunication system based longon fiber optics

Using Lightwave to Transmit Information

Simplified phasor representation of EM wave

Optical Interconnect Fundamentals

Basic Optical Interconnect
1 1

E(t) cos(t+)
Amplitude frequency phase Device a method to detect change in any one of the three variables listed above.we have a data transmitter!

Transmitter

Transmission Medium

Receiver

Transmitter: LED or Laser Transmission Medium: Fiber optics (MM/SM), Polymer Waveguide or Free Space Receiver: Photo Diode or Transistor

EM Spectrum

EM Spectrum (Visible)

UV....VisibleIR

What is Light?
Particles
Conduction band Bandgap

A little Quantum Theory

Rays
n0 n1 n0

Waves

Definition:
Optical power watt (W) - a rate of energy of one joule (J) per second. Optical power is a function of both the number of photons and the wavelength. Each photon carries an energy that is described by Plancks equation: Planck

Valence band

Q = hc /
Interference Refraction Reflection where Q= photon energy in J h = Plancks constant (6.623 x 10-34 Js) Planck c = speed of light (2.998 X x 108 m/s) m/s) = wavelength in meters

Absorption Emission

Basic Optical Principles

Optical Filter :
Absorption by filter glass varies with and thickness (d) of substrate At each interface, part of the incident light will be reflected and the rest will pass through.

Basic Optical Principles

Refraction :
Snells Law Snell n sin() = n sin() sin( n sin( Index of refraction: n = 1.0 for air n = 1.5 for glass
Transmission through an optical filter

Transmission through an optical filter

Interface Losses :
Fresnels Law Fresnel r = reflection loss (normal incidence)

n = n/n

r = n -1/ n +1

Interface Losses

Basic Optical Principles

Diffraction:
Lightwave bends when pass by small aperture

Basic Optical Principles

Interference:
Wave nature of light causes interference patterns: Interference filter for wavelength selection -

= /D /D
where is the diffraction angle is the wavelength D is the aperture width

Basic Optical Principles

Collimation:
Place point source at focal point of lens or parabolic mirror can produce collimated light (parallel light beam)

Basic Optical Principles

Wavelength Selection:
Prisms:
with high n, select with narrow slit

Gratings:
disperse light into spectrum with ruled lines where m is an integer (order)

Slit

Collimation with lens and parabolic mirror

Light Sources
Lasers
Gas Liquid Solid State Semiconductor (diodes)

Lasers (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

Gas Solid State Liquid Semiconductor (diode)

Light Sources

Characteristics: Coherence - Photons have fixed phase relationship.

Relative narrow spectra Low divergence after collimation. Difficult to modulate (gas, liquid). High cost.

Light Emitting Diodes (LED)

LED (Light Emitting Diodes)

Characteristics:
Incoherence -Photons with random phase Relative broad spectra. Low cost. Easy modulation. Small size

Light Sources : Semiconductor Lasers

Light Sources : LEDs

Edge emitting LED

p-DBR active n-DBR

Surface emitting LED

VCSEL

Light Detection
Two broad classes of optical detectors:
Photon detectors interactions of quanta of light energy with electrons in the detector material and generating free electrons (wavelength dependent). Thermal detectors - respond to the heat energy delivered by the light (wavelength independent).

Light Detection
Photon detectors:
Photoemissive. These detectors use the photoelectric effect, in Photoemissive. which incident photons free electrons from the surface of the detector material. These devices include vacuum photodiodes, CCD camera, bipolar phototubes, and photomultiplier tubes. Photoconductive. The electrical conductivity of the material changes as a function of the intensity of the incident light. Photoconductive detectors are semiconductor materials. They have an external electrical bias voltage. Photovoltaic. These detectors contain a p-n semiconductor junction and are often called photodiodes. A voltage is self generated as radiant energy strikes the device. The photovoltaic detector may operate without external bias voltage. A good example is the solar cell used on spacecraft and satellites to convert the suns light into useful electrical power. sun
Photoconductive and photovoltaic detectors are commonly used in circuits in which there is a load resistance in series with the detector. The output is read as a output change in the voltage drop across the resistor.

