Solar power---the true energy of Mother Nature

Introduction
Methods of heat transfer
We can feel the heat when the Sun shines upon our skin. Heat energy, in general, has 3 main methods of traveling around. By Conduction, Radiation, and Convection. Conduction Conduction refers to the flow of heat through a material without any flow of the material1. Metals are good conductors of heat due to the presence of free electrons inside the metal2. When the metals are supplied with energy, the outer electrons of each atom break free as the atoms vibrate. Through collisions of electrons and atoms within the metal, energy is transmitted through the metals by this movement of electrons, even though the electrons only travel short distances. Insulators are poor conductors due to the absence of free electrons3. Examples of insulators are wood and rubber. Gases and liquids conduct heat energy as well, but we must take note that they are poor thermal conductors. When heated up, the molecules gain extra kinetic energy, which may be transferred to other molecules during molecular collisions. However, this takes a longer time as compared to free electrons in metals4. Radiation Radiation refers to the heat energy transfer by electromagnetic waves5. All objects emit thermal radiation. The hotter an objects, the more energy per second is transferred away by heat radiation6. In heat radiation, the electromagnetic waves cover the infrared and visible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum7. When heat radiation is directed at the surface, some of the radiation becomes absorbed or reflected. Some radiation might pass through the surface and be transmitted through the other side. However, most materials do not allow such ways of transmission of heat radiation. Shiny, silvered surfaces are the best reflectors whilst matt black surfaces are very good absorbers8. However, it is interesting to take note that when heat radiation is absorbed by a surface at constant

temperature, the surface have to lose heat by some means in order to balance the energy gained by the radiation9. Possible ways of losing energy from the surface are either by convection, conduction, or by re-radiating the energy. Stefan-Boltzmanns law of Radiation states that: Energy radiated per second is equals to the product of the emissivity, Stefan-Boltzmanns constant, the surface area of the object and the Kelvin temperature (to the power of four)10. Convection Convection refers to the bulk movement of thermal energy in fluids11. It occurs because hot fluid rises to displace cool fluid. In other words, convection currents in the fluids aim to carry energy away from the point of heating. Convection is produced when any fluid is heated. This is because hot fluid has a lower density then cold fluid, due to thermal expansion. Therefore, the hot liquid is being pushed upwards by the surrounding cold fluid, resulting in convection currents. In practical situations, convection is the reason behind why air-conditioners work better being positioned near the top of the wall rather than lower portion. Refrigerators also make use of this phenomenon for the position of the freezer at the top portion of the appliance.

What is the sun made up of?

The Sun has a diameter of 1392 000 km, about 109 times the diameter of the Earth12. Its total mass is 331 950 times that of the Earth as well13. At the surface of the Sun, the temperature is 6000 K, but at the center of the core, the Sun has a high temperature of 15000 000 K 14! The Sun consists of three layers, mainly the Core, the radiation zone and the convection zone15. The Solar Core is made up of an extremely hot and dense gas in plasma state, whereby plasma state is the fourth state of matter. At the plasma state, instead of atoms, the plasma state of matter consists of hydrogen nuclei and electrons16. Even so, it is interesting to note that plasma is the most abundant form of matter in the Universe because all stars are in the plasma state. The Core produces the Heat energy, which travels through the radiation zone first, then the convection zone. In the convection zone, energy is transferred through overturning of 17 solar gases. Despite the high density of 160,000Kg/m3 , the temp of 15 million degrees Kelvin prevents the core from reaching solid state.

Heat energy is produced in the core of the Sun by nuclear fusion reactions. After which the energy will be released in the form of neutrinos and gamma rays18. Neutrinos are extremely light particles and they belong to a group called the Leptons19. Its interaction with matter is very rare thus, it is very hard to detect. At the core, when beta decay take place, which is the decomposition process of a neutron into a proton and an electron, neutrinos are formed at the rate of 1038 neutrinos each second20. Gamma rays refer to electromagnetic rays of gamma particles. Electromagnetic rays/waves are formed when an electric field couples with a magnetic field that is perpendicular to it. The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of all electromagnetic waves arranged according to frequency and wavelength. It is interesting to note that all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light (2.998 x 108 ms-1

Gamma particles have zero charge and have weak ionization in air21. They are not deflected by magnetic fields and the energy level in them stays constant for a given source22. It can be absorbed by thick lead. Other than the three main layers, the Sun also consists of the photosphere, the chromosphere and the corona. The chromosphere is a layer of scarlet gas about 10 000 km thick23. It corresponds to the atmosphere of the Earth. The photosphere is a layer of brilliant red gas called the chromosphere24. The corona is an extremely thin cloud of gas, yellowish and pearly-green in color25. This corona can only be seen during a total solar eclipse. The surface of the Sun is marked with dark blotches called sunspots26.

Life cycle of the sun

A massive gas cloud will have gravitational force acting on itself, thus, the shrinking process occurs naturally. When this happens, there will be an increase in its density and temperature. There will come a point whereby the temperature and density are high 3

enough, and nuclear fusion reactions take place more often27. In this case, nuclear fusion reactions refer to the conversion of Hydrogen into Helium28. Soon, the outward pressure is able to balance the gravitational force acting on it, thus the shrinkage stops and a star is formed. However, after billions of years, the Hydrogen fuel would have been burned a large percentage and the pressure will not be enough to balance the Gravitational Force29. Therefore, shrinkage has to occur again. This will cause the core temperature to rise and reach a state whereby helium fusion takes place with a new equilibrium state. The star is now larger due to expansion and contraction of outer layers30. This is the basic life cycle of a star. All planets are stars and therefore this includes the Sun. In about 5 billion years, the Sun should reach this state, with an orbit similar to the planet Mars. A red giant will keep on burning until its nuclear fuel is exhausted, and a new contraction will take place. If there is enough mass left in the star this contraction will heat the core enough to trigger fusion reactions of heavier elements at higher and higher temperatures until the fusion reactions produce Iron31. Beyond Iron, the nuclear fusion process cannot release any more energy, and a red giant starts reaching the end of its life32.

