The Nemeth Code Tutorial for the Braille Lite Print Version

Jodi A. Sticken Julie M. Hart

Research and Development Institute Sycamore, Illinois

December 2005

Authors Notes: The following document is an exact print equivalent of the Nemeth Code Tutor for the Braille Lite, with the exception of any information which appears in text boxes, reference charts, or summary charts. Information enclosed in boxes as well as the reference and summary charts in this document are not part of the Braille Lite program, but have been included as an additional resource for teachers who are guiding their students through the Nemeth Code Tutorial for the Braille Lite; these are based on information developed by Mario Cortesi for the Computer Based Nemeth Code Tutor. While using any lessons in this tutorial involving spatially arranged mathematics, it is recommended that concurrent instruction with a braillewriter or hard copy braille would facilitate understanding on the part of the student. There are no interactive exercises for sections which include spatially arranged mathematics due to the difficulty associated with portraying multi-line braille accurately on a one-line refreshable braille display. The print version of the interactive exercises should be interpreted as follows: Prompt to Braille: Line 1: content of prompt spoken by Braille Lite Line 2: correct answer which appears on braille display Braille to Speech: Line 1: correct answer which should be spoken by student Line 2: prompt which appears on braille display Proofreading: Line 1: content of prompt spoken by Braille Lite Line 2: prompt on braille display which contains errors Line 3: corrected, accurate display of braille

TABLE OF CONTENTS
#1.1 The numeric indicator......................................8 #1.2 The mathematical comma....................................13 #1.3 The comma in lists or series..............................15 #1.4 Mathematical comma, dot six, used as a mark of punctuation ...............................................................18 #1.5 The punctuation indicator, dots four five six.............20 #2.1 Signs of operation and signs of comparison................25 #2.2 Directed or signed numerals...............................29 #2.3 The equals sign...........................................33 #2.4 Punctuation used with equals sign.........................37 #3.1 Decimal point, dollar sign, cent sign and related symbols.39 #3.2 The multipurpose indicator................................44 #3.3 Monetary signs: dollar, pound sterling, cent..............47 #3.4 Percent sign..............................................52 #3.5 Symbols used to indicate degree...........................55 #3.6 Symbols used to indicate minutes, seconds, feet, inches, prime, and double prime........................................60 #3.7 Signs showing omitted symbols.............................64 #3.8 Infinity and null.........................................72 #4.1 Multiplication signs......................................75 #4.2 Multiplication dot........................................80 #4.3 Mathematical parentheses, signs of grouping...............84 #5.1 Division and fraction signs...............................89

#5.2 Curved and straight division signs........................94 #5.3 Fractions.................................................97 #5.4 Mixed number indicators..................................104 #5.5 Other uses of the slash, dots four five six, dots three four ..............................................................110 #6.1 Spatial arrangements for addition and subtraction........113 #6.2 Addition and subtraction with fractions..................118 #6.3 Addition problems with regrouping, carrying..............121 #6.4 Subtraction problems with regrouping, borrowing..........126 #6.5 Multiplication...........................................129 #6.6 Long division............................................133 #6.7 Long division with additional elements...................137 #7.1 Roman numerals...........................................142 #7.2 Roman numerals in a mathematical context.................147 #7.3 Abbreviations............................................154 #7.4 Function names...........................................161 #7.5 Plural, possessive, and ordinal endings, and contractions adjacent to mathematical symbols..............................167 #7.6 Contractions and short-form words........................173 #7.7 Special symbols..........................................181 #8.1 Signs of operation: plus or minus, minus or plus, and horizontally joined plus and minus............................188 #8.2 Radical, also known as root..............................193 #8.3 Factorial, union, intersection, and hollow dot...........198

#8.4 Asterisk.................................................202 #9.1 The use of letters, symbols and numbers..................208 #9.2 Letters not used in mathematical expressions.............214 #9.3 Specialized alphabets....................................218 #10.1 Signs of grouping.......................................223 #10.2 Signs of grouping: spacing, plural endings, and parts of words.........................................................233 #10.3 Signs of grouping: brackets.............................239 #10.4 Signs of grouping: enlarged brackets....................244 #10.5 Signs of grouping: braces...............................248 #10.6 Signs of grouping: vertical bars........................255 #11.1 Signs of comparison: not equal, approximately equal, identity, similar to, and congruent to........................261 #11.2 Signs of comparison: ratios, inequalities, set notation, and vertical bars.............................................268 #12.1 Level indicators........................................277 #12.2 Level indicators: multiple levels, fractions, grouping symbols, negative exponents, left positioned, and punctuation.283 #12.3 Level indicators: subscripts............................292 #12.4 Level indicators: non-decimal bases and combined superscript and subscript indicators..........................299 #12.5 Level indicators: Spatial arrangements..................306 #12.6 Level indicators in matrices and determinants...........310 #13.1 Index-of-radical........................................312

#13.2 Nested radicals.........................................316 #13.3 Radicals: Division, fractions, superscripts and subscripts ..............................................................320 #14.1 Signs of shape: shape indicator, two-celled shape symbols, spacing and punctuation.......................................324 #14.2 Signs of shape: level indicators, English letter indicator, as signs of omission, and identified shape symbols.332 #14.3 Signs of shape: shaded and filled-in, positioning, star as a reference...................................................338 #14.4 Signs of shape: arrows..................................345 #14.5 Signs of shape: structural modification, interior modification..................................................352 #15.1 Type-form indicators with numbers.......................357 #15.2 Type-form indicators with letters.......................363 #15.3 Type-form indicators with labeled mathematical statements, words, and phrases............................................367 #16.1 Formats for geometric proofs............................371 #17.1 Complex fractions.......................................379 #17.2 Hypercomplex fractions..................................385 #17.3 Spatial arrangement of fractions for cancellation.......390 #18.1 Sigma notation..........................................394 #18.2 Limits..................................................400 #18.3 Integrals and partial derivatives.......................404

#1.1 The numeric indicator Explanation Numerals in the math code use only dots two, three, five, and six. The dot configuration corresponds to the configuration of the literary numerals, but is placed in the lower two-thirds of the cell. The numeric indicator, dots three four five six, is generally placed to the left of a numeral.
Braille # Symbol Name numeric indicator Configuration dots 3-4-5-6 Print Symbol unique to braille

The numerals in the code of braille mathematics are illustrated as follows: #0 #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 In two digit numerals, the numeric indicator is only used once before the first digit of the numeral. Its influence affects all of the numerals that make up the number following it until certain symbols are encountered. These include a space, another mathematical character, such as a percent sign, or a braille indicator, such as the punctuation indicator, is encountered.
Terminology Note The word expression most often applies to a group of numbers (or letters) with signs of operation (e.g., 12+63 or 3A) but without a sign of comparison such as the equals sign. An equation or inequality, on the other hand, relates two expressions or numbers (e.g., 12+63 = 14 or 3A = 21), and does include the equals sign (or other sign of comparison). A mathematical symbol can be a number, letter, shape, sign of operation (+, , , x, etc.), sign of comparison (=, >, <, etc.), or any object to which a mathematical meaning can be associated (, , , , XIV, etc.).

example #1_4 #15 example #2_4 #70 example #3_4 #100 example #4_4 #253 When there are several numerals on the same line with spaces separating them, the numeric indicator must be placed before

each numeral that follows a space. The influence of the numeric indicator is ended by a space. example #5_4 #72 #73 #74 When numerals appear in a sentence, for example, in word problems, the numeric indicator and the lower-cell numerals are used as described above. example #6_4 Mike has #3 points and Jane has #6 points. example #7_4 There are #100 pennies in a dollar. example #8_4 The numeral #9564 has four digits.
Note Because the braille contractions for to, into, and by must be unspaced from the literary braille characters which follow them, they may not be used immediately preceding a Nemeth braille math symbol. Do not use these contractions since they could be interpreted as Nemeth numbers. Into may use the contraction for in, but the to must be spelled without contractions and, as such, would have a space following it. Information regarding the use of the contractions and their restrictions is included in Lesson 13.

The punctuation indicator _ The punctuation indicator, dots four five six, must be placed between a numeral and a mark of punctuation such as a period or question mark. It indicates that the numeral has ended and that which follows is a mark of punctuation rather than a digit. For example, the period, dots two five six, would represent the digit four if the punctuation indicator did not precede it. Likewise, the question mark, dots two three six, would be interpreted as the digit eight without the presence of the punctuation indicator. example #9_4 #21_4 example #10_4 Is it #35_8 The punctuation indicator must precede the following marks of punctuation: period, question mark, colon, semicolon, apostrophe, quotation marks, and exclamation point. There are

10

three marks of punctuation that do not require the punctuation indicator; these are: comma, hyphen, and dash. example #11_4 #23, #24, #25_4 example #12_4 Read pages #56-62_4 Rules: #1_4 The numeric indicator is placed before a numeral when the numeral is at the beginning of a braille line or when the numeral follows a space. #2_4 The numerals are all in the lower part of a braille cell, using only dots two, three, five, and/or six. #3_4 When a numeral is followed by a mark of punctuation other than a comma, hyphen, or dash, the numeric indicator must be used to separate the numeral and the mark of punctuation. These three rules govern the use of all numerals, except page numbers which are always written in literary code. Thus, dots one, two, four, and/or five in the upper part of the braille cell are used to represent page numbers. Nemeth code numerals, in the lower portion of the braille cell, are not used to number pages. Note that literary code numerals are also preceded by the numeric indicator. example #13_4 Which numeral is even?: #2 #3 #15_8
Note All numbers in a work that is mathematical or scientific are Nemeth Code numbers. Even within the textual portions of the material, all numbers are Nemeth numbers. The only occurrences when literary braille numbers are used are: *on title pages *at the corners of pages (page numbering) *at the ends of page-separation lines *when the technique of keying is employed In all other cases, the numerals of the Nemeth Code must be used (NBC, 7b).

Exercises Prompt to Braille 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #0

11

189 #189 195 #195 409861255 #409861255 5864200 #5864200 3824 #3824 Braille to Speech one hundred ninety six #196 twenty two and thirty six #22 and #36 one eight nine three two six #189326 Separate six six zero one five eight into groups of three digits. Separate #660158 into groups of three digits. One one zero one is thirteen in binary #1101 is #13 in binary. Does eight go into twenty two evenly? Does #8 go into #22 evenly? nine zero two one zero #90210 Count from ten to one hundred by fives. Count from #10 to #100 by fives. Proofreading five nine six four #5964 #5946 twenty nine and thirty one

12

#29 and #31 #29 and #ca Is fifty six or fifty seven an even number? Is #56 or #57 an even number? Is #96 or _57 an even number? one zero zero two four six eight six #10024686 #1024605 Separate eight five one zero six six into groups of three digits. Separate #851066 into groups of three digits. Separate 851 066 into groups of three digits. #1.2 The mathematical comma Explanation The mathematical comma, dot six, has many uses in mathematics. Even when the comma is used as a mark of punctuation, with numbers, variables, terms, and mathematical expressions, the mathematical comma is to be used. The literary comma, dot two, is to be used following a word or other literary expression.
Braille , Symbol Name Mathematical comma Configuration dot 6 Print Symbol ,

Note Because the literary comma (dot 2) would be confused with the numeral, 1, which is also formed by brailling dot 2, the mathematical or Nemeth comma must be used instead. This use of the comma simplifies the written form of numbers such as 11,111.

The comma as a place value separator The comma is used in mathematics to divide long numbers into smaller units, aiding in the identification of place value. In a number that is separated into short segments, the comma is a numeric symbol rather than a mark of punctuation. Consequently, there should be no space before or after the mathematical comma. Numerals that are longer than one line of braille must be divided after a comma. example #1_4 comma in numbers #3,100 example #2_4 #1,000,000

13

example #3_4 Note use of literary and mathematical commas In a recent poll1 #5,362 students were surveyed. example #4_4 Number embedded in sentence #2,000,000 is two million. Exercises Prompt to Braille In a recent poll, #5,362 students were surveyed. In a recent poll, #5,362 students were surveyed. forty five thousand #45,000 two million five hundred thousand #2,500,000 Round four thousand three hundred seventy seven to the nearest tens column. Round #4,377 to the nearest tens column. The value 6,800,000 is close to seven million. The value #6,800,000 is close to seven million. This is 5,946 pennies. This is #5,946 pennies. Nine thousand eight hundred seventy six #9,876 five billion #5,000,000,000 There are twelve thousand one of them. There are #12,001 of them. Braille to Speech three hundred forty six #346 one hundred eighty six million #186,000,000 Round six million seven hundred nine thousand five hundred forty six to the nearest hundreds. Round #6,709,546 to the nearest hundreds.

14

one thousand one hundred two #1,102 ten million #10,000,000 Proofreading Two billion, nine hundred ninety nine million, nine hundred ninety-nine thousand, nine hundred ninety nine #2,999,999,999 #2,999,999,555 ten million #10,000,000 #ab,000,000 eighty six and one thousand three hundred fifty nine #84 and #1,359 #86 and #1596 He paid 35,000 in taxes. He paid #35,000 in taxes. He paid #ce,jjj in taxes. #1.3 The comma in lists or series Explanation The mathematical comma is also the symbol to be used as a mark of punctuation when a comma follows a mathematical symbol. When it is used in this manner, the mathematical comma, dot six, should be used rather than the literary comma, dot two. A space must follow the comma. If a number follows a comma, the number must be preceded by the numeric indicator since the number follows a space. The only exception is when a number is in an enclosed list; refer to lesson ten. example #1_4 The numbers #2, #3, #4, and #6 are factors. example #2_4 #2, #4, #6 Comma used to separate coordinates, paired numbers In coordinate systems that use graphs to locate or plot points, the coordinates of a point are given with respect to the axes used. A single point in a Cartesian two-dimensional graph has

15

two directions. Its location to the left or right of a vertical reference line, the y-axis, is usually first and is referred to as the "x coordinate." Its location above or below a horizontal reference line, the x-axis, is given next and is the "y coordinate." These paired numbers are usually displayed inside a set of parentheses and are separated by a comma. Since the representation of Nemeth Code parentheses will be covered later, paired numbers will not be presented in full until that time. Refer to lesson ten. However, even though there may be no space between the coordinates in print, a space is needed after the mathematical comma. No numeric indicator is needed for the second number of the ordered pair.
Teaching Tips The use of a hyphen could be confused with a minus sign which has the same braille configuration (refer to Lesson 2). The student can be informed that, if the symbol were a minus sign, the break would be before the sign of operation.

example #3_4 The comma used with paired numbers representing a point (This notation is used to identify a point labeled Q on a standard graph). ,q(3, 5)
Note Explanations and examples of the use of commas in other types of spatial arrangements can be found in other lessons of this tutorial and in 164c, AITBM. The rules for the order of dividing a mathematical expression (and examples) can be found in 195e and 190c NBC.

Exercises Prompt to Braille Four, two, and three are the factors. #4, #2, and #3 are the factors. Five, six, and fifty nine are elements of the set. #5, #6, and #59 are elements of the set. The number five million is large. The number #5,000,000 is large. Five, six, and twelve are the hours, rate, and pay. #5, #6, and #12 are the hours, rate, and pay. Braille to Speech Five million five hundred fifty five thousand five hundred fifty five

16

#5,555,555 two, four, six, eight #2, #4, #6, #8 three, five, and fifteen #3, #5, and #15 The childrens ages are nine, three, and seven respectively. The childrens ages are #9, #3, and #7 respectively. Proofreading Ten, one, and two are his points, assists, and rebounds. #10, #1, and #2 are his points, assists, and rebounds. #10, 11 and #2 are his points, assists, and rebounds. Five, seven, nine, and eleven are all odd numbers. #5, #7, #9 and #11 are all odd numbers. #51 #71 #9, and #11 are all odd numbers. The total sales figure was two million dollars. The total sales figure was #2,000,000 dollars. The total sales figure was #20001000 dollars.
Note There may be occasions when a numeral must be divided into two or more braille lines. This should be avoided if at all possible (195 NBC). If a number is sharing a braille line with other text, and cannot fit entirely on that line, then it must be brailled in its entirety on the following line (195a, NBC). Avoid dividing mathematical units between braille lines. To divide a long numeral: find a natural division such as after a comma. If no comma is present, the braillist may choose the place where the division should be made; to keep material consistent, however, the division should be made as if commas were present, that is, so that there are at least three digits (or multiples of three) after the separation. a hyphen (dots 3-6) must be applied at the point where the break occurs, immediately following the comma. displayed numeral: indent two braille cells; embedded numeral: margin

the numeric indicator must precede the remainder of the numeral and must be the first braille symbol of the new braille line. (12, NBC)

EXAMPLE 1:(a number brailled on a single braille line to avoid dividing it) It is very useful to use scientific notation for numbers such as 3,450,000,000,000 in order to make them more manageable. ,x is v use;l 6use sci5tific not,n = numb]s l #3,450,000,000,000 9 ord] 6make !m m managea#4

17

EXAMPLE 2:(a displayed numeral divided at a comma) 987,654,321,123,456,789,000 Note: Assume that the number needs to fit on a 20-cell display. The division would be made as follows: 987,654,321,123,456,789,000 <2 cells>#987,654,321,123,<4 cells> #456,789,000 EXAMPLE 3:(displayed numeral without commas that needs to be divided) 987654321123456789000 Note: On a 25-cell display, the division is shown as follows: 987654321123456789000 <2 cells>#987654321123456789<4 cells> #000 No space may be left after a mathematical comma which is used as a place value separator, except for the purposes of achieving alignment. (41b, NBC) EXAMPLE 4: (spaces used to achieve alignment; 2 blank cells between columns) mill. thous. hund. 67, 059, 804 mill4 ?\s4 hund4 #67, 059, 804

#1.4 Mathematical comma, dot six, used as a mark of punctuation Explanation Because of its unique applications as a mathematical symbol, the rules governing the use of the mathematical comma differ from the rules for other punctuation. The other marks of punctuation include the period, question mark, quotation mark, exclamation point, colon, semicolon, and apostrophe. The mathematical comma is not preceded by the punctuation indicator. The mathematical comma must be used if the following two conditions exist. First, the context of the material is mathematical. Secondly, the comma follows a mathematical value such as a number or variable, a mathematical expression, or a mathematical symbol such as a plus sign. example #1_4 comma used to separate mathematical values #3, #17, #25, and #309 example #2_4 comma used as punctuation to separate expressions #3+7, #7+2, and #1+0 are the problems example #3_4 comma used without spaces in the print display #3-, #4-, and #5-sided figures

18

Notice that, although there are literary words in example three, the commas are mathematical since they follow mathematical terms. The hyphen, dots three six, is considered here as a mathematical mark of punctuation. The literary comma must be used as a mark of punctuation if it follows material that is composed of a word or literary expression, such as an abbreviation. This rule applies even if the words are associated with Nemeth numerals. The numerals, however, are always to be in Nemeth notation. Refer to Lesson seven for more information on abbreviations. example #4_4 #3 pennies, #2 nickels, and #5 dimes Review Mathematical comma Braille configuration: dot six Braille symbol: , Print symbol: none Usage: to separate long numbers into groups of three digits; to separate items in an enclosed list; to separate mathematical items in a list; to separate ordered pairs of coordinates; as a mark of punctuation with other mathematical symbols. Rules: #1_4 Do not use the punctuation indicator with the mathematical comma. #2_4 If a long numeral must be divided, make the division after a mathematical comma. #3_4 Do not space after a mathematical comma that is used to separate a numeral into three-digit groupings. #4_4 Space after a mathematical comma when it is used with items in a list, with coordinate pairs, or as a mark of punctuation. #5_4 Use the literary comma if the comma follows a word or literary expression. Exercises Prompt to Braille The choices are: five, six, eight, nine The choices are: #5, #6, #8, #9

19

eighteen apples, six carrots, two oranges #18 apples, #6 carrots, #2 oranges Ninety four, sixty four, and eighty four each have the same units value. #94, #64, and #84 each have the same units value. They were three, seven, and nineteen in an hour. They were #3, #7, and #19 in an hour. Braille to Speech Seven, eight and three are solutions. #7, #8 and #3 are solutions. Two, four and six are even numbers #2, #4 and #6 are even numbers. There are twenty one thousand nine hundred ninety five nails left. There are #21,995 nails left. Thirteen, eight and six are in the set. #13, #8 and #6 are in the set. Three and seven is a pair. #3 and #7 is a pair. Proofreading The attendance was thirty five thousand twenty one at the game. The attendance was #35,021 at the game. The attendance was V55,201 at the game. Two three and five-sided figures. #2-, #3- and #5-sided figures #2-, #4- and #5-sided figures 2, 4, 6, 8, who do we appreciate? #2, #4, #6, #8, who do we appreciate? #2, #4, #6 #8 who do we appreciate? #1.5 The punctuation indicator, dots four five six Explanation Sometimes it is necessary to combine punctuation marks with Nemeth braille numbers. Since there are punctuation marks with the same dot configuration as certain numerals, a punctuation

20

indicator must be used punctuation mark which mark of punctuation is numeral. The symbol is equivalent.
Braille _

to separate the numeral from any follows it. This is to ensure that the not mistakenly interpreted as part of the unique to braille. There is no print
Configuration dots 4-5-6 Print Symbol unique to braille

Symbol Name punctuation indicator

The punctuation indicator terminates the effect of the numeric indicator, as well as any other mathematical symbol that may precede the mark of punctuation. It is placed directly after the numeral or other symbol, and preceding the mark of punctuation. The punctuation indicator is used with the following marks of punctuation: period, question mark, exclamation point, colon, semicolon, apostrophe, and quotation marks. The Nemeth Code dot configurations representing these punctuation marks are the same as in the literary code.
Braille 4 8 3 2 ' 6 8 0 ,8 0' Symbol Name period question mark colon semicolon apostrophe exclamation opening double closing double opening single closing single Configuration dots 2-5-6 dots 2-3-6 dots 2-5 dots 2-3 dot 3 dots 2-3-5 dots 2-3-6 dots 3-5-6 dots 6, 2-3-6 dots 3-5-6, 3 Print Symbol . ? : ; ! " " ' '

quotation quotation quotation quotation

mark mark mark mark

Note The colon and exclamation point, as shown in the chart, are to be used only as marks of punctuation. The colon that is used for the mathematical symbol for ratio is presented in Lesson 11. The factorial (which, in print, uses the exclamation symbol) is presented in Lesson 8.

The punctuation indicator should be used when one of the previously listed marks of punctuation follows a mathematical symbol. These include symbols such as numbers or signs of operation or comparison. The punctuation indicator is used when a mark of punctuation follows any symbols which are unique to Nemeth Code. Do not use the exclamation point to represent the factorial symbol; the colon to represent proportions and ratios; or the period to represent the decimal point. In print, the factorial symbol looks like an exclamation point, the proportion and ratio symbols look like colons, and the decimal point looks like a period. In braille, these mathematical symbols are

21

represented by other dot configurations. These symbols will be presented in subsequent lessons. There are no spaces before or after the punctuation indicator. Certain marks of punctuation are considered to be mathematical symbols. Because these marks are in the bottom third of the braille cell, they do not have corresponding number configurations with which they may be confused. Therefore, they do not need the punctuation indicator. Do not use the punctuation indicator with the mathematical comma, hyphen, or dash.
Braille , -Symbol Name mathematical comma hyphen short dash Configuration dot 6 dots 3-6 dots 3-6, 3-6 Print Symbol , --

example #1_4 punctuation indicator used with period The answer is #18_4 example #2_4 mark 8#8_0 punctuation indicator used with closing quotation

example #3_4 non-use of punctuation indicator with hyphen #3- and #4-sided polygons example #4_4 non-use of punctuation indicator with comma; use of punctuation indicator with colon #2, #3, #5, and #7_3 prime numbers example #5_4 Are #3, #4, and #6 factors of #12_8 The punctuation indicator is used in other instances that are not presented here because these symbols have not been introduced to the reader. Note: other uses of dots four five six The configuration composed of dots four five six is used for several purposes in the Nemeth Code. The meanings associated with the use of this symbol depend upon the location of the symbol and the content of the material. The use of these marks as mathematical symbols is covered later in this tutorial.
Note

22

The configuration composed of dots four five six is used for several purposes in the Nemeth Code. The meanings associated with the use of this symbol depend upon the location of the symbol and the content of the material. For example, this configuration will be discussed again when the reader covers type-forms since dots 4-5-6 are used to show bold face type, and they are used with the shape indicators to show a filled-in shape. They are also used with: the diagonal division slash opening and closing mixed-number fraction indicators to indicate a bar over certain signs of comparison as a straight vertical line in certain spatial arrangements (e.g., division) with barred brackets with the empty (null) set and in other special uses. The use of these marks as mathematical symbols is covered later in this tutorial. Teaching Tips When initially presenting this symbol to a student, the instructor should use his or her judgment in deciding whether or not to mention these additional uses of this configuration. If the individual is likely to encounter them while reading braille produced by an outside agency, for example, rather than the instructors own braille material over which there is more control, a brief reference to the multiple uses of this symbol may be made along with the reasons for such a necessity.

Review Punctuation indicator Braille configuration: dots four five six Braille symbol: _ Rules: #1_4 Use the punctuation indicator before punctuation marks that follow a numeral or a mathematical symbol or expression. #2_4 Do not use the punctuation indicator with a dash or hyphen, or with the mathematical comma. #3_4 Punctuation marks include the period, question mark, exclamation point, colon, semicolon, apostrophe, and quotation marks. Exercises Prompt to Braille Are there seventeen? Are there #17_8 Four thousand seven hundred is then rounded up to five thousand. #4,700 is then rounded up to #5,000_4 What are seven and twelve?

23

What are #7 and #12_8 The factors are two, four, and six. The factors are #2, #4, and #6_4 The number is sixteen thousand one hundred eleven. The number is #16,111_4 How can five go into seventeen? How can #5 go into #17_8 The square of ten is one hundred. The square of #10 is #100_4 Put the four in the tens column. Put the #4 in the #10_s column. The answer is thirteen pennies. The answer is #13 pennies. Four squared is sixteen, not eight. #4 squared is #16, not #8_4 Do six and four equal ten? Do #6 and #4 equal #10_8 Braille to Speech one hundred ninety #190 six thousand seven hundred five #6,705 Is it one hundred sixty two? Is it #162_8 nine million eight hundred seventy six thousand five hundred forty three #9,876,543 Are three, four, and six factors of eighteen? Are #3, #4, and #6 factors of #18_8 twenty two and thirty six #22 and #36

24

Its forty four million four hundred forty four thousand four hundred forty four. Its #44,444,444_4 Separate six six six six six six into six hundred sixty six thousand six hundred sixty six. Separate #666666 into #666,666_4 How many dozen are one hundred forty four? How many dozen are #144_8 Arrange the numbers in order from the smallest to the largest: five, three, seven. Arrange the numbers in order from the smallest to the largest: #5, #3, #7_4 The hundreds column is in column three. The #100_s column is in column #3_4 Proofreading What numbers will go into 12? What numbers will go 9to #12_8 What numbers will go 96#12_8 The square of 12 is 144. The square of #12 is #144_4 The square of #12 is #144 _4 Can 3,600 be rounded up to 4,000? Can #3,600 be rounded up to #4,000_8 Can #3600 be rounded up to #4,000_6 Do 8 and 8 equal 16? Do #8 and #8 equal #16_8 Do #8 and v8 equal #16_4 The answer is 582. The answer is #582_4 The answer is #582 #2.1 Signs of operation and signs of comparison Explanation The braille symbols for mathematics must include all of the special symbols that are unique to the field of mathematics and science. The following examples illustrate the basic rules for all symbols falling within the categories of signs of operation

25

and signs of comparison. Only the most common symbols are introduced in this lesson. The rules apply to these as well as higher level symbols within these categories. Plus and minus signs The symbol for addition is the plus sign, dots three four six. The symbol for subtraction is the minus sign, dots three six.
Braille + Symbol Name plus sign minus sign Configuration dots 3-4-6 dots 3-6 Print Symbol + -

Terminology Note Some math texts also refer to sums and differences which are the results or answers obtained, respectively, from completing an addition or subtraction operation. The sum of 4 and 5 is 9 is written as 4 + 5 = 9. The difference between 9 and 5 is 4 is written as 9 5 = 4.

example #1_4 #12+7 example #2_4 #15-6 example #3_4 #16+7-4 example #4_4 #22-7-5+3 example #5_4 expression using variables a+b-c+d
Note The representations in braille of variables, shapes, omitted symbols, and other special characters and the rules for their use with the plus and minus sign will be covered in more detail in Lesson 9.

Guidelines for use of the plus and minus symbols When used to indicate addition or subtraction, there is no space between the numerals or other symbols and the signs of operation. The numeric indicator is not used after the sign of operation. A sign of operation is a mathematical symbol and is punctuated as detailed in lesson #1.5_4 example #6_4 with punctuation The symbols are 8+_0 and 8-_40

26

example #7_4 with punctuation Is it +_8 example #8_4 with the mathematical comma Use +, -, or both. Review Plus sign Braille configuration: dots three four six Braille symbol: + Usage: to indicate the operation of addition Minus sign Braille configuration: dots three six Braille symbol: Usage: to indicate the operation of subtraction Rules: #1_4 In horizontal arrangements, signs of operation are unspaced from the symbols and numerals with which they are associated. #2_4 Punctuate according to the rules for mathematical symbols. Exercises Prompt to Braille Three plus seven #3+7 Seventeen minus twelve #17-12 One comma nine zero seven plus three comma five four two #1,907+3,542 Five plus thirteen minus six #5+13-6 What is the meaning of plus question mark What is the meaning of +_8 Seventeen plus fifty six plus three minus five #17+56+3-5 four hundred forty-two plus three hundred twenty-one #442+321

27

twenty eight plus fourteen minus four plus eight #28+14-4+8 fifty five minus five #55-5 one four nine two plus one seven seven six #1492+1776 The sign is open quote plus period close quote The sign is 8+4_4 Braille to Speech three plus fourteen #3+14 fourteen minus three #14-3 twelve plus seven minus six #12+7-6 one hundred minus twenty #100-20 seventeen minus seven is ten period #17-7 is #10_4 sixty two minus fifteen plus seven #62-15+7 Is the sum of twenty plus five a whole number? Is the sum of #20+5 a whole number? Ten minus ten minus ten is not zero period #10-10-10 is not #0_4 Proofreading forty five plus thirteen #45+13 #45-13 twelve plus twenty four plus thirty six #12+24+36 12+24+36

28

fifty two minus two plus fifty #52-2+50 #5232+50 #2.2 Directed or signed numerals Explanation The symbols for plus and minus are also used to indicate directed or signed values. There is no distinction between a plus or minus sign used as a sign of operation or used to indicate a directed numeral or symbol. A directed numeral designates a value as positive by using the plus sign, or negative by using the minus sign before the numeral or symbol. Guidelines for the use of plus and minus symbols when used to indicate signed numerals The guidelines for brailling directed numerals are the same as for brailling these symbols as signs of operation, with one exception. If a negative numeral occurs at the beginning of a braille line or after a space, the numeric indicator should be placed between the minus sign and the numeral. This aids in the correct interpretation of the symbols since the numeric indicator provides a reference for the vertical placement of the braille dots. In all other cases, the numeric indicator is not required. The use of signed numerals following signs of comparison, such as the equals sign, will be presented in subsequent sections. example #1_4 +7 example #2_4 -#15 example #3_4 minus sign at the beginning of a mathematical expression -#9-12 example #4_4 plus or minus sign after a space +7, -#12, and -#2_4 Directed numerals with signs of operation Occasionally, two of these signs may be placed sequentially as in plus minus, plus plus, minus minus, and minus plus. In those cases, the first symbol is often a sign of operation, add or subtract, and the second is used to indicate a directed numeral, positive or negative. When this occurs, separate the two braille

29

symbols by inserting a dot five between them. This indicates that the second sign is part of a signed numeral. The numeral or symbol after the second sign does not require a numeric indicator. example #5_4 one sign followed by another sign #7-"+2 example #6_4 #9-"-3
Note The plus and minus signs can be used with symbols other than numerals. As these signs are encountered, use them in the manner as described above, unless directed otherwise.

Sometimes directed numerals adjacent to signs of operation appear in a superscripted position, above the line of print. These are described in lessons #8 and #12_4 Review Plus Braille configuration: dots three four six Braille symbol: + Usage: sign of operation and to indicate positive signed numerals Minus Braille configuration: dots three six Braille symbol: Usage: sign of operation and to indicate negative signed numerals Rules: When they indicate the mathematical operations of addition or subtraction: #1_4 Do not space between plus or minus sign and the mathematical symbols or numerals associated with them. #2_4 Do not use the numeric indicator after the plus or minus sign within an expression. When they are used to indicate signed numerals: #1_4 Insert the numeric indicator between the minus sign and the mathematical symbol to which it applies, if the signed value is the first expression on a line or after a space.

30

#2_4 Insert dot five between two signs which are adjacent to each other, refer to lesson #8_4 Punctuate as a mathematical symbol. Exercises Prompt to Braille negative two -#2 negative ninety nine plus fourteen -#99+14 positive seven hundred eleven +711 What is negative fifty seven plus twenty six question mark What is -#57+26_8 Fifty six semicolon negative fifty six semicolon positive fifty six period #56_; -#56_; +56_4 nine plus six minus seventeen is negative 2 #9+6-17 is -#2 seventeen comma space three comma space negative fifty comma space negative two period #17, #3, -#50, -#2_4 Seven plus minus ten #7+"-10 Braille to Speech sixteen plus seven equals twenty three #16+7 .k #23 three plus four equals seven #3+4 .k #7 positive sixteen minus five equals positive eleven +16-5 .k +11 seven minus six plus five equals six #7-6+5 .k #6 sixteen equals ten plus six

31

#16 .k #10+6 fifteen minus seven plus six equals fourteen #15-7+6 .k #14 seventeen minus twenty equals negative three #17-20 .k -#3 six plus nine minus three equals twelve #6+9-3 .k #12 twenty equals fifteen plus five #20 .k #15+5 nine thousand plus nine hundred plus ninety nine equals nine thousand nine hundred ninety nine #9,000+900+99 .k #9,999 negative fifty plus twenty equals negative thirty -#50+20 .k -#30 three comma space four comma space and five equals twelve #3, #4, & #5 .k #12 negative five minus seven equals negative twelve -#5-7 .k -#12 Does four plus five equal nine question mark Does #4+5 .k #9_8 seven plus minus seven equals zero #7+"-7 .k #0 Proofreading negative thirty two -#32 #-32 negative eighty minus forty -#80-40 -#80-#40 positive fifteen +15 #+15

32

twenty minus plus three #20-"+3 #20-+3 #2.3 The equals sign Explanation The equals sign is a sign of comparison. It is a two-cell symbol with dots four six in the first cell and dots one three in the second. Other signs of comparison, such as greater than or less than, will be presented in lesson #11_4
Braille .k Symbol Name equals sign Configuration dots 4-6, 1-3 Print Symbol =

The following rules and guidelines apply to the equals sign, and all other signs of comparison: #1_4 these signs are preceded and followed by a space; exceptions to this rule will be presented in lesson #11_4 #2_4 If a numeral follows the equals sign, it must be preceded by the numeric indicator because there is a space between the numeral and the equals sign. An exception to this rule occurs when a plus sign precedes the numeral that follows the sign of comparison, in which case the numeric indicator is not used. #3_4 A space must not be left between a sign of comparison, such as the equals sign, and a mark of punctuation which applies to it. This is because the sign is a mathematical symbol and is not being used to compare two expressions. #4_4 For punctuation marks which follow a sign of comparison, the punctuation indicator should be placed between the sign of comparison and the mark of punctuation. This is because the sign of comparison is a mathematical symbol. However, the punctuation indicator is not used before the mathematical comma, hyphen, or dash.
Note The purpose of performing computations on quantities is to obtain a result or answer. The answer is shown as a comparison between the values upon which the operation was performed, and the resultant value. 3 + 17 6 = 14 the computation the result the type of comparison This mathematical notation is a shorthand way of indicating the group of symbols on the left side of the equals sign is exactly the same as the amount

33

shown by the single value on the right side. The equals sign shows a balance between the two sides (as with a scale): 5 lbs +2 lbs = 7 lbs _________________

The writing of an equation requires the use of an equals sign. It indicates that the quantity or expression to the right of it has the same value as the quantity or expression to the left of it. Two types of equals signs are used in print and they have corresponding characters in braille: the symbol, =, is used in left-to-right horizontal renderings of an equation (16 + 7 = 23) and the bar line (separation line) is used in the vertical arrangements of numbers to separate the problem (or the computation area) from the answer. 3 + 5 = 8 3 +5 8

Braille material should be arranged in the same format as it occurs in print, with only a few exceptions (for example, fractions and mixed numbers).

example #1_4 #3+7 .k #10 example #2_4 a signed value is displayed after the equals sign -#7+2 .k -#5
Note Example 2 also shows that a space should be left between a sign of comparison and the positive or negative sign which designates a directed number.

example #3_4 an expression is displayed after the equals sign #15 .k #3+17-5 The equals sign, as well as any other sign of comparison, must have a space before it and after it. Spaces are necessary even if the sign of comparison is used with any other type of mathematical symbol. Other symbols, such as letters, variables, parentheses, and set notation signs, will be presented in subsequent lessons. The next example shows the equals sign used with letters, variables, in an algebra problem. example #4_4 a+b .k c Exercises

34

Prompt to Braille sixteen plus seven equals twenty three #16+7 .k #23 three plus four equals seven #3+4 .k #7 positive sixteen minus five equals positive eleven +16-5 .k +11 seven minus six plus five equals six #7-6+5 .k #6 sixteen equals ten plus six #16 .k #10+6 fifteen minus seven plus six equals fourteen #15-7+6 .k #14 seventeen minus twenty equals negative three #17-20 .k -#3 six plus nine minus three equals twelve #6+9-3 .k #12 twenty equals fifteen plus five #20 .k #15+5 nine thousand plus nine hundred plus ninety nine equals nine thousand nine hundred ninety nine #9,000+900+99 .k #9,999 negative fifty plus twenty equals negative thirty -#50+20 .k -#30 three comma space four comma space and five equals twelve #3, #4, & #5 .k #12 negative five minus seven equals negative twelve -#5-7 .k -#12 Does four plus five equal nine question mark Does #4+5 .k #9_8 seven plus minus seven equals zero #7+"-7 .k #0

35

Braille to Speech sixteen plus two equals eighteen #16+2 .k #18 sixty two plus seventeen minus forty four equals thirty five #62+17-44 .k #35 ninety nine minus one hundred equals negative one #99-100 .k -#1 four plus five minus four minus five equals zero #4+5-4-5 .k #0 Does the sum of five thousand plus four thousand equal nine thousand question mark Does the sum of #5,000+4,000 .k #9,000_8 negative eight minus eight equals negative sixteen comma space not zero exclamation point -#8-8 .k -#16, not #0_6 thirty five plus seventeen minus three equals fifty two minus three #35+17-3 .k #52-3 twenty seven plus three equals thirty #27+3 .k #30 negative twenty seven minus three equals negative thirty -#27-3 .k -#30 negative five plus five equals zero -#5+5 .k #0 negative five plus minus five equals negative ten -#5+"-5 .k -#10 thirteen minus two equals eleven #13-2 .k #11 eighteen equals eighteen plus zero #18 .k #18+0 The statement negative four equals negative four is an identity period The statement -#4 .k -#4 is an identity.

36

Use the open quote equals close quote to show equality period Use the 8.k_0 to show equality. Proofreading Twenty two minus two equals twenty #22-2 .k #20 #22-2 kk #20 Twenty-five equals fifteen plus ten #25 .k #15+10 #25 _l #15+10 negative seventy plus thirty equals negative forty -#70+30 .k -#40 -#70+30 .k #-40 #2.4 Punctuation used with equals sign Explanation As mentioned in lesson #2.3, a space would not be needed when a sign of comparison, such as the equals sign, is used with punctuation. Follow the rules for punctuating mathematical symbols. That is, as presented in lesson #1.5, a punctuation indicator, dots four five six, would be used with any mark of punctuation except: #1_4 the mathematical comma, dot six #2_4 the hyphen, dots three six, and #3_4 the short dash, dots three six, dots three six. The punctuation indicator is to be used with all other marks of punctuation. In print, the question mark is sometimes used to represent an omitted numeral. This is usually an indication that the reader is to compute the problem and insert the answer where the question mark appears. In those instances, the question mark is not being used as a mark of punctuation completing a sentence. It is being used as a sign of omission. In braille, a different symbol is used to show that an expression is omitted. In lesson #3.6, braille signs of omission are presented. If a mathematical symbol appears at the end of a sentence which concludes with a question mark, the punctuation indicator is used before the question mark. A question mark may be used in print to represent an omitted expression. In braille, the general omission symbol, dots one two three four five six, is used instead of the question mark.

37

The general omission symbol is separated from the equals sign by a space. example #1_4 period used with equals sign The sign for "equals" is .k_4 example #2_4 question mark used with equals sign What do #5 and #4 .k_8 example #3_4 equals sign used with closing quotation marks "Use .k_0 Review Equals Braille configuration: dots four six, dots one three Braille symbol: .k Usage: to compare two quantities which are the same value, or to show the result or answer of a computation Rules: #1_4 Generally, a space should occur before and after an equals sign. There is no space between two or more signs of comparison which follow one another. In this case, spaces precede and follow the sequence of signs of comparison. There is no space between a sign of comparison which is modified and the sign which indicates modification. There is no space between a sign of comparison and a mark of punctuation which follows it. #2_4 Use the numeric indicator, dots three four five six, for numerals occurring immediately after a sign of comparison. #3_4 Punctuate as a mathematical symbol. Do not space between a sign of comparison and a mark of punctuation that accompanies it. Exercises Prompt to Braille What does sixteen plus four equal question mark What does #16+4 .k_8 What does seventeen minus three equal question mark What does #17-3 .k_8 To show equality comma use open quote equals close quote period To show equality, use 8.k_04

38

The signs you know now are plus comma minus comma and equals period The signs you know now are +, -, and .k_4 Braille to Speech Use the braille symbols for plus comma minus comma and equals period Use the braille symbols for +, -, and .k_4 Does three plus two equal five or seven question mark Does #3+2 .k #5 or #7_8 What do seventeen plus twenty one equal question mark What do #17+21 .k_8 Should I use open quote equals close quote to show equality question mark Should I use open 8.k_0 to show equality? Proofreading Find out what negative twenty two plus twenty two equals period Find out what -#22+22 .k_4 Find out what -#22+22 .k4 What does three plus seven equal question mark What does #3+7 .k_8 What does #3+7 .kl8 #3.1 Decimal point, dollar sign, cent sign and related symbols Explanation This lesson presents symbols that are neither signs of operation nor signs of comparison. These symbols modify numerals or other characters, or take the place of numerals. The symbols are presented as a group because they have certain characteristics that are similar to each other in the rules for braille usage as well as in function. The following symbols will be presented: decimal point, dollar, cent, pound sterling, infinity, empty set, signs of omission, ellipsis, degree, minutes, seconds, feet, inches, prime, and double prime.
Braille . Symbol Name decimal point Configuration dots 4-6 Print Symbol .

The decimal point

39

The symbol for the decimal point in the Nemeth Code, dots four six, is the same as that found in the literary code. It must be brailled according to the rules for transcribing numerals.
Terminology Note A decimal is a number. A decimal point is a symbol used to separate the whole number portion from the portion whose value is less than a whole number.

example #1_4 #3.5 There is no space between the decimal point and any numerals associated with it. example #2_4 #102.4659 If there is no numeral to the left of the decimal point, the numeric indicator must be used before the decimal point when: #1_4 the decimal point is the first character on a braille line, or #2_4 the decimal point is the first character after a space. example #3_4 #.54 example #4_4 #.3 .k #.03 example #5_4 #.989 is less than #1_4 When numerals with decimals are used with signs of operation or signs of comparison, follow the rules for those signs regarding the use of the numeric indicator. For example, when any numeral follows a sign of operation, such as a plus or minus sign, the numeric indicator is not used. This also applies when a decimal point or numeral containing a decimal point follows a sign of operation. example #6_4 #9.4+3.2-1.5 .k #11.1
Note Notice that even though the decimal point in .41 follows a sign of operation

40

(-) in Example 7 below, no special treatment is necessary.

example #7_4 #2.23+10.88-.41 example #8_4 #1.79-1.56 .k #.23 The same rules regarding the use and non-use of the numeric indicator that apply to directed numerals apply to directed numerals containing decimal values. Refer to lesson #2.2_4 example #9_4 use of the numeric indicator with negative decimal numeral -#.75 example #10_4 non-use of the numeric indicator with positive decimal numeral +.667 Determination of the meaning of the symbol, dots four six, as numeric or non-numeric The decimal point is to be regarded as a numeric symbol that is subject to the rules that apply to a numeric symbol only when it is associated with a numeral. When applied to other symbols, such as letters or signs of omission, it is non-numeric in nature. When it is a non-numeric symbol, the multipurpose indicator, dot five, follows the decimal point. This separates the decimal point from the braille symbol that follows. The multipurpose indicator is not needed to separate the decimal point and the mathematical comma or a braille indicator such as the punctuation indicator. Although the long dash as a sign of omission has not yet been introduced, the decimal point as a non-numeric symbol is used to demonstrate this application. Notice in example #11 that the numeric indicator is not used before the decimal point following the equals sign because it is not a numeric symbol in this instance. The multipurpose indicator follows the decimal point. example #11_4 #.7-.05 .k ."---Multiple uses of a configuration Several braille configurations are used for multiple purposes in the Nemeth Code. Examples of these include dots four six, dots

41

four five six, dot five, and dot six. Dots four six, for example, is used to represent the decimal point, part of the equals sign, or as a font modifier indicating italics. The meaning of each of these configurations is determined by: #1_4 the position of the symbol in relation to other symbols. For example, it is unspaced from related symbols, it has a space before and after it, or it is followed by words. #2_4 the context of the material in which the braille configuration appears. The rules that are applied to the configuration will depend upon the type of symbol represented. In some books printed outside of the United States, the print decimal point is represented by a comma. In those cases, the braille decimal point, dots four six, is used, not the comma, dot six. Review Decimal point Braille configuration: dots four six Braille symbol: . Rules: #1_4 Within a numeral, there is no space between a decimal point and the digits adjacent to the decimal point. #2_4 If no digit comes before the decimal point and it is the first item on a braille line or after a space, use the numeric indicator before the decimal point. #3_4 With negative directed, signed, numbers, the numeric indicator is placed between the minus sign and the number if the number is the first item on a braille line or it follows a space. If a negative directed numeral begins with a decimal point, the numeric indicator is placed between the minus sign and the decimal point. #4_4 The decimal point is to be treated as a numeric symbol only when it is associated with numbers. Exercises Prompt to Braille Three point one four #3.14

42

Two point seven one eight #2.718 Seventeen point six minus 10 equals seven #17.6-10 .k #7.6 point nine one eight five #.9185 One comma four nine five point seven #1,495.7 Seven point three minus six point five equals zero point eight #7.3-6.5 .k #0.8 Can point one two be written as zero point one two question mark Can #.12 be written as #0.12_8 Six hundredths is written as point zero six comma not point six period Six hundredths is written as #.06, not #.6_4 Minus point two and minus eight point one -#.2 and -#8.1 Minus point 5 is between one and minus one period -#.5 is between #1 and -#1_4 Which is larger comma point zero one or point zero zero one question mark Which is larger, #.01 or #.001_8 Three point seven minus five point six equals minus one point nine #3.7-5.6 .k -#1.9 Braille to Speech Seven point five nine six #7.596 point two five #.25 Minus point three six -#.36 point six

43

Five comma nine four one point ninety nine #5,941.99 Ten point two minus point six equals nine point six #10.2-.6 .k #9.6 point three six equals zero point three six #.36 .k #0.36 Plus point three minus point three equals zero +.3-.3 .k #0 Is it two comma zero zero zero point five question mark Is it #2,000.5_8 point seven seven #.77 One fourth is the same as point two five period One fourth is the same as #.25_4 Proofreading Twenty five point eight #25.8 #25k8 Minus point eighty five -#.85 #-.85 Five tenths is written point five period Five tenths is written #.5_4 Five tenths is written .5_4 point eight five plus point one five equals one point zero zero #.85+.15 .k #1.00 #.85+.15 .k 1.00 #3.2 The multipurpose indicator Explanation The multipurpose indicator, dot five, is used to clarify the meaning of symbols when there is a possibility of confusion. It has many uses, including when a non-numerical value, such as a sign of omission, percent sign, sign of operation, or fraction bar directly follows a decimal point. The multipurpose indicator is inserted in the cell between the decimal point and the non-

44

numeric symbol. It is used to indicate that the expression which follows is not part of the decimal value. There are two exceptions to this: #1_4 The multipurpose indicator is not inserted between a decimal point and a mathematical comma. #2_4 The multipurpose indicator is not inserted between a decimal point and the punctuation indicator. example #1_4 a sign of operation immediately following a decimal point #2."+.01 .k #2.01 example #2_4 decimal point preceding mathematical comma and punctuation indicator How much are #12., #4.3, and #9_8
Note Because certain symbols have not yet been introduced to the reader, the application of the decimal point and the multipurpose indicator with symbols is not possible at this point. The following examples of use of the decimal point have been included here so they may be used as a reference when the need arises. 3. ______ 4. ?3."/4."# The multipurpose indicator is used between the decimal and the fraction bar line and between the decimal and the closing fraction indicator. .721 + .01 = .___ #.721+.01 .k ."---The decimal preceding the long dash is non-numeric and needs the multipurpose indicator between the two symbols; the first two decimals are numeric. 2. ______ 3. ?2."/3."# .k ."= The general sign of omission, a full braille cell, is preceded by a decimal point to indicate that the fraction is to be converted to a decimal value. .? = _______

45

(9.) (9.") The decimal is separated from the closing parenthesis with the multipurpose indicator.

Review Multipurpose indicator Braille configuration: dot five Braille symbol: " Usage: The multipurpose indicator is used to avoid confusion. When used with the decimal point, for example, it indicates that which follows is not a numerical value. Rules: #1_4 Insert the multipurpose indicator in the cell between the decimal point and the non-numeric symbol. This is to indicate that the expression which follows the decimal point is not part of the decimal value. #2_4 Exceptions: do not insert the multipurpose indicator between a decimal point and a mathematical comma or a punctuation indicator. Exercises Prompt to Braille Twenty three point plus point five #23."+.5 Add five point three plus point zero two period Add #5.3+.02_4 Thirty seven point zero minus three point plus five #37.0-3."+5 Are the solutions five point one and five point question mark Are the solutions #5.1 and #5._8 Which is larger comma seven point one or point seven one question mark Which is larger, #7.1 or #.71_8 Seven point zero should not be written as seven point period #7.0 should not be written as #7._4

46

Braille to Speech Put point one comma one point comma and point zero one in descending order period Put #.1, #1., and #.01 in descending order. Are the answers three point seven five and five point question mark Are the answers #3.75 and #5._8 Five point nine plus ten equals fifteen point nine #5.9+10 .k #15.9 Five point plus ten point nine equals fifteen point nine #5."+10.9 .k #15.9 six point one plus two point minus four #6.1+2."-4 Proofreading Four point plus point eight #4."+.8 #4."+#.8 The answer is twenty six point comma space not two point six period The answer is #26., not #2.6_4 The answer is #26.", not #2.6_4 Two point one comma two point zero one comma and two point period #2.1, #2.01, and #2._4 #2.1, #2.01", and #2._4 #3.3 Monetary signs: dollar, pound sterling, cent Explanation These symbols are often used in combination with the decimal point. The first cell of each contains dot four, and the second cell is a letter. Dot four followed by the letter s represents the dollar sign. Dot four followed by the letter l represents the pound sterling sign. Dot four followed by the letter c represents the cent sign. These braille symbols simulate their corresponding print signs. The print symbol for dollar incorporates the letter s as part of its structure; the braille equivalent includes the braille symbol for s. Similarly, the print symbol for pound sterling, British currency, is composed of a modified letter l; its braille equivalent includes the braille symbol for the letter l. The print symbol for cent is

47

represented by a modified c; the braille sign by the braille letter c.

Braille `s `c `l Symbol Name dollar sign cent sign pound sterling sign Configuration dots 4, 2-3-4 dots 4, 1-4 dots 4, 1-2-3 Print Symbol

General guidelines #1_4 Place the braille currency symbol in the same position as it appears in print. The dollar sign and the pound sterling sign appear immediately to the left of the numeral, while the cent sign is placed immediately following a numeral. #2_4 Do not leave a space between any of these symbols and the numerals or other mathematical characters with which they are associated. #3_4 These symbols are mathematical characters that must be brailled according to the rules for mathematical characters. Therefore, they must be punctuated according to the rules outlined in lesson #1.3_4
Note The above examples are exceptions to the general principles in describing Nemeth Code symbols. In most circumstances, it is recommended that the description of mathematical symbols should be according to dot configuration rather than to the literary code equivalent (e.g., the numeric indicator is referred to as dots 3-4-5-6 rather than the ble sign). This practice will help to minimize confusion between the two codes. However, there are instances when the Nemeth Code symbol is correlated with the literary symbol. A sound instructional practice is to use this correlation as a mnemonic aid when presenting the symbols to a student. For example, the s is part of the dollar sign, the c is part of the cent sign, and the l is part of the pound sterling sign in print. The correlation with literary symbols is also evident in the configuration of dots which form shape indicators.

Using the symbols for dollar sign or pound sterling sign When the symbol for the dollar sign or for the pound sterling sign is used with numerals, there is no space between the sign and the numerals that follow it. The numeric indicator is not used with the dollar sign or the pound sterling sign because these symbols are a full braille cell tall. example #1_4 @s63 example #2_4 dollar sign and decimal point

48

@s3.15 example #3_4 @l13 Since these symbols are mathematical symbols, the rules that apply to other mathematical symbols apply to them. In particular, do not space between a sign of operation and a monetary sign. When used with signs of comparison, such as the equals sign, follow the rules for spacing with those symbols. example #4_4 dollar sign used with a sign of operation @s6+@s16 example #5_4 pound sterling used with a sign of operation @l12-@l3 example #6_4 dollar sign used with sign of operation and used after equals sign @s9.23+@s8.75 .k @s17.98 example #7_4 used with punctuation The monetary signs appearing before numerals are @l and @s_4 Using the cents symbol When the symbol for cents, dot four, a numeral, it is always placed after the numeral is the first symbol on a symbol after a space, it is preceded The other rules regarding the use of dots one four, appears with the numeral. Therefore, if braille line or the first by the numeric indicator. monetary symbols also apply.

#1_4 Do not space between a numeral and a cent sign associated with it. #2_4 Follow the rules for spacing that apply to signs of comparison. All of these symbols are to be placed in the same position as they occur in print. example #8_4 #16@c example #9_4 cent signs used with signs of operation #22@c-9@c+13@c .k #26@c

49

example #10_4 cent sign used with a sign of comparison #144@c .k @s1.44 Review Dollar sign Braille configuration: dot four, dots two three four Braille symbol: @s Usage: a symbol to indicate dollar Pound sterling sign Braille configuration: dot four, dots one two three Braille symbol: @l Usage: a symbol to indicate pound sterling, British currency Cent sign Braille configuration: dot four, dots one four Braille symbol @c Usage: a symbol to indicate cents Rules: #1_4 Place these symbols in the same position as they appear in print. #2_4 Do not space between these symbols and the numerals or characters with which they are associated. #3_4 If the dollar sign or the pound sterling sign is the first symbol on a braille line or after a space, the numeric indicator should not be used. #4_4 Punctuate according to the rules for mathematical symbols. Exercises Prompt to Braille Twenty five cents #25`c four dollars ninety nine cents `s4.99 two dollars `s2 three thousand dollars `s3,000

50

seventy cents plus thirty cents equals one dollar #70`c+30`c .k `s1.00 fifteen cents `s0.15 fifteen pounds sterling `l15 five cents equals five cents #5`c .k `s0.05 ten cents is what part of fifty dollars? #10`c is what part of `s50_8 ten dollars plus five dollars `s10.00+`s5.00 thirty two pounds sterling minus ten pounds sterling equals twenty two pounds sterling `l32-`l10 .k `l22 five dollars `s5 five thousand dollars `s5,000 Convert fourteen pounds sterling to dollars. Convert `l14 to `s_4 Twenty seven cents is twenty seven cents. `s.27 is #27`c_4 Braille to Speech Twenty three dollars `s23 thirty dollars `s30 forty two cents #42`c three pounds sterling is not the same as three dollars exclamation point

51

`l3 is not the same as `s3_6 ten cents plus two cents equals twelve cents #10`c+2`c .k #12`c decimal point seven six of one hundred dollars is seventy six dollars #.76 of `s100 is `s76 seventeen pounds sterling minus six pounds sterling equals eleven pounds sterling `l17-`l6 .k `l11 five dollars ten cents plus six dollars ten cents equals eleven dollars twenty cents `s5.10+`s6.10 .k `s11.20 sixty one dollars is not sixty one cents period `s61 is not #61`c_4 The balance is minus fifty dollars period The balance is -`s50_4 Proofreading eighty five cents #85`c #85 `c two hundred seventy three cents and two dollars seventy three cents are the same amount. #273`c and `s2.73 are the same amount. `c273 and `s2.73 are the same amount. Is twenty five cents the same as decimal point two five? Is #25`c the same as #.25_8 Is #25`c the same as .25_8 #3.4 Percent sign Explanation The symbol used to show percent in braille is a two-cell symbol, dot four, dots three five six. As with monetary signs, a dot four is placed in the first cell. The second cell is composed of the dots three five six, the same configuration as the numeral zero. Since the second cell could be construed as the numeral zero, it is important to be vigilant in both the brailling and reading of this symbol to prevent confusion.

52

Braille `0

Symbol Name percent sign

Configuration dots 4, 3-5-6

Print Symbol

As with the cent sign that appears most often to the right of a numeral or other character, the percent symbol: #1_4 is unspaced from the numerals or characters to which it refers or is applied. #2_4 occupies the same position in braille as it does in print. That is, if it follows a numeral or other character in print, then it follows the numeral or character in braille. #3_4 is a mathematical symbol that must be punctuated according to the rules outlined in lesson #1_4 It must be brailled according to any other rules which apply to mathematical symbols. example #1_4 percent sign in a sentence #57@0 of #100 .k #57 example #2_4 percent sign and monetary signs #10@0 of @s36 .k @s3.60 example #3_4 percent sign with punctuation Is it #10@0, #100@0, or #1,000@0_8 example #4_4 percent sign with sign of operation and sign of comparison #40@0-12@0 .k #28@0 example #5_4 percent sign used with a variable y@0 Review Percent sign Braille configuration: dot four, dots three five six Braille symbol @0 Rules: #1_4 Place this symbol in the same position as it appears in print. #2_4 Do not space between the percent sign and the numerals or symbols to which it refers. #3_4 Punctuate according to the rules for mathematical symbols.

53

Exercises Prompt to Braille fourteen percent #14`0 twenty eight percent #28`0 six percent #6`0 seventy three point two percent #73.2`0 What is six percent of forty five? What is #6`0 of #45_8 Is it eight percent or point zero eight percent? Is it #8`0 or #.08`0_8 thirty three percent of two hundred dollars is sixty six dollars. #33`0 of `s200 is `s66_4 point three is thirty percent, not three percent! #.3 is #30`0, not #3`0_6 Find eighteen percent of ten. Find #18`0 of #10_4 one hundred percent #100`0 Find seventeen point one percent of point seven. Find #17.1`0 of #.7_4 Braille to Speech Eighty two percent #82`0 twelve percent #12`0 twenty eight point two percent #28.2`0

54

What is twelve percent of one hundred thirty question mark What is #12`0 of #130_8 The symbols are dollar sign and percent period The symbols are `s and `0_4 point two five is twenty five percent period #.25 is #25`0_4 point six percent #.6`0 percent comma dollar sign comma and cent sign are symbols often used with money period `0, `s, and `c are symbols often used with money. In braille comma the dot four is used to make the symbols for the dollar sign comma cent sign comma and percent sign period In braille, the dot #4 is used to make the symbols for the `s, `c, and `0_4 One hundred fifty percent #150`0 Proofreading twenty eight percent #28`0 #28a0 thirty point six percent #30.6`0 #30.6`8 The answer is one percent period The answer is #1`0_4 The answer is #1 `0_4 What is twelve percent of one hundred dollars question mark What is #12`0 of `s100_8 What is #12`0 of `s1008 #3.5 Symbols used to indicate degree Explanation This section deals with the symbol used to represent a unit of angular rotation or temperature: the raised hollow dot symbol for degree.