Light Detection : Detector characteristics

Responsivity

Light Detection
Materials
Silicon (Si)
Least expensive

- Defined as the detector output per unit of input power. The units of responsivity are either amperes/watt (alternatively milliamperes/milliwatt or microamperes/microwatt.

Responsivity (A/W)

Quantum

efficiency Defined as the effectiveness of the incident radiant energy for producing electrical current in a circuit. It may be related to the responsivity by the equation: Q = 100 x Rd x hv = 100 x Rd (1.2395/ ).

1.0

Germanium (Ge) (Ge)

Classic detector Classic

Quantum Efficiency = 1

Germanium

Noise

equivalent power (NEP) - Defined as the radiant power that produces a signal voltage (current) equal to the noise voltage (current) of the detector. NEP = IAVN / VS( f)1/2

Indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs)

Highest speed

0.5

InGaAs

0.1 500

Silicon 1500 1000 Wavelength nm

where I is the irradiance incident on the detector of area A, VN is the root mean square noise voltage within the measurement bandwidth f, and VS is the root mean square signal voltage.

Optical Fiber
Optical Fiber
An optical fiber is a flexible filament of very clear glass and is capable of carrying information in the form of light. This filament of glass is a little thicker than a human hair.

Dielectric Waveguides and Optical Fibers

Step Index Fiber

Optical fiber structure

The cladding is the layer completely surrounding the core. The core, or the axial part of the optical fiber, is the light transmission area of the fiber.

Professor Charles Kao who has been recognized as the inventor of fiber optics is receiving an IEE prize from Professor John Midwinter (1998 at IEE Savoy Place, London, UK; courtesy of IEE)

The difference in refractive index between the core and cladding is < 0.5%. The refractive index of the core is higher than that of the cladding, so that light in the core strikes the interface with the cladding at a bouncing angle and is trapped in the core by total internal reflection.

Dielectric Waveguides and Optical Fibers

Multimode vs. Single-mode
A mode is a defined path in which light travels. A light signal can propagate through the core of the optical fiber on a single path (single-mode fiber) or on many paths (multimode fiber). The mode in which light travels depends on geometry, the index profile of the fiber, and the wavelength of the light. Single-mode fiber has the advantage of high information-carrying capacity, low attenuation and low fiber cost, but multimode fiber has the advantage of low connection and electronics cost that may lead to lower system cost.

Step Index Fiber

Schematic diagram of Step Index Fiber

y
Cladding

n1 n2 n1

Core

z
Fiber axis

Normalized index difference Typically << 1

n2 n1

The core has greater refractive index than the cladding. The fiber has cylindrical symmetry. r, , z to represent any point in the fiber. Cladding is normally much thicker than shown.

The Graded Index (GRIN) Optical Fiber

The Graded Index (GRIN) Optical Fiber

n2 n1
O
3 2 1

TIR

TIR

Multimode Step Index Fiber

Ray paths are different so that rays arrive at different times.

n2
Graded Index Fiber
O
3 2 1 2 3 Ray paths are different but so are the velocities along the paths so that all the rays arrive at the same time.

n decreases step by step from one layer to next upper layer; very thin layers. A ray in thinly stratified medium becomes refracted as it passes from one layer to the next upper layer with lower n and eventually its angle satisfies TIR.

n decrease in continuous gives a ray path changing continuously.

O'

O''

n1 n2

In a medium where n decreases continuously the path of the ray bends continuously.

Light Absorption and Scattering

Attenuation
The reduction in signal strength is measured as attenuation. Attenuation measurements are made in decibels (dB). The decibel is a logarithmic unit that indicates the ratio of output power to input power. Each optical fiber has a characteristic attenuation that is normally measured in decibels per kilometer (dB/km). Optical fibers are distinctive in that they allow high-speed transmission with low attenuation.