From sun to earth

Atmospheric Level From the Sun, solar energy is dispersed in all directions in the Universe in the form of ultraviolet rays, infra-red radiation and gamma rays, and the Earth is only able to intercept a small amount of it33. Solar radiation from the Sun travels at the speed of light and needs about eight minutes to reach the Earths atmosphere. Scientists calculated that the amount of solar energy received outside the Earths atmosphere, at the Earths mean distance from the Sun is approximately between 1353 and 1395 W/m2 34. The data is not an exact number due to the variations in the distance between the Sun and the Earth. This is because the Earth is not a perfect sphere. It is important to know that not all solar energy received at the Earths atmosphere is able to reach the Earths surface. This is because the Earth's atmosphere plays an important role in selectively controlling the passage towards the earth's surface of the various components of solar radiation. A considerable portion of solar radiation is reflected back into outer space upon striking the uppermost layers of the atmosphere, and also from the tops of clouds. In the course of penetration through the atmosphere, some of the incoming radiation is either absorbed or scattered in all directions by atmospheric gases, vapors, 4

and dust particles. In fact, there are two main processes known to be involved in atmospheric scattering of solar radiation, selective scattering and non-selective scattering35. These two processes are determined by the different sizes of particles in the atmosphere. Selective scattering refers to the process whereby radiations with shorter wavelengths are being selectively scattered much more extensively than those with longer wavelengths36. This is caused by the presence of atmospheric gases or particles that are smaller in dimension than the wavelength of a particular radiation. Gas molecules, smoke, fumes, and haze could cause such scattering as well. Under clear atmospheric conditions, obviously, selective scattering would be much less severe as compared to polluted atmosphere. Non-selective scattering refers the process whereby the degree of scattering is equal for all wavelengths37. This normally occurs in the lower atmosphere and is caused by dust, fog, and clouds with particle sizes more than ten times the wavelength of the components of solar radiation38. Since the amount of scattering is equal for all wavelengths, clouds and fog appear white although their water particles are colorless. Other than scattering of the solar energy from the Sun, there is also absorption of the solar energy at the atmosphere. The amount of absorption of the solar energy depends upon the component rays of sunlight and their wavelengths39. Radiation with a range of wavelengths from 200 to 300 nm is absorbed by the ozone (O3) layer in the upper atmosphere40. For example, Gamma rays, X-rays, and ultraviolet radiation are less than 200 nm in wavelength and are be absorbed by oxygen and nitrogen41. These absorption phenomena are essential for living things because prolonged exposure to radiation of wavelengths shorter than 300 nm destroys living tissue42. As for solar radiation in the red and infrared regions of the spectrum at wavelengths, greater than 700 nm, they are normally absorbed to some extent by carbon dioxide, ozone, and water present in the atmosphere in the form of vapour and condensed droplets43. In which case, the water droplets in clouds also reflect solar energy to a certain extent. Ground Level As a result of such reflection, absorption and scattering of the solar energy at the Earths atmosphere, the amount of solar energy that really reaches the Earths surface is much reduced in intensity as it traverses the atmosphere. The intensity of the ultimate beams of 5

sunlight reaching the Earths surface depends on the altitude of the sun, and also varies with latitude, season, cloud coverage, and atmospheric pollutants44. The total solar radiation received at ground level is divided into direct radiation and diffuse radiation. Direct radiation refers to total 90o, undeviated radiation on the ground. Diffuse radiation is the component of total radiation caused by atmospheric scattering and reflection of the incident radiation on the ground45. Reflection from the ground is primarily visible light with a maximum radiation peak at a wavelength of 555 nm (green light)46. During daylight hours, the amount of diffuse radiation may be as high as 10% of the total solar radiation at noontime even when the sky is clear. This value may rise to about 20% in the early morning and late afternoon47. On cloudy weather days, the total radiation received at ground level will be greatly reduced, whereby the amount of reduction depends on cloud coverage and cloud thickness. Under extreme cloud conditions, a significant proportion of the incident radiation would be in the form of scattered or diffuse light. In addition, lesser solar radiation is expected during the early and late hours of the day.

Sun angles
Solar energy from the Sun is unevenly distributed to countries on the Earth. The amount of solar energy received by any country will depend on the geographical location, the latitude, season and time of the day. The most favorable belt lies between latitude 15N and 35N 48. Regions that lie in such latitude belong to semi-arid areas, whereby they can expect to receive greater than 90% of direct radiation, and at least 3000 hours of sunshine each year49. Moderately favorable belt will lie between equator and latitude 15N, where regions there have high humidity and frequent cloud cover50. The solar intensity in such regions is uniform and experience highly scattered radiation51. Developing countries, such as Singapore, happen to lie between 35N and 35S, and therefore can theoretically count on solar radiation as a steadfast source of energy that can be readily exploited by both rural and urban households for a multitude of purposes. Below shows a table of the variation of the incident angle of the suns rays to the earth (measured from the line perpendicular to the earth and the direction in which the suns rays hit the earth) versus the amount of solar energy being intercepted. Incident Angle (degrees) 0 Solar Intercepted (percent) 100