55

Braille ~.*

Symbol Name degree sign

Configuration dots 4-5, 4-6, 1-6

Print Symbol

Degree sign The symbol for degree in print is a hollow dot that is raised slightly higher than the other symbols to which it is connected, that is, it is superscripted. When the hollow dot is not superscripted, it is not a symbol for degree; it becomes a sign of operation. When the symbol for degree follows a number or other symbol, it is composed of at least three braille cells. One cell is used to indicate that the hollow dot is superscripted, the superscript indicator, dots four five. Two cells represent the actual hollow dot, dots four six, dots one six.
Math Facts Some mathematical symbols are used as abbreviations, or as a shorthand way to show different levels (grades, steps, or degrees) from one unit of measurement to a larger or smaller unit of the same type of measurement (e.g., length, time, angular rotation). Units of angular openings, for example, move from the larger degree to the smaller divisional units of minutes, and then to the even smaller units of seconds. In a similar manner, time progresses from minutes to seconds. Length measurements for feet and inches also progress in discrete amounts, as inches are fixed subdivisions of feet.

The superscript indicator is used to indicate that the character that follows is raised higher than the other symbols on the print line. Its influence on the character that follows is ended by a space or by the baseline indicator, dot five. The next two cells form the hollow dot. The second cell contains a configuration that has multiple uses and applications in the Nemeth Code, dots four six. It is followed in the third cell by dots one six. example #1_4 degree sign used to indicate temperature #104^.* example #2_4 degree sign used to indicate measurement of an angle Angle A .k #45^.* The degree symbol followed by abbreviations Often, the symbol for degree is used with the abbreviations for Fahrenheit or Centigrade. When the capital letter F or C is used following the symbol for degree: #1_4 leave a blank cell after the hollow dot;

56

#2_4 then braille the English letter sign, dots five six; #3_4 braille the capitalization indicator, dot six, and #4_4 braille the appropriate letter of the abbreviation, F or C. example #3_4 degree sign followed by an abbreviation #32^.* ;,f .k #0^.* ;,c Degree symbol followed by another mathematical symbol When the symbol for degree is immediately followed by another mathematical symbol, a fourth cell needs to be added. This is to indicate that the material that follows is not also superscripted. That is, an indication must be made that the material is on the baseline. That symbol is dot five, the baseline indicator. The rules regarding the use of this symbol will be described in greater detail in subsequent lessons. example #4_4 the degree symbol adjacent to a sign of operation in an expression showing the addition of two angle measurements #30^.*"+60^.* .k #90^.* The symbol for degree is a mathematical symbol. If punctuation is used with it, it must be punctuated as a mathematical symbol. example #5_4 a mark of punctuation follows the symbol for degree It is #7.5^.*_4 Superscripts and subscripts will be explained in more detail in lesson #12_4 The hollow dot is also used as part of other mathematical symbols, often modifying them by being placed directly above or below another symbol. Lesson #14 describes the use of the directly over and directly under indicators, which apply to superscripted and subscripted material.
Teaching Tips The rationale for the configuration used for the braille sign for degree symbol may be too difficult for a young student to grasp. Simply introduce it as a multiple cell symbol in much the same way as other symbols are introduced. The symbol for the unraised hollow dot is briefly discussed in Lesson 4 with other multiplication signs.

Review Degree symbol Braille configuration: dots four five, dots four six, dots one six Braille symbol: ^.*

57

Usage: to indicate angle measurement or temperature Rules: #1_4 Position the symbol for degree in the same position as it occurs in print. Often it is superscripted and adjacent to another symbol, and must be preceded by the superscript indicator, dots four five. #2_4 The baseline indicator must be inserted between the final cell of the degree symbol and any adjacent symbol, unless a mark of punctuation follows it. #3_4 If a letter abbreviation for Fahrenheit or Centigrade is used, a space follows the symbol for degree. The English letter indicator, dots five six, and the capitalization indicator, dot six, must be used before the abbreviation. #4_4 This symbol is a mathematical symbol and should be punctuated accordingly. Exercises Prompt to Braille ninety two degrees #92^.* nine point five degrees #9.5^.* thirteen degrees Fahrenheit #13^.* ;,F The angle of elevation was twenty seven point two degrees. The angle of elevation was #27.2^.*_4 fifty percent of sixty degrees equals thirty degrees #50`0 of #60^.* .k #30^.* The supplement of a seventy degree angle is an angle of one hundred ten degrees. The supplement of a #70^.* angle is an angle of #110^.*_4 ninety eight point six degrees Fahrenheit #98.6^.* ;,F zero degrees Centigrade #0^.* ;,C

58

minus forty five degrees -#45^.* plus twenty degrees is in which quadrants? +20^.* is in which quadrants? Braille to Speech thirty nine degrees #39^.* twenty degrees #20^.* sixteen point seven degrees #16.7^.* minus two degrees -#2^.* plus three hundred degrees +300^.* fifty percent of ninety degrees is forty five degrees period #50`0 of #90^.* is #45^.*_4 seventeen degrees plus five degrees equals twenty two degrees #17^.*"+5^.* .k #22^.* one hundred eighty degrees minus ninety degrees equals ninety degrees #180^.*"-90^.* .k #90^.* twelve point seven degrees minus six degrees #12.7^.*"-6^.* The symbol for degree is degree sign period The symbol for degree is ^.*_4 Proofreading sixty eight degrees #68^.* #68.* twenty degrees #20^.*

59

#20^./ zero degrees Centigrade equals thirty two degrees Fahrenheit #0^.* ;,c .k #32^.* ;,f #0^.* ;,c .k #32^.* ,;f ninety degrees minus forty five degrees equals forty five degrees #90^.*"-45^.* .k #45^.* #90^.*-45^.* .k #45^.* #3.6 Symbols used to indicate minutes, seconds, feet, inches, prime, and double prime Explanation This section covers two symbols that are referred to by several names, depending on the context in which they are used.
Braille ' '' Symbol Name minutes, feet, prime seconds, inches, double prime Configuration dot 3 dot 3, 3 Print Symbol

Guidelines for the use of symbols indicating minutes, seconds, feet, inches, prime, and double prime: #1_4 Place these symbols in the same position as the print symbols; this is usually after a numeral or other symbol. #2_4 do not space between these symbols and the symbols with which they are associated. #3_4 punctuate as mathematical symbols. Symbol used for feet, minutes, or prime This symbol's corresponding print character is represented by the apostrophe. It can be used to indicate the units of feet, minutes, or prime. It is formed with a single braille dot three. example #1_4 degrees followed by a value denoting minutes #70^.*"13' Since the degree symbol is a superscripted character in print, the baseline indicator is necessary before the numeral thirteen in the example above. The symbol that is used for minutes, feet, and prime does not require the use of the superscript indicator. This is because it is represented by the apostrophe in print, which is not considered to be a superscripted symbol in the Nemeth Code.

60

example #2_4 the dot three used to represent feet #3' .k #1 yard example #3_4 the dot three used with a variable to represent prime n'
Teaching Tips The ellipsis is composed of three cells of dots 3, while the symbol for inches, seconds, or double prime is composed of two cells of dot 3. Spacing requirements are also clues which allow a braille reader to differentiate between the two symbols.

Symbol used for seconds, inches, and double prime The next related symbol is a two-cell symbol, dot three, dot three. It is used to represent a further grade or division of measurement, inches or seconds, as well as double prime. In print, the symbol is formed with either two adjacent apostrophes or with closing quotation marks. example #4_4 symbol representing seconds, a division of degrees and minutes #70^.*"13'42'' example #5_4 dot three representing inches #5'6'' example #6_4 dot three used after a letter to represent double prime X''
Note Although the symbol for inches, seconds or double prime may appear in print as ditto marks, do not use this symbol (dot 3, 3) for the ditto mark, which is also a two-celled symbol (dot 6, 3). Refer to NBC, 167.

Review Symbol for minutes, feet, prime Braille configuration: dot three Braille symbol: ' Usage: as gradient symbol abbreviations. Used to represent subdivisions of units of angle, length, or time. Also used to mark a certain character as prime to differentiate it from another character. Symbol for seconds, inches, double prime Braille configuration: dot three, dot three Braille symbol: ''

61

Usage: as gradient symbol abbreviations. Used to represent further subdivisions of units of angle, length, or time. Also used to mark a certain character as double prime to differentiate it from others. Rules: #1_4 Place these symbols in the same position as the print symbol, usually after a numeral or other symbol. #2_4 do not space between these symbols and the numbers with which they are associated. #3_4 punctuate as mathematical symbols. Exercises Prompt to Braille fifteen minutes #15' fifteen feet #15' twelve point two minutes #12.2' ten degrees thirty minutes #10^.*"30' six degrees ten minutes fifteen seconds #6^.*"10'15'' six feet #6' sixty minutes equals one degree #60' .k #1^.* sixteen minutes plus two minutes #16'+2' sixteen feet equals one hundred ninety two inches #16' .k #192'' f prime minus f double prime f'-f''

62

forty five degrees five minutes twelve seconds #45^.*"5'12'' five feet four inches equals sixty four inches #5'4'' .k #64'' Braille to Speech seven feet #7' sixteen point five feet equals sixteen feet six inches #16.5' .k #16'6'' thirty degrees thirty minutes thirty seconds #30^.*"30'30'' eight point five feet equals one hundred two inches #8.5' .k #102'' Convert sixty six minutes to degrees period Convert #66' to ^.*_4 capital A double prime ,a'' one hundred eighty degrees equals ten thousand comma eight hundred minutes #180^.* .k #10,800' four feet equals forty eight inches #4' .k #48'' Proofreading two feet #2' #2^ ten degrees twelve minutes #10^.*"12' #10^.*"12, fifteen feet two inches #15'2'' #15'"2'' x prime

63

x' x` #3.7 Signs showing omitted symbols Explanation There are circumstances when it is necessary to indicate that an item has been omitted or that information is to be filled in by the student. In print, omissions are often represented by a blank space, a question mark that is not used as a mark of punctuation, or a line with a question mark on it. An omission can also be represented by an ellipsis, a long dash, or a hollow shape such as a square, circle, or triangle.
Braille =0 ''' ---Symbol Name sign of omission ellipsis as a sign of omission long dash Configuration dots 1-2-3-4-5-6 dots 3, 3, 3 dots 3-6, 3-6, 36, 3-6 Print Symbol blank space, ? , ? . . . _______

General sign of omission The general sign of omission is a full braille cell, dots one two three four five six. It is a mathematical symbol and all of the rules that apply to mathematical symbols apply to the general sign of omission. These rules are determined by the specific type of symbol which the general sign of omission represents. For example, if it represents a missing number, then the symbol is spaced as if it were a number. If it is being used to represent an omitted sign of operation, then the rules governing signs of operation apply to it. If it is used to indicate that a sign of comparison such as the equals sign is omitted, then it should have a space before and after it. The general sign of omission is used when the following is represented in the print text: #1_4 an omitted item is shown with a question mark example #1_4 the print displays an omitted numeral using a question mark #6+= .k #10 #2_4 an omitted item is shown with a line that has a question mark on it or with a question mark with dashed lines on either side example #2_4 the print displays an omitted numeral with a question mark on a line #6+= .k #10

64

#3_4 an omitted item is shown with a blank space example #3_4 the print displays a blank space after the sign of operation and before the sign of comparison indicating a missing numeral #6+= .k #10 The braille symbol for omission, dots one two three four five six, is used in each of these examples, although the print symbol for omission varies. The sign of omission indicates, in these examples, that the numeral four is missing. example #4_4 the general omission symbol replacing a sign of operation #6=4 .k #10 The general omission symbol may also be used to replace another mathematical symbol. In the following example, the symbol for degree is omitted. example #5_4 omitted item is a mathematical symbol #45=18'15'' The full braille cell is used to indicate omissions represented in print by a blank space, a question mark, or a question mark on a line. The literary question mark should only be used for punctuation, since it is not a mathematical symbol. The general sign of omission is used in material that is displayed both horizontally and spatially. In spatially arranged material, it is the only sign used for omissions. Refer to lesson #6 for spatial arrangements. Guidelines for use of the general omission symbol #1_4 Use the same number of omission symbols as used in print to indicate the number of items omitted. #2_4 The general omission symbol occupies the same position in braille as it does in print. #3_4 The general omission symbol should be used according to the guidelines for the symbol it is replacing. The ellipsis as an omission symbol An ellipsis is displayed in print as a series of three periods. In braille, this pattern is represented by a series of three

65

cells: dot three, dot three, dot three. The ellipsis is most often used to indicate a series of omitted characters which follow a pattern, as in example #6, or which are between two values as in example #7_4 Unlike the general sign of omission, the ellipsis usually has a space before the first dot three and after the last dot three. There are exceptions to this rule. example #6_4 ellipsis indicating a continuing, unending sequence of even numerals #2, #4, #6, #8, #10, ''' example #7_4 ellipsis indicating the pattern of omitted numerals continues within the series #5, #10, #15, ''' #100 The ellipsis is to be punctuated as a mathematical symbol when it is used mathematically. It is punctuated according to literary rules when it is used in a literary context. If a mark of punctuation follows the ellipsis when it is used in a mathematical context, no space occurs between them. The punctuation indicator, dots four five six, is inserted between the ellipsis and the mark of punctuation. example #8_4 the ellipsis in a mathematical context, followed by a mark of punctuation The sequence of even numbers is: #2, #4, #6, #8, #10, '''_4 example #9_4 the ellipsis in a literary context, followed by a mark of punctuation The inverse of addition is '''4 The long dash as an omission symbol The long dash is composed of four cells of dots three six, and is often used as a blank line to show a blank or omitted item. example #10_4 the long dash used to show an omitted numeral; note the spacing #13+12- ---- .k #7 example #11_4 #7+ ---- +4 .k #15 The requirement to space before and after the long dash or ellipsis does not apply in the following situations: #1_4 when punctuation is associated with the symbol.

66

#2_4 when it is associated with a related monetary symbol such as the dollar sign, cent sign, or percent sign. #3_4 when it is associated with a braille indicator such as the numeric indicator or English letter indicator. #4_4 when it is adjacent to a sign of grouping, such as parentheses or brackets; refer to lesson #9_4 example #12_4 the long dash used with a mark of punctuation #3, #6, #9, ----_4 example #13_4 the long dash showing an omitted monetary amount #3`0 of `s200 .k `s---A decimal point which applies to the long dash must have the multipurpose indicator, dot five, inserted between the two symbols. This shows that the character that follows the decimal point is not a number but another symbol. example #14_4 long dash following a decimal point #16.2`0 .k ."---In example #14, the multipurpose indicator, dot five, is used before the long dash. This is because the long dash itself is not a numeral even though it represents a missing number. example #15_4 long dash in a literary context where the punctuation indicator is not required The symbol used to show a sum is the ----4 example #16_4 long dash showing an omitted numeral before a word #12 pounds is ---- grams. Other signs used to indicate omitted items Omitted items may also be represented by shapes such as a hollow or shaded square, triangle, or circle. The braille symbols for shapes will be presented in lesson #14_4 Review General sign of omission Braille configuration: dots one two three four five six Braille symbol: = Usage: to indicate omitted symbols

67

Rules: The general omission symbol: #1_4 is used when an omitted item is represented by a blank space, a question mark, or a question mark on a line or with dashes on either side of it. #2_4 is to be spaced according to the rules governing the symbol which it represents. #3_4 is the only omission symbol used in spatially arranged material. #4_4 is represented by the same number of general omission symbols which appear in print. Ellipsis Braille configuration: dot three, dot three, dot three Braille symbol: ''' Usage: often used to show omitted items in a continuing pattern or series or to indicate the series continues within a range of values Long dash Braille configuration: dots three six, dots three six, dots three six, dots three six Braille symbol: ---Usage: to indicate an omitted item Rules: In general, space before and after the long dash or ellipsis, except: #1_4 when punctuation is associated with the symbol. #2_4 when it is associated with a related monetary symbol such as the dollar sign, cent sign, or percent sign. #3_4 when it is associated with a braille indicator such as the numeric indicator or English letter indicator. #4_4 when it is adjacent to a sign of grouping, such as parentheses or brackets; refer to lesson #9_4 Exercises Prompt to Braille seven plus general omission sign #7+=

68

general omission sign minus ten =-10 eighty eight minus general omission sign equals fourteen #88-= .k #14 six plus eight equals general omission sign #6+8 .k = eight plus six equals general omission sign #8+6 .k = three percent plus general omission sign percent sign equals twenty percent #3`0+=`0 .k #20`0 twelve plus long dash equals seventy #12+ ---- .k #70 seventeen minus long dash equals eight #17- ---- .k #8 ten percent plus two percent equals long dash percent sign #10`0+2`0 .k ----`0 six plus general omission sign equals twenty four #6+= .k #24 ten comma twenty comma thirty comma ellipsis #10, #20, #30, ''' minus one comma minus two comma minus three comma ellipsis -#1, -#2, -#3, ''' dollar sign long dash equals sign eight hundred cents sign `s---- .k #800`c ten percent of thirty equals long dash period #10`0 of #30 .k ----_4 What is the next number in the sequence two comma four comma eight comma ellipsis question mark What is the next number in the sequence #2, #4, #8, '''_8 three dollars zero cents equals long dash cents sign `s3.00 .k ----`c

69

two general omission sign one equals zero general omission sign one #2=1 .k #0=1 point three plus point two equals point long dash #.3+.2 .k ."---zero degrees Centigrade equals general omission sign general omission sign degree sign Fahrenheit #0^.* ;,C .k ==^.* ;,F seven plus zero space general sign of omission space seven #7+0 = #7 Braille to Speech five plus general sign of omission equals thirty #5+= .k #30 general omission sign minus fifteen equals eighty =-15 .k #80 four percent of space general omission sign space equals two hundred dollars #4`0 of = .k #200`s fourteen plus long dash equals minus three #14+ ---- .k -#3 seven comma eight comma nine comma ellipsis #7, #8, #9, ''' forty six minus thirty two equals long dash #46-32 .k ---seventeen plus six equals long dash period #17+6 .k ----_4 eight minus long dash equals minus three #8- ---- .k -#3 What is next: three comma nine comma eighty one comma ellipsis question mark What is next: #3, #9, #81, '''_8 One dollar thirty seven cents equals long dash cents sign `s1.37 .k ----`c

70

twenty percent equals decimal point long dash #20`0 .k ."---six plus long dash plus eight equals twenty #6+ ---- +8 .k #20 three comma six comma ellipsis comma eighty one #3, #6, ''', #81 six plus three equals space general omission sign space #6+3 .k = one hundred degrees Centigrade equals general omission sign general omission sign general omission sign degree sign Fahrenheit #100^.* ;,C .k ===^.* ;,F three plus two space general omission sign space five #3+2 = #5 four feet equals general omission sign inches sign #4' .k ='' thirty percent is point long dash period #30`0 is ."----_4 twenty general omission sign three equals seventeen #20=3 .k #17 seven general omission sign three equals fifteen general omission sign five #7=3 .k #15=5 Proofreading five plus general omission sign equals eight #5+= .k #8 #5+8 .k #8 five comma ten comma fifteen comma ellipsis #5, #10, #15, ''' #5, #10, #15, ,,, What number comes next colon two comma four comma eight comma long dash question mark What number comes next: #2, #4, #8, ----_8

71

What number comes next: #2, #4, #8, ---- _8 four hundred cents equals dollar sign long dash #400`c .k `s---#400`c .k `s"--twelve plus general omission sign equals fifty #12+= .k #50 #12+ .k #50 twelve comma twenty four comma ellipsis comma sixty #12, #24, ''', #60 #12' #24,''', #60 #3.8 Infinity and null Explanation
Braille ,= .( .) _0 Symbol Name infinity empty set symbol (paired braces) null set symbol Configuration dots 6, 1-2-3-4-5-6 dots 4-6, 1-2-3-5-6, space, dots 4-6, 2-3-4-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 3-5-6 Print Symbol { }

Infinity symbol In print, the symbol for infinity is often represented by a figure that looks like the numeral eight in a horizontal position. In braille, this symbol is represented by dot six in the first cell and dots one two three four five six in the second cell. Set notation and higher mathematical uses of this symbol are presented in lessons #8, #10, and #11_4 example #1_4 infinity symbol used to indicate a range of numbers from #1 to infinity ''' ,= example #2_4 minus and plus signs used to indicate negative and positive infinity in a range -,= to +,= The infinity symbol is often used to describe groups or sets of items. The set of all numbers is an example of something the infinity symbol may represent. The infinity symbol is also found in notations that use symbols such as integrals, limits, and coproducts. More information on this symbol will be presented in subsequent lessons. The null, empty, set

72

Just as there may be an infinite number of items in a set, there are instances in which there are no items in a set. This is called the empty set. The empty set is represented by two types of notation: facing braces with nothing between them, or by the empty set symbol. Braces will be covered in more detail in lesson #10.5_4 In print, the empty set symbol is a circle, zero, with a diagonal or vertical slash through it. The braille symbol incorporates the slash and the zero in a two-celled symbol, dots four five six, dots three five six. example #3_4 the empty set symbol in a sentence The set of female presidents before #2000 is _0_4 The rules for rules for the other symbols examples will the use of the empty set symbol are similar to the percent sign. Since this symbol is often used with that have not yet been presented, no other be provided in this lesson.

Math Facts The symbols and - do not indicate actual numbers. Rather, they enable us to write certain statements more concisely. These symbols are important when one wants to indicate a range of values that extend indefinitely. There is no point where one can say infinity has been reached, so something can never actually go to infinity. The expression, however, may be used in some math books, especially when such fine distinctions are not essential. If this symbol appears in higher mathematical applications, such as with integrals and limits, it should be pointed out that infinity represents the concept, a set of unlimited items. Teaching Tips A mnemonic aid to assist in learning the braille symbol for infinity is the use of the capitalization indicator (dot 6) signifies big (as in the big letter C), and the full braille cell (dots 1-2-3-4-5-6) signifies all of the dots. Therefore, the symbol for infinity is large, everything which is a good beginning conceptualization of infinity, the entire set of everything. This is not exactly accurate mathematically, however, since the concept of infinity can also be applied to the infinitesimal, the inappreciably tiny but not quite nothing (zero).

Review Infinity Braille configuration: dot six, dots one two three four five six Braille symbol: ,= Usage: used in algebra, calculus and higher mathematics, often with other symbols Null or empty set symbol Braille configuration: dots four five six, dots three five six Braille symbol: _0

73

Usage: most often used in set theory notation Rules: #1_4 Place the symbol in the same position as it appears in print; #2_4 if the symbol is applied to a numeral or other symbol, it is unspaced from the symbol to which it is associated; #3_4 punctuate according to the rules for mathematical symbols. Exercises Prompt to Braille one comma two comma three comma infinity #1, #2, #3, ,= Is it null set or infinity? Is it _0 or ,=_8 three comma six comma nine comma ellipsis infinity #3, #6, #9, ''' ,= The range is minus infinity ellipsis plus infinity. The range is -,= ''' +,=_4 The set of green people is shown with empty set. The set of green people is shown with _0_4 seven plus infinity equals infinity #7+,= .k ,= two plus general omission sign equals infinity #2+= .k ,= This lesson has percent, null set, general omission sign, and infinity. This lesson has `0, _0, =, and ,=_4 null set is not zero! _0 is not #0_6 Braille to Speech infinity sign ,= null set sign

74

_0 minus infinity -,= ten comma twenty comma thirty comma ellipsis comma infinity #10, #20, #30, ''', ,= The set of children over age eighteen is the null set period The set of children over age #18 is the _0_4 general omission sign is not infinity exclamation point = is not ,=_6 You have studied long dash sign comma ellipsis comma percent sign comma and null set sign period You have studied ----, ''', `0, and _0_4 infinity plus infinity equals infinity ,=+,= .k ,= Proofreading infinity sign ,= '= If there is nothing in a set comma use empty set sign period If there is nothing in a set, use _0_4 If there is nothing in a set, use _j_4 minus infinity ellipsis plus infinity -,= ''' +,= -,= ''' +,l You can now braille infinity sign comma You can now braille You can now braille percent sign comma null set sign comma and long dash period `0, _0, ,=, and ----_4 `0, 0, ,=, and ----_4

#4.1 Multiplication signs Explanation There are several different ways to display the operation of multiplication in print and in braille. These include the multiplication cross, the multiplication dot, and the asterisk; these are signs of operation. The mathematical parentheses can also be used to represent the operation of multiplication. They

75

are most often displayed in pairs and are referred to as signs of grouping. The mathematical parentheses are described in lesson #4, section #3_4 Included in this lesson are the multiplication cross, dot four dots one six, and the multiplication dot, dots one six. Both are signs of operation used to display multiplication.
Braille * * .* ( ) Symbol Name multiplication dot multiplication cross composite function (hollow dot) opening mathematical parenthesis closing mathematical parenthesis Configuration dots 1-6 dots 4, 1-6 dots 4-6, 1-6 dots 1-2-3-5-6 dots 2-3-4-5-6 Print Symbol . x ( )

Terminology Note You may need to familiarize the student with the terminology used with multiplication and how the parts relate to the arrangements of the symbols in braille. The following terminology is associated with multiplication: product, the answer to a multiplication problem; factors, the numbers or other symbols which are multiplied; times, used to indicate the operation of multiplication; multiplier, the number or item that is used to perform the multiplication; multiplicand, the number or item upon which the multiplication is being performed; of, the process of multiplication, as in 12% of 30. The multiplication cross is often referred to as the Cartesian product, after the mathematician Rene Descartes.

Because multiplication is a mathematical operation, the rules governing the use of multiplication symbols are the same as the rules for all signs of operation: #1_4 Do not space before or after a sign of operation, unless it is the first braille character on a braille line or it follows a natural space. #2_4 Since there is no space following the sign of operation in a mathematical expression, the numeric indicator is not used before numerals that follow a sign of operation. #3_4 If a mark of punctuation other than a mathematical comma, hyphen, or dash follows a mathematical symbol, the punctuation indicator is placed after the symbol. This separates the mathematical symbol from the mark of punctuation. In the case of a sign of operation, this may occur only when the symbol is discussed in a literary context.
Math Facts The multiplication operation can be shown in several different ways: multiplication cross 7 x 2 = 14 multiplication dot 7 2 = 14 with parenthesis (7)(2) = 14 unspaced number, 7w = 14 or 2r

76

letters, symbols hollow dot asterisk

fg = f(x)[g(x)] 7 * 2 = 14

Note: The use of the hollow dot for composite functions is not included in this section; however, the reader will be shown the symbol because its configuration follows a logical progression. The braille symbol for the asterisk is explained in lesson 8 because its formation and use follow a different pattern from the symbols which are presented here.

Multiplication cross One of the print symbols representing the operation of multiplication is the upper or lower case letter x, commonly referred to as the multiplication cross. In braille, the multiplication cross is represented by dot four dots one six.
Teaching Tips In beginning algebra, the multiplication cross may be confused with the variable, x, in print. The multiplication dot may be perceived as a decimal point. The braille configurations are not as confusing as the print equivalents. The braille reader should be cognizant of how the print symbols are written.

example #1_4 #3@*5 example #2_4 #2@*3@*4 example #3_4 What are the factors in #4@*7_8 example #4_4 #5@*6@*10 .k #300 example #5_4 #9@*.5 .k #4.5 example #6_4 #99-5@*10 .k #49 The following examples demonstrate the use of the multiplication cross with other symbols: example #7_4 #3@*= .k #27 example #8_4

77

#37@c@*3 .k @s1.11 example #9_4 the multiplication cross used with punctuation The cross-product symbol is 8@*_0 The multiplication cross is the symbol used in spatial presentations of multiplication problems. Refer to lesson #6 for a description of the rules governing the use of the multiplication cross in these types of mathematical expressions. Review Multiplication cross Braille configuration: dot four, dots one six Braille symbol: @* Usage: to indicate multiplication Rules: #1_4 Do not space before or after a sign of operation, unless it is the first braille character on a braille line or it follows a natural space. #2_4 Since there is no space following the sign of operation in a mathematical expression, the numeric indicator is not used before numerals that follow a sign of operation. #3_4 If a mark of punctuation other than a mathematical comma, hyphen, or dash follows a mathematical symbol, the punctuation indicator is placed after the symbol. This separates the mathematical symbol from the mark of punctuation. In the case of a sign of operation, this may occur only when the symbol is discussed in a literary context. Exercises Prompt to Braille five times six #5`*6 twenty times thirty equals six hundred #20`*30 .k #600 four times five times zero equals zero #4`*5`*0 .k #0 seven times two plus six equals general omission sign #7`*2+6 .k =

78

six dollars times seven `s6.00`*7 thirteen minus eight times two #13-8`*2 seven times general omission sign equals twenty eight #7`*= .k #28 thirty percent times three equals long dash #30`0`*3 .k ---one times five comma two times five coma ellipsis #1`*5, #2`*5, ''' We can show multiplication with a multiplication cross sign period We can show multiplication with a `*_4 Braille to Speech two multiplication cross four #2`*4 sixteen multiplication cross seven #16`*7 four multiplication cross five equals twenty #4`*5 .k #20 eight plus three multiplication cross two equals fourteen #8+3`*2 .k #14 three minus seven multiplication cross one #3-7`*1 ten multiplication cross general omission sign equals fifty #10`*= .k #50 two multiplication cross five percent equals ten percent #2`*5`0 .k #10`0 four dollars multiplication cross three equals twelve dollars `s4`*3 .k `s12 one multiplication cross two multiplication cross three multiplication cross four ellipsis #1`*2`*3`*4 '''

79

minus two multiplication cross seven equals minus fourteen -#2`*7 .k -#14 Proofreading seven multiplication cross three #7`*3 #7a*3 three percent multiplication cross ten #3`0`*10 #3`0`e10 five multiplication cross two equals long dash #5`*2 .k ---#5`/2 .k ---#4.2 Multiplication dot Explanation Another way that multiplication is shown in print is with the multiplication dot. In braille, the multiplication dot uses one cell, dots one six, which is the second cell of the symbol that is used for the multiplication cross. In fact, the hollow dot is another modification of the dots one six, preceding it with dots four six in the first cell. Since the multiplication dot is never used in spatial arrangements, it is only necessary to learn how to use it in horizontal mathematical expressions.
Braille * Symbol Name multiplication dot Configuration dots 1-6 Print Symbol .

Use of the multiplication dot As with any sign of operation, when brailling a multiplication dot, do not space between the multiplication dot and the symbols with which it is used. The guidelines and rules for using this symbol are exactly the same as those for the multiplication cross. Here are some examples of simple multiplication using the multiplication dot. example #1_4 #5*10*2 example #2_4 #6*2 .k #12 example #3_4

80

#32*2+6 .k #70 example #4_4 #5+2*4 .k #13 example #5_4 #3.7*0.2 .k #0.74 example #6_4 #3.7*.2 .k #.74
Note Most texts do not display the multiplication dot followed by the decimal point because of the possibility of confusion for the print reader. This is particularly troublesome with handwritten material. The problem above (example 6) would probably be displayed as:(3.7)(.2) = .74; the use of parentheses for this purpose is covered in the next section of this lesson.

Remember that, in examples #3 and #4, the operation of multiplication is performed before the operations of addition or subtraction. In examples #5 and #6, readers of the print version might confuse the multiplication dot and the decimal point. Be aware that the two symbols are different in print. When copying work into inkprint format, it is necessary to find out how to make the multiplication dot in the word processing program used. Most computer word processors have a special set of mathematical characters that has the multiplication dot. Just as with any other sign of operation, the multiplication dot can be used with other symbols. example #7_4 #16`0*200 .k #32 example #8_4 #=*5 .k #45 example #9_4 multiplication dot following symbol for degree #45`0*"*2 .k #90`0.* Notice in example #9 that the baseline indicator, dot five, precedes the multiplication dot. This is necessary because the symbol for degree is superscripted. Refer to lesson #12 for more information on superscripts and use of the baseline indicator. It would be rare to find a print example of the multiplication dot used with punctuation. The guidelines for representing it in

81

braille, however, are the same as for any other sign of operation. Refer to lesson #4.1 for more information. example #10_4 Should I use the symbol @* or *_8 Review Multiplication dot Braille configuration: dots one six Braille symbol: * Usage: to indicate multiplication Rules: #1_4 Do not space before or after a sign of operation, unless it is the first braille character on a braille line or it follows a natural space. #2_4 Since there is no space following the sign of operation in a mathematical expression, the numeric indicator is not used before numerals that follow a sign of operation. Exercises Prompt to Braille three times two #3*2 one hundred times seven #100*7 ten times eight equals eighty #10*8 .k #80 three times zero times eight equals zero #3*0*8 .k #0 nine minus two times three #9-2*3 two point one times three #2.1*3 thirty times point seven #30*.7 two percent times five equals ten percent #2`0*5 .k #10`0

82

Braille to Speech one multiplication dot two #1*2 fifty multiplication dot six #50*6 six multiplication dot five #6*5 fourteen multiplication dot ten equals one hundred forty #14*10 .k #140 three multiplication dot five equals fifteen #3*5 .k #15 point four multiplication dot point three #.4*.3 general omission sign multiplication dot thirty equals sixty =*30 .k #60 one multiplication dot two multiplication dot three multiplication dot ellipsis multiplication dot ten #1*2*3* ''' *10 seven multiplication dot five minus three #7*5-3 one hundred minus twenty multiplication dot four equals twenty #100-20*4 .k #20 Proofreading seven multiplication dot two #7*2 #7/2 three plus four multiplication dot seven #3+4*7 #3+4`*7 ten multiplication dot general omission sign equals zero #10*= .k #0 #10`*= .k 0

83

#4.3 Mathematical parentheses, signs of grouping Explanation Another method for representing multiplication is through the use of parentheses to enclose, or group, numerals or other symbols that are being multiplied. This method uses a set of parentheses to enclose one or more values and multiply it by others.
Braille ( ) Symbol Name opening parenthesis closing parenthesis Configuration dots 1-2-3-5-6 dots 2-3-4-5-6 Print Symbol ( )

The use of parentheses is especially helpful when using numerals with plus or minus signs before them, directed numerals, as presented in lesson #2.2_4 Parentheses are used with directed numerals when a directed numeral is preceded by a sign of operation. This clarifies that the plus or minus sign directly adjacent to the numeral indicates that the value is positive or negative. example #1_4 multiplication of two directed numerals using sets of parentheses to enclose the values (-5)(+3) When symbols other than numerals are being multiplied, such as letters used as variables in algebra, displaying them within sets of parentheses enhances clarity. example #2_4 (5xy)(2x) The mathematical parentheses, as with other signs of grouping, usually are displayed in pairs. One or more symbols are enclosed with an opening parenthesis, dots one two three five six, and a closing parenthesis, dots two three four five six. In rare cases, there are uses for a single parenthesis; this will be described, along with other signs of grouping, in lesson #10_4 example #3_4 #3(76) .k #228 example #4_4 a series of numerals being multiplied, each enclosed within parentheses (7)(-2)(10)(-5) Note that there are no spaces between the closing parenthesis of one item and the opening parenthesis of the next item in example

84

#4_4 If a space or mark of punctuation separates the parentheses, then they are not adjacent and do not indicate multiplication. example #5_4 an expression multiplied by a numeral #5(6+2) .k #5(6)+5(2) example #6_4 a grouped item occurring after a space following the equals sign (6)(5) .k (6@*5)
Teaching Tips It should be emphasized that for every opening parenthesis or grouping symbol, there should be a closing parenthesis or grouping symbol displayed. The concept of paired grouping symbols establishes a pattern for other symbols used as signs of enclosure or grouping (lesson 10) which will reinforce attention to detail. Parenthesis can be used extensively with signed (directed) numbers in problems of this type: (-3.7)(-.2) or (-5)(2) since each sign is associated with its corresponding value within the set of parentheses. The student can apply the rule of signs (two like signs, when multiplied or divided, result in a positive answer, two unlike signs result in a negative answer) with less chance of confusion.

Guidelines for using the mathematical parentheses #1_4 The numeric indicator is not needed for the numeral following the opening parenthesis, even if the enclosed value is the first on a line or after a space. This is because the Nemeth Code parenthesis is a full braille cell in height, and because there is no space between the opening parenthesis and the numeral. #2_4 Do not put a space between the mathematical parentheses and the symbols associated with them. When used to indicate multiplication, no space should occur between the closing parenthesis of one item and the opening parenthesis of the item which follows. #3_4 When used to indicate multiplication, for every opening parenthesis displayed there must be a closing parenthesis. #4_4 Mathematical parentheses rather than literary parentheses, dots two three five six, are always used in a mathematical or scientific work. This is the case even when enclosing nonmathematical items in the text.

85

example #7_4 (rate)(time) .k (distance) example #8_4 (x-intercept) example #9_4 (12 inches .k #1 foot) #5_4 The mathematical parentheses are always considered to be mathematical symbols, even when they occur in literary code context. They are to be punctuated mathematically as described in lesson #1.5_4 example #10_4 Multiply (-5)(10)_4 Parentheses can example #11 and also be nested; enclosed within be used with other signs of operation as in with other symbols as in example #12_4 They can that is, one group of parentheses can be another group as in examples #13 and #14_4

example #11_4 #13-(4)(2) .k #5 example #12_4 (@s13)(6) .k @s78 example #13_4 -(3(-7+2)) example #14_4 -(-(-1)) .k -#1 example #15_4 parentheses used with the general sign of omission (3)(=) .k #12
Math Facts Mathematical parentheses are used extensively in algebra as signs of grouping and with the multiplication of polynomials. Refer to lesson 9 for the use of letters used to represent variables.

Review Mathematical opening parenthesis Braille configuration: dots one two three five six Braille symbol: (

86

Mathematical closing parenthesis Braille configuration: dots two three four five six Braille symbol: ) Usage: to indicate multiplication and to group items Rules: #1_4 The numeric indicator is not needed if the first numeral on a line or after a space follows the opening parenthesis. #2_4 Do not space between the mathematical parentheses and the symbols associated with them. #3_4 To indicate multiplication or as a sign of grouping, parentheses are paired. There is no space between them or between the parentheses and adjacent symbols. #4_4 Mathematical parentheses rather than literary parentheses are always used in a mathematical or scientific work. This is the case even when enclosing non-mathematical items in the text, to avoid confusion with the numeral seven. #5_4 The mathematical parentheses are mathematical symbols and are to be punctuated according to the rules presented in lesson #1.5_4 Exercises Prompt to Braille three open paren five close paren 3(5) seven open paren two plus four close paren #7(2+4) open paren two close paren open paren six close paren (2)(6) minus ten open paren sixteen close paren equals one hundred sixty -#10(16) .k #160 three open paren five close paren equals open paren three close paren five #3(5) .k (3)5 two open paren three plus four close paren equals fourteen

87

#2(3+4) .k #14 Multiply plus six open paren minus two close paren Multiply +6(-2)_4 open paren two close paren open paren three close paren open paren four close paren (2)(3)(4) twelve minus open paren two close paren open paren six close paren #12-(2)(6) two open paren three open paren six close paren close paren #2(3(6)) Braille to Speech six open paren ten close paren #6(10) minus twelve open paren three close paren -#12(3) open paren two close paren open paren three close paren (2)(3) Multiply open paren seven close paren open paren zero close paren period Multiply (7)(0)_4 Minus open paren three plus four open paren five close paren close paren -(3+4(5)) open paren ten close paren open paren general omission sign close paren equals one hundred twenty (10)(=) .k #120 five open paren three plus four close paren #5(3+4) five open paren three close paren plus five open paren four close paren #5(3)+5(4) open paren minus twenty close paren open paren zero close paren equals zero

88

(-20)(0) .k #0 two open paren infinity close paren equals infinity #2(,=) .k ,= Proofreading seven open paren eight close paren #7(8) 7(8) minus three open paren minus four close paren -#3(-4) -#3)-4( open paren one close paren open paren two close paren equals two (1)(2) .k #2 (1)2) .k #2 #5.1 Division and fraction signs Explanation As in multiplication, there are several different symbols for division. In the horizontal presentation of a division problem, the braille configuration for the common division symbols include: Divided-by sign, dots four six, dots three four, represented in print by a short horizontal line with a dot above and a dot below. Slash or diagonal line, dots four five six, dots three four. Horizontal fraction bar, dots three four. Notice that each of the above symbols includes dots three four. Another symbol for division is the curved division sign, dots one three five. This symbol is frequently used to display a division problem that is to be calculated by the student. In a braille problem that has only a divisor and a dividend, the curved division sign is used without the separation line that appears in print above the dividend. The use of the separation line will be covered in the section on spatial arrangements in lesson six. In addition to these symbols, there is a set of symbols that are unique to braille and do not correspond to anything in print. They are referred to as indicators. The numeric indicator, capitalization indicator, and punctuation indicator are examples of these. In this lesson, the fraction indicators, mixed-number indicators, and the complex-fraction indicators will be presented.

89

Braille ./ / o ? # _? _# ,? _/ ,# ,/ ,_/

Symbol Name Division (divided-by) horizontal line (simple fraction) curved division sign opening fraction indicator closing fraction indicator mixed number opening indicator (for fractional portion) mixed number closing indicator (for fractional portion) complex fraction opening indicator slash (diagonal line) complex fraction closing indicator complex fraction horizontal line diagonal complex fraction line

Configuration dots 4-6, 3-4 dots 3-4 dots 1-3-5 dots 1-4-5-6 dots 3-4-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 1-4-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 3-4-5-6 dots 6, 1-4-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 3-4 dots 6, 3-4-5-6 dots 6, 3-4 dots 6, 4-5-6, 3-4

Print Symbol ___

unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille / unique to braille ____ /

General guidelines for brailling division symbols These division signs are all signs of operation and follow the same rules as other signs of operation. Do not space before or after a division symbol unless it is the first symbol on a braille line or it follows a natural space. It is not necessary to use the numeric indicator for numerals immediately following the symbols. Punctuate according to the guidelines for any mathematical symbol. Some of these signs, such as the division slash, may also be used for other purposes. For example, the slash may be used to indicate dates, as in #2_/9_/95, or with words as in and_/or and miles_/hour_4 In the Nemeth Code, the symbol remains the same; there is no distinction in how the symbol is used.
Math Facts Compare the slash in the braille division symbol with the symbols used in multiplication. Two of the signs for multiplication, the multiplication cross and the multiplication dot, also have diagonal configurations which are the reverse of the slant used to indicate division. Division and multiplication are inverse, opposite, operations which undo each other; this may serve as a memory tool when teaching these symbols.

Divided-by sign The symbol for divided-by uses two braille cells. The first cell is a type of modifier and contains dots four six. The second cell contains dots three four. The full symbol for divided-by is

90

./. Since the cell that follows dots four six contains dots in the upper portion of a cell, the first cell should not be mistaken as a decimal point. It is rare that a decimal point would be followed by a character that contains dots in the upper portion of the cell. The division symbol for divided-by is used in horizontally arranged material in both braille and in print. In both instances, the dividend appears to the left of the sign and the divisor to the right of it, in the same sequence as one would enter a problem on a calculator. example #1_4 a simple division problem #14./7 .k #2 example #2_4 division with another operation #3+20./2 .k #13
Math Facts The order in which mathematical operations are to be performed is from the more powerful multiplication and division) to the less powerful (addition and subtraction)operations. In example 2, division is performed before addition, and the result of the division, 10, is used in the addition computation.

example #3_4 a directed, signed, number used in a division problem -#30./3 .k -#10 example #4_4 signs of division used with punctuation The symbols for division are: _/, o, and ./4 example #5_4 sign of division and sign of multiplication used together #50*3./5 .k #30 example #6_4 sign of division with other symbols #22@c./11 .k #2@c example #7_4 #100./ ---- .k #25 example #8_4 -#50./(-10) .k #5 Review Divided-by

91

Braille configuration: dots four six, dots three four Braille symbol: ./ Usage: to indicate division Rules: #1_4 Use the divided-by symbol only in problems brailled horizontally. #2_4 The symbol for divided-by is a sign of operation and is unspaced from the numerals or other characters associated with it. #3_4 Punctuate according to the rules for mathematical symbols; refer to lesson #1.5 Exercises Prompt to Braille Twenty-seven divided by three equals nine #27./3 .k #9 Use open quote divided-by sign close quote in the problems. Use 8./_0 in the problems. Does fifty four divided by nine equal six? Does #54./9 .k #6_8 twenty five cents divided by five equals five cents #25`c./5 .k #5`c thirty divided by general omission sign equals three #30./= .k #3 one divided by three equals zero point three three three ellipsis #1./3 .k #0.333 ''' ten plus four divided by two #10+4./2 open paren ten plus four close paren divided by two (10+4)./2 fifteen times four divided by five equals long dash #15`*4./5 .k ---ten percent divided by five equals general omission sign

92

#10`0./5 .k = Braille to Speech nine divided by three equals three #9./3 .k #3 one hundred twenty one divided by eleven equals eleven #121./11 .k #11 six plus twelve divided by four equals nine #6+12./4 .k #9 twenty divided by five plus two equals six #20./5+2 .k #6 minus thirty divided by ten equals minus three -#30./10 .k -#3 one divided by three equals zero point three three three #1./3 .k #0.333 one divided by four times eight divided by two equals general omission sign #1./4`*8./2 .k = minus seven plus ten divided by five equals minus five -#7+10./5 .k -#5 one dollar twenty five cents divided by point zero five `s1.25./.05 one hundred eighty degrees divided by two equals ninety degrees #180^.*"./2 .k #90^.* Proofreading forty five cents divided by five equals nine cents #45`c./5 .k #9`c #45`c`/5 .k #9`c open paren five times three close paren divided by long dash equals five (5`*3)./ ---- .k #5 (5`*3) ./ ---- .k #5 minus thirty six divided by four equals minus nine

93

-#36./4 .k -#9 -#36/4 .k -#9 #5.2 Curved and straight division signs Explanation The curved division symbol, dots one three five, and the straight division symbol, dots four five six, are commonly used in spatial arrangements to compute a division problem. They are also used in horizontal arrangements when the division problem is presented with only the divisor and the dividend. When a quotient or partial differences are included above or below a problem, showing the computation and/or the solution, the problem must be presented spatially. This will be presented in lesson 6. Please note that in this tutorial, the straight division sign, dots four five six, will be called vertical line.
Braille o _ Symbol Name curved division sign straight division sign Configuration dots 1-3-5 dots 4-5-6 Print Symbol

Use of the curved and straight division symbols in horizontally arranged material In braille, the curved or straight division signs in problems arranged horizontally differ from those that appear in print. The separation line that appears above the dividend in print is not displayed in braille. To allow for the elimination of the separation lines, whether above or below the dividend, the following conditions must apply: #1_4 The division problem contains only a divisor and a dividend. #2_4 No quotient is displayed above the dividend. #3_4 No partial differences are displayed. example #1_4 #5o125 .k #25 In example #1, the divisor is #5 and the dividend is #125_4 Use of the numeric indicator Note that the numeric indicator must precede any numerals that appear first on a braille line or after a space. When a divisor is a numeral, and the curved or straight division sign is used, the divisor must have a numeric indicator before it.

94

Note The use of the numeric indicator before the divisor is a requirement which only applies to material arranged in horizontal displays. When a problem is arranged vertically for the purpose of either demonstrating or performing computations, the numeric indicator is not used.

In example #1, the answer is shown to the right of the equals sign, as in any other horizontally arranged problem. Since this is not a quotient appearing directly above the dividend, no separation line is used. example #2_4 simple division problem with curved division sign, read as #12 divided into #144 #12o144 example #3_4 division with a decimal point in the dividend and a curved division sign, read as #8 divided into #6.4 #8o6.4 example #4_4 division with monetary symbols and a straight division sign #6_@s81.00 .k @s13.50 example #5_4 division with a mathematical comma used to indicate place value #7o28,301 Example #4 demonstrates that the rules are the same for both the straight and curved division signs. The curved division sign is most commonly used in simple division problems, and it is rare that the straight division sign would be found in texts for this purpose. The straight division sign is more frequently used for the spatial display of synthetic division. Punctuation with the curved or straight division signs As with other signs of operation, these symbols are punctuated as mathematical symbols according to rules presented in lesson #1.5_4 Review Curved division sign Braille configuration: dots one three five Braille symbol: o Straight division sign Braille configuration: dots four five six Braille symbol: _

95

Usage: to indicate the operation of division in both horizontal and spatial arrangements. The divisor is positioned to the left of the division symbol and the dividend to the right. Rules: #1_4 Either the curved or the straight division sign may be used in problems presented horizontally under the following circumstances: A divisor and a dividend are shown and there is no quotient positioned above the dividend. No partial differences may be displayed below the dividend. #2_4 In problems arranged horizontally, a divisor that is a numeral must be preceded by the numeric indicator. #3_4 Punctuate according to the rules for mathematical symbols, refer to Lesson 1.5. Exercises Prompt to Braille six divided into forty eight #6o48 fifteen divided into ninety #15o90 seventeen point two divided into one point seven #17.2o1.7 fifty four divided into one thousand twenty eight #54_1,028 seventy nine divided into one hundred dollars #79o`s100 three divided into twelve point two #3_12.2 fifteen divided into forty five cents #15o45`c six divided into three thousand eight hundred fourteen #6o3,814 five point four divided into sixty four point eight equals twelve #5.4_64.8 .k #12

96

eight divided into thirty two dollars equals four dollars #8o`s32 .k @s4 Braille to Speech three curved division sign fifteen #3o15 seven curved division sign forty five #7o45 sixteen straight division sign one hundred forty four #16_144 nine point five curved division sign point ninety five #9.5o.95 thirty four straight division sign sixty eight dollars equals two dollars #34_`s68 .k `s2 five curved division sign zero point five equals zero point one #5o0.5 .k #0.1 three curved division sign eighty four equals twenty eight #3o84 .k #28 twenty curved division sign five equals zero point twenty five #20o5 .k #0.25 Proofreading eleven curved division sign one hundred twenty one #11o121 #11{121 nine curved division sign eight point one #9o8.1 9o8.1 twelve curved division sign forty eight dollars #12o`s48 #12o `s48 #5.3 Fractions Explanation In print, a fraction is often displayed with the numerator, top number, above a horizontal fraction line and a denominator,

97

bottom number, below the line. Fractions may also be displayed in the following ways: The numerator may be to the left of a diagonal line and the denominator to the right of it. The numerator may be slightly raised and the denominator slightly lowered. The numerator and the denominator may also be at the same level, with the numerator to the left of a slash and the denominator to the right.
Math Facts A fraction is a division problem in which the division has not been performed. It is for this reason that the same symbols, the slash or the horizontal line, are used in division problems as well as in fractions. The division slash(/)is frequently used to indicate a division problem or a fraction because it is available on the computer keyboard. For example, 3+21/7 may show:

a division problem (3+217) or 21 3 + 21 a fraction (3 + ) or ( ) 7 7

In braille, fraction indicators are used in order to represent the beginning and end of a fraction. They are signs of enclosure and always include a symbol indicating the beginning and a symbol indicating the end of the fraction. There are four different fraction indicators. These include fraction indicators for simple fractions, mixed number fraction indicators, and complex fraction and hypercomplex fraction indicators.
Braille ? # _? _# / _/ Symbol Name opening fraction indicator closing fraction indicator mixed number opening indicator (for fractional portion) mixed number closing indicator (for fractional portion) horizontal simple fraction line diagonal fraction line Configuration dots 1-4-5-6 dots 3-4-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 1-4-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 3-4-5-6 dots 3-4 dots 4-5-6, 3-4 Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille ____ /

Simple fractions Simple fractions are defined as: #1_4 Expressions that include a numerator and a denominator separated by a horizontal fraction line. #2_4 Expressions which do not contain fractions within the numerator and_/or the denominator, complex and hypercomplex fractions.

98

#3_4 Expressions that include a fraction at the superscript level or the subscript level. In this case, the numerator and_/or the denominator may have a fraction as an exponent or as a subscript.
Note If the numerator or denominator contains a fraction only at the superscript or subscript level, it is still a simple fraction and it is to be brailled as such.

35 9

Lesson #12 will deal with superscripts and subscripts in detail. The opening fraction indicator is dots one four five six. The closing fraction indicator is dots three four five six. The horizontal fraction line is dots three four. A simple fraction may contain numerals, letters, expressions, or any combination of these.
Note A simple fraction uses only the horizontal simple fraction line. An expression in the form: 3/4 is to be regarded as a division problem and is to be brailled without the use of the simple fraction indicators. The diagonal slash is used, however, with mixed numbers or with simple fraction indicators when they enclose some expressions which are not simple fractions. Fraction indicators always appear in pairs. Mixed number fraction indicators always appear in pairs.

example #1_4 a simple fraction ?3/4# example #2_4 a simple fraction using letters ?d/t# example #3_4 a simple fraction with an expression in the numerator ?5+7/3+1# example #4_4 ?3a+17/2# example #5_4 a simple fraction with a sign of omission ?1/2# .k ?=/8# Simple fraction indicator use

99

The opening fraction indicator appears before the numerator with no space between them. The numeric indicator is never used before a numerator since the configuration of the opening fraction indicator alerts the reader that which follows is a fraction. The closing fraction indicator follows the denominator with no space between them. example #6_4 a simple fraction with a directed number in the numerator ?-7/14# .k -?1/2# example #7_4 simple fractions with expressions ?4+6/5# example #8_4 ?8+6/2*7#
Teaching Tips The student should be instructed that the expression between the opening fraction indicator and the fraction line is the entire numerator, and the expression between the fraction line and the closing fraction indicator is the entire denominator. Teaching means and extremes may aid in understanding fractions because in braille, the extremes are the farthest left and farthest right portions: 4 + 6 30 + 5 15 ?4+6/5# .k ?30/15# means extremes The horizontal fraction line in print is a grouping symbol. In expressions such as: 8+6 27 all computations above and below the horizontal fraction line should be performed before division.

Spacing with fractions and fraction indicators Because fractions are numbers, the rules governing the writing of numbers also apply to fractions. There is no space between a fraction and a sign of operation, for example, plus, minus, multiplication, or division signs. A sign of operation may precede an opening fraction indicator or may follow a closing fraction indicator. example #9_4 two simple fractions with a sign of operation between them ?9/18#@*?1/2#

100

example #10_4 a series of fractions with signs of operation, a sign of comparison, and a sign of omission: ?1/2#+?1/3#+?1/4# .k ?=/20# Use and non-use of the fraction indicators with the slash The slash in braille is composed of two cells with dots four five six in the first cell and dots three four in the second cell. A slash may be used in two different types of mathematical expressions. A distinction must be made between a slash that is used within a fraction, and that which is used within a division problem. In general, if the numerals on each side of a slash are at the same level of print and are of the same type size, then the expression is brailled with a numeric indicator preceding it. No fraction indicators are used. The reader, then, is required to determine whether the expression is a fraction or a division problem. For example, fifteen slash three is written in braille as #15_/3, an illustration of division rather than a fraction. In print, this expression appears with the numerals in the same type size and at the same level. If the numeral on the left is slightly higher than the numeral to the right of the slash in print, the expression is considered to be a fraction and fraction indicators are used. example #11_4 a division problem using the slash; in print, both numerals are of the same size and_/or on the same level #14_/7 .k #2 example #12_4 a fraction using the slash; in print, the numerals are either not the same size and_/or not on the same level ?14_/7# .k #2 Punctuation used with fractions Fractions are numbers and fraction indicators are mathematical symbols. Therefore, fractions are to be punctuated according to the rules for punctuating mathematical symbols. example #13_4 Does ?1/2#-?1/5# .k ?3/10#_8 Other uses of the slash are presented in more detail in section #5.5_4

101

Review Opening fraction indicator Braille configuration: dots one four five six Braille symbol: ? Closing fraction indicator Braille configuration: dots three four five six Braille symbol: # Horizontal fraction line Braille configuration: dots three four Braille symbol: / Slash Braille configuration: dots four five six, dots three four Braille symbol: _/ Usage: These symbols are used to show fractions. Rules: #1_4 Use the simple fraction indicators to enclose a fraction. #2_4 Always use the fraction indicators in pairs. For every opening fraction indicator there should be a closing fraction indicator. #3_4 In problems arranged horizontally, do not space between the fraction indicators and the numerator or denominator. #4_4 Fraction indicators are always used when an expression has a horizontal fraction line. #5_4 If a slash is used, the fraction indicators are not used if the two values on either side of the slash are at the same level, and in the same type size. #6_4 If a slash is used, fraction indicators are used if the two values on either side are at different levels of print. Fraction indicators are also used if the numbers are not the same type size as the rest of the material. #7_4 Simple fraction indicators are used only with simple fractions. Simple fraction indicators are not used with the fractional portions of mixed numbers or with complex and hypercomplex fractions, refer to lessons #5.4 and #17_4

102

#8_4 Punctuate according to the rules for mathematical symbols, refer to lesson #1.5 Exercises Prompt to Braille Two thirds ?2/3# four fifths ?4/5# three eighths plus seven eighths ?3/8#+?7/8# seven twelfths plus five twelfths equals one ?7/12#+?5/12# .k #1 open paren two thirds close paren plus three (?2/3#)+3 five sevenths ?5_/7# three fourths #3_/4 It's three fifths, not five thirds! It's ?3/5#, not ?5/3#_6 Ten fifths equals two ?10/5# .k #2 five over general omission sign equals one third ?5/=# .k ?1/3# Braille to Speech open fraction three horizontal bar four close fraction ?3/4# open fraction five horizontal bar seven close fraction ?5/7# open fraction one horizontal bar four close fraction plus open fraction two horizontal bar three close fraction ?1/4#+?2/3#

103

open fraction two horizontal bar three close fraction minus open fraction one horizontal bar four close fraction ?2/3#-?1/4# open fraction two slash three close fraction ?2_/3# Is the answer open fraction five horizontal bar eight close fraction question mark Is the answer ?5/8#_8 one slash eight equals point one two five #1_/8 .k #.125 open fraction six horizontal bar twelve close fraction equals open fraction one horizontal bar two close fraction ?6/12# .k ?1/2# open fraction twelve horizontal bar three close fraction is the same as three curved division sign twelve period ?12/3# is the same as #3o12_4 Proofreading Open fraction four horizontal bar ten close fraction equals open fraction two horizontal bar five close fraction ?4/10# .k ?2/5# ?4/10# .k 2/5# open fraction four horizontal bar five close fraction ?4/5# #?4/5# open fraction two over five close fraction minus open fraction two over three close fraction ?2/5#-?2/3# ?2/5#-2/3# #5.4 Mixed number indicators Explanation For the purposes of brailling, the Nemeth Code defines a mixed number as an expression in which #1_4 A whole number is followed by the simple fraction associated with it. #2_4 The whole number portion contains numerals or omission signs representing numerals.

104

#3_4 The fractional portion contains numerals or omission signs representing numerals.
Braille _? _# Symbol Name mixed number opening fraction indicator mixed number closing fraction indicator Configuration dots 4-5-6, 1-4-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 3-4-5-6 Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille

As presented in lesson #5.3, a simple fraction may contain numerals, expressions, letters, or exponents. However, a mixed number may only contain numerals or signs of omission that represent numerals. The fraction line used in the fractional segment of a mixed number may be either the horizontal fraction line or the slash representing a diagonal line. If the whole number portion of the mixed number is the first character on a braille line or after a space, the numeric indicator must be used before the numeral.
NOTE It is important to differentiate between the requirements for the fractional part of a mixed number and a simple fraction. Whereas a simple fractions numerator or denominator could contain numerals, variables, exponents, and expressions, a mixed number may only contain numerals. If an expression appears to be in the form of a mixed number, but it contains non-numeric symbols, then the expression is not a mixed number and is not to be brailled as such. For example, the following are not mixed numbers: B 1 2 ,5 x 3

, or 2

2 +1 5+3

These expressions may be brailled using the simple fraction indicators to enclose the fractional segments of the expressions as presented below: ,b?1/2#, #5?x/3#, #2?2+1/5+3#

The two indicators for the fractional portion of the mixed number are modifications of the simple fraction indicators. They are two celled symbols with dots four five six in the first cell. The opening mixed number indicator is two cells, dots four five six, dots one four five six. The closing mixed number indicator is two cells, dots four five six, dots three four five six. example #1_4 mixed numbers using the horizontal fraction line and the slash #7_?3/4_#

105

example #2_4 #2_?2_/3_#

Note When mixed numbers are shown in print, the whole numbers are presented with the fractions, often in a different font size. When mixed numbers are shown in braille, the numeric indicator must be used before the whole number portion if it will be the first character on a braille line or if the mixed number will follow a space.