Light Absorption and Scattering

Absorption
Lattice absorption through a crystal
A solid with ions

Medium

Ex k z

Light direction

k z
The field in the wave oscillates the ions which consequently generate "mechanical waves in the crystal; energy is thereby transferred from the wave to lattice vibrations.

Attenuation

Absorption

Scattering

Extrinsic factor
( fib b di )

Light Absorption and Scattering

Rayleigh scattering

Attenuation in Optical Fibers

Optical Fiber Attenuation vs. wavelength

A dielectric particle smaller than wavelength

Displacing electron with respect to positive nuclei. Through wave

Incident wave

Oscillating charge = Alternating current Scattered waves Radiates EM waves

Rayleigh scattering involves the polarization of a small dielectric particle or a region that is much smaller than the light wavelength. The field forces dipole oscillations in the particle (by polarizing it) which leads to the emission of EM waves in "many" directions so that a portion of the light energy is directed away from the incident beam.

Attenuation in Optical Fibers

Attenuation vs. wavelength

Attenuation in Optical Fibers

Micro-bending loss
Field distribution Cladding

Microbending
Escaping wave

Core

< > c

Stretching of Si-O bonds in ionic polarization induced by EM wave, which is around 9 m.

Presence of hydroxyl ions (water) as an impurity. Stretching vibration of OH- bonds at 2.7 m. Its overtones at 1.0 & 1.4 m.

Fiber Loss
combination of Si-O & 1.4 m

Stretching of Si-O bonds in ionic polarization induced by EM wave, which is around 9 m.

Sharp bends change the local waveguide geometry that can lead to waves escaping. The zigzagging ray suddenly finds itself with an incident angle that gives rise to either a transmitted wave, or to greater cladding penetration; the field reaches the outside medium and some light energy is lost. Small changes in the refractive index of the fiber due to induced strains when it is bent during its use, e.g., when it is cabled and laid. Induced strains change n1 and n2, and hence affect the mode field diameter, that is field penetration into the cladding. Macrobending loss crosses over into microbending loss when the radius of curvature becomes less than a few centimeters.

Fiber Fabrication
Fiber Materials

Fiber materials
Halide Glass Fibers

Glasses and Plastics

It must be possible to make long, thin flexible fibers from the materials. The material must be transparent at a particular optical wavelength in order for the fiber to guide light efficiently. Physically compatible materials that have slightly different refractive indices for the core and cladding must be available

Extremely low transmission losses at mid-IR (@0.28 m) 0.010.001 dB/km) ZrF4, BaF2, LaF3, AlF3, NaF Fabricating long lengths of fibers is difficult. Amplification, Attenuation, Phase retardation Rare earth elements are doped (0.005-0.05 mole%): atomic no. 57-71, Er, Pr

Silica Glass Fibers

Glass do not have well defined melting point. The glass become to soften at high temperature (>1000C), it became viscous liquid. SiO2:GeO2 core; SiO2 cladding SiO2:P2O5 core; SiO2 cladding 1.48 SiO2 core; SiO2:B2O3 cladding GeO2 SiO2:GeO2/B2O3 core; SiO2:B2O3 cladding
Refractive index
P2O5
1.46

Active Glass Fibers

Chalgenide Glass Fibers

High non-linearity optical properties for all optical switch or fiber lasers Chalcogen elements are doped: S, Se, Te

SiO2 @ 850 nm B2O3

1.44 5 10 15 20

Plastic Optical Fibers: POF

Short distance (100 m), very flexible, relaxation of connector tolerance, low cost polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) or perifluorinated polymer (PFP)

Dopant addition (mol %)

Fiber Fabrication
Fiber Fabrication

Fiber Drawing
Schematic illustration of a fiber drawing tower.
Preform feed

Outside Vapor-Phase Oxidization Vapor-Phase Axial Deposition Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition Plasma-Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition Double-Crucible Method
Furnace Thickness monitoring gauge Polymer coater Ultraviolet light or furnace for curing