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 Photovoltaic cells

99.6 98.5 96.5 94.0 90.6 86.6 81.9 76.6 70.7 64.3 57.4 50.0 42.3 34.2 25.8 17.4 8.7 0.0

Table - Percentage of radiation striking a surface at given angles

Photovoltaic cells convert light energy into electricity. Most commonly known as solar cells, such systems, which harness solar energy, are already an important part of our lives. The most important parts of a solar cell are the semiconductor layers, because this is where the electron current is created. Electrons diffusing through the p-n junction in different directions causes an electric current, when exposed to sunlight52. Examples of how photovoltaic cells converts electricity from solar energy can be seen from the small calculators and wrist watches we use every day. Examples that are more complicated would be systems, which provide electricity from solar energy for pumping water, powering communications equipment, and even lighting our homes and running our appliances53.

Why the need for solar energy in Singapore Singapore is well known as the clean and green country. Solar energy acts perfectly as an environmental-friendly source of energy to maintain the title. Solar energy is also reliable and needs minimal maintenance. It does not lose out to other sources of energy in terms

of amount of usable and compared to fossil fuels, solar energy will not increase greenhouse gases. In addition, solar energy definitely lasts longer than fossil fuels, which are non-renewable sources of energy54. Moreover, conversion of sunlight into electricity is a purely quiet operation.

What is already available in Singapore

Common examples include, solar water heaters, which are already being utilized in Singapore. BP Solar Company, often well known as an environmental-friendly company, puts in great effort into research of various ways of utilizing solar energy. It foresees Singapore as a potential country of going totally solar due to its geographical location. BP concentrates upon developing solar crystalline cells and panels in the effort to harness solar energy for usage in Singapore55. The Government of Singapore has always been supportive of harnessing the environmental-friendly solar energy. Earlier this year in May, solar energy lights had been added to the Adam Food Center during renovation of the place56. The school of building and environment at the National University of Singapore is currently researching the idea of Solar Induced Ventilation57. This project will be able to assess the effects of air velocity against the thermal comforts of occupants in a room. Seawater desalination in Singapore also makes use of a solar system to assist in the process of water distillation58. Reflection, Transmission and Absorption As solar radiation strikes the surface of a material, three things can happen: The radiation can be reflected, transmitted and/or absorbed. Reflected radiation radiation that is scattered (diffused) or reflected in a predictable manner. Rough-textured surfaces will scatter radiation while highly polished surfaces will reflect light in parallel rays. What we perceive as color is the result of visible radiation in certain wavelengths being reflected from a surface, while all other wavelengths are transmitted or absorbed. For example, an object that absorbs nearly all the visible radiation that strikes it appears black while one which reflects most of the radiation appears white. (Since white is the combination of all the colors in the visible spectrum) 8

The solar radiation that penetrated a material will either be transmitted or absorbed. A material that transmits most of the visible radiation that strikes it is transparent. (E.g.: glass) Materials that are equally transmissive but will deflect or scatter the radiation that passes through it are translucent. (E.g.: glazed materials) Absorption depends highly on iron content in the glass. It is observed that the edges of glass which have high iron content has lower transmissivity as compared to the surface of the glass itself.59 Solar radiation absorbed by a substance is converted into thermal energy or heat. Solar radiation absorbed by the molecules at the surface of a material will accelerate their movement. As the molecules begin to vibrate faster and faster, this kinetic energy is represented as the heat content of the material. As the heat content of the material rises, the temperature of it rises as well. Hence, we can say that temperature is the measure of the amount of heat in the material, which derives from the rapid movements of the vibrating molecules. Flat-Plate Collectors A typical flat-plate collector is a metal box with a glass or plastic cover (glazing) on top and a dark-colored absorber plate on the bottom. The sides and bottom of the collector are usually insulated to minimize heat loss.60 Sunlight passes through the glazing and strikes the absorber plate, which heats up, changing solar energy into heat energy. The heat is transferred to liquid passing through pipes attached to the absorber plate. Absorber plates are commonly painted with "selective coatings," which absorb and retain heat better than ordinary black paint. Absorber plates are usually made of metaltypically copper or aluminumbecause the metal is a good heat conductor. Copper is more expensive, but is a better conductor and less prone to corrosion than aluminum. In locations with average available solar

energy, flat plate collectors are sized approximately one-half- to one-square foot per gallon of one-day's hot water use. The main use of this technology is in residential buildings where the demand for hot water has a large impact on energy bills. This generally means a situation with a large family, or a situation in which the hot water demand is excessive due to frequent laundry washing. Commercial applications include Laundromats, car washes, military laundry facilities and eating establishments. The technology can also be used for space heating if the building is located off-grid or if utility power is subject to frequent outages. Solar water heating systems are most likely to be cost effective for facilities with water heating systems that are expensive to operate, or with operations such as laundries or kitchens that require large quantities of hot water.

Solar Water Heating System The sun can be used to heat up water by the method of heat transfer through convection. Most solar water systems consist of two portions: a solar collector and a storage tank. The most common solar collector used is a flat-plate collector. Mounted on the roof, it consists of a thin, flat, rectangular box with a transparent cover that faces the sun. Small tubes run through the box and carry the fluid either water or other fluid, such as an antifreeze solution to be heated. The tubes are attached to an absorber plate, which is painted black to absorb the heat. As heat builds up in the collector, it heats the fluid passing through the tubes. The storage tank, which is usually well insulated, then holds the heated water. The hot water is then transferred to the living space for use by either an active or passive system. (Refer to later part on active and passive systems).