The rules which apply to numbers apply to the whole number portion of a mixed number expression. example #3_4 mixed number without the numeric indicator because it follows a sign of operation #5+3_?2/3_# example #4_4 mixed numbers with and without the numeric indicator #5_?3/4_#+2_?1/2_# .k #8_?1/4_# example #5_4 mixed number containing a general sign of omission #3_?4/5_#-2_?1/5_# .k #1_?=/5_# Spacing with mixed number indicators The rules that apply to numbers in general also apply to mixed numbers. They should be unspaced from signs of operation and symbols associated with them, such as the degree sign or percent sign. A space should separate them from other characters in those situations where a space is normally required, such as with signs of comparison or the long dash. example #6_4 a mixed number and a simple fraction used in the same expression #4_?3/7_#-?1/7# example #7_4 simple fraction and mixed numbers in an equation ?5/8#+3_?7/8_# .k #4_?1/2_# example #8_4 mixed number with a long dash representing a sign of operation #4_?1_/7_# ---- ?6_/7# .k #5 example #9_4 mixed number with a symbol following, in this case, the double prime sign indicating inches Use a #3_?1_/4_#'' line.

106

example #10_4 mixed number with a degree symbol following it #6_?3_/8_#~.* Punctuation with mixed numbers Mixed numbers are to be punctuated according to the rules for punctuating mathematical symbols. example #11_4 mixed numbers with marks of punctuation Change to improper fractions: #1_?1/2_#, #2_?2/7_#, and #4_? 19/20_#_4 example #12_4 Can you further simplify #1_?4_/8_#_8 The following expressions are not mixed numbers and are to be brailled using simple fraction indicators: example #13_4 a value with a letter in the denominator of the fractional portion #2?5/x# example #14_4 a value with an expression in the numerator portion #2?2+1/5# Review Opening mixed number indicator Braille configuration: dots four five six, dots one four five six Braille symbol: _? Closing mixed number indicator Braille configuration: dots four five six, dots three four five six Braille symbol: _# Usage: to indicate, and to enclose, the fractional portion of a mixed number, and to distinguish it from the whole number portion. Rules: #1_4 Use the configuration of dots four five six before both the opening and closing indicators when a fraction is part of a mixed number.

107

#2_4 Do not space between the whole number portion and the fractional portion. #3_4 In horizontal arrangements, do not space between the indicators and the numerator or denominator of the fractional portion. #4_4 Only use the horizontal fraction line, dots three four, or the slash, dots four five six, dots three four, with mixed numbers. The mixed number indicators are used to enclose the fractional portion regardless of which of the two fraction lines is used. #5_4 A mixed number is a numeral containing only a whole number portion and a simple fraction portion, using only numerals or signs of omission representing numerals. #6_4 Punctuate according to the rules for mathematical symbols, refer to lesson #1.5_4 Exercises Prompt to Braille three and two fifths #3_?2/5_# five and one half #5_?1/2_# three and two thirds plus five and two fourths #3_?2/3_#+5_?2/4_# five and one fourth equals five point two five #5_?1/4_# .k #5.25 seven and one fourth minus two and one half #7_?1/4_#-2_?1/2_# three and five sixteenths equals fifty three sixteenths #3_?5/16_# .k ?53/16# eight and three fourths double prime #8_?3/4_#'' The answer is six and two thirds. The answer is #6_?2/3_#_4

108

five and general omission sign over nine equals two #5_?=/9_# .k #2 one and five eighths, two and three fifths, and ten #1_?5/8_#, #2_?3/5_#, and #10 Braille to Speech Five and three sevenths #5_?3/7_# two and one fourth equals eighteen eighths #2_?1/4_# .k ?18/8# two and one third equals general omission sign over three #2_?1/3_# .k ?=/3# seven and one third minus five and three fourths #7_?1/3_#-5_?3/4_# nine and two sevenths #9_?2/7_# one and one half degrees #1_?1/2_#^.* Use five and two ninths period Use #5_?2/9_#_4 ten and general omission sign over twelve #10_?=/12_# one and ten eighteenths comma four twentieths comma and seven and two sixths #1_?10/18_#, ?4/20#, and #7_?2/6_# five slash nine plus one and two slash three #5_/9+1_?2_/3_# Proofreading five and one eighth #5_?1/8_# #5_?1_/8_# nine and three elevenths #9_?3/11_# #9?3/11_#

109

three and x ninths #3?x/9# #3_?x/9# four times two and one eighth #4`*2_?1/8_# #4`*2_?1/8# #5.5 Other uses of the slash, dots four five six, dots three four Explanation In addition to indicating the fractional part of a mixed number or a division operation, the slash is the two celled symbol for the print diagonal line. The Nemeth Code symbol for the slash is to be used rather than the literary code slash, if the diagonal line is part of a mathematical or scientific expression. Also, use the Nemeth Code symbol if the slash is contained within a literary segment of a Nemeth Code expression.
Braille _/ Symbol Name slash (diagonal line) Configuration dots 4-5-6, 3-4 Print Symbol /

The slash used within expressions which indicate dates: example #1_4 On #6_/20_/69, man landed on the moon. example #2_4 Her birthday is #2_/14_/95_4 Braille contractions or short-form words may not be used in a word that is in direct contact with a slash or with any other mathematical symbol. example #3_4 miles_/hour In example #3, the contraction in the word, hour, may not be used, since it is a contraction within a word that is in contact with a mathematical symbol. example #4_4 #4 yards_/2 yards In example #4, the contraction for ar is not used in the first occurrence of the word, yards, because the word is in contact with the slash, a Nemeth Code symbol. However, in the second

110

occurrence of the word, the ar sign is used because it is not in contact with the slash, or any other Nemeth Code symbol. example #5_4 distance_/time example #6_4 feet_/min example #7_4 and_/or The whole word contractions: and, of, the, for, with, may not be used if they are in contact with a slash. These contractions are also not used if they are part of a word in contact with the slash or with any Nemeth Code symbol, as in example #7_4 example #8_4 thirty-one_/forty-four In example #8, the contractions in thirty and four may be used. This is because they are separated from the words that are in contact with the slash by a mark of punctuation, hyphen. example #9_4 #60 min4_/hour In example #9 the contraction in the abbreviation for minutes is used because a period separates it from the slash. example #10_4 either_/or example #11_4 meters_/minute The slash is a mathematical symbol and is to be punctuated as a mathematical symbol. example #12_4 When brailling a fraction, prevent confusion and avoid using the _/_6 In example #12, the braille contraction for the word, the, may be used since it is separated from the slash by a space. Review Slash Braille configuration: dots four five six, dots three four

111

Braille symbol: _/ Usage: #1_4 The slash is used with numbers to indicate division. #2_4 The slash is used with numbers to indicate dates. #3_4 The slash is used with words within a Nemeth Code expression. Rules: #1_4 The Nemeth slash, dots four five six, dots three four, should be used whenever a diagonal line or slash is used in a Nemeth Code expression. The literary slash, dots three four, is not to be used in a Nemeth Code expression. #2_4 No braille contractions or short-form words may be used when a word is in direct contact with a slash or with any other mathematical symbol. #3_4 Punctuate according to the rules for mathematical symbols; refer to lesson #1.5_4 Exercises Prompt to Braille Their anniversary is two slash fourteen slash ninety six. Their anniversary is #2_/14_/96_4 On ten slash twenty seven slash forty three, a great mathematician was born. On #10_/27_/43, a great mathematician was born. Do not mix bleach and or Comet with ammonia. Do not mix bleach and_/or Comet with ammonia. It can travel five yards per hour. It can travel #5 yards_/hour_4 seven slash eight #7_/8 six slash five equals general omission sign #6_/5 .k = fifteen cents slash three equals five cents #15`c_/3 .k #5`c twelve slash seventeen ?12_/17#

112

distance slash time equals rate distance_/time .k rate slope equals rise slash run slope .k rise_/run Braille to Speech one slash five #1_/5 ten slash six slash eighty three #10_/6_/83 twenty eight cents slash four equals seven cents #28`c_/4 .k #7`c two slash five ?2_/5# kilometers slash second kilometers_/second either slash or either_/or him slash her him_/her Proofreading six slash twenty one slash seventy four #6_/21_/74 6_/21_/74 she and or he she and_/or he she &_/or he miles slash hour miles_/hour miles/hour #6.1 Spatial arrangements for addition and subtraction
Teaching Tips In any lessons in this tutorial involving spatially arranged mathematics, it is recommended that concurrent instruction with a

113

braillewriter or hard copy braille would facilitate understanding on the part of the student.

Explanation In braille, mathematical problems are typically displayed on one line. Sometimes, however, the components of a problem are presented on multiple lines, in a spatial arrangement. Spatial arrangement facilitates computation in situations where computations are performed vertically, within columns.
Braille 333 Symbol Name separator or equals line Configuration row of dots 2-5 Print Symbol ____________

Teaching Tips Students should be taught that the dot configuration for the components of the separation line is the same as the braille numeral 3; however, the requirements for the positioning of the separation line make it different than a row of numbers consisting solely of 3s. 3333 +3333 3333 +3333 3333333

example #1_4 spatial arrangement; note blank line before and after the problem 165 247 +280 333333
Terminology Note Sum is the answer obtained from an addition problem. Difference is the answer obtained from a subtraction problem. Product is the answer obtained from a multiplication problem. Quotient is the answer obtained from a division problem.

Reading a spatially arranged problem on a single line Refreshable braille display presents a challenge because only one line of braille is displayed at a time. When using such a device, place fingers in a stationary position on the cell where the characters in a particular column appear; scroll up and down to determine which items are aligned. Alignment Proper alignment of columns is of primary importance when problems are arranged spatially. Other rules regarding spacing of items are of secondary importance. The following elements must be aligned in columns: #1_4 digits, according to place value

114

#2_4 #3_4 #4_4 #5_4 #6_4

commas decimal points fractions and corresponding parts of fraction indicators abbreviations other symbols used in a like manner

Steps in aligning braille problems spatially There are differences between arranging problems spatially and horizontally. #1_4 The numeric indicator, dots three four five six, is not used when problems are arranged spatially in material where alignment is required for computation. #2_4 The separation line of dots two five is the longest braille line in the problem. It extends one cell to the left of the left-most portion of the arrangement and one cell to the right of the right-most portion of the problem. This line separates the problem from the digits representing the computation and the final answer. #3_4 A blank line appears both above and below a problem presented spatially, unless the problem is the first on a braille page or the last on a page. A blank line is required after a new braille page indicator line. A blank line is required between text that appears above a problem, such as directions for the problem, and the problem itself. #4_4 Never divide a problem or its parts between braille pages. #5_4 If the plus or minus sign is used, it is placed in the row immediately above the separation line, in the column to the left of the longest entry above the separation line.
Note Do not start the first row of a problem in cell 1. In a problem which does not have a problem identifier, the left-most cell of the separation line may be positioned in cell 1. If problem identifiers are used, even the left-most edge of the separation line will not be positioned in cell 1.

example #2_4 alignment of corresponding parts and placement of the plus sign 175 cm 6270 cm + 10 cm

115

3333333333 In example #3, the dollar sign is placed in the column that is one cell to the left of the longest numeric entry above the separation line. Notice that the commas and decimal points are aligned. Compare placement of the dollar signs in examples #3 and #4_4 example #3_4 `s15,096.63 3,530.00 +110,005.22 3333333333333 example #4_4 `s6.55 - 1.25 333333333 example #5_4 separation line is longest line of problem; because of placement, cannot be interpreted as a row of threes 12345 - 234 33333333 Brailling more than one problem across a page Sometimes, more than one problem is brailled across a page. If there are no problem identifiers, one column of blank braille cells is inserted between the last cell of the separation line of the problem on the left and the first cell of the separation line of the problem on the right. example #6_4 17 234 83 21 15 +1359 + 9 3333333 33333
Teaching Tips In order to determine how many problems will fit on a braille page and whether or not a problem is too long to be included on a page with other problems, it may be helpful (prior to brailling) to lay out the

116

problem(s) on a piece of graph paper or on a similar grid that has the same number of boxes as the number of cells that can be brailled across the page (40 cells wide) and the number of rows (24 lines). Mark boxes that would contain a braille symbol; account for multiple-cell symbols such as the dollar sign or degree symbol. To avoid confusion, never divide a problem between braille pages.

Problems with answers displayed When an answer to a problem is displayed, its components must be vertically aligned with the corresponding components above the separation line. The separation line must extend one cell to the left and one cell to the right of the entire problem and answer. If you are using a refreshable braille display with eighteen or twenty cells per line, tap the advance bar to view across the entire page. example #7_4 problems with answers displayed `s5.43 `s9,999.99 48.09 - 999.99 +95.30 333333333333 3333333333 `s9,000.00 `s158.82 `s 945.90 `s92 9,686.32 -82 - ,202.70 333333 + .60 `s10 3333333333333 `s13834.92 Abbreviations, omissions, and other symbols A space must be inserted between an abbreviation and the numerals or other symbols associated with it, and abbreviations must be aligned. The single character general omission symbol is always used to represent each omission in a spatially arranged problem. Gradient symbols, such as the symbol for degrees, minutes, and seconds, must be aligned. The percent sign, cent sign, and similar symbols appearing to the right of an expression are to be aligned. example #8_4 two general signs of omission indicating two omissions (a two digit answer is required); aligned abbreviations 10 ft + 1 ft 33333333

117

== ft example #9_4 gradient symbols; note alignment is priority over other rules for spacing in a spatial arrangement 72^.*" 3' +20^.*"58' 333333333333 93^.*" 1' example #10_4 The direction for problem completion begins in cell five; it is not part of the spatial display Add the following: 12 yd4 2 ft4 == yd4 2 ft4 33333333333333 15 yd4 = ft4
Note Problem directions which do not follow a problem identifier begin in cell 5, with runovers beginning in cell 3. If the directions follow a problem identifier (e.g., 7. Add the following), then the directions begin after the space following the identifier. Directions are not a part of a spatial arrangement.

There are no exercises for this section due to its spatial nature. #6.2 Addition and subtraction with fractions Explanation Spatial arrangement with simple fractions and mixed-numbers When fractions are displayed spatially, the following guidelines should be used. In print, the numerator is displayed above a horizontal fraction line and the denominator is displayed below the line. In braille, however, each fraction is arranged horizontally, beginning and ending with the appropriate fraction indicators. Alignment is the most important consideration when brailling problems with fractions or mixed-numbers. Each of the following must be aligned with their corresponding counterparts, in the problem as well as the answer, even if blank braille cells must be inserted to achieve alignment. #1_4 Align fraction lines. #2_4 Align corresponding parts of the fraction indicators. If a simple fraction is displayed on one line of a problem and a

118

mixed number on another line, align the similarly configured portions of the symbols: open fraction indicators, horizontal bars, and closing fraction indicators. #3_4 When adding or subtracting mixed numbers, align the whole number portions. #4_4 Numerators and denominators are to be unspaced from the fraction line. In order to achieve this alignment, it may be necessary to place a space or spaces between the numerator or denominator and its fraction indicator.
Note Numerators and denominators are to be unspaced from the fraction line. Because of this format, it may be necessary to include spaces between the numerator or denominator and the fraction indicator.

example #1_4 three fractions are presented as an exercise; note the use of blank cells to achieve alignment ?15/16# ? 3/8 # +? 1/2 # 3333333333 example #2_4 mixed numbers in a subtraction problem; because one denominator contains a two digit numeral and the other does not, a blank cell is inserted to achieve alignment 19_?1/2 _# - 3_?7/10_# 3333333333333 example #3_4 fractions with mixed numbers 3_?1/3_# - ?2/3 # 33333333333 In some situations, a simple fraction will be displayed on one line, while a whole number is displayed on another line. The whole number is aligned to the left of the fraction, each on their separate lines. In some cases, in print, the whole number and the fraction are aligned. If this is encountered in braille, the problem should be aligned correctly before computing.

119

example #4_4 proper alignment of a whole number and a fraction for computation 17 - ?5/8# 3333333333 If the answer had been displayed in example #4, additional blank cells would have been required in the problem portion in order to achieve proper alignment because the answer is a mixed number. example #5_4 problem from example four, including answer portion 17 - ?5/8 # 333333333333 16_?3/8_# Omissions When omissions occur in material presented spatially, the print version may use an ellipsis or long dash to represent the omitted item. In braille, the general omission symbol, dots one two three four five six, is always used regardless of the symbol used in print. The same number of omission symbols must be inserted as there are missing items in print. example #6_4 problem on the common denominator, The answer is displayed is to be supplied after left side; equivalent fractions, with on right side, aligned for subtraction with a blank where the unknown numerator the computation is completed.

?9/10# .k ?9/10# -?2/5 # .k ?4/10# 333333333 33333333 ?=/10# example #7_4 fraction indicators are not used with the diagonal fraction line; proper alignment is still required 2_/3 .k 8_/== 11_/12 .k 11_/== + 1_/4 .k 3_/== 333333333 33333333 Associating spatial and horizontal arrangements in the same problem

120

Occasionally, a spatially arranged problem will require a horizontal arrangement at the end. This may occur, for instance, when fractions are reduced to lowest terms after the computation has been completed. The numeric indicator must be used, and the separation line does not extend over the horizontally arranged portion of the problem. example #8_4 Add 4_? 5/9_# 2_? 7/9_# 333333333333 6_?12/9_# .k #7_?1/3_# example #9_4 9_/12 -5_/12 33333333 4_/12 .k #1_/3 Review The guidelines for alignment of spatially arranged fractions are to align fraction lines, corresponding parts of fraction indicators, and whole number portions of mixed-numbers. Numerators and denominators are unspaced from the fraction line. Alignment may be achieved by inserting blank cells where needed. The general rules for spatial arrangements also apply. When a spatial arrangement and a horizontal arrangement occur in the same problem, the guidelines for spatial arrangements apply only to the spatial portion and the guidelines for horizontal arrangements, such as the use of the numeric indicator, apply to the horizontal portion. There are no exercises for this section due to its spatial nature. #6.3 Addition problems with regrouping, carrying Explanation Carried number indicator When it is necessary to display regrouping within an addition problem, the carried number indicator, a row of dots two three five six, separate the original problem from the regrouped numerals.

121

Braille 7777

Symbol Name carried number indicator

Configuration row of dots 2-3-5-6

Print Symbol no print equivalent

When brailling an addition problem which contains regrouping, follow these steps in addition to the steps for brailling any addition problem. #1_4 The carried number indicator, a row of dots two three five six, is placed above the problem and below the regrouped numbers. As with all spatially arranged material, a blank line precedes the problem, including the regrouped numerals, unless the problem is the first on a braille page. #2_4 The carried number indicator must be the same length as the separation line, extending one cell to the left and one cell to the right of the longest row of the problem. #3_4 Each digit that has been regrouped is placed in the place value column to which it corresponds. example #1_4 single digit numerals are carried over to each of the columns to the left 11 777777 172 +359 333333 531 example #2_4 additional symbols 21 1 777777777 `s15.66 39.43 + 8.17 333333333 `s63.26 If a problem requires two-digit numerals in regrouping, additional spacing will be necessary when aligning the digits of the problem. If cancellations are to be shown, the opening cancellation indicator, dots two four six, and the closing cancellation indicator, dots one two four five six, are used. These indicators are presented in lesson #6.4_4

122

Note When regrouping is displayed in a problem, an extra step is needed to show the braille reader that what has been carried or borrowed is not part of the problem. Although a variety of methods are used in print, such as displaying smaller numbers, numbers that are not aligned with the rest, bold or italic numbers, or numbers in a range of different colors, the braille version should be as simple as possible to avoid confusion. Although there are ways to show special fonts in braille, this takes up space which alters the alignment that is so important in computation of the problem. It is suggested that a transcribers note be incorporated to provide an explanation. The transcribers note is enclosed in transcribers grouping symbols (dots 6-3) and, if the note is seven words or less may be inserted directly into the text where it applies, leaving one space before and after the note. Longer notes must be inserted at a convenient spot nearest the material referred to and must be placed, indented, and run over in accordance with the rules of the Code of Braille Textbook Formats and Techniques. (AITBM, 57b) Transcribers notes are written in paragraph form and begin in cell 7, with all runovers beginning in cell 5. Do not skip lines before or after such notes, unless they precede a heading. (CBTFT, 10)

Item identifier Mathematics problems are often identified with numbers or letters. When a spatially arranged problem has an item identifier, use the following guidelines: #1_4 When a problem is numbered, Nemeth Code numerals, preceded by the numeric indicator, are used for the item identifier. If there is punctuation following the item identifier, the punctuation indicator precedes the mark of punctuation. If the item identifier is completely enclosed within parentheses or other signs of grouping, the numeric indicator is not used. Note that the punctuation indicator would not be used because a closing sign of grouping is not punctuation. #2_4 When a problem is identified by a letter instead of a numeral, the English letter indicator precedes the letter. If the letter is capitalized, the capitalization indicator is placed between the English letter indicator and the letter. If punctuation occurs after the letter, the punctuation indicator precedes the mark of punctuation. If the lettered identifier is enclosed in parentheses or other signs of grouping, the English letter indicator and punctuation indicator are not used. #3_4 The item identifier is placed on the first row of an addition problem. If there are regrouped numbers and the carried number indicator, the identifier is placed on the first line of the problem, which is below the row with the carried number indicator.

123

4_4 One column of blank cells is left after the last symbol appearing in the identifier and the longest line of the problem, which usually is the separation line. #5_4 If two or more problems with item identifiers are arranged side-by-side, two columns of cells are left blank between the longest line of the first problem, usually the separation line, and the first cell of the item identifier of the second problem. If the second and subsequent problems do not have item identifiers, then only one blank column is left between the longest lines of the problems. example #3_4 numeric item identifier 121 777777 #10_4 595 4483 99 333333 5177 example #4_4 letter as item identifier 12 2 7777777777 ;,d_4 `s27.89 30.56 +85.75 3333333333 `s144.20 example #5_4 two problems with item identifiers, placed side-byside on a page 1 77777 77777 #5_4 35 #6_4 13 22 80 +5 19 33333 +25 62 33333 137

124

example #6_4 a problem with an item identifier, regrouping, and gradient symbols; note that for every sixty minutes, one degree is regrouped into the degrees column 1 1 77777777777 #52_4 36^.*36' +42^.*37' 33333333333 70^.*13' Review Carried number indicator Braille configuration: a row of dots two three five six Braille symbol: 77777777 Usage: To separate the regrouped, carried, numbers from the problem, indicating that the numbers above the carried number indicator are not part of the original problem. Rules: #1_4 The carried number indicator is the same length as the separation line. #2_4 The carried number indicator is placed on the line above the problem, between the carried numbers and the problem. #3_4 The carried numbers are positioned in the place value column to which they correspond. Item identifiers Rules: #1_4 When a problem is numbered, Nemeth Code numerals, preceded by the numeric indicator, are used for the item identifier. If there is punctuation following the item identifier, the punctuation indicator precedes the mark of punctuation. If the item identifier is completely enclosed within parentheses or other signs of grouping, the numeric indicator is not used. Note that the punctuation indicator would not be used because a closing sign of grouping is not punctuation. #2_4 When a problem is identified by a letter instead of a numeral, the English letter indicator precedes the letter. If the letter is capitalized, the capitalization indicator is placed between the English letter indicator and the letter. If punctuation occurs after the letter, the punctuation indicator

125

precedes the mark of punctuation. If the lettered identifier is enclosed in parentheses or other signs of grouping, the English letter indicator and punctuation indicator are not used. #3_4 The item identifier is placed on the first row of an addition problem. If there are regrouped numbers and the carried number indicator, the identifier is placed on the first line of the problem, which is below the row with the carried number indicator. #4_4 One column of blank cells is left after the last symbol appearing in the identifier and the longest line of the problem, which usually is the separation line. #5_4 If two or more problems with item identifiers are arranged side-by-side, two columns of cells are left blank between the longest line of the first problem, usually the separation line, and the first cell of the item identifier of the second problem. If the second and subsequent problems do not have item identifiers, then only one blank column is left between the longest lines of the problems. There are no exercises for this section due to its spatial nature. #6.4 Subtraction problems with regrouping, borrowing Explanation
Terminology Note Parts of a subtraction problem: Minuend is the quantity from which another quantity (the subtrahend) is to be subtracted. Subtrahend is the quantity to be subtracted. Difference is the result obtained from the subtraction operation. 927 minuend -364 subtrahend 563 difference (the answer)

Cancellation indicators
Braille [ ] Symbol Name opening cancellation indicator closing cancellation indicator Configuration dots 2-4-6 dots 1-2-4-5-6 Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille

For proper alignment of subtraction problems with regrouping, where cancellations and renamed numbers are to be shown, follow these steps:

126

Step #1_4 Numerals in the minuend that are canceled and altered during computation are enclosed by the opening cancellation indicator, dots two four six, and closing cancellation indicator, dots one two four five six. The cancellation indicators are paired symbols, therefore, for every opening indicator, there should be a corresponding closing indicator. There is no space between the indicators and the numerals to which they apply, sets of indicators, or the indicators and the numerals to the left or right. However, blank cells may be inserted as needed to achieve proper alignment for computation purposes. Align numbers in columns according to their place value.
Note General rule for spacing: align numbers in columns according to their place value positions (tens, hundreds, tenths, hundredths)

In example #1, the cancellation in the minuend is displayed with the regrouped numerals positioned above the first line of the problem. Note the spacing needed in the minuend, subtrahend, and difference to accommodate the pairs of cancellation indicators and the regrouped numerals. Also notice that the item identifier is positioned on the first line of the problem and not with the regrouped numerals. example #1_4 4 13 #23_4 3{5]{ 3] -1 2 8 33333333333 22 5 Step #2_4 The new value of each cancelled digit of the minuend is positioned on the line above the minuend, directly above the digit which has been cancelled. In some cases, it may be necessary to repeat the cancellation on the new line of regrouped numerals. When other symbols, such as commas or decimal points, are used in the problem, these also must be aligned. example #2_4 8 11 11 {9]{ 2]{ 1] -2 3 4 33333333333333 6 8 7

127

example #3_4 a subtraction problem with monetary symbols 8 10 `s17.{9]{ 0] - 6.{4]{ 3] 33333333333333 `s11. 4 7 Often, values that have been regrouped must themselves be canceled. In such instances, to show that the regrouped value has been canceled, the cancellation indicators are placed on the same braille line as the second set of regrouped values. In example #4, there are two lines above the minuend. The minuend displays the original cancellations. The line immediately above the minuend contains the first regrouping and the secondary cancellation. example #4_4 11 7 { 1] 13 {8]{ 2]{ 3] 5 9 33333333333333 7 6 4 Item identifiers As with spatially arranged addition problems, the numeral or letter identifying the item is placed in the first line of the problem. In subtraction, the minuend is on the first line. Use the same guidelines for spacing as presented in lesson #6.3_4 example #5_4 a problem with a lettered item identifier 5 9 12 ;,E_4 {6]{0]{ 2] -3 4 5 3333333333333 Cancellation indicators are also used in division problems where cancellations are shown. Review Opening cancellation indicator

128

Braille configuration: dots two four six Braille symbol: { Closing cancellation indicator Braille configuration: dots one two four five six Braille symbol: ] Usage: Used with regrouping to indicate that digits in the minuend have been cancelled. Rules: #1_4 Cancellation indicators are used to enclose numerals displayed as cancelled in print. This is often shown, in print, with a mark drawn through each numeral. #2_4 Cancellation indicators are paired symbols. For each opening indicator, there is a corresponding closing indicator. #3_4 Spatially arranged problems must be properly aligned for purposes of computation. Blank braille cells are inserted where necessary to achieve alignment. There are no exercises for this section due to its spatial nature. #6.5 Multiplication Explanation As in other spatially arranged problems, the numeric indicator is not used in spatially arranged multiplication problems. The spacing rules governing the location of several problems on a page and the rules for spacing between problems, are the same as those presented in lesson #6.1_4 In spatially arranged multiplication problems, partial products are placed below the separation line of the problem. In examples #1 through #4, partial products are not displayed. Note that the multiplication cross is never separated from the multiplier by a space, even though that may be the case in print. example #1_4 988 `*720 3333333 example #2_4 a multiplication problem with a dollar sign

129

`s746 `*3 3333333 example #3_4 a multiplication problem with decimal points in both the multiplier and the multiplicand; note that these decimal points are not aligned 6.415 `*9.8 3333333 example #4_4 a problem which is not right-justified; although rare, this type of presentation of a problem may be encountered occasionally 543 `*3.607 333333333
Teaching Tips The following diagram may be useful in presenting the parts of a spatially arranged multiplication problem. $6.49 x5.9 5841 3245 $38.291 ---------------multiplicand multiplier partial product partial product final product

Special rules for alignment of spatially arranged multiplication problems Rule #1_4 The multiplication sign, if it is shown in print, is placed in the cell immediately preceding the first character of the multiplier regardless of its placement in print. Rule #2_4 Each separation line, dots two five, of the problem must be of the same length and must extend one cell to the left and one cell to the right of the longest row of digits in the problem. This applies whether or not the longest row of digits is above the separation line in the problem area, between the separation lines in the partial products area, or below the final separation line in the answer. Rule #3_4 Only the general omission symbol may be used to display an omitted item.

130

example #5_4 15 `*2= 333333 55 30 333333 355 Rule #4_4 When commas or a decimal point appear in the final product, the corresponding cells in the partial products portion of the problem, are to be left blank. No blank columns are required in the problem itself. example #6_4 note that there is no numeral displayed in the right-hand column of the second partial product, #886_4 This is not an omitted symbol. It is an indentation used to align place values. In some texts, instead of a blank space, a zero may be displayed in this column as a place-holder. 443 `*26 33333333 2 658 8 86 33333333 11,518 Because example #7 requires the use of a decimal point and a comma in the final product, it is necessary to leave blank cells in the corresponding columns above them in order to maintain place value alignment. Both separation lines must be extended to make this accommodation, and both are the same length. example #7_4 979 `*7.2 333333333 195 8 6 853 333333333 7,048.8

131

Rule #5_4 If a problem contains fractions or mixed numbers, then the fraction indicators and fraction lines must be aligned vertically. As in addition and subtraction problems, it may be necessary to insert blank cells in order to achieve alignment. However, the digits of the fraction are never separated from the horizontal fraction line or slash. example #8_4 fraction indicators must be aligned. Note that the final product is not part of the spatial arrangement; therefore the rules for presenting fractions horizontally apply. If a whole number or a mixed number had been displayed, a numeric indicator would be required. ?15/18# `*? 2/5 # 33333333333 ? 3/9 # .k ?1/3# example #9_4 3_?1/5_# `*?5/8 # 3333333333 2 Rule #6_4 If a problem contains polynomials, like terms must be aligned vertically. Refer to lesson #9.1_4 Rule #7_4 If subscripts are used to denote non-decimal bases, they must be aligned, although this may require separation from digits in the partial products portion of the problem. example #10_4 note that the "gh" in the subscript is not contracted; refer to lesson #12.4 regarding contractions 12;eight `*26;eight 333333333333 74;eight 24 ;eight 333333333333 334;eight
Note The indented blanks in partial products are not generally perceived as omitted items. They are to be displayed as blanks and not as omissions.

132

A blank character showing an omitted value within a problem would be characterized with the general omission symbol. 123 x456 7 8 --- general omission for blank 615 --- indented blank 492 --- indented blank 56088 123 `*456 3333333 7=8 615 492 3333333 56088

Review Rules for proper alignment in multiplication #1_4 The multiplication cross, if shown in print, is placed immediately preceding the first character of the multiplier. #2_4 Each separation line, dots two five, of the problem must be of the same length and must extend one cell to the left and one cell to the right of the longest row of digits in the problem. #3_4 Only the general omission symbol may be used to display an omitted item. #4_4 When commas or a decimal point appear in the final product, the corresponding cells in the partial products portion of the problem, are to be left blank. No blank columns are required in the problem itself. #5_4 If a problem contains fractions or mixed numbers, fraction indicators and fraction lines must be aligned vertically. #6_4 If a problem contains polynomials, like terms must be aligned vertically. #7_4 If subscripts are used to denote non-decimal bases, the subscripts must be aligned. There are no exercises for this section due to its spatial nature. #6.6 Long division

133

Explanation If a long division problem contains a quotient, partial products, partial differences, or a remainder, then the problem is to be presented as a spatial arrangement in braille. The following symbols are among the symbols most commonly used in long division problems. Rules for use of these symbols apply to all symbols used in long division.
Braille O [ _ 3333 Symbol Name curved division sign on left curved division sign on right straight division sign horizontal separation line Configuration dots 1-3-5 dots 2-4-6 dots 4-5-6 dots 2-5, 2-5

curved division sign on left, dots one three five curved division sign on right, dots two four six straight division sign, dots four five six horizontal separation line, row of dots two five
Terminology Note Quotient is the answer obtained from a division operation. Divisor is the number by which the division is being performed. (The traditional position is to the left of the right-curved, straight, or slant division sign.) Dividend is the number upon which the division is being performed. (The traditional position is to the right of the right-curved, straight, or slant division sign.) Partial products are the values obtained when each digit of the quotient is multiplied by the divisor. Partial differences are values obtained from the subtraction process which remain when the partial products are subsequently subtracted from the corresponding portions of the dividend. Remainder is a value which is left after the final subtraction and from which the divisor is unable to produce a whole number quotient. It is often displayed following a lowercase or capital letter r, although it is also displayed as the numerator of a fraction with the divisor as the denominator. Separation lines are any of the horizontal lines used to separate sections of a problem; they may be the line used to separate the quotient from the dividend or the lines (representing equals) between the partial differences and the minuends and subtrahends above them.

The following guidelines should be used in brailling spatially arranged long division problems. #1_4 As with all material presented spatially, leave a blank line both above and below a problem unless it is the first problem on a page or the final portion of the problem is the last on the page.

134

#2_4 Place the division symbol, curved or straight, unspaced between the divisor and the dividend. If the quotient appears on the same line as the dividend, place the appropriate braille symbol unspaced on the same line. #3_4 Within a division problem, all separation lines, a row of dots two five, must be of the same length. Separation lines must begin in the same column as the division sign, and must extend one braille cell beyond the right-most symbol in the problem. If the problem has a division symbol to the right of the dividend, the separation lines must end in the column in which the division symbol is located. example #1_4 two division problems with quotients, partial products and partial differences, separated by a blank line; note separation lines are of the same length 38 33333 25o950 75 33333 200 200 33333 0 13 33333 9o117 9 33333 27 27 33333 0 example #2_4 division problem using dollar signs and straight division sign `s14 333333 4_`s56 4 333333 16

135

16 333333 0 example #3_4 curved division sign on the right, separating quotient and dividend 3333 5O15{3
Note The straight division sign is commonly used in synthetic division. Since synthetic division is beyond the scope of this tutorial, it will not be presented. Refer to AITBM, 166 for explanations covering spatial arrangements for synthetic division.

Review Curved division sign on left Braille configuration: dots one three five Braille symbol: o Curved division sign on right Braille configuration: dots two four six Braille symbol: { Straight division sign Braille configuration: dots four five six Braille symbol: _ Usage: The curved division on the left and straight division signs are used to separate the divisor and the dividend for the operation of division. The curved division sign on the right is sometimes used to separate the dividend from the quotient when they are presented on the same line in print. Rules: #1_4 As with all material presented spatially, leave a blank line both above and below a problem unless it is the first problem on a page or the final portion of the problem is the last on the page. #2_4 Place the division symbol, curved or straight, unspaced between the divisor and the dividend. If the quotient appears on the same line as the dividend, place the appropriate braille symbol unspaced on the same line.

136

#3_4 Within a division problem, all separation lines, a row of dots two five, must be of the same length. Separation lines must begin in the same column as the division sign, and must extend one braille cell beyond the right-most symbol in the problem. If the problem has a division symbol to the right of the dividend, the separation lines must end in the column in which the division symbol is located. There are no exercises for this section due to its spatial nature. #6.7 Long division with additional elements Explanation Long division problems often have symbols other than numerals or algebraic characters. These symbols may include the following: the symbol to indicate a remainder, decimal point, comma, caret, or item identifier. Each of these requires special consideration when they are brailled.
Braille _< Symbol Name caret Configuration dots 4-5-6, 1-2-6 Print Symbol ^

Long division problems with remainder displayed A remainder is often displayed following the quotient, on the same line. It is preceded by a letter r, having the same meaning whether written as an uppercase or lowercase letter. Following are guidelines for displaying a remainder in braille. #1_4 Insert a space after the quotient and before the letter r used to show the remainder. #2_4 The letter indicator is not used before the letter r which indicates a remainder. Use the capitalization indicator, dot six, to indicate an uppercase letter R. #3_4 Insert the multi-purpose indicator, dot five, between the letter r used to signify a remainder, and the numeral which represents the remainder. This indicates that the remainder is not to be read as a subscript. Refer to lesson #12 regarding level indicators. #4_4 All separation lines within a problem must be of equal length and extend one cell beyond the right-most symbol of the problem, including the remainder. example #1_4 partial products, partial differences and remainder displayed; lowercase r indicates remainder

137

162 r"4 3333333333 150O2434 15 3333333333 93 90 3333333333 34 30 3333333333 4 example #2_4 uppercase R indicates remainder 47 ,R"2 3333333333 3o143 12 3333333333 23 21 3333333333 When a remainder is displayed as a fraction, with the remainder as the numerator and the divisor as the denominator, then the remainder is the fractional part of a mixed number representing the quotient. This requires the use of the opening and closing mixed number indicators. example #3_4 partial products and partial differences are not displayed 162_?4/15_# 33333333333333 15o2434 Long division with decimal points, commas, or carets When a comma or decimal point is displayed in a dividend, a blank cell must be inserted in the corresponding columns of the quotient and/or partial products or differences above and below the dividend. This is necessary in order to maintain alignment of digits in a long division problem, because the comma and decimal point are not repeated in the quotient or partial products or differences. The caret, dots four five six, one two six, is a two-cell symbol that is used to display the movement of a decimal point from its original position to a different

138

position in the dividend. When a caret is displayed in a dividend, two blank cells must be inserted in the corresponding columns of the quotient and/or partial products or differences above and below the dividend. This is necessary in order to maintain alignment of digits in a long division problem, because the caret is not repeated in the quotient or partial products or differences. Separation lines must be of the same length throughout a problem.
Teaching Tips Although the caret is subscripted in print, the uniqueness of the braille symbol makes in unnecessary to incorporate level indicators or other modifiers.

example #4_4 comma is displayed in dividend; a blank cell is used to achieve alignment in the partial product 823 33333333 15o12,345 12 0 33333333 34 30 33333333 45 45 33333333 0 example 5_4 decimal point is displayed in the dividend `s 5.92 3333333333 64o`s378.88 320 3333333333 58 8 57 6 3333333333 1 28 1 28 3333333333 When a decimal point is used in the quotient to replace a caret in the dividend, one blank cell is inserted above the first cell of the caret. The decimal point is placed above the second cell

139

of the caret, in order to maintain alignment of digits in the problem. example 6_4 2 .6 333333333 0.52_<o1.35_<2 1 04 333333333 31 2 31 2 333333333 0 Item identifiers with long division problems The following rules apply when using item identifiers with long division problems. #1_4 Insert a blank line above and below the problem, unless the problem is the first on a page, or ends on the last line of a page. #2_4 The item identifier is positioned on the same braille line as the divisor. Therefore, if the separation line and quotient are shown in the problem, they will be positioned on the lines preceding the line containing the item identifier. #3_4 Insert one column of blank cells between the last symbol of the item identifier and the divisor. #4_4 When more than one problem is displayed side-by-side, one column of blank cells is inserted between the right-most symbol of the first problem, the end of the separation line, and the item identifier of the second problem. The item identifier and the separation line will not appear on the same line. example #7_4 5 33333 #15_4 22o110 110 33333

140

example #8_4 an alphabetic item identifier enclosed in parentheses; carets also used 2 .7 333333333 (c) 5.2_<o14.0_<4 10 4 333333333 36 4 36 4 333333333 Review Remainders #1_4 Insert a space after the quotient and before the letter r used to show the remainder. #2_4 The letter indicator is not used before the letter r which indicates a remainder. Use the capitalization indicator, dot six, to indicate an uppercase letter R. #3_4 Insert the multi-purpose indicator, dot five, between the letter r used to signify a remainder, and the numeral which represents the remainder. This indicates that the remainder is not to be read as a subscript. Refer to lesson #12 regarding level indicators. #4_4 All separation lines within a problem must be of equal length and extend one cell beyond the right-most symbol of the problem, including the remainder. #5_4 Fractional remainders are shown enclosed in mixed-number fraction indicators. Decimal points and commas When a comma or decimal point is displayed in a dividend, a blank cell must be inserted in the corresponding columns of the quotient and/or partial products or differences above and below the dividend. Caret Braille configuration: dots four five six, one two six Braille symbol: _< Usage: Carets are used to demonstrate the movement of decimal points into their final positions in a division problem.

141

When a caret is displayed in a dividend, two blank cells must be inserted in the corresponding columns of the quotient and/or partial products or differences above and below the dividend. There are no exercises for this section due to its spatial nature. #7.1 Roman numerals Explanation Capital and lower case Roman numerals are used in both mathematical and literary contexts. In a literary context, for example, they are used to represent copyright dates and page numbers. Roman numerals are represented by letters, which are literary characters. However, they are considered to be mathematical symbols when used in a mathematical expression. Roman numerals are used in numbering problems, problem identifiers, and with material that is subdivided, outlines.
Braille ; , ,, Symbol Name English letter indicator capitalization indicator double capitalization indicator Configuration dots 5-6 dot 6 dots 6, 6 Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille

Roman numerals in a literary context There are times when Roman numerals in a scientific or mathematical work are used in a literary context. This section will cover the rules for applying them in a literary context. Lesson #7.2 will cover Roman numerals in a mathematical and scientific context. Representing capitalized Roman numerals #1_4 When it is not part of a mathematical expression, use the English letter indicator, dots five six. Also, the capitalization indicator, dot six, is used before a single capitalized letter. example #1_4 capital Roman numeral for #1 ;,I example #2_4 capital Roman numeral for #5 ;,V example #3_4 capital Roman numeral for #10 ;,X example #4_4 capital Roman numeral for #50 ;,L

142

example #5_4 capital Roman numeral for #100 ;,C example #6_4 capital Roman numeral for #1000 ;,M example #7_4 single Roman numeral with text ;,L is #50_4 #2_4 Roman numerals are mathematical symbols and should be punctuated as mathematical symbols. example #8_4 To show #100 in Roman numerals, use ;,C_4 example #9_4 Sine is positive in Quadrant ;,I_4 #3_4 Use the double capitalization indicator, dot six dot six, but not the English letter indicator before a Roman numeral containing more than one capital letter. example #10_4 ,,XIV example #11_4 #1150 is represented by ,,MCL_4 #4_4 Use the mathematical comma, hyphen, long dash, and ellipsis with Roman numerals in the same manner as they would be used with any other mathematical symbol. example #12_4 capitalized Roman numerals used with commas ,,XIV, ,,XV, ,,XVI example #13_4 capitalized Roman numerals used with an ellipsis ,,XXV ''' ,,C #5_4 Use the punctuation indicator before other marks of punctuation. example #14_4 Is it in Volume ,,XIV_8 Representing lower case Roman numerals

143

#1_4 Use the English letter indicator, dots five six, before a lowercase Roman numeral which is not part of a mathematical expression. Whether or not a single letter or several letters are used to represent the Roman numeral, the English letter indicator precedes the lowercase numeral. The effect of the English letter indicator is ended by one of the following: a space, punctuation indicator, mark of punctuation, or any symbol other than a letter. example #15_4 ;v example #16_4 ;iii example #17_4 ;mcii example #18_4 effect of the English letter indicator ended by a space The value of ;xix is #19_4 example #19_4 effect of the English letter indicator ended by the punctuation indicator Refer to example ;xiv_4 example #20_4 effect of the English letter indicator ended by a mark of punctuation pages ;xii-;xiv example #21_4 effect of the English letter indicator ended by a symbol How much change would a Roman get if bread cost ;v`c and he had `s;v_8 Note: Roman numerals represent a constant value. For example, ;xv is always #15_4 Variables are letters that vary or change in value. For example, x used as a variable in an algebraic expression can represent any value. The use of the English letter indicator and the double capitalization indicator distinguishes between Roman numerals and variables in braille. When two or more capital letters are used, e.g., in geometry to label a diagram, each letter must be preceded by a capitalization indicator, as in ,X,I,V_4 When these same letters are used to represent a constant value, #14, the entire

144

expression is preceded by the double capitalization indicator, as in ,,XIV_4 Regardless of whether or not a Roman numeral is preceded by the English letter indicator, the contractions for to, into, and by may not be used with any Roman numeral. Review Rules: the following guidelines refer to Roman numerals which are not part of a mathematical expression or within a mathematical context. #1_4 To represent single, capitalized Roman numerals, use the English letter indicator, dots five six, the capitalization indicator, dot six, and the braille letter. #2_4 To represent a Roman numeral composed of more than one capital letter, precede it with the double capitalization indicator, dot six dot six. #3_4 To represent lowercase Roman numerals, use the English letter indicator, dots five six, before the numeral. #4_4 The contractions for to, into, and by may not be used with any Roman numeral. #5_4 Roman numerals are mathematical expressions and are to be punctuated accordingly. Exercises Prompt to Braille Roman cap C ;,C Roman cap I ;,I one hundred is Roman cap C #100 is ;,C quadrant Roman cap II quadrant ,,II Roman cap LXIV ,,lxiv Roman lxiv

145

;lxiv Roman cap C comma Roman cap M I comma Roman cap L ;,c, ,,mi, ;,l Read pages Roman ix hyphen Roman xv period Read pages ;ix-;xv_4 My age is Roman xvi not ix! My age is ;xvi not ;ix_6 Roman mcii ;mcii Count to Roman xx. Count to ;xx_4 Braille to Speech Roman l ;l Roman cap L ;,L Use lowercase Roman numeral xi instead of eleven in the outline period Use lowercase Roman numeral ;xi instead of #11 in the outline. lowercase Roman numeral v is not lowercase Roman numeral iiiii lowercase Roman numeral ;v is not lowercase Roman numeral ;iiiii 10 is written as Roman cap x period #10 is written as ;,x_4 Roman cap XXX is the same as Roman xxx period ,,XXX is the same as ;xxx_4 Roman cap LIV comma Roman cap LV comma and Roman cap LVI ,,LIV, ,,LV, and ,,LVI Read pages Roman x hyphen Roman xvi period Read pages ;x-;xvi_4 In quadrant Roman cap II comma cosine is negative period In quadrant ,,II, cosine is negative.

146

There are no proofreading exercises for this section. #7.2 Roman numerals in a mathematical context Explanation When Roman numerals are used in a strictly mathematical application, the English letter indicator is not used. This applies as long as the Roman numerals are in regular typeface in print and do not have a mark of punctuation before or after them. The English letter indicator is also not used with Roman numerals that are unspaced from other mathematical symbols, such as signs of operation. The capitalization indicator, dot six, and the double capitalization indicator, dot six dot six are used if the Roman numeral is uppercase. example #1_4 lowercase Roman numerals in a mathematical expression xiv-vi example #2_4 uppercase Roman numerals in a mathematical expression ,C-,,LIV+,V In example #2, the effect of the first capitalization indicator was ended by a mathematical symbol, the minus sign. The double capitalization indicator was terminated by the plus sign. The effect of these capitalization indicators is ended by another symbol, whether an expression is mathematical or literary. Roman numerals with signs of comparison Although a space precedes and follows signs of comparison, Roman numerals coming before or after the sign of comparison do not use the English letter indicator. The qualifying condition is that the Roman numeral is not separated from the sign of comparison by an intervening mark of punctuation, such as a comma or period. example #3_4 subtraction of Roman numerals with an equals sign xxi-vi .k xv example #4_4 uppercase Roman numerals with signs of comparison ,,IX+,,XLI .k ,L example #5_4 ,,CM .k #900 example #6_4 lowercase Roman numerals with a sign of comparison

147

dcc+cc+c .k m example #7_4 #9-4 .k v Although the previous examples included the equals sign, any sign of comparison, such as the greater than or the less than sign, is used in the same way. However, when a Roman numeral is used with punctuation before a sign of comparison, the Roman numeral is not considered to be part of the comparison. Use or do not use the English letter indicator as if the numeral were not associated with the sign of comparison. The rules for the use of the punctuation indicator are the same as for its use with any other mathematical symbol. As always, when parentheses are used, the mathematical parentheses are required. example #8_4 8;,M_0 .k #1000 example #9_4 8,,VII_0 .k #7 example #10_4 8;vii_0 .k #7 Roman numerals with primes Roman numerals and primes are mathematical symbols. Therefore, the English letter indicator is not used with Roman numerals that are followed by the prime sign indicator, dot three. example #11_4 v' and ,V' example #12_4 iii' In example #13, the English letter indicator is used only with the first Roman numeral because it is not associated with a mathematical symbol. example #13_4 ;,I, ,I', ,I'' Roman numerals with signs of grouping

148

When Roman numerals are used with signs of grouping, the English letter indicator is used or is not used according to the following guidelines. Enclosed lists If the Roman numeral appears in an enclosed list and is in a regular font in print, then the English letter indicator is not used. The following conditions apply to an enclosed list: #1_4 The list must begin and end with a sign of grouping, such as parentheses, brackets, or braces. #2_4 The items must be separated only by commas. #3_4 The items in the list may only be numerals, letters, signs of omission, or other mathematical expressions. #4_4 The enclosed list may not contain any of the following: a word, an abbreviation, a plural ending, an ordinal ending, a sign of comparison, or any mark of punctuation other than a comma. Plural, possessive, and ordinal endings will be presented in lesson #7.5_4 example #14_4 Roman numerals in an enclosed list (i, v, xi, l, c, m, d) example #15_4 (xi+v, iv-ii, v) Roman numeral enclosed in signs of grouping If the Roman numeral is enclosed in signs of grouping and is in contact with both the opening and the closing parentheses, the English letter indicator is not used. example #16 Roman numerals enclosed in parentheses cosine is negative in quadrants (,,II) and (,,III) but not in (,I) example #17_4 See figures (i) and (ii)_4 Roman numerals in contact with only one sign of grouping Example #18 is not an enclosed list because of the use of the word, and. example #18_4 (;,X, ,,XI, and ;,V)

149

example #19_4 (;xi is not the same as ;ix) example #20_4 Roman numeral used with a problem identifier; the problem is subdivided, with each subdivision indented two cells #5_4 Find the value. (i) #7-2*5 (ii) #2*5-7 Roman numerals combined with other items within signs of grouping When the Roman numeral is in contact with only one of the signs of grouping, apply the rules regarding the English letter indicator as if the sign of grouping did not exist. In other words, ignore the sign of grouping when deciding whether to use the English letter indicator. If the Roman numeral would have required the use of the English letter indicator without the sign of grouping, then it will require its use with the sign of grouping. If the Roman numeral would not have needed the English letter indicator without the sign of grouping, then it will not need it with the sign of grouping. example #21_4 the English letter indicator is used because it would have been used if the parentheses were not present Skip problems (;iv and ;vi)_4 example #22_4 the English letter indicator is not used because it would not have been used if the parentheses were not present (l+d)-(c-xii) Roman numerals with other symbols The influence of the English letter indicator ends when another mathematical symbol is encountered. Although it may be rare to find such instances, example #23 presents a Roman numeral with the symbol for cents. example #23_4 The change is ;lii`c_4
Math Facts The Roman numeral, i, should not be confused with the mathematical symbol, i (as in 3 + 6i) which is used to represent the hypothetical number, -1. While there is no difference in the braille or print representations, students need to know the distinction since the English letters, i, e, and ln are reserved in mathematical notation to represent special quantities or functions.

In example #24, the English letter indicator is used because the Roman numeral follows a mark of punctuation.

150

example #24_4 Read rule #7-;ii before solving. Review Guidelines for the use and non-use of the English letter indicator with Roman numerals Do not use the English letter indicator with Roman numerals: #1_4 If the Roman numeral contains more than one capital letter. #2_4 Before Roman numerals in mathematical expressions. #3_4 Before Roman numerals preceding or following a sign of comparison, if there is no mark of punctuation between the Roman numeral and the sign of comparison. #4_4 Before Roman numerals displayed with single or multiple primes or with any other mathematical symbol. #5_4 When Roman numerals are presented in enclosed lists. #6_4 When a Roman numeral is in contact with both the opening and closing print sign of grouping. Use the English letter indicator with Roman numerals: #1_4 Before a single capitalized Roman numeral. #2_4 Before lowercase Roman numerals, except for the conditions noted in the previous list. #3_4 Before Roman numerals that precede or follow a sign of comparison, if a mark of punctuation is between the Roman numeral and the sign of comparison. When a Roman numeral is in contact with only one sign of grouping, use or do not use the English letter indicator as if the sign of grouping was not present. Guidelines for the use of the capitalization indicator and the double capitalization indicator with Roman numerals #1_4 Use the single capitalization indicator, dot six, preceded by the English letter indicator, dots five six, before a single capitalized letter used as a Roman numeral.

151

#2_4 Use the double capitalization indicator, dot six dot six, but not the English letter indicator before Roman numerals containing more than one capital letter. #3_4 The influence of the double capitalization indicator is ended when the following are encountered: a space, a mark of punctuation, or any symbol other than a letter. #4_4 Use the appropriate capitalization indicator with a Roman numeral that occurs before or after a mathematical sign of operation. #5_4 Use the appropriate capitalization indicator with a Roman numeral that occurs before or after a mathematical sign of comparison. Exercises Prompt to Braille Roman cap C minus Roman cap L ,C-,L Roman vii plus Roman iv vii+iv Roman xxx plus Roman xx equals Roman l xxx+xx .k l Roman cap L equals fifty ,L .k #50 open quote Roman cap XV close quote equals fifteen 8,,XV_0 .k #15 open paren Roman v comma Roman x comma Roman xx close paren (v, x, xx) Refer to figure open paren Roman xi close paren period Refer to figure (xi)_4 open paren Roman cap D and Roman cap L close paren (;,D and ;,L) open paren Roman vii plus Roman ix close paren plus Roman x (vii+ix)+x

152

Roman cap V comma Roman cap V prime comma and Roman v double prime ;,V, ,V', v'' open paren Roman ii close paren space five plus seven (ii) #5+7 Braille to Speech Roman cap IX comma Roman cap X comma Roman cap XI ,,IX, ;,X, ,,XI Roman v minus Roman iv v-iv Roman mcm ;mcm Roman xc minus Roman xl equals Roman l xc-xl.k l Roman cap X plus Roman cap II equals Roman cap XII ,X+,,II .k ,,XII Roman cap C minus Roman cap XC plus Roman cap V ,C-,,XC+,V Roman x minus Roman vi equals Roman iv x-vi .k iv Roman cap CM plus Roman cap XX equals Roman cap CMXX ,,CM+,,XX .k ,,CMXX Roman i and Roman i prime ;i and i' page open paren Roman xiv close paren page(xiv) open quote Roman cap C close quote equals one hundred 8;,C_0 .k #100 open paren Roman v comma Roman vi comma Roman x close paren (v, vi, x) open paren Roman v comma Roman vi comma and Roman vii close paren (;v, ;vi, and ;vii)

153

Proofreading Roman ;v ;i plus Roman ;x vi+x ;vi+;x Roman cap ;,X ;,C equals ninety ,,XC .k #90 ,X,C .k #90 open quote Roman cap ;,L ;,M close quote equals nine hundred fifty 8,,LM_0 .k #950 8,,LM0 .k #950 #7.3 Abbreviations Explanation A combination of letters is considered to be an abbreviation if it is defined as such in a standard dictionary. These would include abbreviations used in measurement, formed from the letters in a word or name, or special abbreviations or acronyms related to a field of science or mathematics. Abbreviations may or may not appear with an associated period.
Terminology Note To distinguish between an abbreviation and a variable, consider abbreviations as specific units which can be preceded by a number: 1 cm. Abbreviations are punctuated as literary items (refer to examples 1-5). A variable is a defined representation: l x w = A. Here, the letters are defined as standing for values. The letters l, w, and A are not abbreviations because any letter could be substituted and would still represent length, width and area.

When abbreviations are capitalized, follow the rules for capitalization that apply to literary braille. Precede a single capital letter with the capitalization indicator, dot six. Use the double capitalization indicator, dot six dot six, before two or more unspaced capital letters. The effect of the double capitalization indicator ends when a space or a symbol other than a letter is encountered. Measurement abbreviations Abbreviations are often used with numerals and other mathematical symbols to indicate units of measurement for length, volume, weight, and time. Abbreviations are not always consistent. For example, the abbreviation for seconds could be s, s., or sec. Units of area and volume can be abbreviated with either abbreviations composed of letters, such as cu. ft. for cubic feet, or with the use of exponents, as in ft^3 for cubic feet. The abbreviation may or may not be followed by a period.

154

Following is a list of some common abbreviations and how they are represented. Notice that some units of measure may be represented in more than one way. inches: in. or in feet: ft. or ft yard: yd. or yd mile: mi. or mi meter: m. or ;m centimeter: cm. or cm millimeter: mm. or mm kilometer: km. or km hour: hr., hr or ;h minutes: min. or min seconds: sec., sec, s., or ;s miles per hour: m.p.h. or mph liter: l. or ;l kiloliter: kl. or kl gram: g. or ;g kilogram: kg. or kg ounces: oz. or oz pound: lb., or lb pounds: lbs. or lbs Centigrade: ,C. or ;,C Fahrenheit: ,F. or ;.F quart: qt. or qt gallon: gal. or gal bushel: bu. or bu peck: pk. or pk day: da. or da week: wk. or wk month: mo. or mo year: yr. or ;yr Other abbreviation types and applications Abbreviations that are universally accepted, that is, they are in the dictionary as abbreviations, may be used in braille. example #1_4 an abbreviation punctuated as in literary braille Jan. example #2_4 a.m. example #3_4

155

p.m. example #4_4 i.e. example #5_4 e.g. Special abbreviations are often applied in special fields, such as geometry. example #6_4 abbreviation for side angle side ,,SAS example #7_4 abbreviation for corresponding parts of congruent triangles are congruent ,,CPCTC If there is uncertainty as to whether or not something is an abbreviation, the item should be treated as if it is not an abbreviation. Restrictions on the use of abbreviations If an abbreviation can be interpreted as a short-form literary braille word, then the English letter indicator must be used to prevent confusion. An exception to this rule pertains to the braille configuration, dots three five. This cannot be used as the abbreviation for inches; it must be spelled out as the letter ;i followed by the letter ;n. Another exception pertains to the braille configuration, dots three four. The abbreviation for straight, as in straight angle, must be spelled out as the letter ;s followed by the letter ;t.
Teaching Tips The following rhyme is an example of a mnemonic device that may help young students recall these restrictions: It is not a horrid sin To abbreviate the i-n in min. If this rule you have forgot, Its in for inches you may not Know these rules, youll be a St., And likely make your teachers faint. The other time that s-t meet Is when they cross a busy st.

Spacing with abbreviations Leave a space before and after an abbreviation and: #1_4 a numeral or letter, #2_4 a sign of operation,

156

#3_4 #4_4 #5_4 #6_4

a sign of comparison, a monetary sign, gradient sign, or percent sign, a sign of omission, or any other mathematical symbol.