Take-up drum

Preform
2000C

Capstan

Outside Vapor Deposition (OVD)

Schematic illustration of OVD and the preform preparation for fiber drawing
SiCl4 (gas) + O2 (gas) GeCl4 (gas) + O2 (gas) SiO2 (solid) + 2Cl2 (gas) GeO2 (solid) + 2Cl2 (gas)
Drying gases Vapors: SiCl4+ GeCl4 + O2 Fuel: H 2 Burner Deposited soot Target rod Rotate mandrel Porous soot preform with hole Furnace Preform Furnace

Outside Vapor Deposition (OVD)

Deposited Ge doped SiO2

(a)
Reaction of gases in the burner flame produces glass soot that deposits on to the outside surface of the mandrel.

(b)

Clear solid glass preform

(c)

Drawn fiber
The consolidated glass rod is used as a preform in fiber drawing. The soot rod fed into the consolidation furnace for sintering. Glass preform fed into the fiber drawing furnace

The mandrel is removed and the hollow porous soot preform is consolidated; the soot particles are sintered, fused, together to form a clear glass rod.

Optical Cables
Single mode and Multimode Single fiber and Fiber arrays Polished face Strain relief Parameters: Insertion Loss, Attenuation, min bend radius, Face angle Expensive

Single Fiber

Duplex LC

ST - Multimode

SC - Multimode

FC Single mode

MU Single Mode

E2000 Multimode

Fiber Arrays

Multilayer Arrays

MTP test from Mipox XMP from Xanoptix

Polymer Optical Waveguides

Requirements:
Compatible with standard PWB Technologies High performance (low optical loss) Robust (>230 degrees C, >10 sec.) Dense (<60 micron Line and space) Standard tooling

Polymer Optical Waveguides

Processing Steps

Polymer Optical Waveguides

Samples

http://matlib.kjst.ac.kr/~optoelec/research/waveguide/p-waveguide.html

Optical Backplanes Speed Data

Free-Space Interconnects Pack in Data Channels

An experimental module from the University of California, San Diego, just 2 cm high, connects stacks of CMOS chips. Each stack is topped with an optics chip [below center] consisting of 256 lasers (VCSELs) and photodiodes. Light from the VCSELs makes a vertical exit from one stack [below, left] and a vertical entry into the other. In between it is redirected via a diffraction grating, lenses, an alignment mirror [center], and another grating. Each of the device's 256 channels operates at 1 Gb/s.

In DaimlerChrysler's optical backplane, the beam from a laser diode passes through one set of lenses and reflects off a micromirror before reaching a polymer waveguide, then does the converse before arriving at a photodiode and changing back into an electrical signal. A prototype operates at 1 Gb/s.

Optical Sensing
Typical sensing system configuration using photons
Ambient (light): noise source

Photon Sensing System Issues

Selection of Light Sources Selection Light Detectors Minimizing effect of background noise resulting from ambient light sources System Performance Resolution Speed Accuracy

Optional optical detector

Optical detector

Light source

signal + noise

Operating medium Ambient (light): noise source Subject of interest

Electronics

Fiber Optics For Measurement Applications

Temperature Measurement Example:
Technology Light absorption/transmission properties of gallium arsenide (GaAs)
Teflon Semiconductor Crystal Fiber Fiber Optic Temperature Probe Dielectric Mirror

Fiber Optics For Measurement Applications

Fiber Optic Chemical Sensors (FOCS):
Teflon Light Fiber Chemical Escape light Dielectric Mirror

abs = f(T) Temp. abs

Light

Technology -

Fluoresence-decay of phosphor.
Jacket Light Fiber Fiber Optic Temperature Probe Phosphor Mirror

Cladding removed substituted by suitable chemical Amount of light loss is proportional to the amount of chemical present

Timedecay = f(temp.)

FBG (Fiber Bragg Grating)

I

_ FBG (Fiber Bragg Grating)

I

= Grating Period

Operation Principle of FBG Sensor

Mounting block that attaches fiber optic sensor to the structure When the fiber optic sensor is initially mounted to a structure, it's in resonance with laser wavelength ln.