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Solar Cookers Solar cookers are required since firewood used for cooking causes deforestation, commercial fuels are not available, dried cow dung and agricultural wastes used for cooking is a good fertilizer, and human resources used for collecting fuels can be diverted and used for some other purposes. Although solar cookers are energy-saving devices, they are not always accepted in places. Reasons are: 1. too expensive for individual family ownership, 2. Too complicated to handle, 3. Cooking can be done only in direct sun, 4. Danger of getting burnt or eye damage, 5. Are not locally available. A few attempts have been made in the past to introduce and popularize solar cookers. The most extensive attempt was perhaps made with the help of solar scientists and anthropologists to introduce some 200 solar cookers in Mexico in the states of Sonora, Coahuila and Oaxaca. In the beginning, the cookers selected used a rigid plastic reflectors with reflective films bonded to the front surfaces, but these cookers were not successful due to some mechanical failures of the cookers. Later, the cooker was redesigned, modified and the focal length was made within easy reach from the ground and the final resulting cooker was found to be the most successful. 61 The principal ways of cooking food are: boiling, frying, roasting and baking, when boiling is the principal way of cooking food such as rice. The temperature of food being cooked is 100oC. For other methods of cooking, higher temperatures are required. For frying or boiling of food, heat is supplied from all the sides and heat is transferred to the food by radiation and convection. In most of the foods, water is present and when cooking by boiling is done, some water is always added to the food such as in the boiling of rice. Because of the large amount of water, the specific heat of food maybe be assumed to be close to water example: 4 kJ/kg/oC. In such cases, once the boiling temperature, e.g.: 100 oC is reached, not much heat is required except that the heating rate should be equal to the rate of thermal loss from the vessel. Thus the difference of time in cooking of equal quantities of food by two cookers can be due to their difference in lengths of initial heating up periods. The thermal losses from the cooking vessels are: evaporation loss from the food; radiation and convection from the surface of the cooking vessel. The largest heat loss from the food is due to the evaporation of water from the food, which is about 2.5 MJ/kg. Convection heat loss from walls of vessel and oven is also quite large and can be reduced by the use of covers on the utensils and by insulating the outer walls. 11

During cooking, the friction of heat spent in bringing food to boiling temperature in vaporization of water and in convection, losses from cooking utensils are generally as below:

Vaporization of water Heating food to boiling temperature Convection losses from vessel Types of Solar Cookers

35 per cent 20 per cent 45 per cent

Solar

cookers

are

broadly

divided into 3 main types: direct or focusing type, indirect or box type, advanced or separate collector and cooking chamber type.62 Direct or focusing type A solar energy concentrator is used, when directed towards the sun, focuses the solar radiation on a focal point or area on which a cooking or frying pan is placed. Convection heat loss from the cooking vessel is large and the cooker only utilizes the direct solar radiation. Example: parabolic type solar cooker. Indirect or box type An insulated hot box painted black from the inside with double-glazing is used.

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Plane sheet reflectors are used to enhance the radiation. The adjustment of the sun to this cooker is not as frequent as the direct cooker. This is a slow cooker and takes a longer time to cook. Thus, not many dishes can be cooked by this method. Water can be sterilized or pasteurized in a box type to make it safe to drink. Contrary to popular belief, water only needs to be heated to 65 C (150 F) for 20 minutes to kill disease-causing microbes. Advanced type The cooking in some cases can either be done with stored heat of the solar heat that is directly transferred to the cooking vessel in the kitchen. The cookers use either a flat plate or focusing collector, which collect the solar heat and transfer this to the cooking vessel.

Wind Energy The wind is a by-product of uneven heating of the Earth's atmosphere by the sun, and has a very complex distribution pattern. Though widely spread, winds are most prevalent along coasts, at higher elevations and at higher latitudes. Where does Wind Energy come from? The sun radiates 174,423,000,000,000-kilowatt hours of energy to the earth per hour. In other words, the earth receives 1.74 x 1017 watts of power (energy transfer per unit time). About 1 to 2 per cent of the energy coming from the sun is converted into wind energy. That is about 50 to 100 times more than the energy converted into biomass by all plants on earth.

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Temperature Differences Drive Air Circulation The regions around equator, at 0 latitude are heated more by the sun than the rest of the globe. These hot areas are indicated in the warm colors, red, orange and yellow in this infrared picture of sea surface temperatures (taken from a NASA 63 satellite, NOAA-7 in July 1984). Hot air is lighter than cold air and will rise into the sky until it reaches approximately 10 km (6 miles) altitude and will spread to the North and the South. If the globe did not rotate, the air would simply arrive at the North Pole and the South Pole, sink down, and return to the equator. Siting The power in the wind is proportional to the cube of its speed; twice the wind speed gives eight times the power. Small differences in average wind speed cause large differences in available wind energy. So, for optimum performance, it is important to find a site, which offers the highest overall wind speeds. Approaches to Solar Heating for buildings There are basically two approaches to solar heating of buildings: Active and Passive Systems.64 Active Systems 65 Employ hardware and mechanical equipment to collect and transport heat Flat plate or focusing collectors and a separate heat storage unit Water or air, pumped through the collector, absorbs heat and transport it to the storage unit Heat then supplied from storage unit to spaces in building by completely mechanical distribution system Types of active systems Solar heating of water in liquid collector and transforming the heat absorbed to living spaces from the storage unit by liquid or air Solar heating of air in air collectors and transferring the heat absorbed to living spaces from storage unit by air or liquid Using solar energy stored as heat in the environment by means of heat pumps 14