Use of the English letter indicator Use the English letter indicator with any abbreviations which are only single letters or that could be misinterpreted as short-form words. However, if they are followed by a period that ends the abbreviation and is associated with it, do not use the English letter indicator. When in doubt as to whether a period is associated with an abbreviation or if it is used to end a sentence, inspect other abbreviations in the surrounding material. If periods are used with other abbreviations, then do not use the English letter indicator in these instances. If, however, the other abbreviations in the material do not appear with periods, then consider the period to be a mark of punctuation that ends the sentence. Use the English letter indicator before that abbreviation. example #8_4 single letter abbreviations without associated periods #100^.* ;,C .k #212^.* ;,F example #9_4 single letter abbreviations with periods associated with them #32^.* ,F4 .k #0^.* ,C4 example #10_4 abbreviation with the same configuration as a short-form word with no period associated with it #1 ;yr example #11_4 abbreviation with the same configuration as a short-form word with a period associated with it #1 yr. example #12_4 a period following an abbreviation, but the period ends the sentence; the English letter indicator is used The Enterprise traveled #1 light-;yr. example #13_4 a period following an abbreviation at the end of the sentence, but other abbreviations have associated periods; the English letter indicator is not used There are = mi. in a light-yr. Abbreviations used with hyphens

157

When an abbreviation is connected to a numeral following it, the hyphen immediately follows the abbreviation. The numeric indicator follows the hyphen, unspaced, before the numeral. example #14_4 the abbreviation for carbon-#14 ;,C-#14 An abbreviation may not be preceded by the contractions for to, into and by. example #15_4 Convert #20 cm to ;m. Review Abbreviations in braille can be any abbreviation used in a standard dictionary. Rules: #1_4 When abbreviations are capitalized, follow the rules for English literary braille. Precede a single capitalized letter with a capitalization indicator. Use the double capitalization indicator before two or more unspaced capitalized letters. #2_4 Generally, contractions may be used in abbreviations according to the rules of literary braille with the following exceptions: a. If the abbreviation can be misinterpreted as a short-form literary braille word, the English letter indicator must be used with the abbreviation to prevent confusion. b. The contraction for in, dots three five, cannot be used as the abbreviation for inch or inches. The letters ;i and ;n must be used. The contraction for ;st, dots three four, may only be used as an abbreviation for street or saint. It may not be used with any other word, when it is followed by a period. The abbreviation for straight must be brailled in uncontracted form using the letters ;s and ;t. #3_4 In general, space before and after an abbreviation and numerals, letters, signs of operation, signs of comparison, monetary, gradient, percent, omission, or other mathematical symbols. #4_4 Do not space between a mark of punctuation and an abbreviation.

158

#5_4 Use the English letter indicator with single letter abbreviations when they are not followed by a period that ends the abbreviation. Likewise, and with the same restrictions, use the English letter indicator with abbreviations that could be interpreted as short-form words. #6_4 When numerals follow an abbreviation and are connected to the abbreviation with the use of a hyphen: a. Do not space before or after the hyphen. b. Insert the numeric indicator between the hyphen and the numeral which follows. #7_4 The contractions for to, into, and by may not be used before an abbreviation. Exercises Prompt to Braille four quarts #4 qts. five feet #5 ft. one year #1 ;yr seven point five inches #7.5 in. seventeen cents per dozen #17`c per doz. five meters #5 m. six point two grams #6.2 ;g seventy two degrees Fahrenheit #72^.* ;,F seven seconds plus four seconds #7 ;s +4 ;s three days equals long dash hours #3 da. .k ---- hrs.

159

Carbon-fourteen ;,C-#14 Braille to Speech six kilometers #6 km. four point five inches #4.5 in three years #3 ;yr sixteen degrees Centigrade #16^.* ;,C six meters plus four meters #6 ;m +4 ;m six meters plus four meters #6 m. +4 m. three feet equals one yard #3 ft .k 31 yd. five miles per hour #5 m.p.h. Uranium-238 ;,U-#238 twelve inches equals one foot #12 in. .k #1 ft. ninety eight point six degrees Fahrenheit #98.6^.* ;,F three light-years #3 light-;yr one light-year equals general omission sign #1 light-yr. .k = Carbon-fourteen ;,C-#14 Proofreading

160

five grams plus eight grams equals thirteen grams #5 ;g +8 ;g .k #13 ;g #5 ;g+8 ;g .k #13 ;g Carbon fourteen ;,C-#14 ;,C-14 thirty two degrees Fahrenheit #32^.* ;,F #32^.* ,F one quart plus four quarts #1 qt. +4 qt. #1 qt.+4 qt. #7.4 Function names Explanation Function names are usually mathematical expressions. The rules about mathematical expressions often apply to function names, such as the rules regarding punctuation. Function names often are abbreviated, such as sin for sine. Other rules also apply to function names and are explained in this section. The following is a brief list of some common function names and the abbreviations used for them. The function name is presented first, followed by its abbreviation. When reading through the list, note should be taken of when braille contractions are and are not used. logarithm, log natural logarithm, ln exponential, exp limit, lim sine, sin hyperbolic sine, sinh cosine, cos hyperbolic cosine, cosh tangent, tan hyperbolic tangent, tanh cotangent, cot or ctn hyperbolic cotangent, coth or ctnh secant, sec hyperbolic secant, sech cosecant, csc hyperbolic cosecant, cosh

161

maximum, max minimum, min Spacing with function names Function names, or their abbreviations, are not generally preceded by a space unless the space is a naturally occurring one. An example of a naturally occurring space is after a word, or following a symbol that requires a space. example #1_4 a numeral associated with a function name; no space before function name #3secant #30^.* A space must be left after a function name or its abbreviation even if a sign of operation, a letter, or a numeral follows it. Follow the rules for spacing and use of the numeric indicator as if the symbols followed a space naturally. example #2_4 function abbreviation followed by a numeral #5sin #2x example #3_4 function abbreviation following a sign of comparison; space occurs naturally #1 .k tan #45^.* example #4_4 function abbreviation within a fraction ?1/tan ,A# .k cot ,A Abbreviated function names Abbreviated function names are not ordinary abbreviations but are mathematical expressions. The rules for their transcription are as follows: #1_4 No contractions may be used in abbreviated function names, as in sin #35^.*_4 #2_4 Do not use the English letter indicator with a Roman numeral, in regular font type, single letter, or an apparent short-form word contraction following a function name or its abbreviation. For example, is cos y, no English letter indicator is used. Foreign alphabet indicators, such as for Greek letters, may be used following a function name. Refer to lesson #9 for more information regarding foreign language alphabets and their usage.

162

#3_4 A space should be left between two abbreviated function names in sequence unless they are clearly unspaced in the print text; for example, log cos #46^.*_4 example #5_4 two abbreviated function names unspaced arctan (1) .k = If you are in doubt as to whether or not a particular item is an abbreviation or not, treat it as if it is not an abbreviation. The use of braille contractions As mentioned above, contractions are never used in abbreviated function names. Therefore, as presented previously, the in contraction would not be used in sin as the abbreviation for sine. In unabbreviated function names, however, follow these guidelines regarding contractions: #1_4 No contractions may be used within an unabbreviated function name in the following circumstances. Use no contractions if the function name is used with related mathematical symbols, with an abbreviated function name, or when joined to another function name with no intervening space. For instance, in example #6, do not contract the letters ;i ;n, since the function name is related to the number of degrees following it. In example #5, the contraction was not used since the value within the parenthesis, a related mathematical symbol, is associated with it. example #6_4 cosine #60^.* is ?1/2#_4 example #7_4 two joined function names What is its logsine_4 #2_4 Contractions may be used in unabbreviated function names if they are not associated with related mathematical symbols, or an abbreviated function name. example #8_4 Is sine positive in quadrant ,,II_8 Punctuation used with function names All abbreviated function names are mathematical expressions. Therefore, they are to be punctuated as mathematical symbols, using the punctuation indicator, dots four five six, for all punctuation other than the comma, hyphen, and dash.

163

If an unabbreviated function name is used in a mathematical context, it is to be punctuated in the same way as other mathematical symbols. If, however, it is used in literary context, it is to be punctuated according to literary code rules. If two function names are joined, having no intervening space, then the combination is to be regarded as occurring in a mathematical context. example #9_4 abbreviated function names; use mathematical punctuation; do not use contractions Is it sin, cos, or tan_8 example #10_4 unabbreviated function names in a literary setting; use literary punctuation; contractions may be used Is it sine, cosine, or tangent? example #11_4 joined function names Is 8logsine_0 a function? The contractions for to, into, and by may not be used with abbreviated function names, or with an unabbreviated function name if it is used in a mathematical context. example #12_4 This is shown by cos #30^.*_4 example #13_4 It can be converted to log n_4 example #14_4 contractions used with unabbreviated function names because they are not in a mathematical context Refer to cosines on page #77 in the text. Function names may have superscripts, subscripts, or other modifications, or the function names may be superscripted or subscripted to other values, letters, or symbols; refer to lesson #12_4 Parentheses enclosing the argument of a function An expression, numeral, or letter often is the argument of the function. The function name can be as simple as f(x), g(y), and d(h) or it can indicate an established relationship, as in the trigonometric and logarithmic functions. example #15_4 function with its equivalent expression

164

f(x) .k #2x-7 example #16_4 numerical values replace the argument of the function presented in example #15_; parentheses used to indicate substitution of #5 for the variable ;x. f(5) .k #2(5)-7 example #17_4 parentheses enclosing the argument of a trigonometric function cos (x) example #18_4 parentheses enclosing the arguments in logarithmic notation log (3*2) .k log (3)+log (2) Review #1_4 Function name abbreviations have unique rules governing their use. #2_4 A space must be left after an abbreviated function name and the value, letter, or other symbol following it. #3_4 No space is required before a function name; it may be joined to a numeral, a letter, another function name, or another mathematical symbol. #4_4 The English letter indicator is not used with letters which follow a function name. #5_4 Contractions may not be used in abbreviated function names. #6_4 The contractions for to, into, and by may not be used with either abbreviated function names, or with any unabbreviated function name if it is used in a mathematical context. #7_4 Abbreviated function names are to be punctuated mathematically. #8_4 In an unabbreviated function name, contractions and literary punctuation are to be used if the function name is in a literary context. This is when there is no association with related mathematical symbols or abbreviated function names. #9_4 If an unabbreviated function name is associated with related mathematical symbols, it is a mathematical expression

165

and is considered to be in a mathematical context. No contractions may be used and the abbreviation is to be punctuated mathematically. Exercises Prompt to Braille tangent forty five degrees tan #45^.* five sine sixty degrees #5sin #60^.* cosine sixty four degrees equals sine twenty six degrees cos #64^.* .k sin #26^.* sine fifty degrees sin #50^.* Find cosine two hundred degrees. Find cos #200^.*_4 tangent fifty six degrees equals one point four eight two six tan #56^.* .k #1.4826 cosine zero degrees equals one point zero zero zero zero cos #0^.* .k #1.0000 Does sine two hundred seventy degrees equal negative one? Does sin #270^.* .k -#1_8 cosine negative forty five degrees equals cosine forty five degrees cos -#45^.* .k cos #45^.* five secant thirty degrees #5sec #30^.* one equals tangent forty five degrees #1 .k tan #45^.* log cosine four degrees log cos #4^.* Braille to Speech tangent sixteen degrees tan #16^.*

166

sine thirty degrees sin #30^.* sine forty five degrees equals cosine forty five degrees sin #45^.* .k cos #45^.* sine seventy degrees equals cosine twenty degrees sin #70^.* .k cos #20^.* three cosine fifteen degrees #3cos #15^.* cosine ninety degrees equals zero cos #90^.* .k #0 secant seven degrees equals omission sign sec #7^.* .k = Proofreading sine thirty degrees sin #30^.* s9 #30^.* cosine forty five degrees cos #45^.* cos 45^.* five tangent sixty degrees #5tan #60^.* #5 tan #60^.* #7.5 Plural, possessive, and ordinal endings, and contractions adjacent to mathematical symbols Explanation In print, plural, possessive, and ordinal forms of numerals and mathematical symbols can be represented by adding a variety of letter endings to words. For example, ;s, apostrophe ;s, or combinations of letters such as ;s ;t, nd, rd, and ;t ;h can be added to indicate the plural, possessive, or ordinal form of a word. In braille, however, this is more complicated because literary characters are added to mathematical symbols. When an ending is added to a mathematical symbol, the ending becomes part of the symbol or expression, and is to be treated as a mathematical character. It should be punctuated accordingly. Plural and possessive endings

167

A plural ending indicates more than one item. Numbers, variables, and other mathematical symbols can be designated as plurals with the addition of an ;s or an apostrophe ;s, immediately following the symbol. example #1_4 plural numerals represented by the addition of the letter ;s #3s, #4s, #5s The use of the letter ;s to represent plural numbers in example #1 is the same as the use of the letter ;s to represent a variable in an algebraic expression. In braille, as in print, there is no distinction between letters used to indicate a plural or ordinal ending and letters used to indicate variables. The reader must determine the meaning from the context of the expression. The punctuation indicator must precede the apostrophe, dot three, when an apostrophe ;s is used to indicate a plural or possessive form of a numeral. When the plural form of Roman numerals is written by adding the letter ;s, the use of the English letter indicator is not affected by the presence of the letter ;s. Abbreviations can also be made plural with the addition of the letter ;s. However, if the period is part of the abbreviation, and is not intended to end the sentence, the punctuation indicator is not used before the period. Refer to lesson #7.3_4 example #2_4 plural single letters Combine the ;,Ts and ;,Rs_4 example #3_4 plural abbreviation #5 qts. example #4_4 English letter indicator required with or without the plural ending #3 ;yrs example #5_4 an apostrophe ;s ending used with numerals #4_'s and #6_'s are even Letters may be made plural or possessive with the use of an apostrophe and the letter ;s. In these situations, the English letter indicator must be used or not used as though the ending were not present.

168

example #6_4 an apostrophe ;s ending used with letters ;r_'s, ;x_'s, and ;y_'s A mark of punctuation may follow a mathematical symbol modified with the apostrophe ;s. The punctuation indicator must again be used for those marks of punctuation which normally would be used if the apostrophe ;s were not present. A comma, hyphen, or dash would not require the use of the punctuation indicator. example #7_4 an apostrophe ;s ending with other marks of punctuation requiring the use of the punctuation indicator Combine the ;x_'s_4 The ;s and apostrophe ;s endings can also be applied to other mathematical symbols. example #8_4 plurals of signs of operation and comparison Replace the blanks with +s, -s, or .ks_4 example #9_4 Replace with +_'s or .k_'s_4

example #10_4 plural Roman numerals; the English letter indicator is to be used or not used as if the ending were not present Note the ;i_'s in ;vi and ;iv_4 example #11_4 Roman numerals without the English letter indicator ,,LI_'s, ,,LII_'s, and ,,LIII_'s_4 example #12_4 apostrophe ;s to indicate possessive endings Triangle ,A,B,C_'s base angles are equal. The ;s or apostrophe ;s may be enclosed within parentheses to indicate that the reader has a choice between the singular or plural form of the expression. In this case, the mathematical parentheses are to be used. example #13_4 Which problem(s) are linear?
Note Mathematical parentheses are always used, even with words, when transcribing in the Nemeth Code. Do not switch between literary and mathematical parentheses.

169

Ordinal endings Ordinal endings are added to numbers and other symbols to indicate the order, or position, that they have in a series of related items. Such familiar ordinals as first, second, and third are common. The endings ;s ;t and ;t ;h present a problem in braille. The contractions for ;t ;h and ;s ;t may not be used with ordinal endings. Each letter must be brailled separately. All endings are placed adjacent to the numeral or other symbol without an intervening space. Numerals must be preceded by the numeric indicator. example #14_4 simple ordinal endings #1st, #2nd, #3rd, #4th As is the case with plural and possessive endings, ordinal endings become a component of the symbol or expression to which they are attached. The rules for the symbol or expression are unaffected by the addition of the ordinal, plural, or possessive endings. The mathematical comma or the punctuation indicator, for example, should be used if the expression to which the ordinal ending is added requires either. example #15_4 punctuation with ordinal endings Find the term designated as the ;nth_4 example #16_4 an interrupted series indicating that the pattern continues #1st, #3rd, #5th, ''' #23rd When a single letter is used to form an ordinal ending, the rules and format are the same as they are for endings comprised of two letters. example #17_4 single-letter ordinal endings #2d, #3d, #22d
Math Facts Because the presentation of ordinal and plural endings uses the same format as that of algebraic expressions (Nemeth Code numerals are followed by alphabetic letters), it is important that the braille reader understand the context in which the material is presented. Students may need to be cautioned to distinguish between these. For example, 3d may be read as 3 times the variable d.

Review Plural, possessive, and ordinal endings

170

A plural, possessive, or ordinal ending becomes part of a mathematical expression and should be treated as a mathematical character. #1_4 When an ending is added to a symbol or expression to indicate plural, possessive, or ordinal form, all Nemeth Code rules apply as if the ending were not present. #2_4 When the apostrophe ;s is used, the punctuation indicator, dots four five six, precedes the apostrophe. #3_4 When an ;s is enclosed within parentheses, use the mathematical parentheses. #4_4 Add the endings onto the numbers, symbols, or expressions without an intervening space. #5_4 Contractions such as st and th may not be used; each distinct letter must be brailled. Exercises Prompt to Braille Combine the nineteens. Combine the #19s_4 Cancel the four apostrophes. Cancel the #4_'s_4 The signs of operation are all plusses. The signs of operation are all +_'s_4 Second and fifth #2nd and #5th first, third, and tenth. #1st, #3rd, and #10th_4 Count by fives. ,count by #5_'s_4 Combine the capital Ts and capital Rs. ,combine the ;,Ts and ;,Rs_4 seven years #7 ;yrs The whole sixteen yards.

171

The whole #16 yds_4 Write the correct answer open paren ;s close paren. Write the correct answer(s)_4 The nth term is positive. The nth term is positive. twenty second, twenty third, and thirty second #22d, #23d, & #32d Braille to Speech First comma second comma and eighth #1st, #2nd, and #8th Find the third term period Find the #3rd term. Put the numeral in the tens column period Put the numeral in the #10s column. The three's are common factors period The #3_'s are common factors. Combine the x's and the y's period Combine the ;x_'s and ;y_'s_4 Combine the item open paren ;s close paren on the left side period Combine the item(s) on the left side. The first comma second comma and third items period The #1st, #2nd, & #3rd items. Proofreading Count by tens period Count by #10s_4 Count by #10s4 First, fifth, and twelfth #1st, #5th, and #12th ##A/, ##E8, and #12th Find the red item open paren ;s close paren period Find the red item(s)_4

172

Find the red item(s)4 #7.6 Contractions and short-form words Explanation There are restrictions regarding the use of braille contractions within the Nemeth Code. There are situations in which contractions may be misinterpreted as mathematical symbols. The following describes these restrictions. Contractions and short-form words in contact with a sign of grouping Certain contractions may not be used when they are in direct contact with a sign of grouping. The general signs of grouping which appear in contact with textual material and are considered to be mathematical symbols include parentheses, brackets, braces, or transcriber note indicators. The contractions for to, into, and by must not be used before any mathematical symbol, including these signs of grouping.
Note The signs of grouping, such as the parentheses, which are used in a mathematical context are the Nemeth Code signs and never the literary ones. Because literary parentheses have the same configuration as the Nemeth Code numeral 7, the use of the mathematical parentheses overcomes the possibility of reading a parenthesis as a numeral or vice versa.

example #1_4 Multiply #5 by #6_4 example #2_4 The sign changes from + to - when multiplying or dividing by a negative value. example #3_4 This can be divided by (-3)_4 One-cell whole-word contractions, such as can, but, as, it, or just, may not be used if they are in direct contact with a sign of grouping or with transcriber note indicators. In example #4, the word can is in contact with a parenthesis; the contracted form may not be used. example #4_4 (Can #7 .k #7-#0)_8 Whole-word lower-cell contractions, such as into, were, be, enough, and his, cannot be used if they are in contact with a

173

sign of grouping. However, part-word contractions may be used within a lower-cell contraction, such as the ;i ;n in into. In example #5, the words can and be are not in direct contact with a parenthesis; their contracted forms may be used. The contracted form for ;i ;t, however, may not be used. example #5_4 (it can be shown) example #6_4 lower-cell contraction used as part of a word The symbol for divided-by (goes into) is the same. example because out the Use the #7_4 whole-word lower-cell contraction may not be used the word is in contact with a sign of grouping; spell word angle (in fig. #2)_4

The following whole-word contractions: and, for, of, the, with, cannot be used if they are in contact with a sign of grouping. They also cannot be used if they are parts of words where the contracted part of the word is in contact with a sign of grouping. When a whole-word is in contact with a sign of grouping, spell out the word. example #8_4 (for example) example #9_4 part-word portion in contact with sign of grouping; spell out the word (formula ;iv) example #10_4 part-word portion in contact with sign of grouping; do not use contracted form (as shown in the proof) example #11_4 part-word portion not in contact with sign of grouping; use contracted form (proof is positive) If a contraction may not be used, the word must be spelled out letter by letter. For instance, in example #12, the ;e ;r in the word, after, must be spelled out since the short-form word cannot be used. example #12_4 Which numeral comes before (and after) #10_8

174

Note Possible types of confusion include mistaking the st contraction for a division slash, the th and ble contractions for fraction indicators, and other cases where braille contraction configurations are also Nemeth Code symbols. Spacing is usually the clue. The reader is advised to use context and spacing clues to minimize confusion. For brailling purposes, 155c of AITBM provides appropriate guidance: Contractions must not be used when they can be mistaken for mathematical symbols or expressions.

Contractions, short-form words and braille indicators Contractions and short-form words may not be used when they are in contact with any braille indicator other than the capitalization indicator or the italic sign. Braille indicators are those symbols which do not have counterparts in print. For example, the numeric indicator and fraction indicators are used strictly in braille. Do not use contractions or short-form words with mathematical indicators. example #13_4 fraction with words in numerator and denominator; contractions cannot be used. rate .k ?distance*time# Restrictions on use of contractions in mathematical expressions #1_4 Contractions or short-form words may not be used if the word in which they occur is adjacent to a sign of operation. The ;i ;t ;y contraction and the ;e ;d in the word, speed, in example #14 are parts of words adjacent to a sign of operation. Therefore, their contracted forms may not be used. example #14_4 velocity./speed #2_4 Contractions or short-form words may not be used when they would be adjacent to numerals or in words in contact with numerals. In example #15, the fully contracted lower-cell word for into cannot be used, nor can it be joined to the numeral #6_4 example #15_4 #3 into #6 In example #16, the word, do, is not adjacent to a numeral, but the lower-cell form of the word to would normally be unspaced from whatever follows it. Therefore, it cannot be used in its contracted form.

175

example #16_4 Do #1 to #7_4 #3_4 There are special implications with regard to the use of the hyphen. example #17_4 whole-word and part-word contractions which are separated from a numeral by a hyphen are permitted #1-ary and #2-ary example #18_4 lower-cell contractions connected to a numeral by a hyphen may not be used Is there a #1-to-#1 correspondence? example #19_4 numerals which follow contractions and are connected by a hyphen must have the numeric indicator between the hyphen and the numeral. Letters which are also whole-word one-cell alphabet contractions and are connected by a hyphen must have the numeric indicator between the hyphen and the numeral. C-#14 example #20_4 time-#1 #4_4 Contractions or short-form words may not be used if they are parts of words or abbreviations, which are in direct contact with letters or Roman numerals. They also may not be used if they are parts of words or abbreviations which are in direct contact with a sequence of letters or Roman numerals, where each letter has a separate identity. An example would be algebraic characters and labels used in geometry. example #21_4 contracted form of ;t ;o cannot be used because each letter in the sequence of letters refers to distinct points, and therefore each letter has its own identity The triangle refers to ,A,B,C_4 #5_4 Contractions or short-form words may not be used if they are in contact with, or are parts of words in contact with any math symbol. For example, they cannot be used in contact with signs of operation, the radical sign, an omission symbol, or any other math symbol. Restrictions on the use of contractions with signs of comparison

176

Contractions or short-form words may not be used if they immediately precede or follow a sign of comparison. example #22_4 distance .k rate`*time Summary of use and non-use of the English letter indicator Guidelines for use and non-use of the English letter indicator have been presented throughout lesson #7, as they apply to the various sections of this tutorial. Following is a summary of all rules presented up to this section of lesson #7_4 #1_4 The English letter indicator is used with single uppercase or lowercase English letters that could be interpreted as shortform words in literary braille. This is the case if the configuration is preceded or followed by a space, except for a space associated with a sign of comparison, or one or more marks of punctuation. example #23_4 Point ;,P is in quadrant ;,I_4 #2_4 The English letter indicator is used with a lowercase combination of letters that could be read as a short-form word in literary braille. This is the case if the configuration is preceded or followed by a space or one or more marks of punctuation. It is not used in combinations of uppercase alphabetic characters. example #24_4 ;cd is multiplied example #25_4 ,,CD is multiplied ,Cd is multiplied #3_4 The English letter indicator is used with letters joined by a hyphen or dash to a word, part of a word, a numeral, or other material. example #26_4 the letter ;x used as a mathematical term which could be confused with the short-form contraction for the word, it. ;,X is followed by a mark of punctuation; use the English letter indicator. ;x intercept

177

#4_4 Do not use the English letter indicator when a single English letter precedes or follows a space associated with a sign of comparison. Do not use the English letter indicator when combinations of letters, which could be construed to be shortform words, precede or follow a space associated with a sign of comparison. These rules apply unless the single letter or combination of letters is separated from the sign of comparison with a mark of punctuation. example #27_4 t .k time #5_4 Do not use the English letter indicator when combinations of letters do not correspond to a short-form word. The abbreviations for days, hours, and week are not short-form word combinations; therefore, the English letter indicator would not be used. example #28_4 #1 wk, #5 da is #288 hrs #6_4 Do not use the English letter indicator when numerals and letters occur together, as in algebraic terms. Do not use it with letters from other alphabets, such as Greek letters, refer to lesson #9.3_4 Do not use it with signs of operation or any other unspaced mathematical terms. example #29_4 #4ac example #30_4 x+y Review #1_4 Contractions may not be used if they are in direct contact with a sign of grouping. #2_4 The contractions for to, into, and by must not be used before any mathematical symbol. These contractions must not be used before any braille indicators, except the capitalization and italic indicators. They are not used before a Roman numeral or single letter where the letters have separate identities. They are not used before signs of grouping or reference signs. Do not use these contractions before an abbreviation which consists of one letter or a combination of letters corresponding to a short-form word. These contractions are not used in any

178

application where other types of contractions are also restricted. #3_4 Whole-word lower-cell contractions cannot be used if they are in contact with a sign of grouping. #4_4 The following whole-word contractions, and, for, of, the, with, cannot be used if they are in contact with a sign of grouping. They cannot be used if they are parts of words where the contracted part of the word is in contact with a sign of grouping. #5_4 When a word has the part-word portion in contact with the sign of grouping; spell out the word. #6_4 Contractions or short-form words may not be used if the word in which they occur is adjacent to a sign of operation. #7_4 Use the English letter indicator to distinguish a mathematical term from a literary short-form word. Exercises Prompt to Braille Divide twelve by four. Divide #12 by #4_4 open paren it is eight close paren (it is #8) open paren in figure Roman ;i ;i close paren (in figure ;ii) open paren formula for salt close paren (formula for salt) a one-to-one ratio a #1-to-#1 ratio five into thirty #5 into #30 divided-by open paren for example close paren is multiple subtraction divided-by (for example) is multiple subtraction open paren give the entire proof close paren

179

(give the entire proof) rate equals distance slash time rate .k ?distance_/time# binary can be abbreviated as two hyphen a ;r ;y binary can be abbreviated as #2-ary y axis ;y-axis pages Roman ;i ;i to Roman ;i ;v pages ;ii to ;iv Braille to Speech open paren but not four close paren (but n #4) Count by three's period Count by #3_'s_4 open paren for example close paren (for example) two hyphen a ;r ;y is binary #2-ary is binary multiply ten by two multiply #10 by #2 velocity equals seventy two ;m ;p ;h velocity .k #72 mph the ;y intercept is five the ;y-intercept is #5 distance equals rate times time distance .k rate*time one year equals three hundred sixty five days #1 year .k #365 days cap P is in quadrant Roman cap IV ;,P is in quadrant ,,iv d equals distance

180

;d .k distance Proofreading open paren use the following proof close paren (use the following proof) (use the following pro() open paren proof is given close paren (pro( is given) (proof is given) distance divided by time distance./time distance./"t #7.7 Special symbols Explanation There are some special symbols used in mathematics that are difficult to categorize. These include tally marks, the diagonal slash, and the at sign. Tally marks Tally marks are often used in counting exercises and in showing one-to-one correspondence. In print, tally marks are usually displayed in groups of five. There are four vertical lines and a fifth line, cross tally, which is slanted across the group of four from the upper left to the lower right. This indicates that the group of five is complete. In braille, five vertical braille lines, each line comprised of dots four five six, are positioned side by side. When more than one group of five is indicated, an intervening space, a blank braille cell, is used to separate the groupings. example #1_4 _____ _____ __ .k #12 The configuration of the tally mark, dots four five six, is an example of one of the several configurations that have multiple uses in braille. Dots four five six, for example, is also the braille configuration for the punctuation indicator and the boldface indicator. To interpret a braille configuration that has several different meanings, the context and location of the configuration must be considered. Tally marks must be grouped as they are in print, usually in groups of five. Occasionally in print, the cross tally is not used. In those instances, the print conforms to the practice

181

used in braille of grouping five vertical tally marks with a space between each group of five. example #2_4 _____ _____ _____ _____ _ .k #21 Although tally marks are mathematical symbols, some of the guidelines for their use differ from the general guidelines for use of mathematical symbols. Punctuation with tally marks The punctuation indicator and the tally mark use the same configuration. Therefore, the multipurpose indicator, dot five, must be inserted between the tally mark and the punctuation indicator which follows it. The mathematical comma, hyphen, and dash are not preceded by the punctuation indicator. Therefore, these are used in the same manner as with any other mathematical symbol when associated with the tally mark. example #3_4 tally marks used with the mathematical comma and the period to indicate #8 items _____, ___"_4 Signs of operation with tally marks The guidelines for use of tally marks with signs of operation also differ from the rules governing the use of other mathematical symbols with signs of operation. A space must occur between any group of tally marks and a sign of operation. However, no space should be left between a group of tally marks and a braille indicator, a sign of grouping, or a punctuation mark. example #4_4 tally marks used with a sign of operation _____ _____ ___ + _____ _ Example #5 displays tally marks and a sign of grouping, parentheses. The minus sign between the parentheses follows the normal rules for spacing with signs of operation because it is not adjacent to tally marks. example #5_4 (___ + __)-(__) .k #3 Tally marks and signs of comparison Tally marks, are separated from signs of comparison by a single space, as are other mathematical symbols.

182

example #6_4 ___ + ____ .k _____ __ The tally mark used with superscripts and subscripts is presented in lesson #12_4 The slash The slash, dots four five six, dots three four, was introduced along with signs of operation in lesson #5_4 The slash may be used with words or numerals. While it can represent a sign of operation, division, it may also be used as a method to separate information, for example, in the separation of numerals in a date. Rules applying to the slash #1_4 No contractions may be in direct contact with the slash. Contractions may be used if an intervening mark of punctuation or sign of grouping separates the contraction from the diagonal slash. #2_4 No space should be left between the slash and any item with which it is associated or to which it applies. #3_4 In all situations where a slash is displayed, the mathematical slash, dots four five six dots three four, is to be used. Do not use the literary braille symbol, dots three four. example #7_4 the slash used between words slope .k rise_/run example #8_4 the slash used within dates #10_/27_/43 was a great day in the history of braille math The slash may be used as a sign of operation within fractions; refer to lesson #5_4 example #9_4 #10_/5 .k #2 example #10_4 #3_?7_/8_# The slash may be used with abbreviations; refer to the rules regarding contractions within abbreviations in lesson #7.3_4

183

example #11_4 ;i ;n not contracted; as lower-cell sign following a single letter, could be confused with subscripted #9_2 refer to lesson #12, level indicators min_/hr example #12_4 contracted form of in is used because it is followed by a period min._/hr. example #13_4 g_/cm example #14_4 +5 and_/or -#5 example #15_4 c_/o At sign The at sign, dot four dot one, is often used to show a relationship between a quantity of items and the cost per unit for that item. The rules for the application of the braille symbol for the at sign are similar to the rules for tally marks. With the exception of punctuation indicators, or symbols of grouping that apply to the at sign, a space must precede and follow it. The at symbol is rarely used with signs of operation directly preceding or following it. It is more likely that numbers, signs of omission, monetary symbols and percent symbols will be associated with it. example #16_4 #6 gumballs `a #5`c each example #17_4 `s1000 `a #6.2`0 example #18_4 at sign directly followed by monetary symbol; note diagonal slash #75 lbs `a `s2_/lb example #19_4 at sign before long dash used as sign of omission #144 `a ----`c_/doz .k #12`c Review Tally mark

184

Braille configuration: dots four five six Braille symbol: _ Usage: in counting exercises or to demonstrate one-to-one correspondence Rules: #1_4 Tally marks are often separated into groups of five. When more than one group of five is indicated, an intervening space, a blank braille cell, is used to separate the groupings. #2_4 For those marks of punctuation which require the punctuation indicator, the multipurpose indicator must be inserted between the punctuation indicator and the tally marks. #3_4 A space is to be left before and after a grouping of tally marks even if the group is preceded or followed by a sign of operation. #4_4 No space is left between a tally mark and a sign of grouping or a related indicator. Diagonal slash Braille configuration: dots four five six dots three four Braille symbol: _/ Usage: a division or fraction sign, to separate numerals or words, or component of some abbreviations Rules: #1_4 No contractions may be in words in contact with the diagonal slash. They may be used if an intervening mark of punctuation or sign of grouping separates the contraction from the diagonal slash. #2_4 No space should be left between the diagonal slash and anything with which it is associated or to which it applies. #3_4 In all situations where a slash is displayed, the mathematical diagonal slash, dots four five six dots three four, is to be used. Do not use the literary code slash, dots three four. The at sign Braille configuration: dot four dot one Braille symbol: `a Usage: to show a relationship between a quantity of items and the cost per unit for that item, percentage rates, etc.

185

Rules: #1_4 A space is left between the at sign and a numeral or other symbol following it. #2_4 A space is left between the at sign and a sign of operation or a sign of comparison. #3_4 There is no space between the at sign and a braille indicator, a sign of grouping, or a punctuation mark. Exercises Prompt to Braille tally tally tally ___ tally tally space tally tally space tally __ __ _ tally tally period __"_4 tally tally tally space tally tally plus tally tally ___ __ + __ open paren tally tally tally close paren plus open paren tally tally close paren (___)+(__) vertical slash horizontal vertical_/horizontal six slash twenty five slash seventy six #6_/25_/76 minutes slash hour min_/hr positive two and or negative seven are roots +2 and_/or -#7 are roots four packages at sixteen cents each #4 packages `a #16`c each fifteen ounces at seven dollars per ounce #15 oz4 `a `s7_/oz4

186

one thousand dollars at nineteen percent `s1,000 `a #19`0 thirty two at long dash cents per dozen equals two dollars #32 `a ----`c_/doz .k `s2 six at twelve dollars per item #6 `a `s12 per item Braille to Speech tally tally space tally tally space tally tally equals six __ __ __ .k #6 tally tally tally minus tally tally plus tally ___ - __ + _ tally tally tally period ___"_4 two slash fourteen slash ninety five #2_/14_/95 either slash or either_/or seventeen at sign nineteen cents slash pound #17 `a #19`c_/pound miles slash hour mi_/hr two dozen at sign fifteen dollars each. #2 doz. `a `s15 ea. seventy slash ten equals seven #70_/10 .k #7 three hundred twenty dollars at sign sixteen point five percent interest slash year `s320 `a #16.5`0 interest_/year Proofreading tally tally tally space tally tally ___ __ ______

187

tally tally plus tally tally tally __ + ___ __+___ four at two dollars each #4 `a `s2 each #4 `a`s2;each feet per second ft_/sec ft_/ sec #8.1 Signs of operation: plus or minus, minus or plus, and horizontally joined plus and minus Explanation Review of signs of operation The following rules for signs of operation governing addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division were presented in lesson #2_4 #1_4 In horizontal arrangements, signs of operation are unspaced from the symbols and numerals with which they are associated. #2_4 Punctuate according to the rules for mathematical symbols. These same rules apply to other signs of operation, including the signs of operation described in this lesson.
Note Exceptions to the rule regarding the use of the numeric indicator are: asterisk, crosshatch, section mark and paragraph mark. The numeric indicator is inserted between these signs and the values which follow them. 1*3 #1@##3 4#5 #4.##5 32 #3@,p#2 .69 #.6@,s#9

Plus or minus sign The braille symbol for the plus or minus sign, dots three four six dots three six, is comprised of the plus sign followed by the minus sign. The print equivalent to this symbol is the plus sign above the minus sign, in a vertical arrangement.
Braille +-+ Symbol Name plus-or-minus (single symbol) minus-or-plus (single symbol) Configuration dots 3-4-6, 3-6 dots 3-6, 3-4-6 Print Symbol

example #1_4 plus or minus sign with a numeral, indicating that the numeral has a positive or negative value +-31

188

Math Facts An answer such as 31 represents two possible answers. Students often forget that even though this is one symbol, there are two results indicated.

example #2_4 read as "seven plus or minus three" #7+-3 Although rarely used, the minus or plus symbol, dots three six dots three four six, has the same meaning as the plus or minus sign. example #3_4 minus sign above plus sign in print #6-+4 example #4_4 The laser can hit a target on the moon to within +-5 cm_4 Horizontally joined plus signs and minus signs
Teaching Tips Often, a text will show two signs of operation joined horizontally where the first sign is the operation to be performed and the second sign is a signed (directed) number, as in: 13+-3 = 10, to indicate that 13 is to be added to a negative 3. Students are often confused about whether a symbol indicates an operation or a directed number. Mathematically, it does not make any difference: 10+-3 and 10-+3 result in the same value. Regardless of the intent, the braille is the same. The student must make the determination of the meaning from the context of the surrounding material.

Occasionally, the two symbols for plus and minus are joined horizontally in print. In braille, the multipurpose indicator, dot five, is placed between the two signs of operation. This serves to indicate that the two symbols are printed horizontally and not vertically. Following are the possible combinations of these signs: plus followed minus, dots three four six dot five dots three six minus followed by plus, dots three six dot five dots three four six plus followed by plus, dots three four six dot five dots three four six minus followed by minus, dots three six dot five dots three six
Braille +"-"+ +"+ -"Symbol Name plus followed by minus minus followed by plus plus followed by plus minus followed by minus Configuration dots 3-4-6, 5, 3-6 dots 3-6, 5, 3-4-6 dots 3-4-6, 5, 3-4-6 dots 3-6, 5, 3-6 Print Symbol +-+ ++ --

example #5_4

189

-#5+"-2 .k -#7 example #6_4 #7-"+4 .k +3 example #7_4 #7-"-3 .k #10 In example #8, the double minus before a numeral requires the use of the numeric indicator. This is because there is no character in the sequence with dots that occur in the upper part of a braille cell. example #8_4 -"-#3
Note Occasionally, the second of the signs of operation is displayed as a superscripted (raised) symbol in print: -5+-2 This method of display is frequently used to stress that the second sign of operation (in this case, the minus sign) is being used as part of the directed number. Refer to Lesson 12 for information regarding level indicators.

Review Plus or minus sign Braille configuration: dots three four six dots three six Braille symbol: +Minus or plus sign Braille configuration: dots three six dots three four six Braille symbol: -+ Usage: to indicate that two possible values can result or to indicate that both operations are to be performed Rules: #1_4 Do not space between these signs of operation and the mathematical symbols or numbers associated with them. #2_4 Do not use the numeric indicator between these signs of operation and the number or symbol following them. #3_4 Punctuate as mathematical symbols. Horizontally joined plus signs and minus signs Plus followed by minus

190

Braille configuration: dots three four six dot five dots three six Braille symbol: +"Minus followed by plus Braille configuration: dots three six dot five dots three four six Braille symbol: -"+ Plus followed by plus Braille configuration: dots three four six dot five dots three four six Braille symbol: +"+ Minus followed by minus Braille configuration: dots three six dot five dots three six Braille symbol: -"Usage: often used to represent an operation between a value and a directed, signed, number or to show that two values are possible. Rules: #1_4 Do not space between these signs of operation and the mathematical symbols or numbers associated with them. #2_4 Do not use the numeric indicator between these signs of operation and the number or symbol following them. An exception occurs when the minus is followed by a minus when there are no other characters in the sequence with dots in the upper part of the cell. #3_4 Punctuate as mathematical symbols. Exercises Prompt to Braille twelve plus or minus two #12+-2 The tolerance is plus or minus point five centimeters. The tolerance is +-5 cm_4 five plus minus seven #5+"-7 minus seven minus plus twelve

191

-#7-"+12 five minus minus three equals eight #5-"-3 .k #8 twenty plus minus six equals fourteen #20+"-6 .k #14 The deviation is within plus or minus two percent. The deviation is within +-2`0_4 twelve minus plus general omission sign equals seven #12-"+= .k #7 A variance of plus or minus point zero seven is not acceptable. A variance of +-.07 is not acceptable. Average intelligence is one hundred minus or plus ten. Average intelligence is #100-+10_4 Braille to Speech one thousand two hundred fifty plus or minus two #1,250+-2 fifteen plus or minus zero point zero two #15+-0.02 minus fifteen plus minus two -#15+"-2 fifteen plus plus two equals seventeen #15+"+2 .k #17 The principal square root of twenty five is plus or minus five period The principal square root of #25 is +-5_4 minus five minus minus five equals zero -#5-"-5 .k #0 eight minus or plus zero point five #8-+0.5 thirteen plus minus general sign of omission equals six #13+"-= .k #6

192

Is the range plus or minus five question mark Is the range +-5_8 Proofreading minus nine minus plus three -#9-"+3 -#9-1+3 The margin of error is plus or minus two percent period The margin of error is +-2`0_4 The margin of error is +-#2`0_4 six plus minus general omission sign equals zero #6+"-= .k #0 #6+-= .k #0 #8.2 Radical, also known as root Explanation The most common use of the radical symbol, dots three four five, is to represent square roots, a root of the second degree. The radical sign is also used to indicate radicals of a higher degree, such as cubed or fourth roots; these will be presented in lesson #13_4 The terms square root, root, and radical are used interchangeably.
Braille > ] Symbol Name radical termination indicator Configuration dots 3-4-5 dots 1-2-4-5-6 Print Symbol unique to braille

The radical symbol is paired with the termination indicator, dots one two four five six, when it is followed by a value. When it stands alone, the termination indicator is not used. As the name, termination indicator, implies, this is strictly a symbol used as a convention in braille and has no corresponding symbol in print. When paired with the radical sign, the termination indicator is used to mark the end of the radicand, the value following the radical sign. In print, a horizontal line extends from the radical sign and over the values, expressions, variables, or abbreviations which comprise the radicand. This line is called the vinculum and serves the same purpose as the termination indicator.
Terminology Note A vinculum is a separation line placed over a mathematical expression, enclosing it. When used with roots, it begins with the radical symbol and extends to cover the numbers, variables, expressions, or other symbols which are part of the root. The terms square root, root and radical may be used interchangeably.

193

Technically, the radical is the sign used. The root is a solution and indicates the number of times the solution must be multiplied by itself to produce the radicand. The radicand is the value (and its related symbols) that is enclosed within the radical symbol. It is under the vinculum in print. The square root, often extracted from a quadratic equation, is one type of root. It is paired with the operation of squaring a number (it is the inverse of the exponent, 2). The terms squared and square root evolved from multiplying the two sides of a square to get its area and taking the square root of the area of a square yields the length of one of its sides. radical

16 = 4 root radicand

A radical is to be brailled in a horizontal manner except in two circumstances. It is displayed vertically if it is represented in a spatial arrangement. It is displayed vertically if the root is displayed above the vinculum when showing the process of extracting a root. The spatial procedures used with long division are applied in a similar manner to root extractions and the termination symbol is not used; refer to lesson #6_4 Steps for brailling simple radicals #1_4 Braille the radical symbol, dots three four five. #2_4 Braille the expression to which the radical applies, the radicand. #3_4 Use the termination indicator, dots one two four five six, after the radicand to show that the influence of the radical has ended.
Teaching Tips When a radical has a vinculum, the radical sign must be placed before the radicand and the termination indicator must be placed after the radicand. However, the termination indicator must not be used when the radical sign occurs without a radicand or when the vinculum is not shown in print. (AITBM, 83a, p. 115) Because the radical will be shown without the vinculum only in rare instances, teach students to think of this symbol as a paired symbol that encloses the quantity for which the root is to be taken.

example #1_4 a simple square root >4} .k #2 example #2_4 a square root displaying both values of the root +->4} .k +-2 example #3_4 a square root displaying only the negative value of the root ->4} .k -#2

194

example #4_4 an expression enclosed by the radical >3+6}*2 .k #3*2 .k #6 Examples #5, #6, and #7 display the radical with other symbols; there is no space between the radical sign and the adjoining symbols. example #5_4 #5>3} example #6_4 #7>3}-2>3} .k #5>3} example #7_4 #8>2}./4>2} .k #2 example #8_4 the radical encloses a fraction; the fraction ends first since it is encompassed by the radical and the termination indicator >?12/3#} example #9_4 one step in using the formula for finding the root of a quadratic equation; note use of the plus and minus sign -#4+->16-4(3)(2)} example #10_4 a radical within a literary sentence Since -#5 times -#5 .k #25 and #5 times #5 .k #25, then +->25} .k +-5_4
Math Facts Unless the principal square root is specified for the answer, both the positive and negative factors are to be accounted for when finding the roots (two roots are found for a square root, three roots are found for a cubed root, four roots for the fourth root, etc.).

The radical is also used with exponents, variables, abbreviations, and with other symbols; refer to lesson #12_4 Radicals of a higher order and nested radicals are presented in lesson #13_4 Review Radical, root, sign Braille configuration: dots three four five Braille symbol: >

195

Termination indicator Braille configuration: dots one two four five six Braille symbol: } Usage: these two symbols are used in pairs when the radical has a vinculum, in print, or a radicand. The radical sign is used to indicate roots. If there is no index with it, it is understood to represent a square root. Other roots are indicated with numerals and are shown with an index of the radical indicator which will be presented in lesson #13_4 Rules: #1_4 A radical is to be brailled in a horizontal manner unless: a. it is represented in a spatial arrangement or b. the root is displayed above the vinculum when showing the process of extracting a root. #2_4 In horizontal arrangements, the vinculum is not displayed in braille. #3_4 If no radicand is present, the radical is brailled without the termination indicator. If a vinculum and a radicand are displayed, the termination indicator follows the radicand. #4_4 Use the termination indicator, dots one two four five six, after the radicand to show that the influence of the radical has ended. Exercises Prompt to Braille square root of four >4] plus or minus square root of twenty five +->25] seven times the square root of three #7>3] square root of two times square root of three >2]*>3] square root of the expression five plus twenty equals the square root of twenty five >5+20] .k >25]

196

three times the square root of two minus nine times the square root of two equals minus six times the square root of two #3>2]-9>2] .k -#6>2] square root of the expression nine plus sixteen >9+16] square root of the fraction sixteen over twenty five >?16/25#] The solution is seven plus or minus the square root of two. The solution is #7+->2]_4 open paren square root of two close paren (>2]) open paren square root of three close paren open paren square root of two close paren (>3])(>2]) The radical symbol is open quote radical period close quote The radical symbol is 8>_40 sine of forty five degrees equals the square root of two over two sin #45^.* .k ?>2]/2# Braille to Speech the square root of five >5] eight times the square root of three #8>3] plus or minus the square root of two +->2] the square root of eighty one equals plus or minus nine >81] .k +-9 the square root of the fraction four over sixteen >?4/16#] open paren three times the square root of five close paren (3>5]) the square root of the expression seven plus thirteen

197

>7+13] three times the square root of two plus five times the square root of two #3>2]+5>2] cosine thirty degrees equals the fraction square root of three over two cos #30^.* .k ?>3]/2# Proofreading square root of sixteen >16] >16 five times the square root of two #5>2] #5 >2] the square root of three over three ?>3]/3# >?3]/3# #8.3 Factorial, union, intersection, and hollow dot Explanation Factorial notation is used in higher mathematics, often with permutations and probability analysis. It is the product of all of the positive integers beginning with one and progressing to the number preceding the factorial symbol. Scientific calculators will have a key marked with an exclamation point or with a letter followed by an exclamation point for this operation. Do not use the braille exclamation point for this symbol as that is to be used only as a mark of punctuation! The braille symbol for the factorial is a one-celled symbol, dots one two three four six.
Braille & Symbol Name factorial sign Configuration dots 1-2-3-4-6 Print Symbol !

example #1_4 a factorial and expansion into its factors #3& .k #1*2*3 example #2_4 the order of the factors shown in reverse #5& .k #5*4*3*2*1

198

example #3_4 a factorial with another sign of operation; sometimes the #1 is not shown because multiplying by one does not change the product ?5&/3&# .k ?5*4*3*2/3*2# .k #20 Intersection and union signs The intersection and union symbols are often used with set notation. In print and in braille their configurations are inverses of each other. The braille configuration for the intersection symbol is dots four six dots one four six. The braille symbol for union is dots four six dots three four six. As with any sign of operation, do not space between the intersection and union signs and any symbols which precede or follow them. Set notation will be presented in more detail in lesson #10_4
Braille .% .+ Symbol Name intersection sign (cap) union sign (cup) Configuration dots 4-6, 1-4-6 dots 4-6, 3-4-6 Print Symbol

I U

Math Facts If set A = {1,2,3,4,5} and if set B = {2,4,6,8,10}, then the intersection of these two sets would be AI B ={2,4} and the union of these two sets would be
A

U B ={1,2,3,4,5,6,8,10}

example #1_4 simple intersection of two sets labeled with letter names ,A.%,B example #2_4 simple union of two sets labeled with letter names ,A.+,B
Teaching Tips Notice that the braille plus sign is part of this symbol. This is logical because the set that results from combining the two original sets is similar to an addition process, except that the duplicate elements are only shown once. A mnemonic aid: the intersection symbol is an upward arch in print; the braille symbol also forms a type of symmetrical arch, with the dot 4 as the crest of the arch between the two pillars formed by the dots 4-6 in both cells. Likewise, the dot 3 in the second cell of the union symbol can be compared to the bottom of the print symbols cup.

Hollow dot as composite function The composite function is used in higher mathematics in combining functions, that is, one function uses the result obtained by still another function. The braille symbol for the

199

hollow dot is dots four six dots one six. The hollow dot is a sign of operation and follows all of the rules for such signs.
Braille .* Symbol Name hollow dot Configuration dots 4-6, 1-6 Print Symbol

example #3_4 the composite function used with two functions that have letter names f.*g
Math Facts If f(x) = x2+7 and g(x) = 3x+1, then (fg)(x) uses the function g(x) to replace the x in the function f(x): g(x)

(fg)(x) = (3x+1)2+7

f(x) The composite function is also shown with parentheses and brackets: (fg)(x) = f[g(x)]

Review Factorial Braille configuration: dots one two three four six Braille symbol: & Usage: in higher mathematics, to show the product of the natural numbers up to and including the number, symbol, or expression preceding the factorial sign. Intersection Braille configuration: dots four six dots one four six Braille symbol: .% Usage: in set notation to show the resultant set of all elements that are common to two or more other sets. Union Braille configuration: dots four six dots three four six Braille symbol: .+ Usage: in set notation to show the resultant set formed by combining two or more sets into a third set. Hollow dot Braille configuration: dots four six dots one six Braille symbol: .* Usage: to show composite functions in higher level mathematics. It is used to show the degree symbol as a superscripted hollow circle; refer to lesson #4_4

200

Rules: The rules are the same as for other signs of operation. #1_4 Do not space between the sign and the mathematical symbols or numbers with which it is associated. #2_4 Do not use the numeric indicator between the sign and the number or symbol following it. #3_4 Punctuate as a mathematical symbol. Exercises Prompt to Braille five factorial #5& three factorial equals three times two #3& .k #3*2 the fraction five factorial over four factorial equals five ?5&/4&# .k #5 five factorial equals five times four times three times two #5& .k #5*4*3*2 cap ,A union cap ;,B ,A.+,B cap ;,X intersection cap ;,Y ,X.%,Y ;g hollow dot ;h g.*h ;f hollow dot ;g equals ;f open paren ;g close paren f.*g .k f(g) the fraction six factorial over seven factorial equals one seventh ?6&/7&# .k ?1/7# cap ;,R union cap ;,S ,R.+,S Braille to Speech eight factorial

201

#8& nine factorial equals long dash #9& .k ---;r hollow dot ;s r.*s cap ,A union cap ;,C ,A.+,C cap ;,Y intersection cap ;,T ,Y.%,T four factorial equals twenty four #4& .k #24 ;f open paren ;h close paren equals ;f of ;h f(h) .k f.*h cap ,A union cap ;,B equals cap ;,B union cap ,A ,A.+,B .k ,B.+,A Proofreading cap ;,X intersection cap ;,Y ,X.%,Y ,X.m,;Y four factorial equals four times three times two #4& .k #4*3*2 4& .k #4*3*2 ;l hollow dot ;m l.*m l^.*m #8.4 Asterisk Explanation There is a class of symbols used in higher mathematics which is different from other signs of operation. It is not intended that this tutorial will include all of the symbols found in advanced mathematics. However, the general principles presented here, related to the asterisk, apply to the rest of the symbols. After mastering the general guidelines which apply to signs of operation, one only has to learn the symbol configurations for the advanced signs of operation.

202

Asterisk symbol The asterisk, dot four dots three four five six, may be used as a sign of operation in advanced mathematics. It is also used as a reference symbol to indicate footnotes or to emphasize certain material. The asterisk, dots three five dots three five, is a mark of reference in literary braille. The literary symbol, however, is not to be used in a mathematical context. This is regardless of whether it is used as a sign of operation or a reference symbol.
Braille `# Symbol Name asterisk Configuration dots 4, 3-4-5-6 Print Symbol *

Note The asterisk is often displayed in the command lines of computer programs, some of which are included as exercises in current mathematical texts. However, there is a separate braille code for computer notation in which some symbols and rules are different from those used for the Nemeth Code. When a mathematical text incorporates a computer program as an exercise or demonstration, it will be necessary to braille the material using the Computer Braille Code. The material is not to be brailled according to the Nemeth Code.

Asterisk as a sign of operation The asterisk is governed by the rules for signs of operation, with one exception. When brailling the asterisk, do not space between it and the mathematical symbols or numbers which precede or follow it. Punctuate it as a mathematical symbol. The exception is that the numeric indicator is to be placed before a numeral, or a decimal point and a numeral, which follows the asterisk. example #1_4 asterisk used as a sign of operation with a numeral following it #5`##7 .k #35 example #2_4 asterisk used as a sign of operation with a decimal point and numeral following it #4`##.6 .k #2.4 If the asterisk is applied to symbols other than numerals, such as letters, then the numeric indicator is not used before the symbol which follows the asterisk. example #3_4 asterisk used as a sign of operation with a letter following it; the numeric indicator is not used before the letter #3`#w

203

The asterisk may also be used with other signs of operation in the same manner as any other signs of operation. The rule regarding the numeric indicator, as described above, is also applied in these situations. example #4_4 asterisk used with other symbols within a fraction ?7`##6/3# example #5_4 asterisk used with other symbols where it is operating on a radical #5`#>2} When used as a sign of operation, the asterisk symbol may appear at a different level from the material associated with it. An example would be when it appears with a superscripted or subscripted symbol. In this case, the appropriate level indicator must be used to indicate its position. Level indicators are presented in lesson #12_4 When used as a reference symbol, the asterisk always appears on the baseline, without a level indicator. It is on the baseline in braille even if it appears superscripted or subscripted in print. When referring to a footnote, the reference item is always followed by a space, the asterisk, and another space following the asterisk. This is regardless of whether the asterisk precedes or follows the reference item in print. When positioned with the footnote itself, the asterisk appears in cell seven with all runovers beginning in cell five. A space is left between the asterisk and the first character of the footnoted material. The asterisk in a mathematical context is always punctuated as a mathematical symbol. This is regardless of whether it is used as a sign of operation or a reference symbol. example #6_4 asterisk used as a footnote reference Solve the complex `# fraction. example #7_4 asterisk used as a footnote reference followed by a mark of punctuation Find all roots `#_4 Asterisk referencing items other than footnotes The asterisk is also used to reference items other than footnotes as a means of indicating work that is for extra practice or extra credit. It may also be used to denote a

204

reference to a specific section or paragraph in a textbook. When using the asterisk to reference items other than footnotes, these guidelines should be followed: #1_4 position the asterisk to the left or to the right of the related numeral or letter, #2_4 the asterisk is unspaced from its related numeral or letter, and #3_4 if the asterisk is referencing a numeral, the numeric indicator must be used with the numeral. This is regardless of whether or not the numeral is before or after the asterisk. example #8_4 asterisk used as a reference mark before a problem identifier numeral `##20_4 cos #32^.* example #9_4 a reference asterisk after a problem identifier #35_4`# Find #17& example #10_4 asterisk referencing a capital letter `#,A_4 g.*f Review Asterisk Braille configuration: dot four dots three four five six Braille symbol: `# Usage: as a sign of operation or as a reference symbol. The asterisk, as a sign of operation, often indicates the operation of multiplication. As a reference symbol, it is often used to indicate a footnote both in the main text and as part of the footnote itself. Rules when the asterisk is used as a sign of operation #1_4 Do not space between the asterisk and the mathematical symbols or numbers associated with it. #2_4 Place the numeric indicator between the asterisk and a numeral, or decimal point and numeral, which follows the asterisk. #3_4 Do not use the numeric indicator with any symbol other than a numeral following the asterisk. #4_4 Punctuate the asterisk as a mathematical symbol.

205

#5_4 If the asterisk symbol is at a different level from the material associated with it, then the appropriate level indicator must be used. This is to indicate its position, and is used only when the asterisk is used as a sign of operation. Rules when the asterisk is used as a reference symbol for footnotes #1_4 The asterisk is not to be shown superscripted in braille, even if the print reference displays it raised. #2_4 If an asterisk is referring to a footnote; and it is attached to either the beginning or end of a word, a mathematical expression, or other material; then the asterisk: a. must follow the item, even if the print display places it before the item, b. the asterisk must be preceded and followed by a space, c. the asterisk must appear on the same braille line as the referenced material, and d. even as a reference symbol, the asterisk is to be punctuated mathematically. #3_4 If an asterisk is referring to a footnote and it is unattached to the material: do not leave a space between the footnote reference symbol and any punctuation mark related to it. #4_4 When it appears with the footnote itself: the asterisk is indented into the seventh cell for the first line of braille and into the fifth cell for runover lines. Rules for using the asterisk as a reference to items other than footnotes #1_4 Position the asterisk to the left or to the right of the related numeral or letter. #2_4 The asterisk is unspaced from its related numeral or letter. #3_4 If the asterisk is referencing a numeral: the numeric indicator must be used with the numeral regardless of whether the numeral appears before or after the asterisk. Exercises Prompt to Braille seventeen asterisk three

206

#17`##3 three factorial equals three asterisk two asterisk one #3& .k #3`##2`##1 the fraction six asterisk four over two ?6`##4/2# sixty asterisk open paren two close paren #60`#(2) What is the divisor? asterisk What is the divisor? `# Find the derivative asterisk. Find the derivative `#_4 asterisk seventeen period sine forty five degrees `##17_4 sin #45^.* five asterisk square root of two #5`#>2] nine asterisk open paren minus nine close paren #9`#(-9) Don't use asterisk. Don't use `#_4 Braille to Speech nine asterisk five #9`##5 eight asterisk ten equals eighty #8`##10 .k #80 three factorial equals three asterisk two asterisk one #3& .k #3`##2`##1 the fraction six asterisk four over two ?6`##4/2# the square root of the expression two asterisk fifty >2`##50] seven asterisk open paren minus two close paren #7`##(-2)

207

What is the divisor question mark asterisk What is the divisor? `# Find the derivative asterisk period Find the derivative `#_4 asterisk seventeen period sin of forty five degrees `##17_4 sin #45^.* asterisk The median comma mean comma and mode are different period `# The median, mean, and mode are different. Proofreading asterisk eleven period eight plus or minus two point five `##11_4 #82.5 `?#11_4 #82.5 three asterisk two asterisk one #3`##2`##1 #3`#2`##1 Round to the nearer tenth period asterisk Round to the nearer tenth. `# Round to the nearer tenth.`# #9.1 The use of letters, symbols and numbers Explanation Letters used in mathematical expressions A numeral always represents the same amount and is said to be constant. A variable is a quantity that varies in its possible value; letters are often used to represent the unknown. If a letter is used as a mathematical symbol in a mathematical context, Nemeth Code rules, rather than literary code rules, apply. The following are general rules for the use of letters as variables in mathematical expressions: #1_4 Do not use the English letter indicator before a letter that is part of a mathematical expression. Determination of use of the English letter indicator depends upon the context in which a letter appears. It does not depend upon whether a letter is used as a variable, an abbreviation, or an identifier. If it appears within a mathematical expression, the English letter indicator is not used.