FBG Sensing
Reflection Without Strain Reflection Without Strain

1,2, ......, x

1,2, ..., n, ..., x

Structure starts to pull mounting blocks apart , which stretches the fiber optic sensor. The resonance of fiber optic sensor is now shifted.

n+
1,2, ..., n, ..., x n+

FBG Sensor Temperature Response

1551.3 1551.2 1551.1 1551 1550.9 1550.8 1550.7 Athermal, max shift: 21.6 pm (2.7 GHz) from 24oc to 70oC

Utilization of FBG Characteristics for measurement

Accelerometer

Athermal FBG Sensor Temperature Response

Wavelength, nm

Accelerometer Standard FBG Sensor Temperature Response

Conventional, 10.4 pm/oC (1.3 GHz/oC)

30

40

50 Temperature, oC

60

70

Other FBG Sensors

FBG For Structure Health Monitoring

FBG Railway Sensing

Typical Structure Health Monitoring System Broadband coupler Broadband

Source
1 2 3 1 2 3 2 3

3 2 1

FBGs Reflected Light

Tunable Filter

Detection
Wavelength (nm) Tunable Source

Optical Subsystem
Broadband coupler

12 3 3 2 1

23

FBGs Reflected Light

Tunable Filter Time (0.01 sec)

Detection

Optical Subsystem

FBG-LTDM Structure Monitoring System

Low Contrast Fabry-Perot Filter
Pulsed Broadband light

FBG-LTDM Structure Monitoring System Timing Example

2 3 3

12 3 3 2 1

Broadband coupler

23

12 3
10 meters Light Pulse

23
10 meters

3
10 meters

FBGs Reflected Light

FBGs
1st. Reflected Wavelength

SLED or Laser

Wavelength Locker

Internal

External

12 3
Tp Tfr Tsw
50 100 150

Optical Subsystem

1
2nd. Reflected Wavelength

Light Source Trigger Module

Interrogation Unit (High Speed Signal Conditioning, Sampling and ADC)

Electrical Subsystem

2
3rd. Reflected Wavelength

3
Time (ns)
200 250 150 200

Timing Generator

Microcontroller

Ethernet Interface

PC
12 3
Light Pulse

12 3
Light Pulse

Tsl

Conclusions
Interconnect problem significant in ultra high speed data communication Performance of Electrical lnterconnects will limit high performance system throughput OIs will provide significant performance boost but not completely replace EIs Optical Sensing will be deployed in new areas that were not feasible with electrical sensors

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

WDM enables transmission of multiple communication channels through a single fiber using various colors of light
Coarse WDM (CWDM): Transmission of a few widely spaced channels 1 2 1 2

Dense WDM (DWDM): Transmission of many closely spaced channels 1 n

Tunable Laser Source or DFB Laser MUX
Add/Drop Channel Tunable Filter

1 n
Detector

EDFA

Optical Fiber (Single fiber, multiple wavelengths)

DEMUX

MUX EDFA

=Multiplexer =Erbium Doped Amplifier

DEMUX =Demultiplexer

References
International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS), 2001 R. Havemann and J.A Hutchby, High-Performance Interconnects: An integration Overview, Proc. Of IEEE, Vol.89, May 2001 D.A.B Miller, Physical reasons for optical interconnections, Int. Journal of Optoelectronics 11, 1997, pp.155-168. MEL-ARI: Optoelectronic interconnects for Integrated Circuits Achievements 1996-2000 Linking with light - IEEE Spectrum http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/WEBONLY/publicfeature/aug02/opti.html Optically Interconnected Computing Group http://www.phy.hw.ac.uk/~phykjs/OIC/index.html Optoelectronics-VLSI system integration Technological challenges www.phy.hw.ac.uk/~phykjs/OIC/Projects/ SPOEC/MSEB2000/MSEB2000.pdf