Active systems can be installed in existing buildings and thus are termed retrofit systems. However, the process of installing such systems could be costly. The initial cost and area needed for an active solar heating system may be higher than the conventional heating system. In the house, the rooms should be located in such a way that the rooms which are most frequently used should be towards the south making efficient use of the winter sun. Rooms used for morning activities should be located towards the east. For late afternoon use, the rooms should face the west. The rooms facing the north receive little sunlight and therefore, remain cooler. These rooms can be used for storage and sleeping. For living, the room facing southwest may be better for major duration. Multistoried buildings should be preferred over single storied buildings with the same volume, since they would expose less area to the sun and hence, lesser heat loss. The colors of the roof and walls also have considerable effect on the indoor climate since the amount of absorption and reflection depends on colors of surfaces. Light colors reflect heat while dark colors absorb heat. Vegetation near the living space may also significantly affect the indoor environment. For example, deciduous trees planted near the wall facing north would provide warmth from the sun in winter and coolness due to shading in the summer. Three thermo physical properties: the thermal resistance, heat capacity and solar absorption of surfaces are important for energy conservation in buildings. A building material or a combination of building materials for walls, roofs, floors, and internal partitions should be chosen that they provide high thermal resistance together with high heat capacity. Thick and heavy structures of walls and roofs not only suppresses the amplitude of the external temperatures and thus smoothens out the amplitude of the external temperatures and thus smoothens out variation of the inside temperatures, but also stores sufficient amount of heat for night use, The trombre wall which is a high mass wall on the south side of the house, blackened and glazed, is very useful not only for collecting solar energy but also for storage and acts as a built-in-radiant heating panel.

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General Aspects of Solar Active Heating of Buildings 1. The solar energy collectors generally the flat-plate liquid or air collectors for converting the solar radiation into heat. 2. A suitable heat storage device, generally water or pebble bed or a mix of these two. 3. An auxiliary heat supply arrangement required in case of poor sunshine. 4. Control system and fluid flow device for controlling various operations. 5. Pumping device or the distribution systems for supplying the heat at an appropriate place. Components of Solar Heating Systems Solar Collector Solar liquid collectors range from simple zigzag tube welded on a metal sheet to the more sophisticated evacuated tube collectors. Common ones include: corrugated sheet type flat plate collectors and evacuated tube type collectors. Solar air heaters are also of different designs but are comparatively simpler and a few commonly used air heaters are: simple conventional air heaters, porous bed air heater. It is observes that at high insulation values both the air and liquid collectors operate at the same efficiency while at low resolution values, air collectors operate at much higher efficiency which is due to the low return air temperature in the case of air collectors. Similarly, air collectors supply air at high temperatures resulting in lower cost of heat distribution. In large active heating systems like in commercial and industrial buildings, the heat distribution can conveniently and economically be done by hot water and hence, liquid collectors are preferred. Thermal Storage Systems The size and type of heat storage media depends on the weather conditions and the percentage of total heating load to be supplied. The most obvious choice with liquid collectors is water in tank and sometimes with an antifreeze liquid additive. Water has a high specific heat capacity of 4.2 kJ/kg/K but a heat exchanger is required to transfer heat energy from stored water to the point of use. Rock can also be used as a heat storage medium. It has a specific heat capacity of 0.8 kJ/kg/K. The rock bed system is 16

generally used along with air collectors. Air can be used as a heat transfer medium in rock bed system without heat exchanger. In this method, there is no freezing or leakage problem. Properties of some of the sensible heat storage materials suitable for space heating applications are shown in the table below.

Storage Medium Water Rock Iron Mineral oil

Density (kg/m3) 1000 2240 7860 900

Specific (kJ/kg/K) 4.2 0.8 0.45 1.8

heat

capacity

Table: Properties of sensible heat storage medium Auxiliary Heat Supply System Auxiliary heat can be supplied though a furnace which can be gas or oil fired, or electrically supplied through a heat pump system in the case of air heating systems. For liquid heating systems, auxiliary heat is supplied either directly though electric coils or through a boiler which is fired by oil, gas, electricity or any other fuel. Whichever type of solar storage system is used, it is essential that the solar collectors should be supplied with the coolest possible liquid or air so that the collectors operate at maximum efficiency. The hot liquid or air from the top of the solar storage tank should be supplied to the load loop and the cooled room liquid or air should be supplied to the bottom of the tank. Control Systems A controller consists of three components, the sensors which sense the state of affair and communicate to the control unit, a control unit meant for taking decisions as per preprogrammed based on sensor inputs, the actuators which carry out the decisions based on the control unit. The requirement of the controller is that it should be of low cost, dependable and provide energy at the maximum efficiency. Three Ways of Solar Heating 1. Solar air systems