208

#2_4 Do not use the numeric indicator before a letter which represents a variable. Treat it according to the rules for letters, even though it represents a quantity. #3_4 Use the capitalization indicator, dot six, if the letter is shown capitalized. Each capitalized letter in a series of letters is preceded by dot six since each letter represents a separate and distinct value. #4_4 Space the letters as you would any number or other symbol. Do not space between a letter and the numbers associated with it. Do not space between a letter and the signs of operation with which it is applied. Punctuate as a mathematical symbol.
Math Facts When letters are adjacent to each other in a problem, as in xyz or RTS, the operation of multiplication is implied. The numerical values of each of these letters (when they are known) are to be multiplied to give a product: if x = 3, y = 2 and z = 5, then xyz = (3)(2)(5) = 30

When a letter is shown in a mathematical expression adjacent to other mathematical characters, it is brailled without the English letter indicator. When a letter appears in isolation before or after a sign of comparison, the letter is brailled without the English letter indicator. When several letters are displayed together, they are brailled without intervening spaces. Letters can also be used to name parts of a figure, such as line ;l or line ,A,D_4 As mathematical symbols, letters can be combined with any other symbol. When an upper case letter appears in any context, the capitalization indicator, dot six, precedes the letter. When more than one capital letter appears in a mathematical expression, each letter must be preceded by the capitalization indicator. This is because they are separate entities. The English letter indicator is not used in a mathematical context, but it is used if a single upper case letter appears in a literary context. It is not used if there is more than one adjacent upper case letter.
Teaching Tips Many students have difficulty understanding the concept of variables partly because these are not the numerals with which they are familiar, and partly because the students are used to encountering letters only in non-mathematical readings. To overcome this barrier, as an instructional aid, use the analogy that a variable is like a sealed box, the contents of which are unknown. Label the box with a letter. If the variable is involved in an equation, the box and anything stuck to it can be put on one side of a scale and the answer is on

209

the other side; this shows that an equation is balanced on either side of the equals sign. One can then use the mathematical tricks to determine the contents of the box. - 7 = 12 y If the variable (box) has a -7 attached to it, as above, then the -7 can be removed by undoing how it is stuck to the box (by subtraction) with the inverse mathematical operation (addition). This is done to both sides of the equals sign. y 7 + 7 = 12 + 7

y = 19

Now the box is opened and the contents, 19, are discovered.

example #1_4 Multiply: xyz example #2_4 If x .k #3, y .k #2, and z .k #5, then xyz .k (3)(2)(5) .k #30 example #3_4 simple isolated letter, not associated with a sign of comparison or an expression; English letter indicator required ;w example #4_4 lower case letter used to represent part of a figure within literary context; English letter indicator required Find the length of line ;l in figure #2_4 example #5_4 upper case letters used to represent part of a figure within literary context; English letter indicator not required; double capital sign not required Find the length of line ,A,D in figure #2_4 example #6_4 single lowercase letter part of mathematical expression using sign of comparison; English letter indicator not required x .k -#18 example #7_4 letter followed by other mathematical symbols in equation x+17 .k #52 In examples #8 and #9, several lowercase letters are used in a mathematical context with a sign of comparison between them. The adjacent letters are still separate values.

210

example #8_4 d .k rt example #9_4 y .k mx+b

Terminology Note A coefficient is a numeral, another variable, or a directed (signed) number preceding another value, all of which are factors (that is, all are multiplied to produce a product.)

example #10_4 letter following numeral #5x example #11_4 letter followed by other mathematical symbol x@0 example #12_4 letter preceded by other mathematical symbol @sd example #13_4 letter enclosed by mathematical symbol >b} example #14_4 adjacent letters enclosed by mathematical symbol >ac} example #15_4 letters used with signs of grouping (r+3)(r-3) example #16_4 single upper case letter not part of a mathematical expression; English letter indicator required ;,X In examples #17 and #18, the upper case letters are part of mathematical equations; English letter indicator not required example #17_4 ,Y .k -#4 example #18_4 ,A+,Y .k #14 example #19_4 #3,X example #20_4

211

(-9,X)(,Y)(2,Z) .k -#18,X,Y,Z example #21_4 @s,N Letters may appear as exponents or as parts of exponential expressions; refer to lesson #12_4 Review Rules: Following are rules for the use of letters in mathematical context: #1_4 Do not use the English letter indicator before a letter representing a variable when it is part of a mathematical expression. The use or non-use of the English letter indicator depends upon whether the letter stands alone or is part of a mathematical expression. #2_4 Do not use the numeric indicator, regardless of whether or not a letter represents a quantity. #3_4 Use the capitalization indicator, dot six, if the letter is upper case; each upper case letter is preceded by dot six. #4_4 Apply the same rules for spacing as you would for any number or symbol. Exercises Prompt to Braille ;y plus ;z y+z thirteen ;x #13x fifteen a ;b ;c #15abc minus nine point seven cap ,A -#9.7,A five ;s minus the square root of three #5s->3] ;b minus the fraction four over ;c

212

b-?4/c# the fraction ;b minus fourteen over ;c ?b-14/c# the square root of the expression ;x minus two ;y >x-2y] cap ,A equals the fraction square root of three over two ,A .k ?>3]/2# sine cap ;,D sin ,D Braille to Speech two ;b #2b nine cap ,A cap ;,B cap ;,C #9,A,B,C three ;x plus two ;y #3x+2y open paren ;x plus ;y close paren open paren ;x minus ;y close paren (x+y)(x-y) ten cap ;,M degrees #10,M^.* three cap ;,Y plus two cap ;,Y equals five cap ;,Y #3,Y+2,Y .k #5,Y nine a minus five ;b #9a-5b the fraction a plus ;b over ;c ?a+b/c# cosine cap ;,B cos ,B two cap ;,X percent #2,X`0

213

Proofreading minus twenty one ;x -#21x -#21;x ten cap ;,R #10,R ,#10R five cap ;,X cap ;,Y cap ;,Z #5,X,Y,Z #5,,XYZ #9.2 Letters not used in mathematical expressions Explanation When a letter is not used in a mathematical expression, generally a letter indicator is placed before the letter. The use of the English letter indicator, dots five six, is presented in this section. Foreign alphabetic letter indicators will be addressed in lesson #9.3_4
Braille ; Symbol Name English letter indicator Configuration dots 5-6 Print Symbol unique to braille

Letters as variables within a literary context If an English letter representing a variable is part of a sentence or phrase, the English letter indicator is used before the variable. If the letter is joined to a word by a hyphen or is joined to other letters that are not variables, then the English letter indicator must be used. Letters may have ordinal, plural, or possessive endings; braille contractions may not be used to represent ordinal endings in these cases. If the variables can be confused with short-form words, they are preceded by an English letter indicator. An exception is if they are shown in upper case or they are part of a mathematical expression. Braille contractions may not be used to represent two or more variables. When each letter has its own identity, each letter is brailled separately.
Note Similar rules apply to the foreign language alphabetic characters which are presented in lesson 9.

When combinations of uppercase letters which can be confused with short-form words are used as variables, the capitalization indicator precedes each letter. The English letter indicator is

214

not required. Do not use the English letter indicator before letters which follow a function name, its abbreviation, or a shape indicator. Refer to lesson #14 for information on shape indicators. The English letter indicator is not used if one or more letters, in regular font, occur in a group of terms. These groups may consist of combinations of numerals, foreign alphabet letters, signs of operation, or any other unspaced mathematical symbol. example #1_4 variable used in a sentence The element ;y is a member of set ;,A_4 example #2_4 variable connected to non-mathematical items The ;x-intercept is on the ;x-axis. example #3_4 letter connected to ordinal ending to the ;nth degree
Refer to lesson may not be used (variables), or and AITBM, 27, Note 7 on ordinal endings, such as th and st; contracted endings as ordinal endings when attached to numerals, letters other mathematical symbols or expressions.(NBC, 55d, p. 67 p.20)

example #4_4 letter connected to plural endings ;x_'s and ;y_'s are variables example #5_4 letters used as variables that could possibly be confused with the short-form word, about The rule about the product ;ab is true. example #6_4 braille contractions in mathematical expression not used because each letter has a distinct identity; English letter indicator not used ab .k ch example #7_4 upper case letters used as points to label lines; no contractions used; punctuation indicator required Draw line ,C,D parallel to line ,A,B_4 example #8_4 letter is part of an equation, therefore, English letter indicator not used; punctuation indicator is required Does #6 .k m_8 example #9_4 upper case letter used as variable after function name cos ,B

215

example #10_4 lower case letter used as variable after function name log a example #11_4 letters in groups with numerals and a sign of operation #8r*4s .k #32rs
Note The rules outlined above do not apply to foreign language alphabets. As presented in lesson 9.3, the foreign language alphabet indicators are always to be used with foreign letters.

Review English letter indicator Braille configuration: dots five six Braille symbol: ; Usage: to indicate that a braille configuration is to be interpreted as an English letter. Rules: The English letter indicator is to be used: #1_4 if the letter is part of a sentence or phrase, #2_4 if the letter is joined to a word or to other letters that are not in a mathematical expression, #3_4 if any combination of letters can be confused with short form words, unless they are upper case or part of a mathematical expression. Do not use the English letter indicator: #1_4 before letters which follow a function name, its abbreviation, or a shape indicator; or #2_4 if one or more letters, in regular font, occur in a group of terms. These groups may consist of combinations of numerals, foreign alphabet letters, signs of operation, or any other unspaced mathematical symbol. Exercises Prompt to Braille The point cap ;,R is on the ;x intercept. The point ,R is on the ;x-intercept. The x's are positive in quadrant cap ,I.

216

The ;x_'s are positive in quadrant ;,I_4 It is raised to the nth power. It is raised to the ;nth power. Find both roots of ;x. Find both roots of ;x_4 The ;x axis is horizontal. The ;x-axis is horizontal. ;y is the variable ;y is the variable log cap ;,T log ,T draw cap ;,C cap ;,D draw ,C,D Multiply ;c ;d to get ;f. Multiply ;cd to get ;f_4 ;c ;d equals twelve cd .k #12 Label the line cap ,A cap ;,B. Label the line ,A,B_4 sine cap ;,B sin ,B Braille to Speech Find the ;x intercept period Find the ;x intercept. ;x is an element of set cap ;,C period ;x is an element of set ;,C_4 cosine ;x cos x ;x is more than y's value ;x is more than ;y_'s value

217

;z is a scalar value ;z is a scalar value In what quadrant are the y's positive question mark In what quadrant are the ;y_'s positive? In quadrant Roman cap ,I ,I ,I comma the x's and the y's are negative period In quadrant ,,III, the ;x_'s and the ;y_'s are negative. Line cap ,A cap ;,B and line cap ;,L cap ;,R do not meet period. Line ,A,B and line ,L,R do not meet. ;d equals ;r ;t d .k r-t four ;r equals four multiplication dot ;r #4r .k #4*r Proofreading Graph the ;y intercept period Graph the ;y-intercept. Graph the ;y-intercept_4 Multiply ;c ;d to get thirteen period Multiply ;cd to get #13_4 Multiple cd to get #13_4 The equation is of the nth degree period The equation is of the ;nth degree. The equation is of the ;n? degree. cosine ;x cos x cos ;x #9.3 Specialized alphabets Explanation The use of Greek letters in mathematics is quite common. Alphabets from Hebrew, Russian, and other languages are also incorporated into mathematics. The Greek letters delta, sigma, pi, and other foreign language letters may have specific mathematical meanings. They may represent: #1_4 specific quantities, such as the Greek letter pi,

218

#2_4 mathematical operations, for instance the Greek letter delta, or #3_4 variables or classifications of types, as in the Greek letter rho. Consequently, each letter has to be indicated first as a foreign alphabetic character. Second, it has to be indicated as a mathematical symbol. Third, when it is required, it is indicated as an uppercase alphabetic character. This tutorial will only present some of the basic Greek letters commonly used in mathematics. However, the following applies to all of the foreign language alphabets.
Braille . ., ,, _ `` Symbol Name Greek (lower case) Greek (upper case) Hebrew German Cyrillic (Russian) Configuration dots 4-6 dots 4-6, 6 dots 6, 6 dots 4-5-6 dots 4, 4 Print Symbol none none none none none

Foreign language alphabetic indicators Each foreign language letter is preceded by the appropriate foreign alphabetic indicator. Even if two or more letters from the same occur next to each other, the appropriate foreign language alphabetic indicator must precede each letter. It is beyond the scope of this tutorial to provide all of the characters in each alphabet. A complete listing of these alphabets is available in: An Introduction to Braille Mathematics, pages #27-#31; The Nemeth Braille Code for Mathematics and Science Notation, #1972 Revision, pages #22-25_4 The Greek letter indicator for lower case Greek letters is dots four six. Upper case Greek letters are preceded by the Greek letter indicator followed by the capitalization indicator, that is, dots four six dot six. Following are examples of the lowercase and uppercase forms of the Greek letters that will be used in this lesson, followed by their names. .a .b .d .e .? .p .r .,A .,B .,D .,E .,? .,P .,R alpha beta delta epsilon theta pi rho
Greek Alphabet

219

Braille .,d .,s .a .b .d .e .? .p .r

Symbol Name delta sigma alpha beta delta epsilon theta pi rho

Print Symbol

Note Some of the letters of the ordinary lowercase Greek alphabet also have an alternative form. These alternative forms rarely occur in print texts. The alternative forms should only be used when the author has assigned distinct meanings which differentiate between the standard and alternative forms of the same letter. If an alternative form occurs throughout a text instead of the standard forms of the Greek letters, use the standard forms in braille. (NBC, 23, p. 26)

Influence of foreign language indicators The foreign language letter indicator must precede each foreign language letter, because its influence only applies to the single letter which follows it. example #1_4 Greek letter indicator precedes each letter .,D.? Examples #2-4 show that the influence of the foreign letter indicator extends to only one character. Unlike the English letter indicator, which is not used when English letters occur in mathematical expressions, the foreign language indicator is required. This is regardless of the context in which the foreign letter occurs. example #2_4 the Greek letter indicator is required for pi; the English letter indicator is not required for ;,C or ;r ,C .k #2.p-r example #3_4 two Greek letters, pi and theta, follow each other ,C .k .p.? Use of foreign language letters The foreign language letters are used as mathematical characters, regardless of the context. The rules presented regarding spacing, signs of operation, and signs of comparison also apply to foreign language letters. example #4_4 Greek letters with signs of operation

220

.a+.b+.d .k #180^.* example #5_4 Greek letters used with trigonometric function names sin .? .k ?a/c# example #6_4 numeral preceding Greek letter .? .k #4.p Note: The Greek letter for epsilon is not to be used for the symbol indicating membership in a set, although it may be used that way in print textbooks. The braille symbol for the character used to indicate "element of" or membership in a set is a sign of comparison. The braille configuration, dots four six, has multiple uses. These include the decimal point, italics indicator, Greek letter indicator, a portion of the union and intersection symbols, and as part of the equals sign. Because the same dot configuration has different uses, possible confusion can arise regarding the meaning of this symbol. The Greek letter kappa, for example, uses the same configuration as the equals sign. Context clues, spacing, and related symbols guide the braille reader to understand the meaning of the configuration in each instance. Understanding the basic rules of braille that apply to each type of character will aid the braille reader in interpretation of various configurations. Review Greek alphabetic indicator Braille configuration: dots four six, followed by the Greek letter Braille symbol: . followed by the Greek letter Usage: to indicate that a letter is a Greek letter. Rules: #1_4 Each letter is preceded by the Greek alphabetic indicator. #2_4 When the upper case form of the letter is used, the capitalization indicator is placed between the Greek alphabetic indicator and the letter. #3_4 The Greek alphabetic indicator must precede each letter, because its influence only applies to the single letter which follows.

221

#4_4 The Greek language letters are used as mathematical characters. The rules applying to mathematical symbols also apply to Greek letters. Exercises Prompt to Braille cap ;,C equals ten pi ,C .k #10.p the fraction cap delta ;y over cap delta ;x ?.,dy/.,dx# theta equals thirty two degrees .? .k #32^.* cosine beta cos .b tangent theta equals three fourths tan .? .k ?3/4# rho equals five cosine three theta .r .k #5cos #3.? two pi ;r #2.pi r cap sigma .,S alpha plus beta .a+.b The symbols are epsilon and pi. The symbols are .e and .p_4 Braille to Speech theta is between square root of two and minus square root of two period .? is between >2] and ->2]_4 cap delta theta equals two pi .,d.? .k #2.p the fraction cap delta ;y over cap delta ;x ?.,dy/.,dx#

222

beta equals seventy degrees .b .k #70^.* sine theta equals the fraction pi over two sin .? .k ?.p/2# rho equals alpha cosine two theta .r .k .acos #2.? Use cap sigma for the sum of a sequence period Use .,s for the sum of a sequence. Use pi over two comma not ninety degrees period Use ?.p/2#, not #90^.*_4 cap ;,C equals pi ;d ,C .k .p-d Use delta and epsilon for extremely small increments period Use .d and .e for extremely small increments. Proofreading cap delta pi .,d.p .,dp tangent alpha equals fraction one over two tan .a .k ?1/2# tan ka .k ?1/2# cap ;,R equals three pi ,R .k #3.p ;,R .k #3.p #10.1 Signs of grouping Explanation Parentheses, braces, brackets, and vertical lines: common signs of grouping The symbols described in this section include: Opening, left, parenthesis, dots one two three five six Closing, right, parenthesis, dots two three four five six Opening, left, bracket, dot four dots one two three five six Closing, right, bracket, dot four dots two three four five six Opening boldface, left, bracket, dots four five six dot four dots one two three five six

223

Closing boldface, right, bracket, dots four five six dot four dots two three four five six Opening, left, brace, dots four six dots one two three five six Closing, right, brace, dots four six dots two three four five six Opening and closing vertical bar, dots one two five six
Braille ( ) `( `) _`( _`) .( .) | Symbol Name opening mathematical parenthesis closing mathematical parenthesis opening (left) bracket closing (right) bracket boldface left bracket boldface right bracket opening (left) brace closing (right) brace vertical bar (opening and closing) Configuration dots 1-2-3-5-6 dots 2-3-4-5-6 dots dots dots 6 dots 6 dots dots dots 4, 1-2-3-5-6 4, 2-3-4-5-6 4-5-6, 4, 1-2-3-54-5-6, 4, 2-3-4-54-6, 1-2-3-5-6 4-6, 2-3-4-5-6 1-2-5-6 Print Symbol ( ) [ ] [ ] { } |

The parentheses were introduced in a previous lesson. They are included here as part of the larger set of grouping symbols. Because signs of grouping are a full braille cell in height, the numeric indicator is not used for numerals immediately following an opening sign of grouping. Although signs of grouping most commonly occur in pairs with an opening symbol and a closing symbol, there are instances where this may not be the case. When problems are numbered with item identifiers, a single closing parenthesis may be used: example #1_4 #17) (2), (3), and (5) are the prime factors of #30_4 Uses of signs of grouping Following are examples of common uses of grouping symbols: enclosure of one item, or of a series of items or expressions; item identifiers; or representation of multiplication, the range of values of a function, or the argument of a function. example #2_4 signs of grouping with numbers |-3| example #3_4 signs of grouping with a list Set ,W .k .(-3, -1.5, 0, 3.2, 9.) example #4_4 signs of grouping with an expression

224

(10x + 4) example #5_4 signs of grouping to indicate multiplication #5(x+7) example #6_4 signs of grouping to indicate multiplication of two expressions (y+i)(y-i) example #7_4 signs of grouping to indicate that entire expression is divided by two (10a+8)_/2 example #8_4 signs of grouping as the argument of a function sin (x+4) example #9_4 signs of grouping to indicate the range of a function; the range of values is enclosed with two different types of signs, parenthesis and bracket. This expression is read as "all the values from but not including #2 up to and including #10_4" ,R .k (2, 10.)
Math Facts The notation D = (-, 5] or R = (2, 10] uses two different signs of grouping: parentheses and brackets. The mathematical meaning of the bracket is that the value adjacent to the bracket is included in the set of values. The value adjacent to the parenthesis, even though it is a limit, is not included.

Definition of enclosed lists A list of grouped items is enclosed if there are beginning and ending signs of grouping and the items are separated by commas. There are restrictions on what types of items the list may contain. Certain rules apply only if the items enclosed by the signs of grouping qualify as an enclosed list. The list may contain any of the following: numerals, letters or variables, mathematical expressions, or signs of omission. The enclosed list may not contain a word, an abbreviation, or an ordinal or plural ending. It may not contain a sign of comparison, or any punctuation mark other than commas which separate the items. If the enclosed group of items conforms to all of these restrictions, then it may be brailled as an enclosed list.
Note A question mark used as a sign of omission is not considered to be a mark of punctuation. It is to be considered and treated as the type of item that is being omitted (e.g., a numeral, a sign of operation, etc.)

225

Treatment of items in an enclosed list In order to save space in an enclosed list, #1_4 the numeric indicator is not used with any numerals or before a decimal point in regular font in the list, and #2_4 the English letter indicator is not used with any English letter or combination of English letters that are not words that appear in regular font. Letters from foreign language alphabets require the appropriate letter indicator. Items not in regular font, such as boldface or italics, require either the numeric indicator or the English letter indicator.
Note Typeform indicators are presented in An Introduction to Braille Mathematics, 40-46.

example #10_4 an enclosed list; no numeric indicator required (1, 5, 7, 9) example #11_4 an enclosed list with a sign of omission (7.0, .7, .07, .007 ''') example #12_4 an enclosed list; no English letter indicator required .(w, x, y, z.) example #13_4 an enclosed list of mixed numeric and alphabetic items (w, 2x, +7) example #14_4 mathematical expressions not containing a sign of comparison .(3x, -2a-b, 3x+7.) example #15_4 an enclosed list with foreign alphabetic characters .(a, .a, b, .b, d, .d.) Parentheses listing coordinates in an ordered pair In geometry, points may be plotted on a two-dimensional graph known as a Cartesian graph. The location of a single point has two directions and distances from where the two axes cross: a horizontal distance on the ;x-axis, and a vertical distance on the ;y-axis. The coordinate value for the horizontal distance is presented first. This is followed by a comma and a space to separate it from the coordinate value of the vertical distance. Because this resembles an enclosed list with only two values, the same rules for brailling an enclosed list apply. The numeric

226

indicator is not used for numerals within parentheses and the English letter indicator is not used for letters within parentheses. The values in the ordered pair of numbers can be numerals, letters, expressions, or other mathematical symbols. example #16_4 coordinates for a point on a two-dimensional graph ,B(2, 4) example #17_4 variables displayed as coordinates (x, y) example #18_4 coordinates showing direction (-5, +7) example #19_4 coordinates represented by variables in a mathematical expression (2n+7, n-5) example #20_4 co-ordinates for a point on a three-dimensional graph (3, -7, 0.5) example #21_4 variables displayed as coordinates on a threedimensional graph (x, y, z) Treatment of grouped items which are not enclosed lists When items enclosed in signs of grouping contain a word, an abbreviation, or an ordinal or plural ending, the grouped items are not an enclosed list. When items enclosed in signs of grouping contain a sign of comparison, or any punctuation mark other than a comma to separate the items, the grouped items are not an enclosed list. The numeric indicator and the English letter indicator must be used in those situations where they would have been used if the items were not grouped. example numeric follows (5, #7, #22_4 not an enclosed list because a word is included; indicator not required with first item because it opening parenthesis and #9)

example #23_4 not an enclosed list because abbreviations are included; numeric indicator required (3 in., #5 cm., #7 yd., #13 ft.)

227

example #24_4 not an enclosed list because ordinal endings are included; numeric indicator not required with first item because it follows opening parenthesis (1st, #2nd, #5th, nth) example #25_4 not an enclosed list because sign of comparison is included .(3y-9 .k #2, #3a .k #22, #4a+9 .k #.5.) example #26_4 not an enclosed list because punctuation other than commas used to separate items (0, #5, #211_; #1.5, #.8, #2.1) Restrictions on dividing an enclosed list Items in an enclosed list are a complete mathematical expression. Just as an expression is not to be divided between braille lines or between braille pages, likewise, items in an enclosed list are not to be divided. They are to be brailled on the same braille line. If there is not enough space remaining on a braille line to permit the inclusion of the entire enclosed list on a line with other characters or words, the following procedures apply. Space must be left after the items preceding the enclosed list. The enclosed list is to be brailled in its entirety on the next braille line. If the list itself will not fit on one line, it may be divided after a comma which separates items in the list. Restricted use of single cell whole-word and whole-word lowersign contractions To avoid confusion with Nemeth Code symbols, use the following guidelines when brailling words that are enclosed within signs of grouping: #1_4 Whole-word lower-sign contractions, such as by, enough, in, to, were, and his cannot be used if they are in contact with a sign of grouping. Part-word lower-sign contractions may be used within a word, such as the in in into if the contracted portion is not in contact with a sign of grouping. #2_4 The whole-word or part-word contractions and, for, of, the, and with, cannot be used if they are in contact with a sign of grouping. They also cannot be used if they are parts of words where the contracted part of the word is in contact with a sign of grouping, for example, in the word form. #3_4 One cell whole-word alphabet contractions such as but, can, do, and from, cannot be used if they are in contact with a sign of grouping. Such contractions may, however, be used within

228

signs of grouping when they are not in direct contact with the opening or closing grouping symbols.
Note One-cell contractions prohibited next to grouping symbols: 1) one-cell alphabetic contractions (from, have, just, more, etc.) 2) lower-sign whole-word contractions (in, his, was, were, etc.) 3) whole-word or part-word contractions (and, for, of, the, with).

example #27_4 (and not -#7) example #28_4 (in #9-2) example #29_4 (but not #2) example #30_4 (5@0 of #100) example #31_4 (7 goes into) example #32_4 (use the formula proof) Part-word contractions such as en, ou, gh, or er may be used in words such as enough and were when the one cell contractions for these words cannot be used. This is because they are adjacent to signs of grouping. example #33_4 the single-cell contraction for enough cannot be used because it is adjacent to the parenthesis; the contractions for ou and gh may be used (enough of them)
Note The above discussion and examples illustrate how material is transcribed in braille in a students professionally prepared text materials and certainly, the student should be aware of these rules. The braille reader, however, must be able to make decisions regarding the meaning of the configurations. Context clues are needed for the braille reader to be able to read text enclosed within signs of grouping in order to prevent him or her from making conceptual or computational errors. For example, a student may mistake the contraction for the word, this, as the beginning of a fraction; the contractions for but, can, do, etc., as variables; and the contraction for with as a closing parenthesis before the closing parenthesis is intended.

229

Attention to context clues, such as spacing, will help to avoid these errors. Words such as this are preceded and/or followed by a space, whereas the opening fraction indicator and grouping symbols do not have a space following them.

Punctuation Signs of grouping are mathematical symbols and should be punctuated accordingly. They are not considered to be marks of punctuation even when they are used to enclose literary material. example #34_4 punctuation indicator required with sign of grouping Use -#10 (not #10)_4 Review Signs of grouping Braille configurations: Opening, left, parenthesis, dots one two three five six Closing, right, parenthesis, dots two three four five six Opening, left, bracket, dot four dots one two three five six Closing, right, bracket, dot four dots two three four five six Opening boldface, left, bracket, dots four five six dot four dots one two three five six Closing boldface, right, bracket, dots four five six dot four dots two three four five six Opening, left, brace, dots four six dots one two three five six Closing, right, brace, dots four six dots two three four five six Opening and closing vertical bar, dots one two five six Braille symbols: Opening, left, parenthesis, ( Closing, right, parenthesis, ) Opening, left, bracket, `( Closing, right, bracket, `) Opening boldface, left, bracket, _`( Closing boldface, right, bracket, _`) Opening, left, brace, .( Closing, right, brace, .) Opening and closing vertical bar, | Usage: These signs have several uses in mathematics. In general, they group items together for a particular purpose. An enclosed list, by definition, is a specialized grouping of

230

symbols. Refer to the remaining sections of this lesson for more information regarding various uses for these symbols. Rules: #1_4 Signs of grouping should appear in the same position and in the same manner as they do in print. They are usually displayed in pairs. #2_4 No one-cell whole-word or whole-word lower-sign contractions may be used in contact with signs of grouping. #3_4 Do not use the numeric indicator for any numeral immediately following an opening sign of grouping. #4_4 Do not use the numeric indicator or English letter indicator if grouped items are separated by commas, such as in enclosed lists or with paired numbers. The numeric indicator and English letter indicator are required if there are words, signs of comparison, or punctuation other than commas within signs of grouping. The numeric indicator and English letter indicator are required if there are ordinal or plural endings, or abbreviations within signs of grouping. The appropriate foreign alphabet indicators must be used when foreign letters appear within signs of grouping. #5_4 The contractions and, for, of, the, and with may not be used as the contracted part of a word if the contracted part is in contact with a sign of grouping. #6_4 Punctuate as mathematical symbols. Exercises Prompt to Braille open paren two, four, six close paren (2, 4, 6) open paren minus seven close paren, open paren zero close paren, and open paren eight close paren (-7), (0), and (8) open paren six ;y minus two close paren (6y-2) minus six open paren two ;x plus one close paren -#6(2x+1)

231

open paren ;x plus one close paren open paren ;x minus one close paren (x+1)(x-1) open paren six ;b minus seven close paren over ten ?(6b-7)/10# cosine open paren ;x close paren cos (x) open paren ;x close paren (x) cap ,A equals open paren one, seven, nine close paren ,A .k (1, 7, 9) ;f open paren five a minus fifteen close paren f(5a-15) open paren a, ;b, ;c close paren (a, b, c) cap ;,P open paren one, zero close paren ,P(1, 0) open paren one, two, and three close paren (1, #2, and #3) open paren six ;x equals one, two ;x equals minus one close paren (6x .k #1, #2x .k -#1) minus two open paren and not plus two close paren -#2 (and not +2) open paren in the proof close paren (in the proof) Braille to Speech open paren point five comma point four comma point three close paren (.5, .4, .3) cap ;,Q open paren five comma minus three close paren ,Q(5, -3) open paren ;x comma ;y comma ;z close paren

232

(x, y, z) open paren one plus the fraction ;r over ;h close paren (1+?r/h#) open paren six plus four comma, seven minus two comma, three plus one close paren (6+4, 7-2, 3+1) cap ;,B equals open brace zero comma six comma nine close brace ,B .k .(0, 6, 9.) open paren ;u comma ;l comma ;t close paren (u, l, t) All real numbers open paren but not seven close paren are solutions period All real numbers (but not #7) are solutions. ;g open paren ;y close paren hollow dot ;f open paren ;y close paren g(y).*f(y) open paren one comma three comma long dash comma nine close paren (1, 3, ----, 9) Proofreading open paren two comma four comma six close paren (2, 4, 6) (#2, 4, 6) open paren four comma eight comma and twelve close paren (4, #8, and #12) (4, #8,;and 12) cap ;,W equals open paren six close paren ,W .k (6) ,W .k (#6) #10.2 Signs of grouping: spacing, plural endings, and parts of words Explanation Spacing with signs of grouping When an expression is enclosed within signs of grouping, #1_4 no space is left between a symbol and a sign of grouping;

233

#2_4 no space is left between a sign of grouping and a sign of omission or sign of comparison; #3_4 spacing is determined by the rules for a particular symbol when symbols directly precede or follow a sign of grouping: a. Signs of operation would not be separated from signs of grouping by a space. This is because rules for positioning the signs of operation require that no space be left between them and adjacent symbols. b. A sign of comparison must have a space between it and a sign of grouping which precedes or follows it. This is because of the rules for spacing for that group of symbols. c. Do not leave a space between items enclosed by signs of grouping and a letter or a numeral when the print does not display a space. #4_4 do not space between signs of grouping which are part of the same expression, nested signs of grouping. example #1_4 no spaces between parentheses and signs of operation (+ or -) example #2_4 no spaces between parentheses and long dashes (----, 2, 4, 6, ----) example #3_4 no spaces between parentheses and sign of operation (a+7)+(a-4) example #4_4 spaces precede and follow sign of comparison ,A .k .(3, -3.) example #5_4 no spaces between vertical lines and sign of operation; spaces precede and follow sign of comparison |-5|-|-8| .k #3 example #6_4 no space between signs of grouping (2x-1)(3x+7) example #7_4 a letter precedes opening sign of grouping; no space because it is part of the expression x(x+9) example #8_4 a numeral precedes opening sign of grouping; no space because it is part of the expression #5(a+2)

234

Plural endings and parts of words enclosed in signs of grouping When plural endings and parts of words are enclosed within signs of grouping, use the corresponding Nemeth Code grouping symbols for the enclosure. Do not use the literary equivalents. example #9_4 a plural enclosed within parentheses in a mathematical context Which variable(s) is negative? example #10_4 part of word is enclosed in parentheses Prefixes in the metric system precede the basic unit of measurement, as in (milli)meters and (centi)meters. Spacing between facing signs of grouping Occasionally, two signs of grouping may face each other without enclosing any items. They are separated in print by a space. If the blank space between them does not represent an omission, then a space must be left in braille. If the space represents an omitted item, then the general omission symbol, dots one two three four five six, is to be inserted between them. example #11_4 facing signs of grouping; the space does not represent an omission, but implies that there are no elements within the enclosed set The symbol for the empty set is .( .)_4 example #12_4 facing signs of grouping where a space represents an omission (5)(=) .k #15 Items entirely enclosed by signs of grouping A single letter, a group of unspaced letters, or a numeral may be entirely enclosed within signs of grouping. When this occurs, neither the English letter indicator nor the numeric indicator is used. An exception occurs if the letters or numerals are not in the same font as the major portion of the material. If, for example, a letter is in boldface type, the boldface indicator, dots four five six, is placed before the English letter indicator and the letter. If an italicized numeral is enclosed within signs of grouping, the italics indicator, dots four six, is placed before the numeric indicator and the numeral. For more information, refer to lesson #15_4 example #13_4 a single letter enclosed in brackets; English letter indicator not required

235

`(x`) example #14_4 an unspaced sequence of letters; English letter indicator not required (abc) example #15_4 a numeral enclosed in vertical bars; numeric indicator not required |561| example #16_4 a Roman numeral entirely enclosed in signs of grouping (i) and (iv) example #17_4 an unspaced sequence of capital letters (,C,D) is an arc Letters in contact with only one sign of grouping If an unmodified letter or short-form word is in direct contact with only one grouping symbol, it is to be treated as if the grouping symbol was not present. This is with regard to the use or non-use of the English letter indicator. example #18_4 English letter indicator required ;a) example #19_4 English letter indicator not required because of existence of prime sign x') Review Signs of grouping: spacing, plural endings, and parts of words Rules: #1_4 No space occurs between signs of grouping and the symbols they enclose. #2_4 Spacing for symbols preceding or following signs of grouping is determined by the rules for those symbols. #3_4 When parts of words and plurals are enclosed within signs of grouping, use the corresponding Nemeth Code grouping symbol. Do not use the literary code sign of grouping for the enclosure. #4_4 If a single letter, a group of unspaced letters, or a numeral is entirely enclosed within signs of grouping, neither

236

the English letter indicator nor the numeric indicator is required. #5_4 If two signs of grouping are facing each other with an intervening space, braille the symbols with a space between them. The exception is if the space represents a sign of omission. #6_4 If a letter or group of letters is in direct contact with only one grouping symbol, and if it is not modified, for example, by the prime sign: the item is to be treated as if the grouping symbols were not present with regard to the use or nonuse of the English letter indicator. Exercises Prompt to Braille cap ;,X equals open paren three, minus seven close paren ,X .k (3, -7) open paren minus five close paren plus six (-5)+6 open paren three ;y plus five close paren open paren two ;y minus three close paren (3y+5)(2y-3) ;b open paren ;b plus two close paren b(b+2) open paren long dash, four, six, eight close paren (----, 4, 6, 8) open paren Roman ;i ;i close paren (ii) ;d close paren ;d) ;w prime close paren w') open paren two close paren times open paren minus three close paren (2)*(-3) ;y equals ;m open paren two ;x plus ;b close paren

237

y .k m(2x+b) open paren open paren minus seven close paren plus ten close paren ((-7)+10) What does open paren poly close paren nomial mean? What does (poly)nomial mean? Braille to Speech five open paren ;k plus six close paren #5(k+6) open paren cap ;,X cap ;,Y cap ;,Z close paren (,X,Y,Z) The centers are open paren cap ,O comma cap ,O prime close paren period The centers are (,O, ,O')_4 open paren ;d equals ;r ;t close paren (d .k rt) cap ;,G equals open paren long dash comma minus one comma zero comma one close paren ,G .k (----, -1, 0, 1) open paren three open bracket ;x open paren three ;y close paren close bracket close paren (3`(x(3y)`)) open paren Roman cap ;v ;i ;i ;i close paren (,,viii) open paren ;w plus two close paren plus open paren two ;w minus one close paren (w+2)+(2w-1) seventeen open paren five ;x close paren #17(5x) Which function open paren ;s close paren is positive in the first quadrant question mark Which function(s) is positive in the first quadrant?

238

open paren three ;x close paren open paren general omission sign close paren equals ten ;x (3x)(=) .k #10x Proofreading open paren a plus two close paren plus open paren two a minus one close paren (a+2)+(2a-1) (a+2) + (2a-1) open paren five hundred sixty one close paren (-561) (-#561) Name the variable open paren s close paren period Name the variable(s)_4 Name the variable(s). #10.3 Signs of grouping: brackets Explanation In braille, brackets are variations of parentheses. The opening and closing brackets are formed by adding a dot four in the cell preceding: the basic opening symbol, dots one two three five six; and the basic closing symbol, dots two three four five six. Boldface brackets are represented by the boldface typeform indicator, dots four five six, preceding the bracket symbol, making it a three-cell configuration. Nemeth code brackets are always to be used, even if the brackets enclose literary expressions within a mathematical context. Opening, left, bracket, dot four dots one two three five six Closing, right, bracket, dot four dots two three four five six Boldface, left, bracket, dots four five six dot four dots one two three five six Boldface, right, bracket, dots four five six dot four dots two three four five six
Braille `( `) _`( _`) Symbol Name opening (left ) bracket closing (right) bracket boldface left bracket boldface right bracket Configuration dots 4, 1-2-3-5-6 dots 4, 2-3-4-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 4, 1-2-3-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 4, 2-3-4-5-6 Print Symbol [ ] [ ]

Use of brackets Brackets are used to group or enclose other signs of grouping to show a higher level of grouping. They also serve many of the

239

same purposes as parentheses when they are used at this second level of grouping. In interval notation, they can be used to show that a range of values includes a certain value. example #1_4 a set of symbols enclosed within parentheses which are enclosed within brackets, nested signs of grouping @(c(x+y)@) example #2_4 boldface brackets indicating integer value functions _@(2_@) .k #2
Note The integer value function for a number provides the greatest whole number value that is less than or equal to the number within the brackets; it is not the process of rounding. Therefore, [2], [2.01], [2.5], [2.8], and [2.99999] will all yield the same result: 2.

Brackets and parentheses used with interval notation It is common in mathematics to represent a range of values with the use of parentheses and brackets. If a bracket is used as one of the signs of grouping, it indicates that the value adjacent to it is included in the range. If a parenthesis is used, the range goes up to, but does not include, the value adjacent to the parenthesis.
Note Only two values are shown for the range: the least and the greatest. The value in contact with the left parenthesis or bracket is the smallest value in the range because, on a number line, the smaller numbers are to the left. Similarly, the value that is largest is placed in contact with the right parenthesis or bracket, since, as one moves to the right on a number line, the numbers increase. The two values are separated by a comma. Example (-5, 2) If a value is included in the range (e.g., all single digit positive integers, includes 9), then the sign of enclosure with which it is in contact is a bracket. If the value is the limit of the range but is not included in the range (e.g., all numbers less than 100 includes 99.99999 but not 100), then the sign of enclosure with which it is in contact is a parenthesis. ( or ) indicates that the adjacent value is not included in the range. [ or ] indicates that the adjacent value is included in the range. Example [-8, 2) The -8 value is included in the range. All values, including decimal values, up to but not including 2, are in the range.

240

example #3_4 the least value included but the upper value not included @(-5, 2) example #4_4 both the least and the greatest are included in the range @(-5, 2@) example #5_4 the least value is not included but the greatest value is included (-5, 2@) example #6_4 symbols other than numerals; infinity is not a value that can be included in the range because it cannot be reached; therefore, a parenthesis is adjacent to that symbol (-,=, -9@) Punctuation with brackets Brackets are mathematical symbols, even when they are used to enclose literary material. They are to be punctuated as mathematical symbols. The punctuation indicator is used with all marks of punctuation other than the mathematical comma, hyphen, and dash. Review Brackets Braille configurations: regular font opening bracket, dot four dots one two three five six regular font closing bracket, dot four dots two three four five six boldface opening bracket, dots four five six dot four dots one two three five six boldface closing bracket, dots four five six dot four dots two three four five six Braille symbols: regular font opening bracket: @( regular font closing bracket: @) boldface opening bracket: _@( boldface closing bracket: _@) Usage: Brackets may be used:

241

#1_4 as a general grouping of symbols; they are usually regarded as symbols of a higher order than parentheses since they may enclose or nest other grouping symbols. #2_4 to indicate that the integer value of a number is to be given. #3_4 to enclose matrices; refer to lesson #10.4, #4_4 for interval notation to enclose a range of values. Rules: #1_4 Do not use the numeric indicator immediately following the opening bracket indicator except when the brackets are used to show a matrix. See rules for matrices, lesson #10.5_4 #2_4 Punctuate as mathematical symbols. #3_4 Brackets follow the general rules for signs of grouping as outlined in lessons #10.1 and #10.2_4 Exercises Prompt to Braille open bracket ;r close bracket `(r`) open bracket three ;t open paren four ;t plus seven close paren close bracket `(3t(4t+7)`) boldface open bracket three point seven boldface close bracket equals three _`(3.7_`) .k #3 open bracket minus two, seven close paren `(-2, 7) open paren negative infinity, twelve close bracket (-,=, 12`) minus open bracket minus open paren minus seven close paren plus one close bracket -`(-(-7)+1`) boldface open bracket two point nine nine nine boldface close bracket equals two

242

_`(2.999_`) .k #2 three plus open bracket seven plus open paren six ;x close paren close bracket #3`(7+(6x)`) Braille to Speech two open bracket three open paren four close paren five close bracket #2`(3(4)5`) minus open bracket minus open paren three ;x plus seven close paren close bracket -`(-(3x+7)`) two open bracket three open paren ;x plus ;y close paren plus four close bracket #2`(3(x+y)+4`) bold open bracket ;x bold close bracket _`(x_`) open bracket ;r close bracket `(r`) open paren minus seven comma one close bracket (-7, 1`) bold open bracket four point six bold close bracket equals four _`(4.6_`) .k #4 open bracket three comma infinity close paren `(3, ,=) five minus open bracket minus open paren minus three close paren close bracket #5-`(-(-3)`) minus open bracket minus open paren nine plus seven close paren close bracket -`(-(9+7)`) Proofreading open bracket ;t close bracket `(t`)

243

`(t) open bracket ;b close bracket `(b`) `(;b`) #10.4 Signs of grouping: enlarged brackets Explanation The enlarged brackets are three-cell symbols. Dot four is used to indicate the bracket modification; dot six, the capitalization indicator, to signify enlargement; and the opening or closing sign of grouping. enlarged opening bracket, dot four dot six dots one two three five six enlarged closing bracket, dot four dot six dots two three four five six
Braille `,( `,) Symbol Name enlarged opening (left) bracket enlarged closing (right) bracket Configuration dots 4, 6, 1-2-3-5-6 dots 4, 6, 2-3-4-5-6 Print Symbol

[ ]

Matrices A matrix is a rectangular arrangement that is a convenient way to organize data in a table format of rows and columns. Individual items in a matrix are referred to as entries or as elements. One use of enlarged brackets is to enclose a matrix and to show matrix lines. In the print version of a matrix, vertical lines define the left and right margins of the matrix. Since matrices are to be arranged in a vertical format, it is important to align the enlarged opening and closing brackets and the left side of each column within the matrix. Identifiers, signs of comparison, signs of operation, or punctuation that appear outside of the matrix are placed on the first braille line. This occurs even though they may be centered in the print version. Notice in example #1 that each row of the matrix begins with an opening enlarged bracket and ends with a closing enlarged bracket. In the first two lines, values appearing before the closing enlarged bracket are not adjacent to the bracket. This is necessary in order to achieve vertical alignment.
Math Facts A matrix can be multiplied by a number (scalar value) or by another matrix. Other operations can be performed on two matrices with the same dimensions (e.g., they can be added). For example, to show a table of hourly wages

244

multiplied by a table of regular are multiplied to generate a new each employee. Matrices are also (dimension) statements. However, code.

and overtime pay for employees: The matrices matrix of the results, the weeks pay for used in computer programming, as in DIM these are brailled using computer braille

example #1_4 ,D .k @,(#3 #4 @,) @,(#1 #0 @,) @,(#2 -#5@,) To braille a matrix, first determine the number of cells required for the longest line in the table. In example #1, a total of #18 braille cells was needed to accommodate the longest line of the matrix. Based upon the length of the longest line, determine where the opening and closing brackets and the first item in each column should begin within each row. This is to ensure vertical alignment. Rules for brailling matrices Matrices are spatial arrangements, as presented in lesson #6_4 The rules for brailling spatial arrangements apply, with modifications in rules #2- regarding alignment. #1_4 As in all spatial arrangements, leave a blank line above and below each matrix, unless it begins at the top of a page or ends at the bottom of a page. #2_4 Each column is to be left justified; that is, the first characters of entries in each column are vertically aligned. If, for example, one of the entries in a column contains a signed number and others do not: position the plus or minus sign in vertical alignment with the numeric indicators which are the left most characters in other entries of the same column. This may require leaving spaces between an item and a closing bracket. #3_4 A column of blank braille cells is inserted between the entry columns. #4_4 The numeric indicator must precede all numerals, even if they are adjacent to, or in contact with, an opening bracket. #5_4 Each opening bracket must be in contact with the first entry in a row. This occurs whether that entry is a numeral with its numeric indicator, or another mathematical symbol such as a dollar sign.

245

#6_4 Opening and closing brackets must be aligned in a column. All enclosure symbols are to be brailled as enlarged brackets, not vertical lines. #7_4 At least one row of the matrix must have a closing bracket in direct contact with the last entry in a row. #8_4 Use space-saving techniques to confine the matrix to one braille page. If a row is longer than a braille line and thus must be continued on the next line as a runover: begin and end the lines that run over with opening and closing bracket symbols; aligned with any other runover brackets; indent the runover entry two braille cells; do not skip lines between rows. #9_4 Material outside the matrix, such as identifiers, signs of comparison, signs of operation, or punctuation, are to be placed on the first braille line of the display. This rule is followed even if these characters are centered in print. Example #2 includes #3 matrices and a problem identifier, a sign of operation, and a sign of comparison. The #3 matrices represented in this example are comprised of lines which are longer than #31 cells. Therefore, runovers are required. Following the guidelines for the division of mathematical expressions between lines, the runover begins with the equals sign and is indented #2 cells. The blank line which appears above the equals sign is required to separate the matrices, even though the third matrix is, in fact, a runover. There would be no blank line if the runover occurred within a matrix. If an #18 cell refreshable braille display is being used, use the advance bar to access the row beyond the first #18 cells. example #2_4 (,I) @,(#2 #3 @,)-@,(#6 #1 @,) @,(-#1 #4 @,) @,(#0 -#4@,) @,(#9 #19@,) @,(#3 #2 @,) .k @,(-#4 #2@,) @,(-#1 #8@,) @,(#6 #8@,) In some cases, enlarged parentheses are used to enclose matrices. Enlarged parentheses are modified in braille in the same fashion as are enlarged brackets, using dot six before each parenthesis.

246

Matrices and determinants have similar appearances but are different in their mathematical meaning. Lesson #10.6 describes the rules for brailling determinants. In summary, a matrix is an array of numbers; a determinant is used in studying systems of equations. The items within the rows and columns are often the coefficients of the variables in two or more polynomial equations. Review Enlarged bracket Braille configurations: opening enlarged bracket, dot four dot six dots one two three five six closing enlarged bracket, dot four dot six dots two three four five six Braille symbols: opening enlarged bracket: @,( closing enlarged bracket: @,) Usage: used to enclose matrices.

Rules: #1_4 A column of blank cells is inserted between columns. #2_4 Unlike the general rule for signs of grouping, the numeric indicator is used with all numeric entries within a matrix. #3_4 The beginning of each entry in the first column of entries must be in contact with the first bracket of its row. At least one row must have an entry in contact with a closing bracket. #4_4 Align column entries left justified. Each entry is positioned as far left in its column as possible. #5_4 Align brackets so that the opening brackets are all in the same column and the closing brackets are all in the same column. #6_4 Attempt to confine the braille arrangement to one braille page. Use the space saving techniques. #7_4 Punctuate as a mathematical symbol.

247

#8_4 A matrix is a spatial arrangement and must be preceded and followed by a blank line, unless it begins at the top of a page or ends at the bottom of a page. Other rules pertaining to brackets in general are included in lesson #10.3_4 There are no exercises for this section due to its spatial nature. #10.5 Signs of grouping: braces Explanation Braille braces are two-cell symbols that are modifications of the opening and closing parentheses. The braces are formed by preceding the configurations used for parentheses with dots four six. The opening, left, brace is comprised of dots four six dots one two three five six; the closing, right, brace, dots four six dots two three four five six.
Braille .( .) Symbol Name opening (left) brace closing (right) brace Configuration dots 4-6, 1-2-3-5-6 dots 4-6, 2-3-4-5-6 Print Symbol { }

Braces enclosing sets Braces are often used to indicate set notation. Such a set may include numeric values, letters, or words. Frequently, a set is designated by a capital letter followed by an equals sign. Following the equals sign is a set of braces which enclose the elements of the set. example #1_4 braces used to enclose a word in a designated set ,A .k .(presidents.)
Note Refer to 10.1 regarding restrictions which apply to the use of braille contractions and signs of grouping, such as braces.

example #2_4 the use of braces for a set containing numeric elements ,B .k .(-1, 2, -2.4.) In example #3, braces are used with the vertical bar. This is read as "A equals the set of all ;x values such that ;x equals #3y_4 The vertical bar in this case is a sign of comparison and is brailled according to the rules for those signs. example #3_4

248

,A .k .(x | x .k #3y.) example #4_4 a set of mixed numerical and alphabetic characters separated by commas .(.5, -1, 2, r, .p, ,B.) example #5_4 a set containing only one numerical element .(0.) Facing braces: empty set The empty set in math indicates that no elements can be found that match the conditions for the set. It is often shown with two braces not containing any elements or with a zero and a slash or vertical line through it, as described in lesson #3.8_4 When braces are used to represent the empty set, a space is inserted between the braces to indicate that the set does not have anything in it. This is not the same as an omitted item. For example, "the set of all cats which have been formally trained to guide blind persons" equals .( .). This is because, as of this writing, there have not been any cats who have been formally trained to guide people who are blind. The space between the braces shows that nothing fulfills the requirement. This is not an omission where an item that could be included is deliberately missing, as in example #6_4
Braille _0 Symbol Name empty set symbol (slash through zero) Configuration dots 4-5-6, 3-5-6 Print Symbol

example #6_4 an omission where an item that could be included is deliberately missing .(Moe, Curly, =.) example #7_4 three sets ,A .k .(1, 3, 5.), ,B .k .(2, 3, 9.), and ,C .k .(-7.) example #8_4 union of two sets ,A.+,B .k .(1, 2, 3, 5, 9.) example #9_4 intersection of two sets ,A.%,B .k .(3.) example #10_4 empty set or null set ,A.%,C .k .( .) or _0

249

Enlarged braces Enlarged braces are used with equations for which a common solution is sought. These unified systems of equations indicate that the equations are to be considered as a group. The enlarged, left, brace is comprised of dots four six dot six dots one two three five six. The enlarged, right, brace is dots four six dot six dots two three four five six. Use of enlarged braces requires a spatial arrangement and blank lines are to be left above and below the set of equations. This is unless the first line begins at the top of a page or ends at the bottom of a page. Enlarged braces are placed at the beginning and end of each braille line. Respective opening and closing braces are vertically aligned, as with enlarged brackets, refer to lesson #10.4_4
Braille .,( .,) Symbol Name enlarged left brace enlarged right brace Configuration dots 4-6, 6, 1-2-3-5-6 dots 4-6, 6, 2-3-4-5-6 Print Symbol

{ }

Terminology Note A system of equations is a set of two or more simultaneous equations using the same variables and with simultaneous solutions. They may share one or more answers which are common to each of the equations. Two or more equations can be solved at the same time and their solution sets can be compared to each other. The solution set of a system consists of all ordered pairs of values that make all of the equations in the system true. Some systems of equations have no solutions in common. Some systems have one or more solutions in common. This idea may make more sense to a pupil, if, for example, two linear equations (equations of lines) can be graphed to illustrate this concept. If the equations have only one unique solution that is the same for all of the equations, then the lines represented by the equations intersect in one point. If the equations have all (infinitely many) of the solutions in common, the lines overlap and are therefore the same line. If the solutions for the equations have no common solutions, then the lines do not intersect and are parallel. The solution set may be represented by the empty set. Use sticks or straws to represent the line.

Guidelines for alignment of enlarged braces in spatial arrangements #1_4 The left brace is positioned in the cells preceding the item extending furthest to the left. #2_4 The right brace, if it is displayed, is positioned in the cells following the item extending furthest to the right. This may require that blank cells occur between braces and some of the items on other lines.

250

#3_4 Sometimes in print, like terms are aligned; in the braille equivalent, like terms should also be aligned. The enlarged left brace alone, or the enlarged left and right brace may be shown when displaying a system of unified equations. example #11_4 a unified system of two equations with only the left brace displayed .,(4x+6y .k #26 .,(y .k #2x+1
Math Facts The single solution for the two equations in the example above is an ordered pair of numbers (1.25, 3.5), which is a point where the two lines (represented by the two equations) intersect.

example #12_4 a unified system of two equations with both braces shown; in this case, the alignment follows the print version in aligning like terms. .,( 9x+12y .k #3 .,) .,(10x-12y .k #90.,) Rules for the use of braces with unified systems of equations #1_4 Use enlarged braces. #2_4 Use the spatial arrangement format: a. leave a blank line above and below the system of equations unless it begins at the top of a page or ends at the bottom of a page; and b. vertically align the braces if aligned in print, even if spaces must be left after an equation. #3_4 Any material that is not part of the system of equations is to be brailled on the first braille line along with the first opening enlarged brace. This rule applies even though such external material may have been shown centered in print. Examples of such material include problem identifiers, punctuation, signs of comparison, or signs of operation. Punctuation and additional guidelines The braille symbols for braces are mathematical symbols. They are used wherever print braces are shown in a mathematical context. They should be used whether material is mathematical or literary. Further guidelines applying to braces are included in the general rules in lessons #10.1 and #10.2_4 Nested signs of grouping

251

Nested signs of grouping were described in lesson #10.4_4 The hierarchy of grouping symbols can be expanded an additional level beyond the parentheses and brackets by using braces to enclose the others. In general, when different signs of enclosure are used to nest grouped items, the symbols are used in the following order: the innermost enclosed items are grouped within parentheses; this group and associated items are enclosed within brackets; finally, the brackets are enclosed within braces. The general order then is: .(@(()@).)_4 Each opening symbol should have a corresponding closing symbol. example #13_4 #3.(4+2@(5(3+2)-1@)-50.) .k #6
Note Horizontal braces and other horizontal grouping symbols, which are used as modifiers are beyond the scope of this tutorial. Refer to 131, AITBM.

Review Braces Braille configuration: opening, left, brace, dots four six dots one two three five six closing, right, brace, dots four six dots two three four five six enlarged, left, brace, dots four six dot six dots one two three five six enlarged, right, brace, dots four six dot six dots two three four five six Braille opening closing opening closing symbol: brace: .( brace: .) enlarged brace: .,( enlarged brace: .,)

Usage: Braces are often used in set notation, to enclose the members of a set. Facing braces with a space between them is one method to represent the empty set. Enlarged braces are also used to group unified systems of equations. Rules: #1_4 In braille, braces should appear in the same position as they do in print. #2_4 The following may not be used in direct contact with a sign of grouping, such as the brace: one-cell whole-word alphabet contractions, lower-cell whole word contraction, or any of the

252

whole or part-word contractions, such as and, for, of, the, or with. #3_4 Use or non-use of the English letter indicator depends upon whether or not it would be required if the braces were not present. In lists of items separated by commas, it is not required. #4_4 The numeric indicator is not used with numerals in an enclosed list or when numerals are in contact with both signs of grouping. #5_4 Punctuate braces as mathematical symbols. Exercises Prompt to Braille cap ,A equals open brace one, two, three, four close brace ,A .k .(1, 2, 3, 4.) cap ;,B equals open brace zero, two, four, eight close brace ,B .k .(0, 2, 4, 8.) cap ;,A intersection cap ;,B equals open brace two, four close brace ,A.%,B .k .(2, 4.) cap ;,W equals open brace ;x such that ;x equals minus five close brace ,W .k .(x | x .k -#5.) open brace a, alpha, ;b, beta, pi close brace .(a, .a, b, .b, .p.) ;q equals open brace close brace ,q .k .( .) cap ;,P equals open brace three, six, nine, general omission sign close brace ,P .k .(3, 6, 9, =.) cap ;,D union cap ;,F equals open brace close brace ,D.+,F .k .( .) one minus open brace two ;x open bracket three ;x open paren four ;x plus one close paren close bracket close brace

253

#1-.(2x`(3x(4x+1)`).) minus open brace minus open bracket minus open paren five close paren plus one close bracket plus one close brace -.(-`(-(5)+1`)+1.) open brace theories close brace .(theories.) ;x equals open brace ;f such that ;f equals sixteen plus ;z close brace x .k .(f | f .k #16+z.) Braille to Speech cap ;,Q equals open brace minus one comma zero comma five comma nine close brace ,Q .k .(-1, 0, 5, 9.) four open brace three open bracket two open paren one close paren minus two close bracket close brace #4.(3`(2(1)-2`).) cap ;,R intersection cap ;,S equals open brace a comma ;b comma ;c close brace ,R.%,S .k .(a, b, c.) cap ;,V equals open brace one point two comma one point three close brace ,V .k .(1.2, 1.3.) cap ;,G equals open brace ;x such that ;x equals ;y plus two close brace ,G .k .(x | x .k y+2.) cap ;,B equals open brace two comma four comma six comma ellipsis comma twenty close brace ,B .k .(2, 4, 6, ''', 20.) open brace open paren minus two close paren minus open paren eight close paren close brace .((-2)-(8).) cap ;,S intersection cap ;,T equals open brace space close brace ,S.%,T .k .( .)