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2. Solar liquid systems 3. Solar heat pump system Solar Air Systems There are several advantages of air-based solar heating systems compared to liquid based systems. The main advantage in air system is that the same medium is used for heat collection from solar air heaters (collectors) and space heating. Thus there is no need of a heat exchanger. The heat storage system consisting of small sized rocks acting as heat storage and heat exchanger and the high degree of stratification in the storage leads to lower inlet collector temperature resulting in higher collector efficiency. The combination of thermal and operating parameters of air like specific heat, flow rates, density, low inlet temperature results in higher collector outlet temperature. Other advantages include durable air systems, not having corrosion problems, air leakages are not serious, air collectors can be made cheaply, control systems are readily available as most of the space heating systems use hot air and in air systems there are no freezing and boiling problems. However, the disadvantages are: relatively high pumping cost since large volumes of air is to be handled, relatively large volumes of storage size and difficulty in combining with air conditioning systems. Solar Liquid Systems Like air heating systems, the liquid systems also consist of liquid flat-plate collectors, storage system, auxiliary heater, radiant or convective panels, pumps, valves and automatic control unit. In liquid collectors, water, antifreeze liquid or some other heat transfer fluid is circulated and the building can be heated either by a hydronic system that they are widely studied, used and can readily supply for commercial buildings. For the same collector inlet temperatures, the liquid collectors operate at higher efficiencies compared to air collectors. The liquid systems also occupy less space. The disadvantages in liquid systems are: freezing of collector water, corrosion at joints, collector tubes and plate, boiling of water at some high temperatures, hazard due to leakage, high cost due to additional heat exchangers, need of leak proof joints, low efficiency due to several heat exchangers and low durability. Solar Heat Pumping Systems Heat pump is a mechanical device, which provides heating or cooling by using a reversible refrigeration cycle. In the heating mode, the heat pump extracts heat at low temperatures from outside air and rejects this heat at higher temperatures to the room air. 18

In the cooling mode, a reversing valve reverses the roles of the evaporator and condenser and hence, in this mode the heat id extracted from indoor air providing cooling and rejecting outside air. Passive Systems 66 Thermal energy flows by natural means (e.g.: radiation, conduction, natural convection) Operates on energy available in its immediate environment Building structure or some element of it is the system Direct Gain The actual living space is directly heated by sunlight Space becomes a live-in solar collector heat storage and distribution system Always working Use of double-glazed south-facing glass The south-facing glass is exposed to the maximum amount of solar energy in winter and the minimum amount in summer. Since the heat energy stored in the glass is to be used for heating the living space at night and possibly during cloudy weathers, the mass (floor and walls) of the space must be constructed of materials that are capable of storing heat. (E.g.: masonry and water)

Indirect Gain Sunlight first strikes a thermal mass located between the sun and the space Sunlight converted to thermal energy and transferred into the living space Thermal storage walls and roof ponds Indirect gain systems exist in two types: Thermal storage walls and roof ponds. Masonry Thermal Storage Wall A masonry (consisting of bricks, concrete) wall works by absorbing sunlight on its outer face and then transferring this heat through the wall by conduction. The outside surface of the wall is painted black for maximum absorption of sunlight. Heat conducted through the wall is then distributed to the space by radiation. Solar radiation passing through the glass is absorbed by the wall, heating its surface to high temperatures. The heat is 19

transferred to the air in the space between the wall and glass. Through openings or vents located at the top of the wall, warm air rising in the space enters the room while simultaneously drawing cool air through the low vents in the wall. Water Thermal Storage Wall A water wall transfers heat through the way by convection. The exterior face of a water wall is painted black for maximum solar absorption. As the wall absorbs sunlight, its surface temperature rises; however, convection currents within the wall keep the surface relatively cool, while distributing the collected heat throughout the entire volume of water. This heat is then supplied to the space mainly by radiation fro the interior face of the wall. Attached Greenhouse A solar greenhouse is essentially a combination of direct and indirect gain systems. It is built on to the south wall of a house and through heat convection transmits excess heat into the house during the day. By constructing vents or small windows in the wall, warm daytime greenhouse air can also be circulated to adjacent spaces. With a self-insulating wall, one can determine the amount of stored heat that radiates to the interior or back to the greenhouse at night. This system provides an added sunny place to live in and can provide a place to grow vegetables or flowers. Roof Ponds The thermal mass is located on the roof of the building. One type of roof ponds exists as water ponds that are enclosed in thin plastic bags and are supported by the roof. These also serve as the ceiling of the living space below. This system is equally suited for heating in winter and cooling in summer. In winter, the ponds are exposed to sunlight during the day and then covered with insulating panels at night. Heat collected by the ponds is radiated from the ceiling directly into the living space below. Radiation cooling during summer is described under Radiation Cooling mentioned later in the report. Isolated Gain Solar collection an thermal storage are isolated form the living spaces System functions independently of the building Heat is drawn from the system only when needed Use of greenhouse

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The most common application of this concept is the natural convective loop. The major components of this system include a flat plate collector and heat storage tank. Two types of heat transfer and storage mediums air used: water and air with rock storage. As water or air in the collector is heated by sunlight, it rises and enters the top of the storage tank, while simultaneously pulling cooler water or air from the bottom of the tank into the collector. This natural convection current continues as long as the sun is shining.

Advantages versus Disadvantages of Passive Solar Heating Systems Advantages Affords large savings of energy for heating Included at little or no additional cost in original design and construction of building Simplicity of design, operation and maintenance Maintaining of a warmer floor Disadvantages Each systems large storage capacity forms an integral part of the building structure Thus, its ability to respond quickly to changes is greatly impended Change in temp of storage material can cause fluctuations in temp of space May cause unsatisfactory living conditions if not properly designed Solutions For residential applications, temperature controls can be installed E.g.: operable windows, shading devices, back-up heating systems For large-scale applications, Choose a back-up system that responds effectively to users comfort requirements Extreme fluctuations in temp can be minimized by properly sizing and locating thermal mass Natural means of passive cooling 67 1. Shading 21

By simply shading the living space with windows, walls and roofs, the temperature of the living space can be reduced For windows that face the east-west direction, vertical louvers should be used For windows that face the south walls, use horizontal louvers Overhangs are also efficient in keeping solar radiation out of the living space Alternatively, paint walls and roofs with light colors to help reduce heat gain by reflecting the suns rays

2. Ventilation - It is known that any movement of air across human skin at temperatures below 37oC provides a cooling sensation - Ceiling fans can be used to aid in ventilation - Use of wind tower - one end of the wind tower goes up to the basement of the building while the other end goes up to the roof. During the day, the walls of the tower absorb solar heat, which heats up the air at the top. The air pressure at the top reduces and thus an upward draft is created, resulting in air movement. During windy periods, the walls of the upper tower is cooled at night and thus increasing the pressure. A downward draft is created, thus cooling the living space. 3. Evaporation - Direct evaporation: with the use of evaporative coolers (e.g.: courtyard fountains) Indirect evaporation: hot and dry outside air is cooled by passing it through water and then through a heat exchanger. The room air is cooled in the heat exchanger by means of heat transfer by conduction to the evaporative cooled air passing on the other side of the heat exchanger.

4. Radiation cooling Cooling occurs when a body (building) at a higher temperature radiates energy to another body (sky) at lower temperature. The night sky is an idea heat sink for radioactive cooling. The amount of cooling by radiation between the building and the sky depends on several factors like the temperature of the building, the sky temperature and the presence 22

of other objects like trees, buildings etc. A horizontal surface like roof of a building which is exposed to the sky is the most effective long wave radiator. There are three methods of cooling of building by nocturnal radiation: the rook pond with movable insulation (skytherm system), the cool pool system with hinged insulation and roof radiation trap. In the skytherm system, black plastic water bags kept over a metal roof are exposed to the sky at night, hence cooling the water by nocturnal radiation. The cooled water in turn cools the house by absorbing heat through the roof received from the living space below. During the day, the pond is shaded by movable insulation panel. The cool pool system uses a water layer over the roof and an open able insulation cover. Water is contained in shallow galvanized iron pans covered by plastic transparent sheet. The insulating panels that have a reflective layer on its bottom side are hinged. These panels close and open by a hydraulic ram. In summer, the pond is exposed to the sky during the night and covered by insulation during the day. Cooling is done as in the first method. In winter, during the day, the reflected radiation falls on to the water, resulting in enhanced solar radiation. In the roof radiation trap system, the insulation layer is covered by a corrugated metal sheet painted white on the external side. During the night, the roof gets cooled due to nocturnal radiation, thus cooling the air below. Through the corrugations of the metal roof, air is sucked with the help of a fan and this cooled air can be supplied either directly to the room for cooling or can be stored in a rock bed system. Case Study: Use of passive cooling system in Singapore? Singapores geographical location is 96km north of the equator, between longitude 103 degrees 36' East and 104 degrees 25' East. As of 1997, 85% of the Singapore population owned or lived in HDB-developed flats.68 The other 15% live in private housing, terrace houses, bungalows etc. It is to no surprise that Singaporeans have already been using natural means of passive cooling in times of hot and humid weather. Examples include: shading by using the common curtains, blinds and glazed windows. Materials for shading are easily obtainable and are probably the easiest to use and maintain. 23

We now turn our attention to cooling by ventilation. As the word suggests, this form of cooling involves the movement of cool air into the living space and the movement of hot air out of the space by simple convection. Common practice of such methods is simply by installing ceiling fans to aid in the ventilation of the space. It is common sense to know that in terms of effectiveness of cooling, Singaporeans living at higher floors of HDBdeveloped flats naturally receives more winds due to lesser obstructions from surrounding objects such as trees and other buildings and thus are more susceptible to better ventilation. Hence, we can safely conclude that cooling by ventilation is more effective at higher altitudes as compared to lower ones. How about installing wind towers? This could be suited more for single or double-storied houses because an external tower has to be constructed.

Wind Tower

From a thermodynamic standpoint, a convection (wind) tower can be viewed as a heat engine functioning between a high temperature source and the average of a high temperature sink and a low temperature sink. This is because the gas expansion is continuous until the gas reaches the temperature of the surrounding air. The heat engine is in effect working at a maximum efficiency at the very bottom of the tower and at an efficiency of zero at the top of the tower. Its efficiency is therefore approximately equal to half the temperature difference divided by the temperature of the high temperature source. Thus, the greater the temperature difference and the smaller the high temperature source, the greater the efficiency of the wind tower. Singapore has two main seasons, the Northeast Monsoon (December to March) and the Southwest Monsoon season (May to September), separated by two relatively shorter inter-monsoon periods. Usually the Northeast Monsoon months of December and January are the cooler months of the year with average highest temperature of 29.9 oC as compared to 31.5 oC in the months of April and May, and with average minimum