254

cap ;,Z equals open brace ;s such that ;s equals minus two close brace ,Z .k .(s | s .k -#2.) nine open brace eight plus open bracket seven plus open paren six plus five close paren close bracket close brace #9.(8+`(7+(6+5)`).) Proofreading cap ;,P equals open brace ;y vertical bar ;y equals eight close brace ,P .k .(y | y .k #8.) ,P .k .(y | y .k 8). cap ;,D intersection cap ;,U equals empty set ,D.%,U .k .( .) ,D.%,U .k .(.) minus five open brace minus open bracket minus open paren four close paren close bracket close brace -#5.(-`(-(4)`).) -#5.(-`(-(4)`)) #10.6 Signs of grouping: vertical bars Explanation In addition to its use in set notation as a sign of comparison meaning "such that", the vertical bar is also used as a sign of grouping. Interpretation of the meaning of this symbol depends upon context and spacing. The braille configuration of both the opening and closing vertical bars is dots one two five six.
Braille \ Symbol Name opening and closing vertical bar line Configuration dots 1-2-5-6 Print Symbol |

Vertical bars for absolute value Vertical bars are used in a mathematical expression which displays the absolute value of a quantity. The absolute value of a numeral is its distance from zero, in either direction, on the number line. It is an undirected value, the value without a positive or negative sign.
Teaching Tips An analogy may be helpful in teaching the concept of absolute value. The answer to the question, If I walk six blocks east of here, how many blocks did I walk?, six, is an undirected number since it does not indicate the direction. Six is the absolute value of six blocks east.

255

example #1_4 the absolute value of a single numeral |-5| .k #5 example #2_4 the absolute value of an expression |3-17| .k #14 example #3_4 a function as the absolute value of an expression g(h) .k -#5|y-2|+16 example #4_4 nested absolute values using a series of regular font vertical bars of the same size ||-3|-|-2|| .k |3-2| .k #1 Enlarged vertical bars Modifications of the braille symbol for the vertical bar to indicate double, boldface, double boldface, and enlarged bars are similar to those for other signs of grouping. The enlarged vertical bar, dot six dots one two five six, is sometimes used in print to indicate the outermost bars. example #5_4 enlarged vertical bars ,||-3|-|2|,| Determinants
Braille ,\ Symbol Name enlarged opening and closing vertical bar line Configuration dots 6, 1-2-5-6 Print Symbol

The enlarged vertical bar is also used to display determinants. A determinant is arranged in a manner similar to a matrix, as an array composed of an equal number of columns and rows. Since determinants are to be arranged in a spatial format, many of the same rules used for matrices apply to determinants and are listed below. It is important to align the opening and closing vertical determinant lines, and to align the columns within the determinant so they are left justified, that is, each entry is located in the left-most position in its column. Horizontal centering or other forms of alignment that may be used in print are not permitted in braille.
Math Facts Matrices and determinants are not the same, although both may be displayed I print using vertical lines (instead of brackets for the matrices). According to 10.4, a matrix that has two rows and two columns, for example, has a determinant whose value is found by finding the product of the first and last elements of the matrix, and subtracting from it the value of the product of the second and third elements. Determinants are used to find solutions to

256

unified systems of equations.

Rules for brailling determinants: #1_4 Determinants require a spatial arrangement. A blank row should be left above and below the array, unless it begins at the top of a page or ends at the bottom of a page. If possible, display the entire array on one braille page. #2_4 The numeric indicator must be used with all numerals, even if they are in contact with the opening or closing enlarged vertical bar. #3_4 Each opening enlarged vertical bar must be in contact with the first entry of a row, regardless of whether it is a numeral, a variable, or another symbol. The exception to this rule occurs in the case of runovers; refer to rule #6 below. #4_4 Vertically align the opening and closing enlarged vertical bars, and left-justify each entry within its column. This may require extra spaces between items or between the last item in a row and the closing vertical bar. #5_4 At least one row of the determinant must have a closing enlarged vertical bar in contact with the last entry in that row. #6_4 Use space-saving techniques to limit the determinant to one braille page. If a row is longer than a braille line and thus must be continued on the next line as a runover, begin and end the lines that run over with opening and closing vertical bars aligned with any other runover vertical bars; indent the runover entry two braille cells; and do not skip lines between rows. #7_4 Identifiers, signs of comparison, signs of operation, or punctuation that occur outside of the determinant are to be placed on the first braille line of the determinant, even though they may appear centered in print. #8_4 All rows must begin and end with a vertical bar. If there are runovers, they begin in cell three, as described in rule #6_4 To braille a determinant, first determine the number of cells required for the longest line in the array. Based upon the length of the longest line, determine where the opening and closing vertical bars and the first item in each column should begin within each row to ensure vertical alignment.

257

Teaching Tips Another method of determining spacing is to use a grid with the same number of boxes as the number of cells possible on the braille paper. Refer to lesson 6. Lay out the spacing of the braille symbols on the grid. Note Horizontal centering or other forms of alignment are not permitted.

example #6_4 a basic #2 by 2 determinant with an item identifier; a blank line must be placed above and below #15_4 ,D .k ,|#2 -#5,| ,|-#1 #4,| Punctuation and other rules The vertical bar is a mathematical symbol and is punctuated accordingly. Restrictions regarding the use of literary braille contractions in contact with signs of grouping, as presented in lesson #10.1, apply, although words rarely occur with the vertical bar. Review Vertical bar Braille configuration: dots one two five six Braille symbol: | Usage: the vertical bar is used: #1_4 as a sign of grouping, to represent the absolute value of a quantity; #2_4 as a sign of grouping, to enclose a determinant; and #3_4 as a sign of comparison, in set notation, as the mathematical symbol for "such that." Rules: #1_4 Absolute value indicators should appear in the same position as they do in print. #2_4 Do not use the numeric indicator immediately following the opening absolute value indicator except when the enlarged vertical bar is used to represent a determinant, in which case the vertical bar does not represent the symbol for absolute value; refer to the rules for determinants.

258

#3_4 Punctuate as a mathematical symbol. #4_4 When used as a sign of grouping, as in the case of absolute value indicators, vertical bars appear in pairs. #5_4 When used in set notation to represent the mathematical phrase, "such that", the vertical bar is a sign of comparison and the rules for all signs of comparison apply. #6_4 Specific rules apply to enlarged vertical bars when they are used in spatial arrangements. a. The numeric indicator must be used with all numerals, even if they are in contact with the opening or closing enlarged vertical bar. b. Each opening enlarged vertical bar must be in contact with the first entry of a row, regardless of whether it is a numeral, a variable, or another symbol. The exception to this rule occurs in the case of runovers. c. Vertically align the opening and closing enlarged vertical bars, and left-justify each entry within its column. This may require extra spaces between items or between the last item in a row and the closing vertical bar. d. At least one row of the determinant must have a closing enlarged vertical bar in contact with the last entry in that row. #7_4 Rules which apply to general signs of grouping also apply to the vertical bar; refer to lessons #10.1 and #10.2_4 Exercises Prompt to Braille the absolute value of minus twelve equals twelve |-12| .k #12 the absolute value of three equals three |3| .k #3 the absolute value of the expression three minus seven |3-7| the absolute value of the expression minus the absolute value of two minus the absolute value of three |-|2|-|3|| enlarged vertical bar absolute value of negative two minus the absolute value of three enlarged vertical bar ,||-2|-|3|,|

259

cap ;,M equals open brace ;x such that ;x equals two ;p close brace ,M .k .(x | x .k #2p.) two plus the absolute value of the expression ;x minus one equals the absolute value of three #2+|x-1| .k |3| minus enlarged vertical bar minus the absolute value of minus one enlarged vertical bar -,|-|-1|,| Braille to Speech the absolute value of minus ten |-10| the absolute value of minus one point six |-1.6| eight times the absolute value of minus three #8|-3| minus the absolute value of minus five equals five -|-5| .k #5 cap ;,J equals open brace ;d such that ;d equals three ;f close brace ,J .k .(d | d .k #3f.) the absolute value of the expression minus three ;x plus seven |-3x+7| enlarged vertical bar seven plus the absolute value of minus two enlarged vertical bar ,|7+|-2|,| Proofreading the absolute value of negative nine equals nine |-9| .k #9 | -#9 | .k #9 cap ,A equals open brace ;x such that ;x equals two ;y minus seven close brace ,A .k .(x | x .k #2y-7.) ,A .k .(x|x .k #2y-7.)

260

enlarged vertical bar minus the absolute value of minus thirteen enlarged vertical bar ,|-|-13|,| .|-|-13|,| #11.1 Signs of comparison: not equal, approximately equal, identity, similar to, and congruent to Explanation In this lesson, several new symbols are introduced for comparing two expressions or quantities that are not equal. The rules for use of these symbols are the same as the rules for use of the equals sign. General list of signs of comparison Following are the symbols included in this section. These symbols are presented as a group since, in print, they are variations of the symbol for equality. equals, dots four six dots one three not equal, dots three four dots four six dots one three approximately equals, dot four dots one five six dot four dots one five six identity, equivalent, dots four five six dots one two three similar to, dot four dots one five six congruent to, dot four dots one five six dots four six dots one three
Braille .k /.k `:`: _l `: `:.k Symbol Name equals sign not equal sign approximately equals sign identity sign (equivalent) similar to sign congruent to sign Configuration dots 4-6, 1-3 dots 3-4, 4-6, 1-3 dots 4, 1-5-6, 4, 1-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 1-2-3 dots 4, 1-5-6 dots 4, 1-5-6, 4-6, 1-3 Print Symbol = ~

Review of rules for signs of comparison #1_4 these signs are preceded and followed by a space. #2_4 If a numeral follows the equals sign, it must be preceded by the numeric indicator because there is a space between the numeral and the equals sign. An exception to this rule occurs when a plus sign precedes the numeral that follows the sign of comparison, in which case the numeric indicator is not used. #3_4 A space must not be left between a sign of comparison, such as the equals sign, and a mark of punctuation which applies to

261

it. This is because the sign is a mathematical symbol and is not being used to compare two expressions. #4_4 For all punctuation marks which follow a sign of comparison, dots four five six should be placed between the sign of comparison and the mark of punctuation. This is because the sign of comparison is a mathematical symbol. Exceptions include the mathematical comma, the hyphen, and the dash, the punctuation indicator. Combining signs of comparison and negative signs of comparison Signs of comparison can be used together and are sometimes shown in print as combined in two different ways. One way is to overlay one symbol on top of another, overstriking. A second way is to join them vertically with one symbol above another. In braille, the combination is displayed horizontally. When signs of comparison are combined with other signs of comparison, do not place a space between them. Signs of comparison can also be negated, representing the concept, "not." In print, the negation is represented by the use of a vertical line or left or right diagonal slash across the sign of comparison. In braille, the sign of comparison is negated by preceding the symbol with dots three four. The negation sign must be the first symbol following the space which precedes the sign of comparison, and should be unspaced from its companion sign. Because a space is required before and after a sign of comparison, the oblique slash is not mistaken as a sign of operation. Not equal sign The symbol for not equal, dots three four dots four six dots one three, is used in a similar manner to the sign for equals. Its meaning, however, is simply that the amounts on either side of it are not identical.
Braille /.k Symbol Name not equal sign Configuration dots 3-4, 4-6, 1-3 Print Symbol

example #1_4 #3+5 /.k #15 Approximately equals sign When comparing quantities, the values may be nearly equal, but are not exactly equal or identical. Since it would be erroneous to show the comparison with the parallel lines of an equals sign, the print symbol for approximately equals consists of

262

parallel wavy lines, double tilde. The braille symbol for approximately equals, dot four dots one five six dot four dots one five six, resembles its print equivalent. It uses the symbol for tilde, but in a horizontal rather than vertical configuration.
Braille `:`: Symbol Name approximately equals sign Configuration dots 4, 1-5-6, 4, 1-5-6 Print Symbol

example #2_4 the approximately equals sign used with a value that is rounded. #1.783 @:@: #1.8 Identity sign, equivalent One of the properties of mathematics is the Identity Property, the meaning of which is that any quantity is equivalent to itself. The print symbol representing this relationship is three horizontal lines; the braille symbol is dots four five six dots one two three.
Braille _l Symbol Name identity sign (equivalent) Configuration dots 4-5-6, 1-2-3 Print Symbol

example #3_4 a numeric identity #17 _l #17 example #4_4 an algebraic identity w _l w
Note Do not use the equivalent sign () if congruency ( ) is indicated. The congruency symbol, to indicate is congruent to, is needed instead. The braille should follow the sign used in print.

Geometric figures can also be compared as similar or congruent to each other. Often, symbols representing shapes, such as triangles or parallelograms, are included in these comparisons. The shape symbols will be introduced in lesson #14_4 Similar to sign, tilde If the measures of respective angles are equal and the measures of respective sides are in the same proportion, then geometric figures are considered to be mathematically similar. The print symbol for similar to consists of a single wavy line, tilde. The braille symbol for similar to is dot four dots one five six.
Braille `: Symbol Name similar to sign Configuration dots 4, 1-5-6 Print Symbol ~

263

In example #5, two triangles are compared. Their respective angles would be equal, but the lengths of their sides would be proportional. example #5_4 Triangle ,A,B,C @: Triangle ,X,Y,Z Congruent to sign When two figures are similar and the measures of their respective sides are equal, then the figures are considered to be congruent. Both the print and braille symbols combine the symbol for similarity with the symbol for equality. In print, the tilde appears above the equals sign. The braille sign for congruent to is dot four dots one five six dots four six dots one three.
Braille `:.k Symbol Name congruent to sign Configuration dots 4, 1-5-6, 4-6, 1-3 Print Symbol

Teaching Tips When the measures of angles, line segments or distances are identical, the amounts which are being compared are equal, and the equals sign is used (=). When referring to the figures which are being compared, the comparison is congruent if the figures are identical, and the congruency symbol ( ) is used.

example #6_4 two quadrilaterals Rectangle ,Q,R,S,T @:.k Rectangle ,A,B,C,D Punctuation, use of contractions, and spacing with signs of comparison All signs of comparison are mathematical symbols and are to be punctuated accordingly. In general, when they are used to represent mathematical relationships, signs of comparison are preceded and followed by a space. Do not space, however, between a sign of comparison and a related mark of punctuation or between signs of comparison which are compounded. Refer to lesson #11.2_4 example #7_4 punctuation with signs of comparison Use /.k, @:@:, or _l_4 Contractions and short-form words may not be used before or after the space that precedes or follows the sign of comparison. In example #8, a sign of comparison is used with words. The braille contraction for "en" cannot be used in words occurring directly before or directly after the sign of comparison.

264

example #8_4 two+seven /.k twenty-seven When a sign of comparison is enclosed in signs of grouping, there should be no space between the sign of comparison and adjacent signs of grouping. If the signs of grouping do not apply to the sign of comparison, then there must be a space between the sign of comparison and signs of grouping. example #9_4 sign of comparison related to a sign of grouping Use the symbol for identity, which is (_l)_4 example #10_4 a sign of grouping not related to a sign of comparison (,A+7) @:@: #2.7 Review Signs of comparison Equals sign Braille configuration: dots four six dots one three Braille symbol: .k Usage: to compare two quantities that have the same value. Not equal sign Braille configuration: dots three four dots four six dots one three Braille symbol: /.k Usage: to compare two quantities that do not have the same value. Approximately equals sign, double tilde Braille configuration: dot four dots one five six dot four dots one five six Braille symbol: @:@: Usage: to compare two quantities that do not have the same value but are nearly equal. Identity sign, equivalent to Braille configuration: dots four five six dots one two three Braille symbol: _l Usage: to compare two identical quantities. Similar to sign, single tilde Braille configuration: dot four dots one five six

265

Braille symbol: @: Usage: to compare two figures that have the same shape but which differ in the relative measures of size. Congruent to sign Braille configuration: dot four dots one five six dots four six dots one three Braille symbol: @:.k Usage: to compare two figures that are identical, such that the measures of their corresponding sides and angles are equivalent. Rules: The rules for brailling signs of comparison apply to all signs of comparison. #1_4 these signs are preceded and followed by a space. #2_4 If a numeral follows the equals sign, it must be preceded by the numeric indicator, dots three four five six, because there is a space between the numeral and the equals sign. An exception to this rule occurs when a plus sign precedes the numeral that follows the sign of comparison, in which case the numeric indicator is not used. #3_4 A space must not be left between a sign of comparison, such as the equals sign, and a mark of punctuation which applies to it. This is because the sign is a mathematical symbol and is not being used to compare two expressions. #4_4 For all punctuation marks which follow a sign of comparison, dots four five six should be placed between the sign of comparison and the mark of punctuation. This is because the sign of comparison is a mathematical symbol. Exceptions include the mathematical comma, the hyphen, and the dash, the punctuation indicator. Exercises Prompt to Braille ;r is not equal to zero r /.k #0 four point nine is not equal to five #4.9 /.k #5 three times five is not equal to eight #3*5 /.k #8

266

cap Q cap R cap S is congruent to cap S cap R cap T ,Q,R,S `:.k ,S,R,T cap D cap E cap F is similar to cap D cap C cap B ,D,E,F `: ,D,C,B pi approximately equals three point one four .p `:`: #3.14 one point seven three approximately equals two #1.73 `:`: #2 ;r plus two is equivalent to ;r plus two r+2 _l r+2 nine is equivalent to nine #9 _l #9 square root of three approximately equals one point seven three two >3} @:@: #1.732 Braille to Speech fifteen plus two is not equal to thirty #15+2 /.k #30 cap ;,R cap ;,S cap ;,T is congruent to cap ;,Q cap ;,T cap ;,S ,R,S,T `:.k ,Q,T,S cap ,A cap ;,B cap ;,C cap ;,D is not congruent to cap ;,E cap ;,F cap ;,G cap ;,H ,A,B,C,D /`:.k ,E,F,G,H cap ;,D cap ;,E cap ;,F is similar to cap ;,H cap ,I cap ;,J ,D,E,F `: ,H,I,J square root of two is approximately equal to one point four one four >2} `:`: #1.414 five is equivalent to five #5 _l #5 the fraction five over three is not equal to the fraction seven over five ?5/3# /.k ?7/5#

267

the fraction twelve over seven approximately equals one point seven ?12/7# `:`: #1.7 the fraction of the square root of two over two is not equal to one ?>2}/2# /.k #1 Proofreading cap ;,X cap ;,R cap ;,T is congruent to cap ;,T cap ;,R cap ;,V ,X,R,T `:.k ,T,R,V ,X,R,T `<.k ,T,R,V ;p plus two is equivalent to ;p plus two p+2 _l p+2 p+2 __ p+2 three plus nine is not equal to twenty seven #3+9 /.k #27 #3+9 *.k #27 #11.2 Signs of comparison: ratios, inequalities, set notation, and vertical bars Explanation Ratios are often indicated by the use of the fraction line or the ratio sign. A ratio relates two quantities through the operation of division; it is read, "is to." The braille symbol for ratio is dot five dot two. In print, the symbol that is used has the same appearance as a print colon, that is, two dots, one above the other. In braille, however, the literary colon should not be used, as its configuration is the same as the Nemeth numeral three. The sign for ratios is a mathematical sign of comparison and is not a colon. It should not be used as a mark of punctuation, nor should a mark of punctuation be used for ratio. The print representation of this symbol may show no spaces between it and the numerals or expressions associated with it. In braille, however, a space must be placed before and after the symbol because it is a sign of comparison.
Braille "1 Symbol Name ratio sign is to Configuration dots 5, 2 Print Symbol :

example #1_4 a simple ratio #2 "1 #7

268

example #2_4 the ratio of two algebraic expressions #7x+2y "1 #3y
Terminology Note The term, rational number, comes from the word, ratio. Any number that can be expressed as the ratio of two integers, such as a/b where b0, forms a rational number. Decimal notation for rational numbers either terminating, as in 1.75, or has repeating decimals. 1 3 4 = 1.75
5 1 3

= 5.333...

5931 = 5.936936936... 999

Proportion When two ratios are equivalent, a proportion is established. If a ratio is used to show the relationships on each side of the equality, then the symbol for proportion that is used is dots five six dots two three, rather than the equals sign. The symbol is read as, "as."
Braille ;2 Symbol Name proportion sign Configuration dots 5-6, 2-3 Print Symbol ::

example #3_4 a statement of the equality of two ratios forming a proportion #3 "1 #4 ;2 #75 "1 #100 Inequalities The symbol for greater than, dots four six dot two, and the symbol for less than, dot five dots one three, are used to show inequalities. The cell containing only one braille dot is always pointing to the value that is less than the other. For example, in "nine is greater than four", the single dot two is pointing toward the lesser value, four. Likewise, in "four is less than nine", the single dot five is also pointing toward the lesser value, four.
Braille .1 "k Symbol Name greater than less than Configuration dots 4-6, 2 dots 5, 1-3 Print Symbol > <

Teaching Tips Students may be confused by the greater than and less than symbols and inappropriately apply one of them when the other is needed. A trick for distinguishing these symbols is to recognize that the cell containing only one braille dot (in these two-celled symbols) points to the value that is less than the other. For example, in 9>4, the single dot (3) is pointing toward the lesser value, 4. #9 .1 #4 Likewise, in 4<9, the single dot (5) is pointing toward the lesser value, 4. #4 "k #9

269

example #4_4 #9 .1 #4 example #5_4 #4 "k #9 example #6_4 #2x-7 .1 #18 example #7_4 contractions and short-form words may not be used before or after the space associated with a sign of comparison or a sign of operation ten .1 three example #8_4 the range of values for ;x can be any value between -#9 and -#2 -#9 "k x "k -#2 Symbols combining equality and inequality In print, there are two ways of showing greater than or equal to. The most common is to use a single horizontal line under the greater than sign, represented in braille by dots four six dot two dots one five six. Dots one five six, the configuration for the single horizontal line, is a modifier. It follows a braille symbol when a horizontal line occurs beneath a symbol in print. It precedes a braille symbol when a horizontal line occurs above a symbol in print. The second method for showing greater than or equal to in print is to position double horizontal lines, equals sign, under the greater than sign. This is represented in braille by dots four six dot two dots four six dots one three. Since the more commonly used of these symbols is the first, in both print and in braille, the one with the single bar will be used in the example below.
Braille .1: .1.k Symbol Name greater than or equals sign greater than or equals sign Configuration dots 4-6, 2, 1-5-6 dots 4-6, 2, 4-6, 13 Print Symbol

>

Teaching Tips The use of the greater than braille symbol along with the braille symbol for is equal to, stresses the equality aspect of the combined symbol. However, the single bar is most often shown in print usage for this type of comparison and students should be aware of the braille configuration for both. The braille symbol must be the same as the print sign. The reader is referred to The Nemeth Braille Code for Mathematics and Science Notation, pages 134-144.

270

example #9_4 x+y .1: -#3 The symbols for less than or equal to are formed in a fashion similar to the greater than or equal to symbols. A single horizontal line under the less than sign to indicate less than or equal to is represented in braille by dot five dots one three dots one five six. The double horizontal line under the less than sign to indicate less than or equal to is dot five dots one three dots four six dots one three.
Braille "k: "k.k Symbol Name less than or equals sign less than or equals sign Configuration dots 5, 1-3, 1-5-6 dots 5, 1-3, 4-6, 13 Print Symbol
<

example #10_4 the single line symbol for the less than or equal to comparison. #3a-5 "k: #2a+9 Comparison signs used in set notation Element, or a member of, a set An item within a set is referred to as an element of or a member of the set. The braille symbol for element of a set is dot four dots one five. To remember the symbol you may wish to associate it with the letter ;e for element, since the second cell has the same braille configuration as the letter ;e. The print symbol resembles the Greek letter epsilon and may be referred to as such in some texts. However, as a mathematical symbol, epsilon is used to represent an exceptionally small amount. In braille, the symbol is always represented by dot four dots one five, no matter how it may appear in print.
Braille `e Symbol Name member or element of a set Configuration dots 4, 1-5 Print Symbol

example #11_4 three is an element of set ,A if ,A .k .(2, 3, 5, 17.) then #3 @e ,A The symbol for "not an element of" is represented in braille by dots three four dot four dots one five. example #12_4 nine is not an element of set ,A #9 /@e ,A

271

Subset, also called proper subset or inclusion Subsets are entire sets that are included within another set. The braille configuration of the symbol for subset, proper subset or inclusion, is dots four five six dot five dots one three.
Braille _"k Symbol Name proper subset Configuration dots 4-5-6, 5, 1-3 Print Symbol

example #13_4 two sets with the members of one included in the other if A .k .(2, 4, 6, 8.) and B .k .(2, 6.) then ,B _"k ,A_4 Subset or equivalent to The previous discussion on the greater than or equal to symbols also applies to the braille symbol for subset when a horizontal line is displayed beneath it. The symbol often appears in print with only one line of the equals sign and occasionally with the full equals sign. The braille configuration for subset or equivalent to, using a single horizontal line, is dots four five six dot five dots one three dots one five six. The braille configuration for subset or equivalent to, using a double horizontal line, is dots four five six dot five dots one three dots four six dots one three.
Braille _"k: _"k.k Symbol Name subset (inclusion) subset (inclusion) Configuration dots 4-5-6, 5, 1-3, 1-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 5, 1-3, 4-6, 13 Print Symbol

example #14_4 subset or equivalent to using single horizontal line If ,A .k .(1, 3, 5.) and ,B .k .(5, 3, 1.) then ,B _"k: ,A Proper superset, contains or implies Dots four five six dots four six dot two is the braille configuration for the symbol for proper superset, also known as reverse inclusion.
Braille _.1 Symbol Name proper superset (reverse inclusion) Configuration dots 4-5-6, 4-6, 2 Print Symbol

example #15_4 ,B _.1 ,C Any of these symbols can also be combined with the negation sign, dots three four.

272

Vertical bar, such that

Braille | Symbol Name vertical bar Configuration dots 1-2-5-6 Print Symbol |

The vertical bar can be used either as a sign of grouping, as presented in lesson #10.6, or as a sign of comparison. As a sign of comparison, it relates two quantities or expressions. The configuration of the vertical bar, dots one two five six, is the same regardless of how it is used. example #16_4 set that is read as "W equals the set of y's, such that y .1 -#5_" ,W .k .(y | y .1 -#5.) When signs of comparison that are not included in this tutorial are encountered, the rules which apply to all signs of comparison should be employed. Dividing a long mathematical expression between lines It is important to avoid dividing a mathematical expression between braille lines. Sometimes a mathematical expression will fit on a single line but other material precedes it, as in word problems. When this occurs, the entire embedded mathematical expression is to be placed on the next braille line, beginning at the left margin. This precludes the unnecessary division of a mathematical expression. This is to be done even if considerable space is left in the previous line. A displayed expression is a set of mathematical symbols which is separated from the body of the text by a blank line or by indentation on a new line. When a displayed expression will not fit on its own braille line, it should be divided before the sign of comparison. The runover portion, beginning with the sign of comparison, is indented two cells. If the expression does not contain a sign of comparison, there is a hierarchy of symbols at which point the expression should be divided. These are as follows: #1_4 after a comma between items in an enclosed list; #2_4 before a sign of operation; #3_4 before a fraction line; #4_4 before the baseline indicator, refer to lesson #12; #5_4 before a superscript or subscript change of level indicator, refer to lesson #12; and #6_4 after the termination indicator of a modified expression or a radical.

273

Note There is a rule for the use of the English letter indicator that applies to this lesson which was not covered here because its use is somewhat limited. Normally, the English letter indicator is not used with single letters or short-form combinations when they are preceded or followed by a sign of comparison. However, in a situation where a single letter or short-form combination is separated from a sign of comparison by a mark of punctuation, the English letter indicator must be used. In x = r, the quotation marks make it necessary to use the English letter indicator.

Review Signs of comparison Usage: signs of comparison relate two expressions. Rules: The rules for brailling signs of comparison apply to all signs of comparison. #1_4 These signs are preceded and followed by a space. #2_4 If a numeral follows the equals sign, it must be preceded by the numeric indicator because there is a space between the numeral and the equals sign. An exception to this rule occurs when a plus sign precedes the numeral that follows the sign of comparison, in which case the numeric indicator is not used. #3_4 A space must not be left between a sign of comparison and a mark of punctuation, sign of grouping, or braille indicator which applies to it. This is because the sign is a mathematical symbol and is not being used to compare two expressions. #4_4 Contractions and short-form words may not be used before or after the space that precedes or follows a sign of comparison. #5_4 For all punctuation marks which follow a sign of comparison, the punctuation indicator, dots four five six, should be placed between the sign of comparison and the mark of punctuation. This is because the sign of comparison is a mathematical symbol. Exceptions include the mathematical comma, the hyphen, and the dash; no punctuation indicator precedes these marks of punctuation. #6_4 When a long expression is to be divided, the division occurs before the sign of comparison. Runovers are placed on the next braille line. In embedded expressions, the runover portions begin at the left margin. In displayed expressions, the runover portions are indented two cells. Exercises

274

Prompt to Braille one point seven is greater than one point six nine #1.7 .1 #1.69 minus four is greater than minus five -#4 .1 -#5 ;f open paren ;x close paren equals open brace ;x such that ;x is less than zero close brace f(x) .k .(x | x "k #0.) three is to four as seventy five is to one hundred #3 "1 #4 ;2 #75 "1 #100 ;x plus seven is greater than or equal to minus five x+7 .1: -#5 the absolute value of the expression nine ;x minus one is less than or equal to seven |9x-1| "k: #7 five is an element of cap a #5 `e ,A cap ;,B is a proper subset of cap ,A ,B _"k ,A cap ;,B is included in cap ,A ,B _"k: ,A five is to seven as seven is to general omission sign #5 "1 #7 ;2 #7 "1 = two point five is less than or equal to ;x plus seven is less than ten #2.5 "k: x+7 "k #10 ;f open paren ;g close paren equals open brace ;g such that ;g plus seven is greater than or equal to ten close brace f(g) .k .(g | g+7 .1: #10.) Use subset or equals to comma proper subset comma and proper superset period Use _"k:, _"k, and _.1_4

275

Braille to Speech six is greater than five #6 .1 #5 three is less than ten #3 "k #10 four is to eight as one is to two #5 "1 #8 ;2 #1 "1 #2 ;x is to five as three is to seventy five x "1 #5 ;2 #3 "1 #75 ;y plus five is greater than or equal to minus seven y+5 .1: -#7 ;x is not greater than six x /.1 #6 cap ;,C cap ,A cap ;,T is congruent to cap ;,D cap ;,O cap ;,G ,C,A,T `:.k ,D,O,G minus eight is not equal to eight -#8 /.k #8 four is an element of cap ;,Y #4 `e ,Y cap ;,R is a subset of cap ;,M ,R _"k ,M ;g open paren ;y close paren equals open brace ;y such that ;y is less than or equal to two close brace g(y) .k .(y | y "k: #2.) minus two is less than ;x is less than or equal to two -#2 "k x "k: #2 cap ;,B is a proper superset of cap ;,C ,B _.1 ,C ;o ;n ;e is not greater than ;t ;h ;r ;e ;e one /.1 t h r e e Proofreading

276

ten is an element of cap ;,T #10 `e ,T 0 .e ,T four is less than nine #4 "k #9 1k #9 cap ;,R is a subset or equal to cap ;,S ,R _"k: ,S ,R ."k: ,S five is to ;y as two is to ten #5 "1 y ;2 #2 "1 #10 #5 "1y ;2 #2 "1 #10 #12.1 Level indicators Explanation In print, numerals, variables, or entire expressions may be positioned at different levels. They may be slightly above or below the rest of the numerals or variables in a mathematical expression. These characters may appear in a smaller font size, or may be in the same font as the expression on the baseline of print. When characters are raised slightly above the other characters on a line, they are said to be superscripted to the other characters. Exponents are an example of this. When characters are below the baseline, they are subscripted. When the term, base, is used mathematically, it usually refers to a subscripted character. Superscripts and subscripts appear to the right or left, that is, preceding or following the characters on the baseline, not directly over or under them. In braille, a change in level is usually represented by braille indicators which have no print equivalents. The symbols in this lesson are: superscript indicator Braille configuration: dots four five Braille symbol: ^ subscript indicator Braille configuration: dots five six Braille symbol: ; baseline indicator Braille configuration: dot five Braille symbol: "

277

Braille ~ ; "

Symbol Name superscript indicator (for exponents) subscript indicator baseline indicator (multipurpose indicator)

Configuration dots 4-5 dots 5-6 dot 5

Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille

Teaching Tips The following diagram may help to explain the concept of superscripts, subscripts and baseline.
p 3xn <----- baseline level

p first order superscript level n first order subscript level In print, the baseline expression is usually in regular size type, whereas superscripts and subscripts are often in smaller type. When initially presenting superscripts and subscripts to a student, use the terms raised and lowered because teachers and textbooks may refer to them in this way.

Exponents: first order superscripts To indicate that numerals, letters, or expressions are raised, place the superscript indicator before the portion which appears above the baseline. When the superscript follows the symbol on the baseline, it is unspaced from the symbol associated with it. There is no space between the symbol on the baseline and the superscript indicator. example #1_4 a simple exponent superscripted to a numeral, read as "five to the second power" or "five squared" #5^2 example #2_4 entire expression #3n-7 superscripted to the numeral #2 #2^3n-7 example #3_4 variable on baseline with superscripted numeral n^3
Math Facts Powers are a higher form of multiplication, which may be a reason why the exponents are raised. It is important to stress that this is not just another way to show multiplication, since 53 does not equal 5x3. Just as multiplication is a mathematical operation involving several (cumulative) additions (6x5 is 5+5+5+5+5+5), exponents employ a mathematical operation involving multiple multiplications and its results tend to be more powerful. Terminology Note The terms exponent, superscript and power are often used interchangeably.

278

Influence of level indicators The influence of the superscript indicator, dots four five, affects every character following it. Its influence is ended in several ways: #1_4 when a space occurs, refer to example #6 for an exception, #2_4 when the baseline indicator is encountered, marking a return to the baseline, #3_4 when another level indicator, either of a higher or lower level, is encountered, #4_4 when punctuation on the baseline is encountered, #5_4 when there is transition to a new braille line followed by a different mathematical expression or literary text, or #6_4 when a comma or the punctuation indicator is encountered. The influence of the superscript indicator is not ended when a comma is part of a long numeral, such as #2,305, used as an exponent. Its influence also affects superscripted or subscripted items in a series separated by commas, as in #2, #3, #4_4 The braille symbol, dots two four six, replaces the comma and its associated space. example #4_4 dots two four six replacing comma and associated space x^3{4 example #5_4 influence of superscript indicator ends at space that occurs on the baseline; the equals sign and material to the right of it are on same baseline as the first numeral five #5^3 .k #125 example #6_4 a superscripted mathematical expression; influence of level indicator ended by space preceding sign of comparison #7a+2b^3n-1 .1 #17 There are exceptions to the rule that a space ends a level indicator's influence. In these instances, the reader needs to rely on contextual clues to determine if the space is or is not associated with the material that is superscripted. In example #7, the spaces associated with the ellipsis are part of the

279

superscript and do not end the influence of the superscript indicator. example #7_4 n^x+2x+3x+ ''' +10x The baseline indicator The baseline indicator, dot five, is used to indicate that the characters following it are on the baseline. It ends the influence of the superscript or subscript indicators. In example #8, the influence of the superscript indicators following the variables ;c squared and ;b squared is ended by spaces. The baseline indicator follows the superscripted a squared to indicate that plus ;b squared is not part of the exponent. example #8_4 c^2 .k a^2"+b^2 Examples #9 through #10 demonstrate the use of the baseline indicator. example #9_4 #3x^2"*4x^3 .k #12x^5 example #10_4 #18x^5"y^2"z^7 example #11_4 #5^2n+6"+3^2n+6 .k #8^2n+6 When a mark of punctuation that requires the use of the punctuation indicator is encountered, the influence of the level indicator is ended. Therefore, the baseline indicator is not required before the mark of punctuation. example #12_4 Use #3n^7_4 Review Superscript indicator Braille configuration: dots four five Braille symbol: ^ Usage: to indicate that the symbols following are raised above the baseline of the printed material.

280

Rules: #1_4 The superscript indicator should precede the symbol or symbols that are raised. #2_4 The influence of the superscript indicator is ended by a space, another level indicator, the baseline indicator, a comma, or the punctuation indicator. Baseline indicator Braille configuration: dot five Braille symbol: " Usage: to terminate the influence of a level indicator. To show a return to the baseline when the influence of a level indicator is not terminated by a space, comma, or punctuation requiring the use of the punctuation indicator. Exercises Prompt to Braille five squared #5^2 ;y raised to the power seven y^7 two cubed #2^3 six raised to the expression two a plus seven #6^2a+7 four ;y raised to the fifth power #4y^5 nine ;y plus five ;z raised to the power of three ;n equals twelve #9y+5z^3n .k #12 five ;y cubed plus seven ;y squared #5y^3"+7y^2 ;y cubed times ;y squared y^3"*y^2 three ;w squared times two ;w cubed equals six ;w raised to the fifth power #3w^2"*2w^3 .k #6w^5

281

;y raised to the two pi power plus ;x y^2.p"+x Is the answer ;y squared? Is the answer y^2_8 Braille to Speech nine raised to the fourth power #9^4 ;x cubed x^3 three raised to the expression ;n plus one equals seven #3^n+1 .k #7 three raised to the power ;n baseline plus one equals ten #3^n"+1 .k #10 cap ;,C squared equals cap ;,A squared cap ;,B squared ,C^2 .k ,A^2",B^2 ;y raised to the power three comma seven y^3{7 the absolute value of the expression ;r raised to the fifth plus one |r^5"+1| square root of two squared equals two >2}^2 .k #2 three ;z raised to the fifth power plus five ;z squared #3z^5"+5z^2 open paren ;x plus ;y close paren squared (x+y)^2 ;x raised to the power pi multiplication dot ;x cubed equals ;x raised to the expression pi plus three x^.p"*x^3 .k x^.p+3 five raised to the power two thirds #5^?2/3#

282

The answer is five squared period The answer is #5^2_4 seven raised to the expression ;n plus two ;n plus three ;n plus ellipsis plus ten ;n baseline minus seven #7^n+2n+3n+ ''' +10n"-7 ;x squared ;y squared x^2"y^2 Proofreading ;x squared x^2 xb2 three ;y raised to the expression three ;n minus seven #3y^3n-7 #3y^3n^-7 ;x raised to the negative two power ;y raised to the negative two power x^-2"y^-2 x^2y^2 ;n raised to the negative one comma negative three n^-1{-3 n^1, ^3 five raised to the negative three times minus five raised to the negative seventh #5^-3"*-5^-7 #5^3"5^*7 #12.2 Level indicators: multiple levels, fractions, grouping symbols, negative exponents, left positioned, and punctuation Explanation Second, third, and greater order superscripts Material that is superscripted may itself have a superscript. Likewise, that superscripted item may have its own superscript, and so on. When it is necessary to display multiple levels of superscripts, the superscript indicator is used the same number of times as the level to which the item is raised. That is, an exponent raised one level has one superscript indicator, an

283

exponent raised two levels requires two superscript indicators, and so on. The superscript indicators mark where a symbol is positioned in relation to the expression on the baseline.
----------------3

17y

<----<----<----<-----

Teaching Tips third order superscript (dots 4-5, 4-5, 4-5) second order superscript (dots 4-5, 4-5) first order superscript (dots 4-5) baseline (dot 5)

Example:

3x5n
5n 3 +7 -3

+7

first order superscript (dots 4-5) second order superscript (dots 4-5, 4-5) first order superscript (dots 4-5) baseline (dot 5 before -3)

example #1_4 second level superscript three #13n^2x^^3 example #2_4 expression containing baseline indicator and second level superscript four x^5n-1"-3x+2^2n^^4 Returning to a lower level superscript There are instances when only a portion of the superscripted material has its own superscript. It is necessary to indicate the level of the material following the second level superscript and to indicate that there is a return to the first level superscript. Since this is a return to the first level superscript and not to the baseline, a first level superscript indicator is used rather than the baseline indicator. Any change in level of superscripts, up or down, is indicated by a corresponding quantity of superscript indicators. In example #3, #5n is a first order superscript. It is preceded by a single superscript indicator. The #3 is the exponent to the variable, ;n, and is a second order superscript. To return to the first level to continue the expression, a single superscript indicator is positioned before the +7, which is still an exponent to the #4x_4 Finally, the baseline indicator shows that the -#6 is on the baseline with the #4x_4 example #3_4

284

#4x^5n^^3^+7"-6 example #4_4 a second order superscript followed by the remaining portion of the first order superscript; the drop is back to level one #5^n^^3^+n Superscript indicators within fractions Superscripts may be utilized in several ways. When a superscript indicator is included with other braille indicators or with signs of enclosure, it is important to distinguish exactly where the superscript terminates. example #5_4 exponents within a fraction; baseline indicator necessary before closing fraction indicator because closing fraction indicator is associated with the fraction on the baseline ?1/x^2"# example #6_4 fraction as superscript followed by baseline indicator #3^?2/5#"+7 example #7_4 fractional exponents within a fraction ?x^?1/2#"/y Superscript indicators with negative exponents Negative exponents are displayed in a similar manner as any superscripted item. Negative superscripts are used to indicate reciprocals, inverse functions, and negative numerals.
Math Facts A negative exponent usually indicates that the number, variable, or expression which is the base is in the denominator of a fraction. That base is raised to the absolute value of that exponent.

52 =

1 52

If x is a rational number (other than 0), then for all whole number powers (p), the following is true:

x p =

1 xp

There are times when a negative superscripted character does not indicate a power. The following case is an example of an inverse function: f-1 A function, f(x), is an equation isolated for the dependent variable (y). Two

285

variables (x, y) are the ordered pairs and each input (x) is paired with exactly one output (y). The inverse function is a reflected function in which the ordered pairs are interchanged so that the y-variable becomes the input and the x-variable becomes the output. Regardless of the intent, inverse function or negative exponent, both are brailled similarly.

example #8_4 use of negative exponent illustrating its meaning as a reciprocal #5^-2 .k ?1/5^2"# example #9_4 use of a variable as a negative exponent x^-p .k ?1/x^p"# example #10_4 an inverse trigonometric function, the arcsine of theta sin^-1 .? .k arcsine .? Superscript indicators, baseline indicator and grouping symbols If signs of grouping representing absolute value are not part of an expression which is raised above the baseline, the signs of grouping are not affected by the level indicators. When a sign of grouping that is associated with the baseline follows a superscripted expression, the baseline indicator is needed before the closing grouping symbol. If a superscripted expression follows a closing sign of grouping which is on the baseline, the superscript indicator is placed after the closing sign of grouping and before the superscripted item. If an item enclosed in signs of grouping is raised, then the entire expression, including the signs of grouping, is treated as a unit. These same rules apply to fraction indicators, as mentioned above. example #11_4 (x+y)^2"+(y+1)^2 example #12_4 (3x^2") example #13_4 vertical lines representing absolute value |t^15"| example #14_4 signs of grouping and enclosed expression treated as a unit

286

a^(x-2)"+b^(x+3) example #15_4 superscripted symbol for degree #25^.* ;,C example #16_4 baseline indicator preceding horizontal fraction line within a radical >?cos #45^.*"/2#} Example #17 illustrates the exponential function raised to the function of the natural log. Since the space following the function name is associated with the function name, that space does not end the influence of the level indicator. It is the space after the variable ;x which ends the superscript. example #17_4 e^ln x .k x Left-positioned superscripts A common use of superscripts that are positioned to the left of a character on the baseline is to display directed numbers. In print, this indicates that the numeral has a positive or negative value rather than indicating the operations of addition or subtraction. The number, letter, or other character that follows the left-positioned superscript must be preceded by the baseline indicator. This signifies that a return to the baseline has occurred. Since the item on the baseline is not the first character on a line or after a space, neither the numeric indicator nor the English letter indicator is used. example #18_4 a minus sign superscripted to the left of a numeral, indicating negative five ^-"5 example #19_4 positive seven plus negative two ^+"7+^-"2 example #20_4 superscripted negative sign before variable, ;m ^-"m+^-"2 example #21_4 baseline letter has a left letter superscript ^n",X example #22_4 baseline indicator followed by a numeral;

287

demonstrates the possible confusion of the baseline indicator, dot five, with the numeral one, dot two, when the baseline indicator is followed by any numeral ^-"2, ^+"2
Teaching Tips The baseline indicator, dot 5, is sometimes mistaken as the number 1. A few drills of find me can be used to reinforce the rule for the baseline indicator. The student locates a level indicator and searches for the baseline indicator. Randomly intersperse -1, +1, -17, etc., where the baseline indicator would be followed by the number 1.

Punctuation The influence of a level indicator is terminated by a mark of punctuation which requires the use of the punctuation indicator and which occurs on the baseline. The influence of a level indicator is also terminated by a comma that is not part of the expression that is positioned above the baseline. When a mark of punctuation occurs in a superscripted or subscripted position, the appropriate level indicator is placed before the punctuation indicator. This is to show that the influence of the level indicator has not been terminated. example #23_4 punctuation indicator ends effect of level indicator x^2_'s and y^2_'s are used in formulas for conic sections. example #24_4 effect of level indicator terminated by a comma #5r^3, -#2r^3 and r^3 are like terms. example #25_4 comma in the exponent used as a place value divider; it does not end influence of the level indicator q^1,225 example #26_4 punctuation positioned at superscripted level; appropriate level indicator precedes punctuation indicator x^2^_'s and y^x+x^_'s Review Superscript indicator, multiple levels Braille configuration: several sequences of dots four five Braille symbol: ^^^ Usage: to indicate that the symbols following are raised above the baseline of the printed material. The superscript indicator is used the same number of times as the level to which an expression is raised.

288

Rules: #1_4 Place as many superscript indicators as are needed to raise the item to the required level. #2_4 The influence of the superscript indicator is ended by a space, except a space associated with the superscripted material. Examples of this would include a place value marker, an ellipsis, or a long dash. The influence is also ended by: another level indicator, either higher or lower; the baseline indicator marking a return to the starting level; a punctuation indicator; a transition to a new braille line; or a comma on the baseline. Baseline indicator Braille configuration: dot five Braille symbol: " Usage: to end the effect of a level indicator and indicate a return to the baseline. Rules: #1_4 Use the baseline indicator to indicate a return to the baseline, when the influence of a level indicator is not terminated by a space or by punctuation. #2_4 Use the baseline indicator before a closing sign of grouping or a closing braille indicator, such as a fraction indicator or a radical termination indicator, if it is a part of the baseline expression. Exercises Prompt to Braille seven first level superscript five second level superscript two #7^5^^2 three ;n first level superscript eight ;y second level superscript two baseline plus six #3n^8y^^2"+6 seven first level superscript open paren four ;w minus nine close paren second level superscript two #7^(4w-9)^^2 five ;r first level superscript three ;n second level superscript seven first level exponent minus four #5r^3n^^7^-4

289

one over the expression two ;x raised to the fifth power ?1/2x^5"# ten raised to the power two sevenths #10^?2/7# the fraction numerator two first level superscript one half baseline over denominator two first level superscript three over two ?2^?1/2#"/2^?3/2#"# open paren five ;v raised to the ninth power close paren (5v^9") left raised plus sign baseline seventeen ^+"17 left raised plus sign baseline six plus left raised plus sign baseline nineteen ^+"6+^+"19 two ;t squared, two ;f squared, and two ;w squared. #2t^2, #2f^2, and #2w^2_4 left raised minus sign baseline cap ;,N ^-",N left raised ;r baseline cap ;,W ^r",W Find the limit as ;x approaches zero for three first level superscript two ;x second level superscript two first level superscript minus #aj4 Find the limit as ;x approaches zero for #3^2x^^2^-10_4 the fraction ;x squared over a squared plus the fraction ;x squared over ;b squared equals one ?x^2"/a^2"#+?x^2"/b^2"# .k #1 Braille to Speech ten ;x raised to the power three ;y squared #10x^3y^^2 three raised to the third power cubed #3^3^^3

290

seven raised to the power open paren two ;x close paren raised to the fifth power #7^(2x)^^5 ;n raised to the power three ;n squared first level superscript minus one baseline plus two n^3n^^2^-1"+2 ten raised to the one half power baseline plus one #10^?1/2#"+1 three over the expression ;r cubed ?3/r^3"# ;f raised to the power minus one baseline open paren ;x close paren f^-1"(x) ;h over the expression ;k raised to the two thirds power ?h/k^?2/3#"# open paren ;r cubed plus nine ;r cubed close paren (r^3"+9r^3") Find ;x raised to the power ;n when ;n equals sign three first level superscript five second level superscript seven period Find x^n when n .k #3^5^^7_4 ;e first level superscript two second level superscript square root of two baseline plus seven e^2^^>2}"+7 left raised minus sign baseline a ^-"a left raised plus sign baseline two ^+"2 left raised minus sign baseline three plus left raised minus sign baseline four equals left raised minus sign baseline seven ^-"3+^-"4 .k ^-"7 Proofreading twelve ;x raised to the power two ;y cubed

291

#12x^2y^^3 #12x^2y^3 five raised to the fraction three over four #5^?3/4# #5^?3/4#" ;x raised to the expression three ;x squared first level superscript minus four baseline plus eight x^3x^^2^-4"+8 x^3x^^2-4"+8 left raised minus sign baseline cap ;,R ^-",R ^-;,R #12.3 Level indicators: subscripts Explanation Subscript symbols are numerals, characters, or expressions that are positioned below the baseline. The rules governing the use of the subscript indicator, dots five six, differ slightly from the rules for the superscript indicator. In certain circumstances, in order to save space, the subscript indicator is not used.
Braille ; " Symbol Name subscript level indicator baseline indicator Configuration dots 5-6 dot 5 Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille

Use of the subscript level indicator The subscript level indicator must be used when a numeral, letter, or expression follows a baseline character. This is necessary in order to distinguish between characters on the baseline and those which are below the baseline. example #1_4 x;n example #2_4 #2;r example #3_4 #2;3
Note The numeric indicator is not used before a subscripted numeral since it is not the first item on a line or after a space.

292

Material subscripted to other subscripts As with superscripts, the level of the subscripted material is indicated by the number of subscript level indicators that are used. Second order subscripts are positioned two levels below the baseline.
3y ------------<---<---<---<---Note baseline first order subscript (dots 5-6) second order subscript (dots 5-6, 5-6) third order subscript (dots 5-6, 5-6, 5-6)

x2 n6 + 7 --- baseline (use dot 5 before +7)

2n first order subscript 6 second order subscript

example #4_4 the letter a as a first order subscript, the letter ;b as a second order subscript n;a;;b Subsequent levels would be shown with a corresponding number of subscript level indicators, following the same rules that are applied to superscripts. If a subscript of the second order is brought back to the level of the first order and not to the baseline, use a single subscript level indicator to return to the first order level as in example #5_4 example #5_4 #3;n;;5;+3 Baseline indicator When material following a subscripted item that requires the use of the subscript indicator is on the baseline, the baseline indicator must follow the subscript. The baseline indicator is not needed after a subscript that does not require the subscript indicator. example #6_4 x;2n"-x Non-use of the subscript indicator When a plain letter or an abbreviated function name has a simple number as a subscript, the subscript indicator is not required. All of the following conditions must be met in order to display a subscript without a subscript indicator:

293

#1_4 The baseline character must be a letter or an abbreviated function name; it cannot be a numeral. #2_4 The subscript is a numeral which does not have a superscript or subscript of its own. #3_4 The subscript must be a right subscripted numeral. A left subscripted numeral would require the subscript indicator. #4_4 The subscript must be of the first order, located on the first level below the baseline. example #7_4 a plain letter with a simple number as subscript, read as ;n sub three n3 example #8_4 an upper case letter with a simple number as subscript, read as cap ;b sub one ,B1 example #9_4 chemical notation, read as ;c ;o #2_2 note that the same guidelines for non-use of the subscript indicator apply to chemical notation ,C,O2 example #10_4 subscripts in an expression; subscript indicator not required, baseline indicator not required; read as ;y sub one plus three ;y sub two y1+3y2 example #11_4 subscripts in an expression a1+a2+a3+ ''' +a18 example #12_4 numeric subscript with abbreviated function name; read as log sub 2 of ;x is equal to seven log2 x .k #7 In example #13, the numeral three follows the plain letter O; therefore, the subscript indicator is not used. The numeral two, however, follows a sign of grouping related to the baseline characters; therefore, the subscript indicator is required. example #13_4 ,Zn(,N,O3);2

294

Note The appropriate level indicator (baseline indicator) must be used before an ellipsis or long dash that is located at a different level from the material that precedes it. If the ellipsis or long dash is representing omitted items that would have been on the baseline, the baseline indicator is necessary. The reason there is a need for this distinction is that an ellipsis or long dash may be part of a subscript or superscript, as in:

na +b + c +...+ w
n;a+b+c+ ''' +w Recall that both the ellipsis and the long dash require spaces before and after them. Therefore, the rule that the influence of level indicators is terminated by a space would make it impossible to represent the ellipsis or long dash on a level other than the baseline. Hence, the baseline indicator, dot 5, would be needed if the ellipsis or long dash that is on the baseline follows material that is displayed at a subscripted or superscripted position. There is no space between the baseline indicator and the ellipsis or long dash. Refer to 62f, AITBM. Example: the long dash is on baseline following subscripted material ana2na3n ______ azn a;n"a;2n"a;3n"---- a;zn

Simultaneous superscripts and subscripts In braille, if numerals, symbols, or expressions are shown with both a subscript and a superscript, the subscript is indicated first. example #14_4 in print, the superscripted number two is positioned directly over the subscripted letter ;n w;n^2 example #15_4 no subscript indicator used because subscript is a numeral n1^2 example #16_4 no subscript indicator used because subscript is a numeral y5^x Left subscripts A subscript may appear to the left of a baseline character. In that case, the subscript indicator precedes the subscripted symbol. The baseline indicator follows the subscripted symbol and precedes the baseline character. When the subscript level indicator precedes a numeral, the numeric indicator is not required.

295

example #17_4 the letter ;x as a left subscript to the variable ;n ;x"n example #18_4 the numeral two as a left subscript to the variable ;n. Because the subscripted numeral two is placed before the baseline character, ;n, the subscript level indicator is required. This is to differentiate this expression from the expression, 2n. ;2"n Review Subscript indicator Braille configuration: dots five six Braille symbol: ; Usage: To represent numerals, symbols, or expressions which are positioned below the baseline. Rules: The subscript indicator is required: #1_4 when subscripts are non-numeric, #2_4 when a numeral, letter, or expression follows a baseline character that is numeric, or #3_4 when a left subscript precedes a baseline character. The subscript indicator is not required when subscripted numerals are positioned to the right of a letter or abbreviated function name, and on the first level below the baseline. Two or more subscript indicators are required to show subscripts that are at the second level or lower. The number of subscript indicators corresponds with the level of the subscript. The influence of a level indicator is ended by another level indicator, a baseline indicator, or a space not associated with the subscripted material. Do not use the baseline indicator if the subscripted item is followed by a space or is the last item on a braille line which does not require a runover on the next braille line. An exception occurs if a long dash or ellipsis is on the baseline. In this case, the baseline indicator must be used instead of the space associated with the omission symbol. Exercises Prompt to Braille ;y subscript ;r y;r

296

two subscript ;n #2;n seven subscript ten #7;10 open paren ;x plus #2 close paren subscript ;z (x+2);z a first level subscript ;b second level subscript ;c a;b;;c seventeen first level subscript ;r second level subscript three first level subscript minus two #17;r;;3;-2 ;y subscript two ;w baseline plus ;y subscript ;w baseline plus ;y y;2w"+y;w"+y cap ;,H subscript two ,H2 cap ;,H subscript two baseline cap ;,O ,H2,O a subscript #1 baseline plus a subscript two baseline plus a subscript three baseline plus ellipsis a1+a2+a3+ ''' seven ;r subscript two baseline minus three ;r subscript five #7r2-3r5 ;r subscript the expression two ;n r;2n cap delta ;y equals ;y subscript two baseline minus ;y subscript one .,dy .k y2-y1 ;m equals the fraction the expression ;y subscript two baseline minus ;y subscript one all over the expression ;x subscript #2 baseline minus ;x subscript one m .k ?y2-y1/x2-x1

297

left subscript ;p baseline cap ;,R ;p",R the expression a subscript two with superscript ;n a2^n the expression a with subscript two to the nth power a;2^n log subscript five of twenty five equals two log5 #25 .k #2 Braille to Speech a subscript 5 a5 ;t subscript ;n t;n ;v subscript one squared v1^2 a first level subscript ;n second level subscript ;j a;n;;j cap ;,Q subscript ;i ,Q;i ;b subscript one baseline plus ;b subscript two baseline plus ;b subscript three baseline ellipsis ;b subscript ;n b1+b2+b3 ''' b;n cap ,A subscript ;m baseline multiplication dot cap ,A subscript ;m ;n ,A;m"*,A;mn ;f open paren ;x subscript zero close paren f(x0) left subscript five baseline ;m ;5"m ;y subscript three ;x y;3x

298

log base ten of two log10 #2 cap ;,R first level subscript ;w second level subscript seven first level subscript plus ten ,R;w;;7;+10 Proofreading ;x subscript ;y x;y x"y ;z subscript ;2 z2 z;2 left subscript ;t baseline cap ;,S ;t",S ;t,S ;x with a subscript of ;y and a superscript of three x;y^3 x;3;y #12.4 Level indicators: non-decimal bases and combined superscript and subscript indicators Explanation Non-decimal base numerals Numerals representing values in bases other than ten are often displayed with either a numerical subscript or a subscripted word. Numeric subscripts are brailled as presented in section #12.3 with the subscript level indicator preceding the subscripted numeral. example #1_4 #46;8 example #2_4 binary notation #11010;2 example #3_4 numeral in base eight is displayed along with its base ten value #37;8 .k #31;10
Teaching Tips

299

Numerals in different bases can only use as many single digit numerals, including zero, as stated in the base number. The place value columns are multiples (powers) of the base. Additional values are formed by placing single digits in the next place value columns (40,177g). Place values: 8n Base 8 numeral: Hence, 40,177g Base Base Base Base 84 4 83 0 82 1 81 7 80 7

= 4 x 84 + 0 x 83 + 1 x 82 + 7 x 8 + 7 x 1 = 4(4096) + 0 + 64 + 56 + 7 = 16,51110 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 1 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, T, E

ten has 10 numerals: eight has 8 numerals: two has 2 numerals: twelve has 12 numerals

Some texts use the letters A, B, C, ... to represent additional digits above 9. 10 = 1, 20 = 1, ... 80 = 1, 90 = 1, 100 = 1, n0 = 1, etc.

When bases higher than ten are represented, the extra digits are often shown with capital letters in print. These letters are regarded as numerals rather than variables, and will require the use of the numeric indicator if they occur after a space or as the first item on a braille line. Since these are single digits, an uncapitalized letter is inserted and the capitalization indicator is not used. A space and a transcriber's note of seven words or less follows the expression.
Note A transcribers note consisting of seven words or less may be inserted directly into the text at the point where it applies. Longer notes must be placed at the nearest convenient point relative to the material to which they apply and must be placed, indented and runover in accordance with the rules of the Code of Braille Textbook Format and Techniques. (NBC, 186b) Transcribers notes of more than seven words are to be placed before the material to which they refer. They must begin in cell 7 with runovers in cell 5, or 6 cells to the right of the runover site of the preceding material with runovers outdented 2 cells to the left of the starting line. If possible, keep the note to fewer than seven words.

example #4_4 transcriber's note following expression #5t1e;12 ,';t and ;e are capitalized in print,' Occasionally, special symbols such as a crosshatch, dollar sign, ampersand, or letters from foreign alphabets are used for the digits representing single digit values greater than nine, supplementing the Arabic numerals. When this occurs in works that have been professionally transcribed, one-celled English alphabetic characters are used instead, and a transcriber's note describing and explaining the changes is inserted.

300

When words are used as subscripts, the subscript level indicator comes before the word and any indicators, such as the capitalization indicator or font indicators, which are associated with it. Contractions may not be used in words that are subscripted or superscripted. Contractions and short-form words must not be used in a word, part of a word, or abbreviation when the word is in contact with any item other than the capitalization indicator or the italic sign. Contractions may not be used with items in direct contact with level indicators. example #6_4 a fully capitalized word subscripted to a numeral to represent the non-decimal base eight; no contractions are permitted in the word following the level indicator #531;,,EIGHT Words at different levels Words may be subscripted or superscripted. They are brailled as described above, with the following additional guideline: If a space separates the parts of an abbreviation or phrase in a superscript or subscript, the appropriate level indicator must be used before each part to show that the effect of the level indicator continues. example #7_4 subscripted words and abbreviations separated by a space; level indicator is repeated after the space to show the continuation of the subscript; no braille contractions are used ,A,B,C;equilateral ;triangle Simultaneous and non-simultaneous superscripts and subscripts Lesson #12.3 introduced the concept of material positioned at both a superscripted and subscripted level. If a mathematical expression carries both superscripted material and subscripted material printed directly above and below each other, the subscript must be brailled first. This is true even when the subscript is numeric and would not require a subscript level indicator. The Greek letter sigma is often displayed with simultaneous superscripts and subscripts. This notation is used when summations are required. Recall that Greek letters are indicated by using the dots four six configuration before the letter. The capitalization indicator denotes the uppercase Greek letter. example #8_4 a baseline expression follows the uppercase sigma notation

301

.,s1^3"m^2 .k #1^2"+2^2"+3^2 If a mathematical expression carries a superscript and a subscript that are not positioned directly above and below each other in print, the order of the braille transcription is the same order in which they appear in print. The baseline indicator is inserted between the items occurring at different levels, even though no material occurs on the baseline. The baseline indicator is used as a reference for the different level indicators. example #9_4 the superscript comes before the subscript in print as well as in braille; the a-squared values have different subscripts a^2";n"+a^2";n+1"+ ''' example #10_4 the superscript precedes the numeric subscript; the subscript level indicator is used before the subscripted numeral three, since the numeric subscript is not immediately following the letter which represents a variable r^3";2 example #11_4 the numeric subscript is first; the subscript indicator is not used because the numeral immediately follows a letter ,W1"^5 example #12_4 a subscripted expression followed by a superscript; the capital letter ;,X has #2n as a subscript and ;,X is then raised to the second power ,X;2n"^2 Combined superscripts and subscripts Combinations of superscripts and subscripts in an expression may deviate more than one level away from the baseline. For example, a superscript may have its own subscript or a subscript may have its own superscript. When this occurs, combined level indicators are used for any parts of the expression which deviate more than one level above or below the baseline. In the example above, the following indicators are used: superscript with subscript indicator: dots four five, dots five six subscript with superscript indicator: dots five six, dots four five
Braille ~; Symbol Name superscript with subscript Configuration dots 4-5, 5-6 Print Symbol unique to braille

302

;~

subscript with superscript

dots 5-6, 4-5

unique to braille

The first symbol in the combined level indicators shows the level of the expression to which the subscript or superscript which follows that symbol refers. example #13_4 a superscripted letter ;n has its own subscript; this is read as five raised to the ;n sub one power" #5^n^;1 Follow these steps when brailling this type of material: #1_4 the first cell of the indicator shows the level of the value being super- or subscripted in relation to the baseline material, #2_4 the second cell of the indicator shows the level of the value occurring next in the expression, #3_4 succeeding cells show the upward or downward position from the previous one. example #14_4 a subscripted value has its own superscript #5;n;^4 Review Numerals in non-decimal bases require the use of the subscript level indicator for subscripted base numerals or words. Words that are either subscripted or superscripted may not contain any braille contractions. If a phrase is at a level other than the baseline, the appropriate level indicator precedes each word of the phrase. When digits for bases higher than ten are represented by alphabetic characters, the alphabetic character is regarded as a numeral and is to be brailled according to rules which apply to numerals. Capitalized alphabetic digits are to be brailled without capitalization indicators, and a transcriber's note is used to refer to the letters as capitalized. When symbols other than English alphabetic characters are displayed, such as foreign language letters, a one-celled English alphabetic character is used and a transcriber's note is inserted to describe the print symbols. Simultaneous superscripts and subscripts where material is printed directly above and below each other are brailled with the subscripted item occurring first. Non-simultaneous

303

superscripts and subscripts where the material is not printed directly above or below each other are brailled in the same order in which they appear in print, separated by a baseline indicator. Combined superscript and subscript indicators Superscript with a subscript Braille configuration: dots four five, dots five six Braille symbol: ^; Subscript with a superscript Braille configuration: dots five six, dots four five Braille symbol: ;^ Usage: these symbols are used to indicate that material which does not occur on the baseline has its own superscript or subscript. Rules: #1_4 the first cell of the indicator shows the upward or downward position of the value being super- or subscripted in relation to the baseline material, #2_4 the second cell of the indicator shows the level of the value occurring next in the expression, #3_4 succeeding cells show the upward or downward position from the previous one. Exercises Prompt to Braille one zero zero one to the base two #1001;2 five forty five to the base six #545;six ;t ;e seven transcriber's note ;t and ;e are capitalized in print end note #te7 ,';t and ;e are capitalized in print,' six three zero to the base seven #630;seven cap ;,X cap ;,Y cap ;,Z to the base right triangle

304

,X,Y,Z;right ;triangle sigma subscript one superscript ten baseline ;r .,s1^10"r ;b squared subscript ;n plus ;;b squared subscript ;n plus one b^2";n"+b^2";n+1 seven to the base the expression ;x squared #7;x;^2 one one one to the base two #111;2 one one one to the base eight #111;eight Braille to Speech a base five a5 ;t base ;n t;n ;x subscript two minus ;x subscript one x2-x1 ;v subscript one squared v1^2 a first level subscript ;n second level subscript ;j a;n;;j cap ,A subscript ;x ,A;x ;b subscript one plus ;b subscript two plus ellipsis plus ;b subscript ;n b1+b2+ ''' +b;n ;y to the base the expression three ;x plus one y;3x+1 cap ;,B subscript ;y cubed ,B;y;^3

305

one one one zero to the base two #1110;2 two three two to the base four #232;four ;r squared subscript three plus ;r squared subscript two plus ;r squared r^2";3"+r^2";2"+r^2 Proofreading three four zero to the base nine #340;nine #340^nine cap ;,N subscript 6 ,N6 ,N;6 cap ;,M subscript the expression ;d cubed ,M;d;^3 ,M;d^3 sigma subscript two simultaneously raised to the power ;y .,s2^y .,s;2^y #12.5 Level indicators: Spatial arrangements Explanation Spatial arrangements were introduced in lesson #6_4 The guidelines for brailling material with variables and with level indicators are the same as for other material with the following guidelines. Addition and subtraction Recall that when material is arranged spatially, alignment is very important unless material is intentionally misaligned in print. When polynomials are spatially arranged for either addition or subtraction problems, each term must be vertically aligned in braille. This includes signs of operation, coefficients, variables, superscripts, subscripts, fraction lines, and/or signs of grouping. Vertical alignment must be achieved even when blank cells must be placed between items that are usually required to be joined, such as signs of operation and the expressions to which they refer. The corresponding

306

symbols in each coefficient and superscript or subscript must be aligned vertically. That is, align the corresponding place value digits. Also, corresponding braille indicators must be aligned. These include corresponding parts of fraction indicators, superscript level indicators, subscript level indicators, and baseline indicators. When the baseline indicator is required, place it in the first possible position which maintains alignment. Summary of general rules for brailling spatially arranged material #1_4 Use a spatial arrangement in braille when material is presented on more than one line in print for computational purposes. #2_4 Leave a blank line above and below a spatially arranged problem, including prior to or following print page separator lines. #3_4 The numeric indicator is not used for material aligned in columns for computation; it is used in matrices and determinants. #4_4 The separation line, a series of dots two five, extends one cell to the left and one cell to the right of the overall arrangement of the problem. #5_4 Align corresponding digits, signs of operation, or signs of comparison which are interior to the problem; corresponding parts of fraction indicators; fraction lines; decimal points; and commas. #6_4 Use only the general omission symbol, dots one two three four five six, for omitted items. Refer to lesson #6 for a comprehensive review. example #1_4 layout of a spatially arranged polynomial problem formatted for addition; note there is a blank line before and after a spatially arranged problem -3x^2"y^2"+12x^2"-6y^2"-2 x^2"y^2"- 5x^2"+ y^2"+1 33333333333333333333333333 In example #2, the polynomials are arranged for combining like terms. Since the longest braille line follows the separation

307

line, the polynomials above the separation line have blank cells in order to accommodate the alignment. When reading a spatially arranged problem in braille, it is important to read across an entire braille line. example #2_4 2x^3" -10x -7x^3"+5x^2"- 2x+4 33333333333333333333 -5x^3"+5x^2"-12x+4 example #3_4 polynomials with fractional coefficients; note that corresponding parts of fraction indicators and level indicators are aligned ?2/3#x^2"-5_?3/5 _#x+7 -?5/6#x^2"+2_?7/10_#x-2 3333333333333333333333333 Multiplication The multiplier and the multiplicand must be aligned as they are in print. The separation line must extend one cell to the left and one cell to the right of the overall arrangement of the problem. If there is more than one separation line displayed, they must all be of the same length. If a multiplication sign is shown, it must be positioned in the cell immediately preceding the multiplier. Partial products are aligned for addition computation. example #4_4 a spatially arranged multiplication problem including partial products; the operation of multiplication would have been indicated in the directions for this problem since the multiplication cross is not displayed. y+2 2y-7 3333333333333 -7y-14 2y^2"+4y 3333333333333 2y^2"-3y-14 When subscripts are used with material denoting non-decimal bases, align the partial products for addition. Subscript indicators are aligned vertically immediately to the right of

308

the items to which the subscript indicators refer, even if this requires a blank cell separating the subscript indicator from the material preceding it. Recall that braille contractions may not be used in subscripts consisting of words, and that nonnumeric symbols representing digits are all lower case English alphabetic letters. example #5_4 a multiplication problem using the multiplication cross and containing subscripts consisting of words 45;eight @*32;eight 333333333333 112;eight 157 ;eight 333333333333 1702;eight Division In division problems arranged spatially, the dividend, the partial products, and the differences are aligned, as is usually the case in the print display. The quotient and dividend are aligned, unless they are intentionally misaligned. example #6_4 polynomial division 2y- 7 ------------y+2o2y^2"-3y-14 2y^2"+4y -------------7y-14 -7y-14 ------------0 Review Spatial arrangements for problems that contain level indicators follow the general guidelines for spatially arranged problems in which no level indicators are present. When level indicators are present, they are to be vertically aligned. In some instances, blank cells may need to be inserted between a level indicator and the material to which it is applied. There are no exercises for this section due to its spatial nature.

309

#12.6 Level indicators in matrices and determinants Explanation Items in matrices and determinants may contain subscripts and superscripts. The appropriate level indicators must be used with the entries, if they are required. Numerical subscripts to letters do not require the subscript level indicator. Spatial arrangements for matrices and determinants use a great deal of space in braille, and space-saving techniques may be utilized to confine the arrangement to one braille page. As a review and to expand on what was presented in lesson #10, to save braille space: #1_4 Each entry must be left-justified in its column and topjustified in its row. #2_4 Centering is not permitted, regardless of the print copy's representation. #3_4 Entries may be runover to new braille lines, but each runover must be indented two braille cells from the first cell of the column margin. #4_4 Each line must begin and end with the enlarged sign of grouping enclosing the matrix or determinant, such as the enlarged brackets, parentheses, or vertical bar lines. #5_4 The baseline indicator should not be used for entries occurring before a closing grouping symbol within the matrix or determinant unless it is the end of the item and it adjoins the closing grouping symbol. Only one entry needs to be adjacent to the closing grouping symbol. The other rows may or may not have their final entry next to a grouping symbol. #6_4 Lines should not be skipped between entries. #7_4 Runovers may be made without regard to hierarchy preferences, for example, after a sign of comparison, if space saving is a consideration. #8_4 One column of blank cells must be left between columns of entries. #9_4 The numeric indicator is used with numeric entries.
Note

310

Entries are arranged in column form and are left-justified in the column. However, runover items are aligned (left-justified) with other runover entries since, as outlined in #3 above, they are indented 2 cells. Entry items which are not runovers are brailled according to the guidelines in lesson 6 and are left-justified in relationship to each other.

example #1_4 a determinant that does not have runovers to a new braille line; subscripts are numeric to letters, therefore the subscript indicator and baseline indicator are not used ,D .k ,|a1 b1 c1,| ,|a2 b2 c2,| ,|a3 b3 c3,| For representational purposes, example #2 assumes a short row length of #32 cells; runovers must be placed on subsequent lines. Since columns contain entries with expressions using a sign of operation, such as a11b11+a12b21, the portion of the entry with the sign of operation is on the line below, and indented. This matrix has only two rows and two columns.
Math Facts Each of the digits in the subscripts of the entries in the following has references to an entrys position in a combined matrix. The first digit represents the row where the entry is positioned and the second digit represents the position of the column of the entry.

example #2_4 ,d .k `,(a11b11 a11b12 `,) `,( +a12b21 +a12b22`,) `,(a21b11 a21b12 `,) `,( +a22b21 +a22b22`,) example #3_4 a matrix requiring level indicators and baseline indicators; there are no runovers in this example, which can be detected since all of the column entries are left-justified `,(-#4 (2x+y)^2"`,) `,(#5 (x+z)^2 `,) Further examples of matrices and determinants with superscripted and subscripted material are provided in section #183 of An Introduction to Braille Mathematics. No exercises will follow this section of the tutorial. There are no exercises for this section due to its spatial nature.

311

#13.1 Index-of-radical Explanation The radical sign, dots three four five, and the termination indicator, dots one two four five six, were introduced in lesson #8.2 as they are used to show square roots.
Braille > ] Symbol Name radical sign termination indicator Configuration dots 3-4-5 dots 1-2-4-5-6 Print Symbol unique to braille

Math Facts To be accurate, the square root of nine ( 9 ) is either of two values: +3 or -3 (shown as 3) since 9 can result from either one of these factors when each is squared: (3)2 = 9 and (-3)2 = 9 When both roots are sought, the following notation is usually used: 9 = 3 +->9] .k +-3 When only the principal square root is needed, the notation usually used is: 9 =3 When only the negative root is required as a solution, then the notation is: 9 = 3 If a student learns to always check for two roots (for problems involving square roots), or three roots (for problems involving cube roots), he or she can validate the reasonableness of the answers.

The level of a square root is two. Since it is the most common of the roots, the level, or index, of the root is not shown. It is commonly understood to be two. Radicals of a different index must be designated by a numeral to indicate their level. Third level radicals are referred to as the cube root; radicals of higher levels are referred to by their ordinal names, such as fourth or fifth root.
Terminology Note Equations using variables to the second power (squared) are often referred to as quadratics or as equations of conic sections. They are equations that describe circles, ellipses, parabolas, hyperbolas, etc. The solutions to these equations are called roots. Other figures involve equations that have variables to the third power, fourth power, and so on. If an equation has a variable raised to the second power, it has up to two roots. One that has a variable raised to the third power has up to three roots; one to the fourth power has four roots, and so on. Teaching Tips A cube has three dimensions: length, width and height, which are of equal value. A variable raised to the third power is said to be cubed, and the cubed root of that number therefore would represent the length of any one side of the cube. For example, 43 = (4)(4)(4) = 64; 3 64 = 4 ; note that only +4 is a root since

312

(-4)(-4)(-4) 64. Radicals with an index (a level) that is an even number have roots that are both positive (+) and negative (-). A simple box which can be opened can be used to demonstrate a cube. Filling it with small cubes will indicate volume, for example, 27 cm3.

Indicating roots of other levels In print, to indicate that a radical shows the third root, a small numeral three, referred to as the index of the radical, is placed in the crook of the radical sign. The number from which the root is to be extracted, the radicand, is enclosed under a horizontal bar, referred to as the vinculum. In braille, the index-of-radical indicator, dots one two six, precedes the numeral which indicates the level of the radical, index of the radical. The index of the radical is followed by the radical sign, dots three four five, the radicand, and the termination indicator, dots one two four five six. The index-ofradical sign and the termination sign are braille indicators which have no corresponding symbols in print.
Braille < Symbol Name index-of-radical indicator Configuration dots 1-2-6 Print Symbol unique to braille

example #1_4 a simple cube root with its index <3>64} .k #4 example #2_4 the cube root of a value in an expression #3+<3>125} example #3_4 the index of the radical is a letter <n>10} Treat the entire root, from its index-of-the-radical indicator to its termination indicator, as if it were a single value or symbol. Apply the general rules governing all other braille symbols as previously described. example #4_4 the index of the radical is the numeral seven; the radicand is a numeral <7>78125} .k #5 example #5_4 a variable for the index and an expression for the radicand <n>a+1} example #6_4 values and expressions preceding and following the root

313

#5<3>24}+36 example #7_4 values and expressions preceding and following the root x<4>,R}-72 example #8_4 the radical, its index, and its coefficient enclosed within a sign of grouping. The closing parenthesis follows the termination indicator since the grouping symbols are not part of the radical. The entire grouping is then raised to a power. (12<5>x-5})^5 example #9_4 an expression enclosed within a set of grouping signs. The entire expression is raised to a power and a root is taken. #12<5>(x-5)^5"} example #10_4 an expression used as an index of the radical. The power in the radicand must have a baseline indicator following it since the termination indicator refers to the baseline expression. <a+b>p^2"} Review Index-of-radical indicator Braille configuration: dots one two six Braille symbol: < Radical sign Braille configuration: dots three four five Braille symbol: > Termination indicator Braille configuration: dots one two four five six Braille symbol: } There are different levels of roots. The simplest, the square root, is so common that it does not need to show the index of the radical in either print or braille displays. Only the radical sign and the termination indicator are used to enclose the radicand. Roots of a higher level than two need to show an index of the radical to the left of the radical symbol. In braille, the index is preceded by the index-of-radical indicator.

314

Usage: to enclose the radicand and to indicate that a root, one of the identical factors, is the value. The index of the radical indicates the number of identical factors that gives the value of that level of the radicand. Exercises Prompt to Braille the third root of eight <3>8] the fourth root of sixteen <4>16] the fifth root of two hundred forty three equals five <5>243] .k #5 the nth root of 2 <n>2] six times the third root of eight #6<3>8] the third root of two ;x <3>2x] the third root of the quantity, two, that quantity times ;x <3>2]x the third root of the quantity, open paren two ;y close paren that quantity squared close root <3>(2y)^2"] open paren the third root of ;x close root close paren squared (<3>x})^2 the square root of seven close root plus the cubed root of eight >7]+<3>8] Braille to Speech the square root of two approximately equals one point four one four >2] `:`: #1.414 the third root of eight equals two <3>8] .k #2

315

the nth root of six <n>6] seven times the ninth root of three #7<9>3] the ;p root of open paren three ;q close paren raised to the ;r power <p>(3q)^r] the third root of six close root times the third root of five close root equals the third root of thirty <3>6]<3>5] .k <3>30] open paren the fifth root of ;x close root close paren raised to the fourth power (<5>x])^4 the quantity three ;x plus two times the square root of four ;r <3x+2>4r] the fourth root of two end root plus the fourth root of two end root equals two times the fourth root of two <4>2]+<4>2] .k #2<4>2] the fifth root of seven raised to the second power close root equals seven raised to the power two over five <5>7^2"] .k #7^?2/5# Proofreading the fifth root of seven #5>7] <5>7} the fourth root of three ;y <4>3y] <4>3y seven times the third root of eight #7<3>8] 7<3>8] #13.2 Nested radicals Explanation A nested radical is composed of two or more radicals where one or more is embedded in another. In print, several nested

316

vinculums are displayed successively above each other. In braille, nested radicals are brailled in a horizontal manner. The depth of the inner radical is shown with the order-ofradical indicator, dots four six. This indicator must precede the index-of-radical indicator, if one is present; the inner radical symbol; and the termination indicator for the inner radical. For every opening radical indicator, there is a matching closing termination indicator. For every opening orderof-radical indicator, there is a matching closing order-ofradical indicator. Viewed with signs of omission representing expressions, this would appear as: >=.>=..>=..}.}]
Braille . Symbol Name order-of-radical indicator Configuration dots 4-6 Print Symbol unique to braille

It is the quantity of order-of-radical indicators that signifies the depth or level of each of the radicals. Order-of-radical indicators also appear before termination indicators to denote which radical has ended. The outermost radical has no depth and therefore is not required to have an order-of-radical indicator.
Teaching Tips As one creative possible way to present this concept to a student, explain that the outermost radical is at ground level and that the order-of-radical indicator (dots 4-6) is a shovel full of dirt that has to be removed to get to the radical at the next depth. Two shovels full of dirt (dots 4-6, 4-6) need to be removed to get to the next depth and so on. As a radical is reached, it too must be extricated, so its termination symbol must be used to show the depth at which it is found for this archeological dig and how many levels (of workers) it has to be hoisted.

example #1_4 index-of-radical indicators used with nested radicals in an expression indicating the square root of the fourth root of three >.<4>3.}} .k <8>3}
Math Facts The result of the last set of nested radicals in the example above becomes the eighth root of three. 3 The reason for this is that the square root (2) times the fourth root (4) is the eighth root.
8

example #2_4 a square root nested within a larger, encompassing, square root: the square root of the expression x^2 plus the square root of y^4 >x^2"+.>y^4".}}

317

Each level of inner radicals must be indicated by as many orderof-radical indicators and order-of-radical termination indicators as its level, or depth, requires. Hence, if three radicals are shown, the innermost one has a depth of two, since the outermost radical has a depth of zero. example #3_4 three nested square roots >2.>3..>4...>5...}..}.}} `:`: #2.4476 example #4_4 nested radicals with different indices and with other signs of operation <4>.<3>3.}+2} When exponents appear within radicals, the baseline indicator is used to indicate a return to the baseline. Since termination indicators are at the same level as radical signs, baseline indicators are required before closing order-of-radical termination indicators. example #5_4 >3x^2".>7y^3"..<3>9y^6"..}.}} Review Order-of-radical indicator: Braille configuration: dots four six Braille symbol: . Usage: to indicate the level of a nested radical. A nested radical is composed of two or more radicals where one or more is encompassed within another. Rules: #1_4 Each embedded level requires the same number of order-ofradical indicators, and the same number of order-of-radical termination symbols, as its depth or level within the nested sequence. #2_4 The order-of-radical indicator is placed before the radical indicator, or an index-of-radical indicator, and the termination indicator for each radical. For every opening order-of-radical indicator, there is a matching closing order-of-radical indicator. Exercises Prompt to Braille the square root of the expression three plus the square root of five

318

>3+.>5.]] the square root of the a times the nested radical, square root of ;b times the nested radical the square root of ;c >a.>b..>c..].]] the square root of the third root of four >.<3>4.]] the square root of ;x squared baseline plus the square root of ;y >x^2"+.>y.}} three ;f plus the square root of two times the square root of ;g cubed #3f+>2.>g^3".]] Braille to Speech the square root of three plus the nested radical square root of two >3+.>2.]] the square root of nine times the nested radical square root of eight times the nested radical the square root of seven >9.>8..>7..].]] the square root of ;f cubed plus the nested radical square root of ;g >f^3"+.>g.]] three plus or minus the square root of the expression five plus the square root of two close second order root minus seven close root #3+->5+.>2.]-7] the square root of the fifth root of eighteen >.<5>18.]] Proofreading the square root of the expression a plus the square root of ;b >a+.>b.]] >a+>b.]] the square root of the expression eight times the square root of seven times the square root of six >8.>7..>6..].]]

319

>8.>7..>6..].] the square root of the third root of ;n >.<3>n.]] ><3>n.]] #13.3 Radicals: Division, fractions, superscripts and subscripts Explanation A radical sign may encompass a fraction or a fraction may contain radicals in its numerator, denominator, or both. A radical may also be shown with fractional exponents instead of being displayed with the radical sign. Since the radical sign and the termination indicator are signs of grouping, and since the fraction line, opening fraction indicator, and closing fraction indicator are also signs of grouping, it is important to know what portion of a problem is being encompassed by another. In example #1, for instance, the fraction is part of the radical. Therefore, the outermost left and right braille symbols will be the radical sign and the termination indicator. The use of the baseline indicator before the fraction line and the closing fraction indicator is necessary to interpret the level of the items that follow. example #1_4 the square root of a fraction with the numerator containing four, letter a raised to the fourth power, letter ;b on the baseline raised to the fourth power. The denominator is nine, letter a raised to the second power; letter ;b on the baseline raised to the second power; end of fraction; end of radical >?4a^4"b^4"/9a^2"b^2"#}
Teaching Tips In presenting this concept to a student, explain that the radical encloses the fraction much as a sign of grouping or enclosure would. The two symbols used in braille with radicals, the radical indicator and the termination indicator, can perform this enclosure very efficiently; the braille symbols actually enclose groupings.

example #2_4 an index is used <3>?64a^6"/27a^3"#} .k ?4a/3# example #3_4 extensive use of exponents within the fraction and expressions, included both inside and outside of the influence of the radical indicator #17+->?x^ab"-2/y^a+b'-4^2"#+9}-ab

320

Braille material is presented horizontally unless there is a specific need for a spatial arrangement. Print representations, however, are often arranged spatially, with some items above others. When a radical is in the numerator or the denominator, or if radicals appear in both the numerator and the denominator, then the radical symbols, index-of-radicals, and termination symbols must be shown horizontally as demonstrated in example #4_4 Since the radicals are encompassed by the fraction, the fraction indicators are at the beginning and end. example #4_4 ?>2}/>x^2"+2xy+y^2"}# Radical fractions in superscripts and subscripts Exponents and subscripts may also include fractions that, in turn, may also include radicals.
Note To alert the braille reader that something special is occurring, a level change, a radical or a fraction, braille mathematics uses symbols which do not have print counterparts. Errors occur when brailling because people are not accustomed to incorporating symbols when there are no similar symbols in print. This often happens with symbols which conclude an alteration, such as the baseline indicator or the termination symbol. With radicals, exponents, fractions and subscripts combined, it becomes vital to the reader that the braille is presented accurately, since problems of these types are complicated. It is important to ensure that the appropriate symbols, especially the ending or closing ones, are placed correctly, since positioning them incorrectly can lead to errors in comprehension. A problem may take on a totally different meaning as a result of such incorrect positioning. Verify the correctness of the problem by checking for the appropriate inclusion and placement of the unique to braille symbols. Count the number of opening and closing symbols and check to determine if they are imbedded properly.

example #5_4 fractions with fractional exponents, each also containing radicals ?3^?>3}/2#"/7^?>5}/4#"# example #6_4 fractions with fractional exponents, each also containing radicals ?r/s^?>3}/2#"# example #7_4 a larger fraction contains a radical expression that contains a fraction, in the numerator and in the denominator; each opening symbol has an associated closing symbol ?1+>?3/2#}/1->?3/2#}#

321

Using fractional exponents Another way to show radicals is with a fractional exponent rather than using radical signs. The denominator of the fraction is the index of the radical. The numerator of the fraction is the power to which the radicand is raised.
Math Facts This method of presenting roots as part of a power helps to clarify the rationale of the undoing quality of roots since, 32/2 is 32 . The fractional exponent, 2/2 is the same as raising a number to a power of 1, which is to say, the value of the base number is the base number. A fractional exponent can also be written with its equivalent decimal counterpart, so that 71/2 is also 70.5. When using scientific calculators, a student can use the exponent key and enter either a fraction as the exponent or a decimal value in order to find a root. In braille, this is easily accomplished with the use of the superscript indicator, dots 4-5. Everything that follows this indicator is raised until a space or baseline indicator, dot 5, is reached. Consequently: is: #7^?1/2# 72 0.5 7 is: #7^0.5
1

example #8_4 #81^?1/2# .k >81} example #9_4 #16^?2/3# .k <3>16^2"} A fractional exponent can also be written with its equivalent decimal counterpart, so that #7^?1/2# is also #7^0.5_4 Nested radicals can be written in print and in braille using fractional exponents instead of radical signs. Examples #10 and #11 show two ways to braille the same mathematical quantity, with one expression using radical signs and the other using fractional exponents. example #10_4 >x+(<3>x+2})^2"} example #11_4 (x+(x+2)^?2/3#")^?1/2# Review Radicals can be incorporated into fractions, exponents, fractional exponents, or subscripts in a variety of ways. One or more of these groupings may be contained within one or more of the other groupings.

322

Hints for brailling: #1_4 Check for pairs of opening and closing symbols. #2_4 Check to make sure that imbedded groups are complete. #3_4 Check for the appropriate number of level indicators. Exercises Prompt to Braille the square root of two thirds >?2/3#] the square root of ;m to the two fifths power >m^?2/5#"] the square root of two that expression over two ?>2]/2# the square root of five a over the square root of a cubed ?>5a]/>a^3"]# the fraction the numerator nine raised to the power the square root of two over the denominator three ?9^>2]"/3# the fifth root of two thirds <5>?2/3#] eighty one raised to the two thirds power equals the third root of eighty one squared #81^?2/3# .k <3>81^2"] ;p raised to the power the square root of two over two minus ;p p^?>2]/2#"-p Braille to Speech the square root of three ninths >?3/9#] the square root of three, that expression over three ?>3]/3# two over the square root of three is in improper form ?2/>3]# is in improper form the expression the numerator minus ;b plus or minus the square root of the expression ;b squared minus four a ;c over the denominator two a

323

?-b+->b^2"-4ac]/2a# ;n raised to the power two sevenths equals the seventh root of ;n squared n^?2/7# .k <7>n^2"] the square root of the expression four ;x squared over nine ;b raised to the fourth power >?4x^2"/9b^4"#] the third root of the expression ;x cubed plus open paren ;x plus two close paren <3>x^3"+(x+2)] Proofreading the square root of three ;x plus seven that expression over three ?>3x+7]/3# >?3x+7]/3# the square root of two over the square root of three ?>2]/>3]# ?>2]/>3] seven raised to the two thirds power over nine raised to the power the square root of two ?7^?2/3#"/9^>2}"# ?7^?2/3#/9^>2}"# #14.1 Signs of shape: shape indicator, two-celled shape symbols, spacing and punctuation Explanation Uses of shapes Mathematicians have developed a type of shorthand including symbols, signs, and abbreviations that are used internationally. This usage allows mathematicians, scientists, engineers, researchers, and others in many other fields to have the ability to communicate across different languages and cultures by using certain agreed upon symbols. The symbols used in mathematics are, therefore, concise and have specific applications. Shapes are used to indicate special meanings. Most often, a shape is used to represent just that: a miniature shape or picture, such as a geometric form. These miniature shapes are not used in place of labeled diagrams. The shape symbol should be used only when a corresponding miniature shape symbol is used

324

in printed matter. Another use is to apply shape symbols in a manner similar to that of other mathematical symbols, such as using them as signs of operation or signs of comparison. Often, a shape symbol is combined with another symbol, such as a minus, plus, or multiplication sign. Shape symbols can also be used to represent omitted items or as place-value holders in much the same manner as the general omission symbol represents an omitted item.
Braille $ Symbol Name shape indicator Configuration dots 1-2-4-6 Print Symbol unique to braille

Application of the shape indicator Braille incorporates the use of a shape indicator, dots one two four six, to indicate that the character or characters following it represent a shape. The shape indicator has no corresponding symbol in print; it is used to indicate that a shape appears in print. The shape indicator is the first symbol in a series of braille characters, except when the print symbol is shown canceled by a sign of negation such as a slash or vertical bar. A letter or letters, a numeral, or characters suggestive of the shape are placed in the braille cells immediately following the shape indicator. The sign of shape must be spaced according to the assigned meaning of the shape. If, for example, it represents an omitted sign of operation, it would be spaced according to the rules covered in lesson #11_4 Two-celled shapes: letter or letters suggests shape Many shape symbols are displayed with the shape indicator followed by a letter or letters that suggests the shape. Combining the shape indicator with other letters allows for a variety of shapes to be displayed in braille. The following is a list of the common shapes formed in this manner. Some of these symbols represent irregular shapes, that is, shapes whose sides are not of the same length. concave upward arc $a diamond $d ellipse $e irregular hexagon $hx parallelogram $g irregular pentagon $pg quadrilateral $q rhombus $h trapezoid $z circle $c intersecting lines $i

325

perpendicular lines $p parallel lines $l rectangle $r star $s triangle $t inverted triangle .$

Braille $a $d $e $hx $g $pg $q $h $z $c $i $p $l $r $s $t .$ Symbol Name concave upward arc diamond ellipse irregular hexagon parallelogram irregular pentagon quadrilateral rhombus trapezoid circle intersecting lines perpendicular lines parallel lines rectangle star triangle inverted triangle Configuration dots 1-2-4-6, 1 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-4-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-2-5, 1-3-4-6 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-2-4-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-2-3-4, 1-2-4-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-2-3-4-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-2-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-3-5-6 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-4 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-4 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-2-3-4 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-2-3 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-2-3-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-3-4 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-3-4-5 dots 4-6, 1-2-4-6 Print Symbol

example #1_4 rectangle ABCD $r ,A,B,C,D

Note In a teaching situation, the simple circle symbol may be used to represent the circle with a center dot, but the reader may encounter the braille dotted circle in textbooks. The dotted circle, a symbol with an interior shape modification, can, in braille, represent a multiplication symbol since it uses the multiplication dot (dots 1-6) in the symbol and is therefore a sign of operation. Interior shape modifications will be discussed later in this lesson.

326

Two-celled shapes: configuration suggests shape Another set of symbols uses characters to suggest a shape. The configuration of the braille dots imitates the shape of the print symbol. For example, the configuration of dots two four six suggests an angle, with the dot two as the vertex and the dots four six as points on the rays of the angle. There are different shape symbols to represent the many variations of arrows; these also imitate the shape of the print symbol. Arrows will be presented in lesson 14.4_4
Braille $[ Symbol Name angle Configuration dots 1-2-4-6, 2-4-6 Print Symbol

example #2_4 angle one equals thirty-two degrees ${ #1 .k #32^.* Two-celled shapes: numeral suggests number of sides A regular polygon is a closed figure with equal sides and equal angles. In general, a regular polygon is represented in braille with the shape indicator followed by a numeral which designates the number of sides of the polygon. The following is a list of the common regular polygon shapes. square $4 pentagon $5 hexagon $6 heptagon $7 octagon $8 nonagon $9 Regular polygons with additional numbers of sides would be formed similarly, with the exception of a regular, equilateral triangle, the symbol for which is $t_4
Braille $4 $5 $6 $7 $8 $9 $n Symbol Name square pentagon hexagon heptagon octagon nonagon n-agon (with n number of sides) Configuration dots 1-2-4-6, 2-5-6 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-6 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-3-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-3-5-6 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-3-6 dots 1-2-4-6, 3-5 dots 1-2-4-6, n (with additional braille numerals) Print Symbol

327

example #3_4 A $5 has five sides. Note that the triangle symbol is sometimes used incorrectly. In calculus problems, for example, a triangular symbol is used to indicate "a change in" or "the difference in." The actual symbol that should be used is the capital Greek letter delta, which is shaped like a triangle in print. Delta ;x over delta ;y should appear in braille as: ?.,dx/.,dy#_4 Spacing with signs of shape #1_4 A shape symbol that identifies a letter or letters, or a numeral or numerals, must be separated from the identified character or characters, by a space. example #4_4 a triangle shape identifies the letters that follow it as referring to a triangle's descriptive name $t ,A,B,C #2_4 Shape signs representing signs of comparison must be spaced according to the rules for signs of comparison. example #5_4 a square used to represent a missing sign of comparison #1+2 $4 #3 #3_4 Shape symbols representing signs of operation must be spaced according to the rules for signs of operation. example #6_4 an inverted triangle used to represent a missing sign of operation x.$y .k #30 #4_4 Shape symbols representing signs of omission must be spaced according to the rules for signs of omission. example #7_4 an omitted numeral represented by a circle shape, following a sign of operation #17x`*$c .k #34 #5_4 When a braille indicator, such as a level indicator, fraction indicator, or alphabetic indicator is used with a sign of shape, the sign of shape must be unspaced from the indicator that applies to it. The effect of a level indicator used with a sign of shape that has identifying letters, or a sequence of

328

letters, extends through the space following the shape, preserving the level on which the sign of shape appears. Any other space terminates the effect of the level indicator. example #8_4 a subscripted circle shape ,C;$c .k #2.pr Punctuation with signs of shape Signs of shape are mathematical symbols. They are to be punctuated according to the guidelines for applying marks of punctuation to mathematical symbols. In particular, when shapes are made plural or possessive with an apostrophe ;s, the punctuation indicator is inserted, unspaced, between the shape sign and the apostrophe. example #9 $c, $r, and $t_4 When a sign of shape has a plural or a possessive ending, the sign of shape and its associated space have been interrupted and are no longer considered to be a single unit. The letter or letters following the space after the ;s or apostrophe ;s, therefore, are not considered to be part of an identified sign of shape. The letter or letters identifying the shape, following the shape indicator, shape symbol, and ;s or apostrophe ;s, would be brailled according to the rules for the use and non-use of the English letter indicator. That is, a single letter requires the English letter indicator. Two or more letters in a series do not require the English letter indicator. example #10_4 a triangle shape is made plural with the addition of the letter ;s; the English letter indicator is not required $ts ,D,E,F and ,X,Y,Z example #11_4 the sign of shape is made plural; the English letter indicator is required Are $t_'s ;,A and ;,B acute? When a lowercase letter ;s or an apostrophe ;s is displayed inside or after a print shape to indicate that a shape has a plural or possessive meaning, ;s or apostrophe ;s appears after the shape symbol. Therefore, shapes such as the print triangle with a letter ;s after it or the triangle with a letter ;s inside are displayed in braille in the same manner. Review

329

Shape indicator Braille configuration: dots one two four six Braille symbol: $ Usage: to represent miniature shapes Rules: #1_4 A shape symbol that identifies a letter or letters, or a numeral or numerals, must be separated from the identified character or characters by a space. #2_4 Shape signs representing signs of comparison must be spaced according to the rules for signs of comparison. #3_4 Shape symbols representing signs of operation must be spaced according to the rules for signs of operation. #4_4 Shape symbols representing signs of omission must be spaced according to the rules for signs of omission. #5_4 When a braille indicator, such as a level indicator, fraction indicator, or alphabetic indicator is used with a sign of shape, the sign of shape must be unspaced from the indicator that applies to it. The effect of a level indicator used with a sign of shape that has identifying letters, or a sequence of letters, extends through the space following the shape, preserving the level on which the sign of shape appears. Any other space terminates the effect of the level indicator. Punctuation with signs of shape Signs of shape are mathematical symbols. They are to be punctuated according to the guidelines for applying marks of punctuation to mathematical symbols. Exercises Prompt to Braille triangle cap ;,X cap ;,Y cap ;,Z is congruent to triangle cap ;,W cap ;,Y cap ;,Z $t ,X,Y,Z `:.k $t ,W,Y,Z circle cap ;,C and circle cap ;,C prime are concentric. $c ,C and $c ,C' are concentric. cap ;,R cap ;,S is perpendicular to cap ;,S cap ;,T ,R,S $p ,S,T eight minus triangle equals two

330

#8-$t .k #2 seventeen plus five circle twenty #17+5 $c #20 the fraction five over nine plus the fraction seven over triangle equals one ?5/9#+?7/$t# .k #1 Use circle, triangle, and rectangle. Use $c, $t, and $r_4 angle one equals forty degrees ${ #1 .k #40^.* square cap ,A cap ;,B cap ;,C cap ;,D $4 ,A,B,C,D pentagon cap ;,E cap ;,F cap ;,G cap ;,H cap ;,I $5 ,E,F,G,H,I Braille to Speech triangle cap ,A cap ;,B cap ;,C $t ,A,B,C angle one equals angle two ${ #1 .k ${ #2 fifteen star three equals forty five #15$s3 .k #45 cap ;,T cap ;,K is perpendicular to cap ;,K cap ;,R ,T,K $p ,K,R ;n is parallel to ;p n $l p ninety minus square equals thirty #90-$4 .k #30 triangles cap ;,C cap ;,B cap ;,T and cap ;,G cap ,A cap ;,F are isosceles period $ts ,C,B,T and ,G,A,F are isosceles. ;m angle one plus ;m angle two equals ninety degrees

331

m${ #1+m${ #2 .k #90^.* circle cap ;,B has a radius of three centimeters period $c ,B has a radius of #3 cm_4 angle seven equals two pi ${ #7 .k #2.p Proofreading triangle cap ;,Q cap ;,R cap ;,S $t ,Q,R,S $3 ,Q,R,S ;c is perpendicular to ;b c $p b c$p b triangle cap ;,S cap ;,T cap ;,R is congruent to triangle cap ;,T cap ,A cap ;,R $t ,S,T,R `:.k $t ,T,A,R $t ,S,T,R `:.k $| ,T,A,R #14.2 Signs of shape: level indicators, English letter indicator, as signs of omission, and identified shape symbols Explanation Level indicators When a braille indicator, such as a level indicator, is used with a sign of shape, the sign of shape must be unspaced from the indicator that applies to it. If identifying letters follow the shape, the effect of the level indicator extends through the space following the shape, preserving the level on which the sign of shape appears. example #1_4 a subscripted regular polygon used for the formula for the area of a square ,A;$4 .k s^2 Use and non-use of the English letter indicator The sign of shape, the space following it, and the numeral or numerals, or letter or letters following it are regarded as a single unit. Since a shape symbol is a mathematical symbol, an English letter, short-form combination of letters, or Roman numeral that occurs after the space following the sign of shape is to be brailled according to the guidelines covered in lesson #9_4 The English letter indicator must not be used for these

332

items if they are displayed in regular type. Letters from foreign language alphabets require the appropriate alphabetic indicator at all times. Refer to lesson 14.1 for use of the English letter indicator in the case of plural or possessive signs of shape. example #2_4 an identified regular polygon $4 ,D example #3_4 Roman numerals used to identify angles ${ i, ${ ii, and ${, V Shape used as a sign of omission When a shape is used as a sign of omission, the English letter indicator is not used with any single letter, short-form combination of letters, or Roman numerals in regular type that follow the space that is associated with the sign of comparison. This complies with the general guidelines for brailling signs of comparison. An additional rule applies to regular polygons when they are used as omitted signs of operation. The multipurpose indicator, dot five, must be used between a sign of shape used as a sign of operation and a numeral following it. This is because, without this exception to the rules, the numeral following the regular polygon would be read as part of the number of sides of the shape. The multipurpose indicator is not used with signs of shape formed with letters or characters instead of numerals. example #4_4 a shape symbol representing an omitted sign of comparison; the multipurpose indicator is not needed ,W $5 ,Y example #5_4 shape signs represent missing signs of operation; the multipurpose indicator is needed #3$7"3 In geometry, shape symbols are often used in place of certain words. For example, the shape symbol to indicate the concept, is parallel to, is dots one two four six, one two three. In a mathematical expression, the shape symbol is most often used as a sign of comparison. Therefore, the rules and guidelines that apply to signs of comparison, including the use or non-use of contractions, apply to any shape used in that way. example #6_4 read as: a is parallel to ;b a $l b

333

example #7_4 read as: line ;a ;b is perpendicular to line ;s ;t; note that the contraction for the letters ;s ;t is not used because the shape symbol is used as a sign of comparison line ,A,B $p line ,S,T example #8_4 read as: line ;r ;s intersects line ;s ;t at point ;s. Note the English letter indicator is used before the letter representing the point ;,S since it follows a word, and is not part of the mathematical expression. ,R,S $i ,S,T at ;,S Notice when the symbols for parallel, perpendicular, and intersecting lines are used as signs of comparison, they are subject to the rules regarding signs of comparison. Within a sentence, however, as in "$p lines never meet," they are used as general mathematical symbols, subject to the guidelines governing general mathematical symbols. Identified signs of shape An identified sign of shape is one in which a letter, numeral, or sequence of letters follows the shape. These characters are often used to distinguish one figure from another. The following rules apply to identified signs of shape. #1_4 Identified signs of shape are to be treated as an entire unit, in a manner similar to function names. That is, the shape and its identifying letter ($c ,B), sequence of letters ($t ,X,Y,Z), or numeral ($r #1), are to be regarded as being a single item, and may not be separated between braille lines. #2_4 A space is inserted between the sign of shape and its identifying numeral or letter or letters. This space is regarded as being part of the entire symbol unit. example #9_4 $t ,A,B,C #3_4 Spacing before and after the combination of characters is subject to the rules for spacing for the other symbols associated with it. example #10_4 $t ,A,B,R `:.k $t ,C,B,E

334

#4_4 The effect of any level indicator that applies to the composite identified sign of shape extends through the space between the sign of shape and its identifying characters. example #11_4 a subscripted identified sign of shape is used in an expression for the area of rectangle ,T,A,C,K in the equation. The space following the shape does not terminate the subscript level. The termination occurs with the space associated with the sign of comparison, the equals sign. ,A;$r ,T,A,C,K .k #36 cm^2 Identified signs of shape in enclosed lists When numerals are brailled in enclosed lists, the numerals are elements of the list separated by commas, the numeric indicator is not used. It is important to distinguish between a numeral that is an element of a list and a numeral associated with an identified sign of shape. Numerals identifying signs of shape require the numeric indicator. Numerals that are elements of an enclosed list do not require the numeric indicator. example #12_4 because the numerals five, three, and one are associated with identified signs of shape, the numeric indicator is required. The remaining numerals are items in an enclosed list; the numeric indicator is not required. .(2m${ #5, 7m${ #3, ${ #1, 6, -7.) Review #1_4 Signs of shape used to represent omitted signs of comparison, signs of operation, numerals, or characters, must be spaced according to the rules for those signs. #2_4 When a sign of shape representing a regular polygon used as a sign of operation is followed by a numeral, the multipurpose indicator, dot five, is placed between the sign of shape and the numeral. #3_4 When a braille indicator, such as a level indicator, is used with a sign of shape, the sign of shape must be unspaced from the indicator that applies to it. The effect of a level indicator used with a sign of shape extends through the space following the shape, preserving the level on which the sign of shape appears. Any other space terminates the effect of the level indicator.

335

#4_4 Numerals identifying signs of shape require the numeric indicator. Numerals that are elements of an enclosed list do not require the numeric indicator. Exercises Prompt to Braille cap ;,V subscript triangle equals four centimeters cubed ,V;$t .k #4 cm^3 cap ,A subscript triangle cap ;,L cap ;,M cap ;,P equals fourteen centimeters squared ,A;$t ,L,M,P .k #14 cm^2 cap C subscript circle equals pi open paren twelve close paren ,C;$c .k .p(12) angle Roman numeral two ${ ii four square four equals sixteen #4$4"4 .k #16 cap ;,Q cap ;,R intersects cap ;,C cap ;,D at cap ;,V ,Q,R $i ,C,D at ;,V ;f and ;j are parallel. f and j are $l_4 angle four, angle three, and angle two are exterior angles. ${ #4, ${ #3, and ${ #2 are exterior angles. ;r star four equals seven r$s4 .k #7 six nonagon six equals twelve #6$9"6 .k #12 Braille to Speech The triangle's perimeter is twenty centimeters in length period The $t_'s perimeter is #20 cm in length. open paren angle one comma angle two comma angle three close paren (${ #1, ${ #2, ${ #3) Find the angle period

336

Find the ${_4 triangle cap ;,T cap ,A cap ;,R is congruent to triangle cap ;,V cap ,A cap ;,N $t ,T,A,R :.k $t ,V,A,N square cap ;,G $4 ,G angle Roman numeral four ${ iv three plus pentagon equals seven #3+$5 .k #7 three square four equals seven #3$4"4 .k #7 cap ;,C octagon cap ;,D ,C $8 ,D ;c is perpendicular to ;d c $p d cap ;,Q subscript circle equals two pi seven ,Q;$c .k #2.p7 cap ;,P subscript rectangle equals two inches period ,P;$r .k #2 in_4 Proofreading cap ,A subscript triangle equals three ;s ,A;$t .k #3s ,A;$;t .k #3s three square seven equals twenty one #3$4"7 .k #21 #3$47 .k #21 ;j intersects ;k at cap ;,T j $i k at ;,T j $9 k at ;,T angle seven ${ #7

337

${#7 #14.3 Signs of shape: shaded and filled-in, positioning, star as a reference Explanation Shapes may need to be modified for special purposes, including the display of a filled-in or shaded figure, or a shape which is positioned above or below another symbol. The following braille symbols are used to modify shapes. shape indicator, dots one two four six termination indicator, dots one two four five six filled-in shape indicator, dots four five six shaded shape indicator, dots four six directly-over indicator, dots one two six directly-under indicator, dots one four six multipurpose indicator, dot five
Braille $ ] _ . < % " Symbol Name shape indicator termination indicator filled-in shape indicator shaded shape indicator directly-over indicator directly-under indicator multipurpose indicator Configuration dots 1-2-4-6 dots 1-2-4-5-6 dots 4-5-6 dots 4-6 dots 1-2-6 dots 1-4-6 dot 5 Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille

Shaded and filled-in shapes In print, shapes may be represented as hollow, outlined with the interior left blank, shaded, the interior partially covered with ink, or filled-in, the interior totally covered with ink. This is to differentiate between shapes that are the same but have different meanings, or to attract the reader's attention. To indicate that a shape is shaded, the shaded shape indicator, dots four six, is placed after the shape indicator and before the characters used to represent the shape, regardless of the degree or method of shading. To indicate that a shape is filledin, the filled-in shape indicator, dots four five six, is placed after the shape indicator and before the characters used to represent the shape. The Nemeth Code makes frequent use of the dots four six and dots four five six configurations. It is the positioning and context of the material associated with the configurations that determines the meanings. These illustration modifiers are placed between the primary shape indicator for which the shading is to be applied and the symbol for the shape. example #1_4 a solid filled-in triangle $_t

338

example #2_4 a shaded circle $.c Positioning shape indicators The two position modifier symbols, directly over, dots one two six, and directly under, dots one four six, are used when characters, symbols or expressions are located directly over or directly under other symbols or expressions. The five-step rule for modification of an expression must be used. Step #1_4 The portion of the expression being modified must begin with the multipurpose indicator, dot five. Step #2_4 The expression that is to be changed is brailled next. Step #3_4 If the modification is located directly over an expression, then the directly over symbol, dots one two six, follows the expression. If the modification is located directly under an expression, then the directly under symbol, dots one four six, follows the expression. Step #4_4 The symbol which appears directly over or directly under the expression is brailled. Step #5_4 The termination indicator, dots one two four five six, indicates the position where the modification ends.
Braille " < % ] Symbol Name multipurpose indicator directly-over indicator directly-under indicator termination indicator Configuration dot 5 dots 1-2-6 dots 1-4-6 dos 1-2-4-5-6 Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille

example #3_4 a brace over the entire expression, ;w plus ;r "w+r<.(} example #4_4 a brace under the ;x plus ;y" portion of the expression #3"x+y%.)} An exception to the five step rule occurs when a single letter or numeral has a single horizontal bar above it. In this case, then the character is followed by the symbol for the modifier, placed immediately after the single digit or letter. No other steps are required. example #5_4 read as: ;x-bar

339

x: example #6_4 the single digit four appears with a bar over it #34:56 example #7_4 ;x-bar squared; in print, the bar does not extend over the exponent x:^2 example #8_4 ;x-bar squared; in print, the bar extends over the exponent; five step rule applies "x^2"<:} In example #8, the dot five configuration is used twice. The first instance is as a multipurpose indicator, as in step #1 of constructing the modification. The second dot five is a baseline indicator located after the exponent. This would also be the case if a subscript were involved. Likewise, if a bar or other shape appears beneath an item containing a superscript or a subscript, the baseline indicator would be used before the directly-under indicator. Symbols typically used above or below other characters Following are some of the more common symbols used in positions above or below other symbols, characters, or expressions. Bar The bar, dots one five six, is used to indicate the repeating portion of decimals in general math, to indicate the sample mean in statistics, and to label line segments in geometry.
Braille : Symbol Name bar Configuration dots 1-5-6 Print Symbol ___

example #9_4 the simple ;x-bar in an equation x: .k #53.6 example #10_4 the ;x-bar in an expression in both the numerator and as a subscript; note the use of Greek lowercase letters mu and sigma z .k ?x:-.m/.s;x:"# example #11_4 a double bar line appears above a single character; the five-step rule is used "x<::}

340

A bar often appears in general mathematics over a digit or a series of digits that recur an infinite number of times. example #12_4 the multipurpose indicator precedes the portion of the expression which is repeated. In print, the bar is located over the numerals four and seven to indicate that these digits repeat in an endless pattern. Those digits are the symbols which are modified. #5.12"47<:} example #13_4 the modification occurs after the decimal point and includes the entire set of six digits that follow, indicating that the digits #142857 have a bar extending over them #3."142857<:} When a bar appears under an expression, the five step rule is always used. example #14_4 the capital letter, ;,R appears with a horizontal bar under it ",R%:}
Teaching Tips Since the modification begins with the multipurpose indicator and ends with a termination indicator, these two symbols are signs of grouping. The grouping may not be divided between braille lines.

Line segments A simple line segment print and in braille. those with endpoints, according to the five

and the bar use the same representation in Other lines and line segments, such as are signs of shape and must be brailled step rule.

example #15_4 a bar used in geometry to show a line segment labeled with two points ",A,B<:} example #16_4 a bar with dotted endpoints to show a line segment ",G,H<$*33*} Other lines with different endpoints, such as hollow dots or curved arrow heads, would be formed in a similar manner. Arcs

341

An arc is a portion of a curve or circle. There are two basic braille symbols for arcs: concave upward arc, dots one two four six, one concave downward arc, dots one two four six, three
Braille $a $' Symbol Name concave upward arc concave downward arc Configuration dots 1-2-4-6, 1 dots 1-2-4-6, 3 Print Symbol

example #17_4 a concave upward arc over two capitalized letters ",C,D<$a} example #18_4 occasionally, the arc will extend over three capital letters ",A,Y,B<$a} `:.K ",B,C<$a} Star as a reference symbol The star is often used as a reference symbol to refer the reader to a note located in another area of the text. The reference symbol is positioned as it appears in print. When it is used with a numbered or lettered item, for example, the reference symbol is unspaced from the letter or numeral. The numeric indicator must be used before any numeral following the reference symbol. If the reference symbol is used to single out a word or words, a space must be left between the reference symbol and the word. example #19_4 the star used to reference a particular problem; note that #36_4 is an item identifier $_s#36_4 #1.7+2 Review To indicate that a shape is shaded, the shaded shape indicator, dots four six, is placed after the shape indicator and before the characters used to represent the shape, regardless of the degree or method of shading. To indicate that a shape is filledin, the filled-in shape indicator, dots four five six, is placed after the shape indicator and before the characters used to represent the shape. The following five step rule for modification is used when indicating that a shape is positioned directly over or directly under an expression. Step #1_4 The portion of the expression being modified must begin with the multipurpose indicator, dot five. Step #2_4 The expression that is to be changed is brailled next.

342

Step #3_4 If the modification is located directly over an expression, then the directly over symbol, dots one two six, follows the expression. If the modification is located directly under an expression, then the directly under symbol, dots one four six, follows the expression. Step #4_4 The symbol which appears directly over or directly under the expression is brailled. Step #5_4 The termination indicator, dots one two four five six, indicates the position where the modification ends. An exception to the five step rule occurs when a single letter or numeral has a single horizontal bar above it. In this case, then the character is followed by the symbol for the modifier, placed immediately after the single digit or letter. No other steps are required. Exercises Prompt to Braille solid rectangle $_r shaded rectangle $.r solid square plus shaded triangle $_4+$.t open brace triangle, shaded pentagon, solid circle close brace .($t, $.5, $_c.) the expression ;x plus ;y with a brace over it "x+y<.(} ;x bar x: cap ;,B intersect cap ,A bar ,B.?,A: two point six bar #2.6: ;d bar cubed

343

d:^3 ;d cubed bar "d^3"<:} line segment cap ;,B cap ;,C ",B,C<:} arc cap ;,A cap ;,B ",A,B<$a} star twelve period Factor ;x squared minus nine $s#12_4 Factor x^2"-9 Braille to Speech shaded triangle $.t solid circle plus shaded rectangle minus pentagon $_c+$.r-$5 the expression ;b minus ;f that expression with a brace under it "b-f%.)} cap ,A bar under ",A%:} ;y bar squared y:^2 the expression ;y squared that expression with bar over "y^2"<:} ;y double bar "y<::} six point seven with bar over eight nine zero #6.7"890<:} line segment cap ;,X cap ;,Z ",X,Z<:} arc cap ;,S cap ;,T ",S,T<$a}

344

solid star thirteen period open brace circle plus square close brace union open brace triangle close brace $_s#13_4 .($c+$4.).+.($t.) cap ;,J cap ;,K bar over with dotted end points ",J,K<*$33*} Proofreading line segment cap ;,L cap ;,M ",L,M<:} ,L,M<:} ;x bar x: "x<:} solid square cap ,A cap ;,B cap ;,C cap ;,D $_4 ,A,B,C,D _$4 ,A,B,C,D ;t double bar over "t<::} "t<:} two point three four with bar over the three and four #2."34<:} #2."3<:4<:} #14.4 Signs of shape: arrows Explanation Arrows are used for a variety of purposes in mathematics. Examples of these include use as signs of comparison, it follows that, approaches, or yields, as super-positioned symbols to indicate rays or vectors, or as interior symbols within other shapes. When constructing arrows, the shape indicator is brailled first. The arrows are then transcribed in the order in which their symbols appear, that is, the vertical direction if appropriate, the shaft, or the arrowhead. A left-pointing arrow would have the arrowhead brailled after the shape indicator, followed by the shaft. A right-pointing arrow would have the shaft brailled first. Arrows pointing in directions other than left or right require the appropriate arrow direction indicator following the shape indicator, as listed below. #1_4 directly-over indicator, dots one two six, for up-pointing arrows

345

#2_4 directly-under indicator, dots one four six, for downpointing arrows #3_4 superscript indicator for arrows pointing up to the left or up to the right #4_4 subscript indicator for arrows pointing down to the left or down to the right. The shaft of the arrow, when it is displayed, is composed of two cells of dots two five for a single-shaft arrow, and two cells of dots two three five six for an arrow with a double shaft. The right contracted arrow, the arrowhead with no shaft, is to be used when a right-pointing arrow appearing in regular type font, having a full barb with a single shaft of ordinary length, occurs by itself. If the right-pointing arrow appears in a different type font, for example, boldface or italic, or has a different type of barb, curved, blunted, or half-barbed, the contracted form is not to be used. The contracted form is also not used if the right-pointing arrow has a shaft of a different length than other arrows in the material, or has a double or triple shaft. Listed below are some of the common arrows. full-barbed arrows: right-pointing, contracted form $o right-pointing, uncontracted form, single shaft $33o left-pointing, single shaft ${33 double-barb at both ends ${33o right-pointing, double shaft $77o left-pointing, double shaft ${77o down-pointing, single shaft $%33o up-pointing, single shaft $<33o single-barbed arrows: single-barb at top, right-pointing $33`o single barb at bottom, right-pointing $33,o
Braille $o $33o ${33 ${33o $77o ${77o Symbol Name right-pointing arrow, contracted form right pointing arrow, uncontracted form, single shaft left-pointing arrow, single shaft double-barb at both ends right-pointing arrow, double shaft left-pointing arrow, double Configuration dots 1-2-4-6, 1-3-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-5, 2-5, 1-3-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-4-6, 25, 2-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-4-6, 25, 2-5, 1-3-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-3-5-6, 2-3-5-6, 1-3-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-4-6, 2Print Symbol

346

$%33o $<33o $33`o

shaft down-pointing arrow, single shaft up-pointing arrow, single shaft single-barb at top, rightpointing arrow single-barb at bottom, right-pointing arrow

3-5-6, 2-3-5-6, 1-3-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-4-6, 25, 2-5, 1-3-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-2-6, 25, 2-5, 1-3-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-5, 2-5, 4, 1-3-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-5, 2-5, 6, 1-3-5

$33,o

More examples of arrow usage The double-shafted, right-pointing arrow is referred to as the "implies" arrow since it directs the statements from the left, for a right-pointing arrow, to a logical conclusion on the right. The double-shafted arrow may also be referred to as the "if...then" arrow. example #1_4 read as: ",A is a subset of ;,B and ;,B is a subset of ;,C implies that ,A is a subset of ;,C, or read as: if ,A is a subset of ;,B and ;,B is a subset of ;,C, then ,A is a subset of ;,C ,A _"k ,B and ,B _"K ,C $77O ,A _"K ,C The double-headed, double-shafted arrow is a conditional arrow; it relates the expression on the left to a condition on the right. This symbol is often read "if and only if" the condition is valid. example #2_4 read as: the ratio of a to ;b is a real number if and only if ;b does not equal zero ?a/b# is a real number ${77o b /.k #0 Arrows may indicate vectors, rays, or lines, or they may be used to demonstrate a range of values as one number approaches another value. In general, the contracted form of an arrow may be used even if it extends over or under more than one character unless the arrow is also modified. Arrows used to indicate vectors Vectors may also be shown as boldfaced lower-case letters and appear without an arrow. A double-barbed arrow or a singlebarbed arrow may be displayed above the letters. The most common usage is a single-barbed arrow with the barb to the right and on top of the shaft. This might also be referred to as a half-barb. In general, a full-barbed arrow indicates a ray and a singlebarbed arrow indicates a vector.