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temperature of 23.1 oC in Dec and Jan as compared to 24.3 oC in the months of April and May. 69 Thus, we can say that the wind tower would probably work best in the months of April and May with an average of 24.3 oC as compared to in the cooler months of December and January. The larger temperature difference during these months would offset the higher average temperatures and thus would allow the walls of the tower to heat up faster during the day, thus increasing the efficiency of the wind tower. However, one has to consider the costs and feasibility of such a passive cooling system in Singapore. First, we know that Singapore is already a country that has a shortage of land and thus the building of wind towers by a large number of house owners could put a strain on Singapores land. Second, the real effectiveness of wind (and thus cooling) produced by the upward draft is limited due to the close proximity of houses in Singapore. Obstructions due to other houses, buildings and such reduce the efficiency of a wind tower. Next, the cost of building a wind tower has to be considered as well. We now look at cooling by radiation. This form of cooling, as mentioned, requires a water body placed at the top of preferably a metal roof and is exposed to the sky at night. Cooling of the water occurs by nocturnal radiation. The cooled water in turn cools the house by absorbing heat through the roof received from the living space below. During the day, the water body is shaded by movable or hinged insulation panel. Looking at the feasibility of this method of cooling, we are forced to acknowledge that it would be most efficient for use of single or double-storied houses. This is because the heat that is absorbed by the water body would only be limited to the living space directly below it. (Lest of course if we were to use it in a HDB flat, only the flat dweller living at the highest level of the flat is entitled to this cooling system). You might ask, how about for other buildings such as schools or hospitals? Would the same explanation work here? Well, the very simple reason for introducing these methods of cooling for Singapore would be most appropriate for cooling at night. So it would be redundant to apply such systems to schools. As for hospitals, the possible fluctuations of temperatures during the day and night might cause discomfort to patients and staff alike. Thus, in a nut shell, passive cooling systems, though might be suitable for low-level houses for cooling in the night are perhaps not so economical and socially accepted in Singapore. Reasons are the additional costs, lack of land area, close proximity of houses 25

etc. Perhaps for the dare-to-doers, passive cooling could still be tested to see if it is really usable in Singapore.

1 2

Avison, John, World of Physics, p.167. Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, UK, 1989. Ibid, p.167 3 Ibid, p.167 4 Ibid, p.168 5 Ibid, p.170 6 Ibid, p.170 7 Ibid, p.171 8 Ibid, p.171 9 Ibid, p.171 10 Ibid, p.171 11 Ibid, p.168 12 Kusaka, Jitsuo, The Universe and Weather, p.8. Time-Life Books, HK, 1985 13 Ibid, 14 Ibid, 15 Ibid, 16 Ibid, p.9 17 Ibid, p.12 18 Ibid, p.13 19 Ibid, p.10 20 Ibid, p.12 21 Avison, John, World of Physics, p.388. Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, UK, 1989. 22 Ibid, 23 Kusaka, Jitsuo, The Universe and Weather, p.15. Time-Life Books, HK, 1985 24 Ibid, 25 Ibid, 26 Ibid, 27 Ibid, p.16 28 Ibid, 29 Ibid, 30 Ibid, p.17 31 Ibid, 32 Ibid, 33 Ibid, p.18 34 Ibid, 35 Ibid, p.19 36 Ibid, 37 Ibid, 38 Ibid, 39 Ibid, 40 Ibid, 41 Ibid, 42 Ibid,

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43 44

Ibid, Ibid, 45 McVeigh, J C, Sun Power, p.15, Pergamon Press, UK, 1983 46 Ibid, 47 Kusaka, Jitsuo, The Universe and Weather, p.18. Time-Life Books, HK, 1985 48 Ibid., 49 Ibid, 50 Ibid, 51 McVeigh, J C, Sun Power, p.174, Pergamon Press, UK, 1983 52 Ibid, 53 http://www.bpsolar.com 54 http://www.bpsolar.com 55 http://www.bpsolar.com 56 Straits Times, 02 May 2002 57 http://www.bdg.nus.edu.sg/research/abstract.htm#project10 58 http://www.pege.org/clearwater/index.htm 59 Mazria, p.18 60 http://www.flasolar.com/active_dhw_flat_plate.htm 61 Garg, & Prakash, p.164 62 http://solarcooking.org/images/hires/min7-high2.jpg 63 http://www.windandsun.demon.co.uk/wind.htm 64 Garg, & Prakash, p.28 65 Garg, & Prakash, p.28 66 Mazria, p.28 67 Garg, & Prakash, p.222 68 http://www.undp.org/tcdc/bestprac/social/cases/02-public%20housing.htm 69 http://app10.internet.gov.sg/scripts/nea/cms/htdocs/article.asp?pid=1085#drywx

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References: Avison, John, World of Physics, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, UK, 1989. Garg, H P, Prakash, J. Solar Energy Fundamentals and Applications. Tata McGrawHill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, 1997. Kusaka, Jitsuo, The Universe and Weather, Time-Life Books, HK, 1985 Mazria, Edward. The Passive Solar Energy Book. Rodale Press, Emmaus, Pa, USA, 1979. McVeigh, J C, Sun Power, Pergamon Press, UK, 1983 Straits Times, 02 May 2002 http://www.bdg.nus.edu.sg/research/abstract.htm#project10 http://www.bpsolar.com http://www.pege.org/clearwater/index.htm http://www.undp.org/tcdc/bestprac/social/cases/02-public%20housing.htm

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http://www.flasolar.com/active_dhw_flat_plate.htm http://solarcooking.org/images/hires/min7-high2.jpg http://www.windandsun.demon.co.uk/wind.htm http://www.windpower.dk/tour/wres/ http://members.axion.net/~enrique/solarwindtower.html http://app10.internet.gov.sg/scripts/nea/cms/htdocs/article.asp? pid=1085#drywx http://www.lbl.gov/MicroWorlds/ALSTool/EMSpec/EMSpec2.html

http://imagers.gsfc.nasa.gov/ems/waves3.html

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