347

example #3_4 the vector ;n displayed with a half-barbed arrow; this requires implementation of the five-step rule "n<$33`o} example #4_4 the sum of two vectors; the sign of operation follows the termination indicator of the first vector "n<$33`o}+"u<$33`o} example #5_4 signs of grouping used with other signs of grouping; whether the signs of grouping are parentheses, fraction indicators, or radicals, vectors are constructed as a single unit "m<$33`o} .k ?2/3#("v<$33`o}-"u<$33`o}) Sometimes a text may consistently display arrows above vectors that are also displayed in bold print, as in: "_;V<$33`o}_4 If arrows are consistently used above vectors that are also shown in boldface type throughout a text, the arrows must be omitted in braille unless the author specifically refers to the vectors with the arrows, as part of a notational explanation. The boldface font is enough of an indication that the symbol shown is a vector in both print and in braille. Therefore, "_;v<$33`o} would normally be displayed simply as _;v_4 Arrows used to indicate rays Regardless of the direction a ray is pointing in a diagram, a right-pointing arrow is almost always used when naming a ray in proofs and equations. The arrow above the two letters indicates only that this is a ray that is being named. In print, a ray is usually displayed with an arrow over two capital letters, the first letter indicating the starting point of the ray. Rays are often used in geometry. example #6_4 ",R,S<$o} Arrows used as signs of comparison An expression may use an arrow comparing two values. Arrows may be used much like the equals sign. example #7_4 read as: ;x approaches infinity x $o ,= Arrows also may be positioned above or beneath another mathematical symbol, abbreviated function name, or other

348

character. This type of notation is used in calculus and higher levels of math. example #8_4 arrow used as sign of comparison beneath an abbreviated function name; read as: the limit of the function at ;x, as the value of ;x approaches infinity. Note that the entire expression x $o ,=, complete with spaces, is positioned below the function name, lim. The space following the termination indicator is needed because a space follows a function name or abbreviation. "lim%x $o ,=} f(x) Double-headed arrows used to show lines The use of arrowheads at each end of the shaft on an arrow above capital letters, as used in geometry, labels lines that extend indefinitely in two directions, passing through the points listed. A bar above the letters would indicate line segments with definite lengths having the letters as their endpoints. example #9_4 double-headed arrows indicate parallel lines ,S,R and ,W,T ",S,R<${33o} $l ",W,T<${33o} Arrows indicating up and down Arrows pointing either up or down use the directly over and directly under indicators as part of their configuration. The direction indicators suggest the direction the arrows are pointing. These indicators are part of the basic symbol. The arrows are not positioned directly over or directly under another shape, expression, or symbol. example #10_4 arrow pointing down as a sign of comparison between ;x and #2 x $%33o #2 Arrows may also be positioned above, below, to the right, or to the left of other arrows. One of the arrows may be in bold print and/or the arrows may have shafts of different lengths. These arrows are often used in science, particularly chemistry. An arrow that is positioned above another arrow, or an arrow that is positioned to the left of another arrow, is brailled first. The bold-face indicator, dots four five six, is positioned before any arrow which is in bold font in print. example #11_4 a boldfaced right-pointing arrow positioned over a left-pointing arrow in regular font

349

$_33o${33 example #12_4 a chemistry formula with arrows to indicate hydrochloric acid in a two-way reaction with its positive hydrogen ion and its negative chlorine ion ,H,Cl $_33o${33 ,H^+",Cl^An arrow with a short shaft will be depicted with one cell of dots two five to represent its shaft. An arrow with a long shaft will be represented by three cells of dots two five to display its shaft. Example #13_4 a short, right-pointing arrow over a long, leftpointing arrow $3o${333 Exercises Prompt to Braille the fraction ;x over ;y is a real number double headed double shaft arrow ;y is not equal to zero ?x/y# is a real number ${77o y /.k #0 the vector ;t with a half barbed right arrow "t<$33`o} ;t half barbed arrow plus ;u half barbed arrow "t<$33`o}+"u<$33`o} ray cap ,A cap ;,B ",A,B<$o} ;t approaches infinity t $o ,= ;u right arrow negative seven u $o -#7 the limit of ;f of ;x as ;x approaches two "lim%x $o #2} f(x) line cap ;,T cap ;,V is parallel to line cap ,A cap ;,B ",T,V<${33o} $l ",A,B<${33o} cap ;,W down arrow three ,W $%33o #3

350

a boldfaced right-pointing arrow positioned over a left-pointing arrow in regular font $_33o${33 Braille to Speech uncontracted right arrow $33o If ;x equals ;y and ;y equals ;z right double shaft arrow ;x equals ;z If x .k y and y .k z $77o x .k z one is to four as twenty five is to ;x double shaft right arrow ;x is not equal to zero #1 "1 #4 ;2 #25 "1 x $77o x /.k #0 ray cap ;,B cap ;,D ",B,D<$o} vector ;r "r<$33`o} vector ;v minus vector ;w "v<$33`o}-"w<$33`o} ;t approaches three t $o #3 the limit of the function ;g at ;x as the value of ;x approaches infinity "lim%x $o ,=} g(x) line cap ;,R cap ;,T is perpendicular to line cap ;,T cap ;,U ",R,T<${33o} $p ",T,U<${33o} line cap ;,B cap ;,D is parallel to line segment cap ,A cap ;,C ",B,D<${33o} $l ",A,C<:} cap ;,G space up arrow space seven ,G $<33o #7 cap ;,H cap ;,C ;l space right arrow over left arrow space cap ;,H plus cap ;,C ;l ,H,Cl $33o${33 ,H"+,Cl

351

Proofreading ;x space right arrow space two x $o #2 x "$o} #2 vector ;r "r<$33`o} r<$33`o} ray cap ;,S cap ;,T ",S,T<$o} ",S,T<$o #14.5 Signs of shape: structural modification, interior modification Explanation Shapes may be modified for special purposes. These may include representation of a specific shape, such as an isosceles triangle; combination of several shapes, as in the sign for complementary angles, measured angles; or modification of a nonshape symbol, letter, number or expression. The following symbols are used in shape modification. shape indicator, dots one two four six termination indicator, dots one two four five six interior shape-modification indicator, dots four five six, one two four six multipurpose indicator, dot five
Braille $ ] _$ " Symbol Name shape indicator termination indicator interior shape-modification indicator multipurpose indicator Configuration dots 1-2-4-6 dots 1-2-4-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 1-2-46 dot 5 Print Symbol none none none none

Structural modifications A structural modification occurs when either two or more shapes are combined to form a composite shape, or a shape is changed from its general form to a specific form. To modify the structure of a shape, braille these symbols in the following sequence: #1_4 shape indicator #2_4 basic shape character #3_4 shape modification indicator, dots four six #4_4 a letter, or uncontracted arrangement of letters, to represent the specific shape

352

#5_4 termination indicator, dots one two four five six An illustration of this principle is using the general symbol for a triangle to represent the specific case, an isosceles triangle. example #1_4 isosceles triangle; the letter, ;i, suggests isosceles $t.i} The following is a list of additional examples. acute triangle; the letter, a, suggests acute: $t.a} right triangle; the letter, ;r, suggests right: $t.r} obtuse triangle: $t.o} right angle: ${.r} straight angle: ${.s} supplementary angles; sp suggests supplementary: ${.sp} complementary angles; cp suggests complementary: ${.cp} adjacent angles; ;j for the j in adjacent: ${.j}
Braille $t.a] $t.r] $t.o] ${.r] ${.s] ${.sp] ${.cp] ${.j] Symbol Name acute triangle right triangle obtuse triangle right angle straight angle supplementary angles complementary angles adjacent angles Configuration dots 1-2-4-6, t, 4-6, a, 1-2-4-5-6 dots 1-2-4-6, t 4-6, r, 1-2-4-5-6 dots 1-2-4-6, t, 4-6, o, 1-2-4-5-6 dots 1-2-4-6, 6 dots 1-2-4-6, 6 dots 1-2-4-6, 4-5-6 dots 1-2-4-6, 4-5-6 dots 1-2-4-6, 6 2-4-6, 4-6, r, 1-2-4-52-4-6, 4-6, s, 1-2-4-52-4-6, 4-6, s, p, 1-22-4-6, 4-6, c, p, 1-22-4-6, 4-6, j, 1-2-4-5Print Symbol

Spacing with modified expressions Spacing before and after a modified expression follows the guidelines for spacing of the expression itself, as if the modifier was not being used. The five parts of the modified shape must all appear on the same braille line because they are considered to be a unit. Rules which apply to other braille characters are also to be followed. For example, if a modified expression is enclosed within signs of grouping, it should not be separated from the signs of grouping. Interior modifications

353

There are circumstances when a basic shape has a numeral, letter, sign of operation, or another shape appearing inside the print shape. To modify the interior of a shape, braille these symbols in the following sequence. #1_4 shape indicator #2_4 basic shape symbol #3_4 interior shape-modification indicator, dots four five six, one two four six #4_4 interior alteration to the shape #5_4 termination indicator, dots one two four five six Types of interior modifications #1_4 If the alteration involves a numeral, a numeric indicator must appear before the numeral. example #2_4 circle with interior numeral three $c_$#3} example #3_4 square with interior numeral #2 $4_$#2} #2_4 If the interior change is a sign of operation or a letter, the appropriate symbol is inserted after the interior shape modification indicator. example #4_4 circle with an interior minus sign $c_$-} example #5_4 rectangle with an interior capital letter $r_$,T} #3_4 If the modification is another shape, an additional shape indicator is required to mark the beginning of the interior modification of the basic shape; next, the interior shape is displayed. example #6_4 circle with an interior arrow pointing to the right $c_$$33o} example #7_4 angle shape with an interior arc, commonly applied in geometry ${_$$a} example #8_4 measured angle with an interior arc m${_$$a} ,A .k #45^.*

354

example #9_4 circle with a center dot, commonly used in geometry to indicate circle $c_$*} example #10_4 circle with a center dot used for multiplication; multiplication dot is used #5$c_$*}3 .k #15 example #11_4 labeled circles with interior dots $c_$*} ,A and $c_$*} ,O are concentric. example #12_4 circle with interior capitalized letter $c_$,W} Review To modify the structure of a shape, braille these symbols in the following sequence: #1_4 shape indicator #2_4 basic shape character #3_4 shape modification indicator, dots four six #4_4 a letter, or uncontracted arrangement of letters, to represent the specific shape #5_4 termination indicator, dots one two four five six To modify the interior of a shape, braille these symbols in the following sequence. #1_4 shape indicator #2_4 basic shape symbol #3_4 interior shape-modification indicator, dots four five six, one two four six #4_4 interior alteration to the shape #5_4 termination indicator, dots one two four five six Exercises Prompt to Braille right angle cap ,A cap ;,B cap ;,C ${.r} ,A,B,C right triangle cap ;,F cap ,A cap ;,T $t.r} ,F,A,T straight angle cap ;,D cap ;,O cap ;,G ${.s} ,D,O,G

355

angle five and angle six are complementary angles ${ #5 and ${ #6 are ${.cp} circle with interior numeral five $c_$#5} seven diamond with interior minus sign two #7$d_$-#2} circle with interior capital letter ;,Q $c_$,Q} rectangle with an interior arrow pointing to the left $r_$${33} angle with interior arc cap ;,X cap ;,R cap ;,T equals thirty degrees ${_$$a} ,X,R,T .k #30^.* circle with center dot cap ,A $c_$*} ,A five circle with center dot five equals twenty five #5$c_$*}5 .k #25 square with center dot $4_$*} Braille to Speech triangle with interior capital ;,R $t_$,R} obtuse angle cap ;,M ${.o} ,M square with interior seven $4_$#7} circle with a down pointing arrow $c_$$%33o} three circle with interior multiplication cross two #3$c_$`*}2 star with interior dot

356

$s_$*} angle cap ,A and angle cap ;,D are supplementary angles ${ ,A and ${ ,D are ${.sp} angle one is a right angle ${ #1 is a ${.r} circle with an interior three $c_$#3} cap ;,T cap ;,R is tangent to circle with interior dot cap ;,O prime ,T,R is tangent to $c_$*} ,O' Proofreading circle with interior five $c_$#5} $c$#5} rectangle with right pointing uncontracted arrow $r_$$33o} $r_$33o} right triangle cap ;,S cap ;,K cap ;,Y $t.r} ,S,K,Y $r.t} ,S,K,Y #15.1 Type-form indicators with numbers Explanation A variety of fonts may be used to represent mathematics in print. To represent a modification in the print font, the following braille indicators are placed before the letter, number, or symbol that is to be shown in the modified type-form. Type-form indicators have no print equivalent. boldface type indicator, dots four five six italic type indicator, dots four six script indicator, dot four sanserif indicator, dots six, four six
Braille _ . ` ,. Symbol Name boldface type indicator italic type indicator script indicator sanserif indicator Configuration dots 4-5-6 dots 4-6 dot 4 dots 6, 4-6 Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille

357

Dots four six and dots four five six may have different meanings when used in braille mathematics, depending upon placement of these symbols with respect to other symbols, and context. Guidelines for using type-form indicators Material displayed in alternative fonts does not always require the use of type-form indicators. If a particular font is consistently used throughout a text for letters, numerals, or other mathematical symbols, then the font is considered to be regular, not modified, and the type-form indicators are not used. For example, when variables in formulas are uniformly printed in an alternative font, such as boldface or italics, throughout a text, type-form indicators are not used. However, when an alternative font is used to convey a distinct mathematical meaning, then type-form indicators must be used. An example would be when different fonts are used to distinguish between two or more different meanings of the same letter, numeral, or symbol, or because the alternative font has mathematical significance. Type-form indicators used with numerals The numeric indicator is placed between a type-form indicator and a numeral or decimal point. The type-form indicator precedes the numeral being modified. When a sign of operation appears before a numeral and it is not in a different font, the typeform indicator appears after the sign and before the numeric indicator. If the sign of operation and the numeral are being modified in the same font, then the type-form indicator precedes the sign of operation. example #1_4 italic .#7 example #2_4 boldface _#53 example #3_4 negative sign in regular font, boldface numeral -_#6 example #4_4 italicized sign of operation and numeral .+#18 example #5_4 italic decimal numeral .#.33 example #6_4 boldface mixed number

358

_#33_?1/3_# example #7_4 boldface decimal numeral _#23.7 Influence of type-form indicators with numerals The type-form indicator's influence extends to the space following a numeral, or to a different type-form indicator representing another change in font. example #8_4 an alternative font ends at a space #17+_#17 .k _#34 Compound expressions A compound expression contains a numeral joined to a word or to an abbreviation by a hyphen. The following rules apply when brailling a compound expression. Rule #1_4 If an entire expression is in a non-regular type-form, the appropriate type-form indicator must be used before the numeral; its influence extends through the entire compound expression. example #9_4 a compound expression in italics; the word and numeral are joined by a hyphen .#110-volts Rule #2_4 If a numeral in an alternative font is followed by a hyphen and a word or abbreviation in regular font, the hyphen must be preceded by the literary termination sign, dot six, three, to indicate the change in font. example #10_4 a boldface numeral followed by an abbreviation in regular font; the change in font occurs before the hyphen _#12.5,'-cm^3 If a numeral is in a regular font and there is a change after the hyphen to an alternative font, place the appropriate typeform indicator between the hyphen and the following symbol. example #11_4 numerals are in regular font; abbreviation is in italics; the change occurs after the hyphen #77-.ft If a numeral in an alternative font is followed by a word or abbreviation in a different alternative font after the hyphen, the change occurs after the hyphen. Appropriate type-form indicators must be used before each part of the expression.

359

example #12_4 a numeral in boldface followed by a word in script _#64-`amps The use of the numeric indicator within a number indicates a change of font. When numerals or expressions contain some digits that are in an alternative form of type, or when there is more than one form of type within an expression, the appropriate type-form indicator and the numeric indicator must precede each change in type. When an alternative font, such as boldface, italics, script, or sanserif, is changed to a regular font within an expression, the numeric indicator precedes the numerals which are displayed in regular font. example #13_4 a change in font within a numeral; note that the italic sign would be read as a decimal without the use of the numeric indicator #45.#6 example #14_4 a change of font within numerals; zeroes are in boldface to stress the importance of the tens place value #2_#0#7+3_#0#1 .k #5_#0#8 example #15_4 an italic #10 is multiplied by a boldface #100 .#10*_#100 example #16_4 italic #10 is divided by bold #100, note that the dots four six compose a portion of the division sign do not stand for italics here .#10./_#100 The sanserif type-form indicator might be used, infrequently, to make a distinction between two letters. This distinction has mathematical significance; thus, the type-form indicator must be used. Review Type-form indicators are used to show a change in font. Boldface type-form indicator Braille configuration: dots four five six Braille symbol: _ Italic type-form indicator Braille configuration: dots four six Braille symbol: .

360

Script type-form indicator Braille configuration: dot four Braille symbol: ` Sanserif type-form indicator Braille configuration: dots six, four six Braille symbol: ,. Rules: #1_4 The appropriate type-form indicators precede the letter or number that is to be shown in the modified font. #2_4 Material displayed in alternative fonts does not always require the use of type-form indicators in braille. #3_4 The numeric indicator is placed between a type-form indicator and a numeral or decimal point. The type-form indicator precedes the numeral being modified. The type-form indicator's influence extends to the space following a numeral, or to a different type-form indicator representing another change in font. #4_4 The use of the numeric indicator within a number indicates a change of font. When an alternative font is changed to a regular font within an expression, the numeric indicator precedes the numerals which are displayed in regular font. Exercises Prompt to Braille boldface twenty two _#22 italics thirty .#30 three plus italics two equals boldface five #3+.#2 .k _#5 script seven and three fourths `#7_?3/4_# Nell has boldface eighteen problems. Nell has _#18 problems. It travels boldface sixteen hyphen feet per second period

361

It travels _#16-ft per second. pi is about three point four italics one four period .p is about #3.4.#14_4 Round to the indicated place value: one, boldface five regular font nine six. Round to the nearest place value: #1,_#5#96_4 italics eighty eight boldface point five five .#88_#.55 boldface two hundred twenty volts _#220-volts boldface sixteen regular font hyphen amps _#16,'-amps sixteen hyphen script candles #16-`candles Braille to Speech italics ten .#10 boldface forty five _#45 minus boldface sixteen -_#16 Use boldface plus eight instead of italics minus eight period Use _+#8 instead of .-#8_4 italics point four one four .#.414 seven minus boldface seven equals italics zero #7-_#7 .k .#0 italics twenty two hyphen volts .#22-volts boldface twenty four termination regular font hyphen amps _#24,'-amps

362

regular font twelve hyphen italics feet squared #12-.ft^2 regular font four italics five regular font zero #4.#5#0 Proofreading boldface three hundred twenty one _#321 #_3 21 regular font three boldface ninety nine #3_#99 #3_#9_#9 boldface one italics two regular font three _#1.#2#3 _#1#.2#3 boldface twenty eight hyphen italics amps _#28-.amps _#28.-amps #15.2 Type-form indicators with letters Explanation Guidelines for using type-form indicators with letters The type-form indicator must always be followed by an alphabetic indicator. An English letter is preceded by the English letter indicator, dots five six. If a letter is capitalized, the capitalization indicator is brailled after the letter indicator. example #1_4 boldface capital letter in regular English alphabet _;,X example #2_4 italicized Greek lowercase letter delta ..d The script type-form indicator is used to denote letters which represent, for example, the set of real numbers, the set of rational numbers, or the set of integers. The Nemeth code uses the script indicator to denote these characters. example #3_4 the set of real numbers `;,R

363

example #4_4 the set of rational numbers `;,q example #5_4 the set of integers `;,Z The influence of a type-form indicator extends only to the letter that immediately follows it. In a sequence of unspaced letters, a type-form indicator must precede each letter that is displayed in an alternative font. example #6_4 a series of lowercase letters in italics .;a.;b.;c example #7_4 boldface letter ;x, bold letter ;y, regular letter ;z _;x_;y;z example #8_4 italicized letter ;e, boldface letter ;f, regular capital letters ;G and ;H .;e_;f;,G;,H Vectors Vectors may be displayed as arrows, as described in lesson #14, or as boldface letters. When the boldface font has mathematical significance, as when it is used to identify letters as vectors, or to indicate that a zero is the null vector, the boldface type-form indicator must be used.
Note Vectors are often used to describe forces which pull or push in a direction. Applications of vectors are found in physics and related science problems.

example #9_4 the vector ;t _;t example #10_4 the scalar value three times the vector ;k #3_;k example #11_4 j's and zero are in boldface font _;j*_;j .k _#0 example #12_4 a scalar value times a vector with a sign of operation between two vectors #3_;j+_;k Review

364

When it is necessary to show that a letter from any alphabet is displayed in an alternative font, type-form indicators must be used. Italic type-form indicator Braille configuration: dots four six Braille symbol: . Boldface type-form indicator Braille configuration: dots four five six Braille symbol: _ Script type-form indicator Braille configuration: dot four Braille symbol: ` Sanserif type-form indicator Braille configuration: dots six, four six Braille symbol: ,. Rules: #1_4 An alphabetic indicator always follows a type-form indicator. If a letter is capitalized, the capitalization indicator is brailled after the letter indicator. #2_4 The influence of a type-form indicator, when applied to letters, extends only to the letter immediately following it. Each letter in an unspaced sequence of letters that appear in a different font, must be preceded by the appropriate type-form indicator and alphabetic indicator. A return to a regular font is indicated by the use of the English letter indicator before the letter in regular font. Exercises Prompt to Braille boldface lower case ;b _;b italicized cap ;w .;,w boldface lower case beta _.b script cap ;,R `;,R

365

italic ;q bold ;r script ;s .;q_;r`;s three boldface ;v #3_;v boldface ;r minus boldface ;t _;r-_;t the vector ;t _;t Braille to Speech boldface lowercase Greek delta _.d italic lowercase Greek gamma ..g italic cap ;,T .;,t italic ;r italic ;s italic ;t .;r.;s.;t boldface a italic ;b regular font ;c _;a.;b;c ;x equals script cap ;,R x .k `;,R boldface ;y plus five boldface ;k _;y+5_;k lowercase italic ;d .;d Proofreading boldface cap ;z _;,z _,z italic ;w boldface ;x regular font ;y .;w_;x;y .;w_;xy

366

boldface a multiplication cross boldface a equals boldface zero _;a`*_a .k _#0 _;a`*_;a .k _0 #15.3 Type-form indicators with labeled mathematical statements, words, and phrases Explanation The following type-form indicators are used for labeled mathematical statements, words, and phases. opening boldface type-form indicator, dots six, three, four five six closing boldface type-form indicator, dots four five six, six, three opening italic type-form indicator, dots six, three, four six closing italic type-form indicator, dots four six, six, three all capitals, dots six, six
Braille ,'_ _,' ,'. .,' ,, Symbol Name opening boldface type-form indicator closing boldface type-form indicator opening italic type-form indicator closing italic type-form indicator all capitals Configuration dots 6, 3, 4-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 6, 3 dots 6, 3, 4-6 dots 4-6, 6, 3 dots 6, 6 Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille

These modifications make it possible to change the font of words and phrases by enclosing them within a set of opening and closing type-form indicators. A blank cell is inserted after the opening indicator and before the closing indicator. Format for labeled statements Labels are used in the study of geometry to identify definitions, theorems, axioms, lemmas, and similar types of statements. The following format is used for either a labeled mathematical statement or for a formal proof. Step #1_4 The labeled statement is separate from other material. Unless the labeled statement occurs after a new page separation line or at the beginning or end of a braille page, a blank braille line is inserted before and after the entire labeled statement. This is also true for formal proofs. Refer to lesson #16 for formal geometric proof formats.

367

Step #2_4 The labeled statement, or formal proof, begins in the third cell. Runovers on a new braille line begin in the first cell. Step 3#_4 A blank line is not required when subheadings such as given: or "prove:" are displayed. When subheadings appear in boldface type, they should be entirely capitalized in braille. example #1_4 the label "given:" is in boldface type in the print version ,,given: Rectangle ,A,B,C,D All labels, regardless of the font used in print, are displayed entirely in capitals, using the double capitalization indicator, dot six, six. When a label is presented in an alternative font, the entire label is displayed entirely in capitals, regardless of the font in which it appears in print. In example #2, a label, definition, appears in boldface type in the print text. In braille, the label is transcribed as though it were entirely capitalized. The body of the statement is in regular type. After the example number, a blank line is displayed. A blank line also follows the labeled statement. example #2_4 blank line above labeled statement ,,definition: A rectangle is a parallelogram with one right angle. blank line below labeled statement Body of text following labeled statements If the text that follows a label is in an alternative font, the text is enclosed with the appropriate opening and closing typeform indicators, with a space inserted after the opening indicator and another space before the closing indicator. example #3_4 in print, label is boldfaced, text is italicized blank line above labeled statement ,,definition. ,'. An equilateral triangle has three congruent sides. .,' blank line below labeled statement Body of text in more than one alternative font If a word or phrase within the text following a label is displayed in a font that is different than the font used for the remainder of the text, the word or phrase should be enclosed within the appropriate type-form indicators. The following

368

procedures are used in the case of a passage containing two different type-forms in which the second type-form is embedded within the first type-form. #1_4 The passage begins with the opening type-form indicator appropriate for the font used in the major portion of the passage. #2_4 The embedded passage begins and ends with the type-form indicators appropriate for the font used in the embedded passage. #3_4 The appropriate closing type-form indicator is inserted at the conclusion of the major passage. example #4_4 label and statements are in boldface; italicized words appear within statement; blank lines above and below the statement are displayed as blank lines ,, postulate: ,'_ If two lines intersect, the ,'. vertical angles .,' are equal. _,' Labeled statements with subheadings Subheadings are also labeled statements. They begin in cell three with runovers beginning in cell one. Following are guidelines for brailling labeled statements with subheadings. #1_4 Do not skip a line above or below a subheading. #2_4 Capitalization and italics appear in the braille text wherever they appear in the print text. #3_4 Boldface subheadings in print are entirely capitalized in braille, rather than being displayed in boldface in braille. example #5_4 a labeled statement with subheadings in italics and boldface presented as it would be in a geometry textbook. In print, the entire theorem is in boldface font. The word "Given" is displayed in italics, and the word "Prove" is displayed in boldface font. ,,Theorem: ,'_ if two sides and the included angle of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding sides and the included angle of another triangle, then the triangles are congruent. _,' (S.A.S.) ,,given: ",F,L<:} `:.k ",S,P<:}, ",L,Y<:} `:.k ",P,Y<:}, and ${ ,L `:.k ${ ,P ,, prove: $t ,F,L,Y `:.k $t ,S,P,Y Type-form indicators with unlabeled statements

369

A word or phrase that is in boldface type for emphasis or distinction, and that is an unlabeled statement, is preceded and followed by the boldface type-form indicators. These are used in accordance with the guidelines already presented. example #6_4 a phrase in boldface font in an unlabeled statement , S., A., S. is the standard abbreviation for ,'_ side-angle-side. _,' Review A labeled statement presents text with an identifying designation such as theorem or definition. The labeled statement is separate from other material. Unless the labeled statement occurs after a new page indicator or at the beginning or end of a braille page, a blank braille line is inserted before and after the entire labeled statement or formal proof. The labeled statement, or formal proof, begins in the third cell. Runovers on a new braille line begin in the first cell. No blank line appears above subheadings. Capitalization and italics appear in the braille text wherever they appear in the print text. Boldface subheadings in print are entirely capitalized in braille, rather than being displayed in boldface in braille. When a label is presented in an alternative font, the entire label is transcribed as if it were all capitalized. When the body of a labeled statement is in an alternative font, enclose the text with the appropriate opening and closing type-form indicators. Boldface type-form indicators Opening boldface type-form indicator Braille configuration: dots six, three, four five six Braille symbol: ,'_ Closing boldface type-form indicator Braille configuration: dots four five six, six, three Braille symbol: _,' Usage: to enclose words, phrases, or statements that appear in print in boldface type. Rules: #1_4 Use an opening and a closing boldface type-form indicator to enclose material that is presented in boldface font in print. Leave a space after the opening indicator and a space before the closing indicator.

370

#2_4 Exception: if the label of a labeled statement is in boldface type, it is to be brailled with the double capitalization indicator. #3_4 Boldface indicators are used for all boldface, except numbers and letters as shown earlier in this lesson. Italic type-form indicators Opening italic type-form indicator Braille configuration: dots six, three, four six Braille symbol: ,'. Closing italic type-form indicator Braille configuration: dots four six, six, three Braille symbol: .,' Usage: The three-celled italic type-form indicators are only used for text appearing in italics in the body of labeled statements, or phrases in text beginning and/or ending with a mathematical symbol. Rules: #1_4 Use an opening and a closing italic type-form indicator to enclose material that is presented in italics in print. Leave a space after the opening indicator and a space before the closing indicator. #2_4 Exception: if the label of a labeled statement is in italics, it is to be brailled with the double capitalization indicator. #3_4 Italicized words that are not in the body of a labeled statement, and phrases both beginning and ending with a word in italics are transcribed according to the rules for English braille. This would occur, for example, in explanatory text. There are no exercises for this section due to its spatial nature. #16.1 Formats for geometric proofs Explanation Givens, statements, and reasons In braille, a two-line format is used for geometric proofs rather than the two-column format often found in print. A numbered statement is placed on one line, and its corresponding

371

reason on the following line. Labeled statements, theorem, given, or prove, within a proof are brailled according to the guidelines presented in lesson #15.3_4 The statement column To identify lines as statements, each numbered statement is placed at the beginning of a new braille line, using Nemeth Code numerals and the numeric indicator. Each number is followed, unspaced, by an uppercase letter ;,S, indicating the beginning of a new statement. The English letter indicator is not needed. The mathematical punctuation indicator, dots four five six, and a period or other appropriate mark of punctuation usually follows. If the statement continues on a second or third line, the runovers begin in the third cell of all succeeding lines. example #1_4 first statement of a proof; ellipsis represents the statement #1,S_4 ,,, example #2_4 the third statement in a proof; note the shape symbols in place of words within the statement; there is no blank line preceding the statement. It is blank line is displayed before the first statement of #3,S_4 ",A,B<:} `:.k ",B,C<:} use of also, note assumed a this proof

The reason column To identify lines as reasons, each numbered reason is placed at the beginning of a new braille line, using Nemeth Code numerals and the numeric indicator. Each number is followed, unspaced, by an uppercase letter ;,R, indicating the beginning of a new reason. The English letter indicator is not needed. The mathematical punctuation indicator, dots four five six, and a period or other appropriate mark of punctuation usually follows. If the reason continues on a second or third line, the runovers begin in the third cell of all succeeding lines. example #3_4 third statement and third reason; runover portion of statement occurs on the reason line as though brailled on a forty-cell line #3,S_4 ",A,B<:} `:.k ",B,C<:} #3,R_4 If a point is the midpoint of a segment, it divides the segment into two congruent segments. example #4_4 a proof of a theorem; no item identifier is used; note the use of the double capitalization indicator for abbreviations

372

,,theorem #20_3 If the base angles of a triangle are congruent, then the sides opposite them are congruent. ,,given: ,D,E,F with $[ ,D `:.k $[ ,E ,,prove: ",D,F<:} `:.k ",E,F<:} #1,S_4 #1,R_4 #2,S_4 #2,R_4 #3,S_4 #3,R_4 #4,S_4 #4,R_4 $[ ,D `:.k ${ ,E Given ",D,E<:} `:.k ",D,E<:} Reflexive Property ,D,E,F `:.k ,E,D,F ,,ASA ",D,F<:} `:.k ",E,F<:} ,,CPCTC

Note When words are adjacent to signs of operation or are separated by a space from a sign of comparison, contracted or short-form words must not be used in a word, part of a word or in an abbreviation. Abbreviations such as ASA, CPCTC, HL, etc. are capitalized with the double capitalization indicator (dots 6, 6).

Review The two-column numbered step format for geometric proofs is not used in braille. Instead, the numbered statement step is presented on one braille line and the corresponding numbered reason step is brailled on the following line. A blank line is inserted above and below the section containing the numbered steps. Each step number must begin in cell one. The number is either immediately followed by the capital letter ;,S or the capital letter ;,R to identify the column's heading, with runovers beginning in cell three. Exercises Prompt to Braille three statement angle ;d equals angle ;g #3,S_4 ${ d .k ${ g seven reason all caps ;S ;A ;S #7,R_4 ,,SAS six statement line segment cap ;,C cap ;,D is congruent to line segment cap ,A cap ;,D #6,S_4 ",C,D<:] `:.k ",A,D<:] six reason Given #6,R_4 ,Given

373

Given: triangle cap ;,P cap ;,Q cap ;,R with line segment cap ;,P cap ;,Q equals three ,,Given: $t ,P,Q,R ) ",P,Q<:} .k #3 Prove: angle cap ,A equals angle cap ;,T ,,Prove: ${ ,A .k ${ ,T Given: circle cap ,O with arc cap ;,M cap ;,N equal to ninety degrees ,,Given: $c ,O ) ",M,N$a} .k #90^.* Prove: angle cap ;,M cap ;,O cap ;,N equals forty five degrees ,,Prove: ${ ,M,O,N .k #45^.* Braille to Speech Given colon circle cap ,O with diameter line segment cap ,A cap ;,B and angle cap ,A cap ;,C cap ;,B inscribed period Given: $c ,O with diameter ",A,B<:} and ${ ,A,C,B inscribed. two statement period angle cap ,A cap ;,C cap ;,B is a right angle #2,S_4 ${ ,A,C,B is a ${.r} six statement period line segment cap ;,R cap ;,S is congruent to line segment cap ;,C cap ;,N #6,S_4 ",R,S<:} `:.k ",C,N<:} Proofreading number two statement period angle one is complementary to angle two #2,S_4 ${ #1 is complementary to ${ #2 #2,S4 ${ #1 is complementary to ${ #2 number three reason period Given #3,r_4,,given #3_,r_4 ,,given
#16.2 Labels for figures and diagrams Geometric figures and diagrams are used with the explanations of theorems, definitions, postulates, and with the problems the student must complete. However, it should be noted that several figures are repeated in geometry, with only the orientation of the figure and the labels being changed between problems. A braille-reading student who is doing his or her own work might reduce the task of producing hundreds of diagrams by embossing only a few

374

figures on sturdy material, such as the foil that is provided in a foil diagramming kit. A student or teacher can apply stick-on braille labels. The diagrams can be rotated for different orientations of the figures and can be re-used for another problem by removing the braille stickers. Teaching Tips When creating diagrams, use of an embossing kit, or a tracing wheel from a sewing store, might be more efficient than attempting to construct a figure using a braille writer. When using embossing tools, remember to emboss from the back side. This requires a left-right reversal of the diagram. Guidelines for labels Regardless how the diagram is reproduced, the labels must conform to the following guidelines: #1_4 numerals must be preceded by the numeric indicator #2_4 the English letter indicator must come before single lower case letters #3_4 with capitalized single letters, the capitalization indicator (dot #6) is used but the English letter indicator is not used. These distinctions are necessary since a label can appear anywhere on the page. Without numeric indicators, letter indicators or capitalization indicators, the reader has no clue as to whether a label is a numeral or letter since there may be no other reference on the line. By consistently labeling diagrams, one can avoid or reduce confusion. For instance, by placing the capital letter names that identify the points of a figure on the outside of the figure and by placing the numerals used to identify interior angles on the inside of the figure can help distinguish between them. Likewise, by placing identifying letters or numerals for the length of the sides of the figures on the outside of the figure, it might be possible to avoid confusing them with measurements and identifying letters used for angles. When a diagram is too complicated to label adequately, use single numbers or letters to identify its parts and, on a separate page, use a key, as described in section #16.2.2.2 to list the numbers or letters in a table showing the corresponding part and its full label. Due to the limits of this tutorial, no examples can be provided. There are also no exercises for section #16.2.1 since no method exists by which the user can construct a diagram using this program. Tables and keying A key is a cross-reference aid. If there is not enough space for: #1_4 figure labels, #2_4 determinant entries, #3_4 matrices, #4_4 table entries, #5_4 column headings, then a numeric or alphabetic key may be substituted subject to the following guidelines. If the column headings will fit across the braille page, do NOT use a key.

375

Table construction The following guidelines should simplify the construction of a boxed table. #1_4 A blank line precedes and follows a table. #2_4 The opening table line, a horizontal line at the top of the box, is a row of dots #2-3-5-6 that begins in cell one and extends across the page. #3_4 Vertical lines are not to be brailled. Instead, two blank braille cells would be used to separate entries. #4_4 The entries and column headings are left-justified. That is, they begin in the farthest left position of the column where they appear. However, numbers that are aligned by place value in print generally are brailled as shown, aligned by decimals, commas, etc. #5_4 A line separating column headings from column entries begins with dot #5 and the remaining portion of the line is a row of dots #2-5 across the width of the column. #6_4 If necessary, a row of three or more guide dots (dot #5) follows a space after a column entry and continues to fill the width of the column. Exception: the last column of a table does not use guide dots. #7_4 If no symbol is shown in a column entry, use a row of dot #5 to fill the column. #8_4 Exception: if a table has no entries, such as when it has row and column headings only, leave the area blank, just as it appears in print. #9_4 The closing table line is a row of dots #1-2-4-5_. This begins in cell one and extends across the page. #10_4 A blank line follows the table. Example #1 uses a numeric key for column headings and has blank lines before and after the table. Using the Braille Lite, advance by line to obtain each row of the table, comparing each row to the previous and following ones. No figure is actually shown. The general omission symbol is used to represent a question mark, which appeared in the print copy of the text. It will be necessary to scroll across the lines to read the entire display. example #1_4 Using figure #6, if 777777777777777777777777777 $[ ,C,A,B ,A,B,C "33333333 "333333333 #12_. = """"""" #60^.* #13_. #45^.* = ggggggggggggggggggggggggggg Notice in example #1 where the guide dots are used in #12, but not in #13_4 After the "#45^.*" they are not used since there is only room for a space and two guide dots instead of the required three. Compare the first column for #12 and the last column for #13_4 The last column doesn't use guide dots at all after the general omission symbol. Key construction A key can be either alphabetic or numeric. A key is used when the column headings of a table will not fit across the braille page. $[ ,B,A,C is a right angle, then:

376

Alphabetic or numeric characters replace the column headings in the table. A key is used showing the correspondence between the letters or numbers with the actual names of the column headings. This is much like what a legend does for a map. #1_4 A blank line precedes and follows a key. The blank line following the key separates the key from the table. #2_4 A key is enclosed in transcriber's grouping symbols (dot #6, dot #3) beginning in cell #7 with runovers in cell five. #3_4 Key entries begin at the margin with runovers placed in cell three. #4_4 The final entry in the key are followed by the closing transcriber's grouping symbol. A numeric key or an alphabetic key may be used. This is the braillist's choice. The key is arranged in either numeric order or in alphabetic order, depending upon the type used. Numeric key In a numeric key: #1_4 the numerals That is, they are #2_4 the numerals punctuated, #3_4 the numerals #4_4 the numerals #5_4 if there are same key number.

are written in the upper part of the cell. not Nemeth numerals, are preceded by the numeric indicator but are not always begin with number one, are sequential, and identical items in the table, they should be assigned the

Example #2 shows the key and table in braille. Due to the width of the table, the user will need to scroll to the right for several characters in order to read the entire display. example #2_4 #a #b #c #d #e #f ,'key to column headings $[ ,D,E,F $[ ,E,F,D ${ ,F,D,E ",E,F<:] ",F,D<:] ",D,E<:],'

7777777777777777777777777777777 #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 "33 "33 "33 "3 "3 "3 #22_. #30 #60 #90 #2 = = #23_. #60 = #90 #4 = = #24_. = = #90 = #2 #2 ggggggggggggggggggggggggggggggg example #2_4 shortened table???? ,'key to column headings #a $[ ,D,E,F #b $[ ,E,F,D #c ${ ,F,D,E,'

377

777777777777777777777 #1 #2 #3 "33 "33 "33 #22_. #30 #60 #90 #23_. #60 = #90 #24_. = = #90 ggggggggggggggggggggg Alphabetic key In an alphabetic key: #1_4 two lower case English letters, suggestive of the item they represent, should be used, #2_4 identical items should be assigned the same letters, and #3_4 do not use an alphabetic key if the figure uses two lower case letters for labels in the figure itself or in the entries in a table. #4_4 Place items in alphabetical order in the key. Since it is not possible to reproduce an adequate diagram here, a written description of an example of a diagram that might use an alphabetic key is provided. A three-dimensional figure shows: a cylinder with a cone at one end. Word labels are used. The text provides the student with formulas for the area and volume of the three solids. example #3_4 ,'key to indicate labels: ra radius cl cylinder cn cone,' 77777777777777777 ra cl cn "33 "33 "33 #1 #5 """ """ #2 #1 """ """ #3 #4 """ ''' 77777777777777777 In example #3, the empty columns were indicated with a row of dot #5_4 This is because there is some data in the columns. If just the table itself, with column and row headings only, had been displayed, there would be no need for the row of dot #5_4 Remember to leave a blank line between the key and the table. Review Labels for diagrams must conform to the following guidelines: #1_4 numerals must be preceded by the numeric indicator, #2_4 the English letter indicator must precede single lower case letters, and, #3_4 with capitalized single letters, the capitalization indicator is used, but the English letter indicator is not used.

378

A key may be substituted when there is not enough space for figure labels, column headings, table entries, and similar items. The key is enclosed in transcriber's grouping symbols. A blank line is left above and below a key. Two types of keys are numeric keys and alphabetic keys. In a numeric key, #1_4 the numerals are written in the upper part of the cell. That is, they are literary and not Nemeth numerals, #2_4 the numerals are preceded by the numeric indicator but are not punctuated, #3_4 the numerals begin with number one, #4_4 the numerals are sequential, and #5_4 if there are identical items, they should be assigned the same key number. In an alphabetic key, #1_4 two or three lowercase English letters suggestive of the item they represent, should be used. #2_4 identical items should be assigned the same letters, and, #3_4 if the author uses two lower case letters for labels in the figure or entries in a table, an alphabetic key may not be used. #4_4 Place items in alphabetical order in the key. Transcriber's grouping symbols beginning and ending Braille: ,' Usage: To enclose a key used for figure labels, column headings, table entries, or similar items. #a #b #c #d #e #f ,'key to column headings $[ ,D,E,F $[ ,E,F,D ${ ,F,D,E ",E,F<:] ",F,D<:] ",D,E<:],'

Rules: Insert a blank line before and after the key. A key is enclosed in transcriber's grouping symbols beginning in cell seven. If there are runovers, they begin in cell five. After a blank line, key entries begin at the margin. If there are runovers, they begin in cell three. The final entry in the key must be followed by the closing transcriber's grouping symbol. A blank line follows the closing transcriber's grouping symbols.

#17.1

Complex fractions Explanation Simple fractions are presented in lesson #5, and the spatial arrangement of simple fractions is presented in lesson #6_4 A complex fraction is one in which another simple fraction appears either in the numerator, in the denominator, or in both.

379

The numerator and/or denominator can also be mixed numbers. The complex fraction indicators and complex fraction line are modifications of the simple fraction indicators and simple fraction line. Dot six is placed before the opening and closing simple fraction indicators and simple fraction line, to indicate that these are complex fraction indicators. In horizontal arrangements, a dot six is placed before the fraction line that separates the numerator of the complex fraction from the denominator of the complex fraction. opening complex fraction indicator, dots six, one four five six closing complex fraction indicator, dots six, three four five six complex horizontal fraction line, dots six, three four diagonal complex fraction line, dots six, four five six, three four
Braille ,? ,# ,/ ,_/ Symbol Name opening complex fraction indicator closing complex fraction indicator complex horizontal fraction line diagonal complex fraction line Configuration dots 6, 1-4-5-6 dots 6, 3-4-5-6 dots 6, 3-4 dots 6, 4-5-6, 3-4 Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille ____ (varying length) /

Following are guidelines for brailling a complex fraction. #1_4 The complex fraction indicators are placed at the beginning and end of the expression. #2_4 The complex fraction line, horizontal or diagonal, separates the numerator of the complex fraction from the denominator of the complex fraction. Simple fraction lines are used for simple fraction portions of the expression. #3_4 For every opening fraction indicator, simple or complex, there must be a corresponding closing fraction indicator. example #1_4 steps for brailling a complex fraction; the ellipsis is used to indicate the remaining portion of the incomplete problem Step #1_4 braille the opening complex fraction indicator ,? ''' Step #2_4 if the numerator is a fraction, braille the simple opening fraction indicator ,?? '''

380

Step #3_4 braille the simple fraction and the simple closing fraction indicator ,??a/b# ''' Step #4_4 braille the complex horizontal fraction line ,??a/b#,/ ''' Step #5_4 braille the opening simple fraction indicator, simple fraction indicator, simple fraction, and closing fraction indicator for the simple fraction in the denominator ,??a/b#,/?c/d# ''' Step #6_4 end the entire complex fraction with the closing complex fraction indicator ,??a/b#,/?c/d#,# example #2_4 a simple fraction in the numerator only ,??a/b#,/c,# example #3_4 a complex fraction with an expression containing fractions in the numerator ,??1/2#+?2/3#,/6,# example #4_4 an algebraic expression ,??(x+2)(x-3)/y#,/?y/x+2#,# example #5_4 a mixed number appears in the numerator and the denominator ,?2_?1/2_#,/3_?1/4_#,# example #6_4 the complex diagonal fraction line ,??3/4#,_/?1/4#,# .k #3 example #7_4 a complex fraction without simple fraction indicators in the numerator or denominator. Simple fraction indicators are not used in the numerator and denominator of the complex fraction, because the numerals are of the same size font and at the same level in relation to the baseline in print. Therefore, these expressions are considered to be division problems rather than simple fractions. ,?1_/2,/2_/3,# Just as a simple fraction may contain exponents that are fractions, a complex fraction may contain fractional exponents.

381

The presence of a fractional exponent does not determine whether the entire expression is a simple or complex fraction. example #8_4 a complex fraction with a simple fraction in the numerator and a fractional exponent in the denominator. The baseline indicator is required to indicate that the exponent is terminated before the complex fraction is ended. ,??5/x#,/6y^?2/3#",# example #9_4 an expression with an exponent that is a complex fraction x^,??3/4#,/?2/3#,# example #10_4 a complex fraction with exponents that are complex fractions ?3x^2"/4x^,??1/2#,/?1/7#,#"# Review A complex fraction is one in which another simple fraction or a mixed number appears in the numerator and/or denominator. The opening and closing complex fraction indicators and either the complex horizontal fraction line or the complex diagonal fraction line are used. Complex Opening Braille Braille Closing Braille fraction indicators complex fraction indicator configuration: dots six, one four five six symbol: ,? complex fraction indicator configuration: Braille symbol: ,#

Rules: #1_4 Both the opening and closing complex fraction indicators must be used to enclose the entire complex fraction. #2_4 The complex fraction line, either horizontal or diagonal, must separate the numerator and the denominator. #3_4 All simple fractions and mixed numbers must be enclosed with the appropriate indicators. #4_4 Punctuate the complex fraction indicators as mathematical symbols. Usage: the opening complex fraction indicator precedes a complex fraction and the inner simple fraction indicator. The

382

closing complex fraction indicator completes the enclosure and terminates the complex fraction. Complex horizontal fraction line Braille configuration: dots six, three four Braille symbol: ,/ Rules: Use the complex horizontal fraction line to separate the numerator and denominator of a complex fraction where a line is used in print. Usage: to separate the values, fraction or mixed number in the numerator of a complex fraction from the values, fraction or mixed number in the denominator of a complex fraction. Diagonal complex fraction line Braille configuration: dots six, three four five six Braille symbol: ,_/ Rules: Use to separate the numerator and denominator of a complex fraction where a slash is displayed in print. Usage: to separate the values, fraction or mixed number in the numerator from the values, fraction or mixed number in the denominator of a complex fraction. Exercises Prompt to Braille one half over two thirds ,??1/2#,/?2/3#,# the fraction pi over two that fraction over the fraction three pi over four ,??.p/2#,/?3.p/4#,# one half over two equals one fourth ,??1/2#,/2,# .k ?1/4# three over the fraction three halves equals two ,?3,/?3/2#,# .k #2 the expression one third plus two thirds that expression over one half ,??1/3#+?2/3#,/?1/2#,#

383

two and one half over one and three fourths ,?2_?1/2_#,/1_?3/4#,# the fraction ;x raised to the fraction two thirds power over ;y that fraction over ;r ,??x^?2/3#"/y#,/r,# the fraction open paren ;t plus seven close paren over ;t that fraction over ;t ,??(t+7)/t#,/t,# ;r raised to the complex fraction one half over one third r^,??1/2#,/?1/3#,# seven over ;s raised to the one third over ;s fourths power ?7/s^,??1/3#,/?s/4#,#"# Braille to Speech five sixths over two ninths ,??5/6#./?2/9#,# two fifths over five ,??2/5#,/5,# one slash three over one slash four ,?1_/3,/1_/4,# the fraction pi over two that fraction over two ,??.p/2#,/2,# two over the fraction four fifths ,?2,/?4/5#,# the fraction two a over five ;b that fraction over the fraction four a over ten ;b ,??2a/5b#,/?4a/10b#,# the fraction ;x plus two over ;x minus two that fraction over the fraction ;x plus two over ;x minus two equals one ,??x+2/x-2#,/?x+2/x-2#,# .k #1 the expression two thirds plus three fourths that expression over six ,??2/3#+?3/4#,/6,#

384

three and two thirds over six and three fourths ,?3_?2/3_#,/6_?3/4_#,# the fraction a raised to the one half power over ;b that fraction raised to the three fourths power over a ,??a^?1/2#",/?b^?3/4#"/a#,# ;y raised to the two thirds over four fifths power y^,??2/3#,/?4/5#,# the expression ;t raised to the one third over three fifths power that expression plus two t^,??1/3#,/?3/5#,#"+2 Proofreading two thirds over five sixths ,??2/3#,/?5/6#,# ??2/3#,/?5/5## the expression one half plus one fourth that expression over six ,??1/2#+?1/4#,/6,# ,#?1/2#+?1/4#,/6,# #17.2 Hypercomplex fractions Explanation A hypercomplex fraction has at least one complex fraction in the numerator or the denominator, or in both. If complex fractions are only at the superscript or subscript level, the fraction is not a hypercomplex fraction. Complex fraction indicators and the complex fraction line are modifications of simple fraction indicators and the simple fraction line. Hypercomplex fraction indicators and the hypercomplex fraction line are modifications of complex fraction indicators and the complex fraction line, requiring two dot sixes before each indicator. opening hypercomplex fraction indicator, dots six, six, one four five six closing hypercomplex fraction indicator, dots six, six, three four five six hypercomplex fraction line, dots six, six, three four
Braille ,,? ,,# ,,/ Symbol Name opening hypercomplex fraction indicator closing hypercomplex fraction indicator hypercomplex fraction line Configuration dots 6, 6, 1-4-5-6 dots 6, 6, 3-4-5-6 dots 6, 6, 3-4 Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille

385

Displaying hypercomplex fractions Hypercomplex fractions may be displayed in either a horizontal or spatial arrangement, or in an arrangement which includes horizontal elements within a spatial arrangement. In a display which combines horizontal and spatial arrangements, the numerator of a hypercomplex fraction, which may be composed of a number, a simple fraction, or a complex fraction, is shown above a line of dots two five. The opening hypercomplex fraction indicator is placed at the beginning of the line of dots two five, and the closing hypercomplex fraction indicator is placed at the end of the line of dots two five. Below this line is the denominator, which may be composed of a number, a simple fraction, or a complex fraction. The simple and complex fractions are presented linearly while the overall arrangement is spatial.
Note The combined use of linear and spatial arrangements for hypercomplex fractions should follow a general rule-of-thumb whenever difficulties arise in the presentation of a braille problem, especially where space availability is an issue: 1) strive for clarity first, 2) use symbols in a consistent manner.

Guidelines for brailling a hypercomplex fraction #1_4 A blank line precedes the problem, unless it is the first on a braille page. #2_4 Compute the number of cells that will be needed for the longest line in the problem. #3_4 If runovers are necessary, the expression must be divided at an appropriate point. In order of hierarchy, the expression is to be divided before: a sign of comparison, a sign of operation, a fraction line, a baseline indicator, or a changeof-level indicator; between signs of grouping; or after a termination indicator. All portions of the expression being divided must be centered with respect to the hypercomplex fraction line. #4_4 The hypercomplex fraction line is brailled on the line following the numerator, preceded by the opening hypercomplex fraction indicator and followed by the closing hypercomplex fraction indicator. It will be as long as the longest expression in the problem, with an additional three cells at the beginning and end of the line to accommodate the hypercomplex fraction indicators.

386

#5_4 The denominator is centered below the hypercomplex fraction line. #6_4 A blank line follows the problem unless it is the last line on a braille page. example #1_4 a hypercomplex fraction with a complex fraction in the numerator and a simple fraction in the denominator. Since this is a spatial display, a blank braille line appears both above and below the overall arrangement. ,??2/3#,/?1/4#,# ,,?3333333333333333,,# ?12/5# When a problem contains an equals sign, place it and the expression following it on the same line as the hypercomplex fraction line. If there is insufficient space to place the equals sign and the expression which follows it after the hypercomplex fraction line, then the problem should be divided before the equals sign. Insert a blank line under the denominator of the hypercomplex fraction, because it is a spatial arrangement. Place the equals sign and the runover portion on the following line, beginning in cell three. example #2_4 a hypercomplex fraction with an equals sign ,??a/b#,/?c/d#,# ,,?3333333333333333,,# .k #17 ?c/d# example #3_4 problem divided before the equals sign, note that the equals sign and that which follows appears on a separate line below the denominator of the hypercomplex fraction ,??(x-y)/(x+y)#,/?1/(x+y)#,# ,,?3333333333333333333333333333,,# #2x .k ?x+y/2# If the numerator or the denominator is too long to fit on a single braille line, follow the general guidelines for the

387

division of mathematical expressions. In general, keep the individual components intact. In many cases, the break will occur before a fraction line in order to keep an entire numerator or denominator intact. example #4_4 a hypercomplex fraction with runovers in its denominator; all components are centered in relation to the hypercomplex fraction line ?x+y/2x# ,,?3333333333333333,,# ,??(3x)(x+y)/2x# ,/?6x/4#,# Linear method of brailling hypercomplex fractions As with complex fractions presented in a horizontal arrangement, hypercomplex fractions require the appropriate opening and closing fraction indicators. The hypercomplex fraction line, dots six, six, three four, a modification of the complex fraction line, is used only in horizontal arrangements. example #5_4 a hypercomplex fraction containing two complex fractions; note that each runover portion is indented two braille cells ,,?,??1/2#,/?3/4#,# ,,/,??2/3#,/?4/5#,#,,#
Note Remember that clarity should take precedence. It would not be advisable to divide the quantity (x+y) before the plus sign since the quantity enclosed within the parentheses needs to be thought of as a single unit. Keep units together; do not divide within a unit.

Review A hypercomplex fraction is one in which the numerator, the denominator, or both contain at least one complex fraction. However, if complex fractions are only at the superscript or subscript level, the fraction is not a hypercomplex fraction. Opening hypercomplex fraction indicator Braille configuration: dots six, six, one four five six Braille symbol: ,,? Closing hypercomplex fraction indicator Braille configuration: dots six, six, three four five six Braille symbol: ,,#

388

Hypercomplex fraction line used for spatial display Braille configuration: series of dots two five, preceded by opening hypercomplex fraction indicator and followed by closing hypercomplex fraction indicator Hypercomplex fraction line used for linear display Braille configuration: dots six, six, three four Braille symbol: ,,/ In a completely linear display, the opening indicator precedes the hypercomplex fraction and the closing indicator marks the termination of the hypercomplex fraction. The three-celled hypercomplex fraction line is used. Rules: #1_4 In a combined spatial and linear presentation, the opening hypercomplex fraction indicator begins in cell one and is followed by a row of dots two five which extends the length of the longest braille line either above or below the fraction line. The closing hypercomplex fraction indicator is placed at the end of this line. #2_4 The numerator and denominator are centered relative to the row of dots two five. #3_4 If runovers are necessary, the expression must be divided before: a sign of comparison, a sign of operation, a fraction line, a baseline indicator, or a change-of-level indicator; between signs of grouping; or after a termination indicator. All portions of the expression being divided must be centered with respect to the hypercomplex fraction line. #4_4 In a completely linear display, the opening and closing hypercomplex fraction indicators enclose the portion that is the hypercomplex fraction. Internal complex fraction and simple fraction indicators must be used to enclose appropriate fractions. The appropriate fraction lines or slashes must be incorporated within each fraction. #5_4 In a spatially arranged or partially spatially arranged display, follow the guidelines for spatial arrangements presented in lesson #6_4 #6_4 Punctuation must follow the guidelines for punctuation with mathematical symbols.

389

There are no exercises for this section due to its spatial nature. #17.3 Spatial arrangement of fractions for cancellation Explanation Cancellation indicators enclose the portion of a fraction which has been simplified in preparation for the operation of division. The same rules for the use of these symbols apply simple, complex, and hypercomplex fractions. opening cancellation indicator, dots two four six closing cancellation, termination, indicator, dots one two four five six
Braille [ } Symbol Name opening cancellation indicator closing cancellation, termination indicator Configuration dots 2-4-6 dots 1-2-4-5-6 Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille

Spatial arrangement for cancellations In spatially arranged fractions, the numerator and denominator, including cancellation indicators, are centered in relation to the fraction line. If more than one cancellation occurs in either or both the numerator and denominator, each portion cancelled must be enclosed in cancellation indicators. The fraction line, a series of dots two five, separating the numerator from the denominator, must be preceded by the appropriate opening fraction indicator and followed by the appropriate closing fraction indicator. The fraction line is the same length as the longest line of the problem. Since fractions do not contain material aligned for computation, the numeric indicator, or English letter indicator, must precede a numeral, or variable, representing the result of a cancellation if it is the first symbol on a braille line or if it is preceded by a space. example #1_4 a cancellation; the numerals that result from the cancellation of the numerator and the denominator are displayed, respectively, above and below the items grouped for cancellation. Note that the numeric indicator is used for these numerals. #1 {3} ?3333# .k ?1/5# #5

390

example #2_4 a whole numeral multiplied by a fraction; because the whole number is cancelled, it is enclosed in cancellation indicators #1 #3 {2}`*?333# .k ?3/2# .k #1_?1/2_# {4} #2 Transcribers use cancellation indicators only when a cancelled element is displayed in print with a line drawn through it. The English letter indicator is required when a letter, variable, is involved in the cancellation. Each individually cancelled item is enclosed in cancellation indicators, regardless of the number of cancelled items in a problem. example #3a_4 problem before cancellation ab^2"c^2 ?33333333# a^2"bcd example #3b_4 problem displaying cancellation ;b ;c {a}{b^2"}{c^2"} ?333333333333333# .k ?bc/ad# {a^2"}{b}{c}d ;a If a grouped item is cancelled as a single group, then only one set of cancellation indicators is required for each group cancelled. example #4_4 polynomial factors cancelled; the results of the cancellations are not displayed, as they are assumed to be one (2x+y){(x-y)} ?3333333333333# .k ?2x+y/x+y# (x+y){(x-y)} Item identifiers are placed on the same braille line as the fraction line composed of dots two five. There must be one blank cell between the item identifier and the left-most portion of

391

the problem; the numerator, denominator, and cancellation indicators must be indented accordingly. example #5_4 #1 {7} #12_4 ?3333# {21} #7 Cancellation in complex and hypercomplex fractions Spatial arrangement for cancellations in complex and hypercomplex fractions follows the same guidelines listed previously, but with the additional consideration of computation of length of the fraction line. The complex fraction line begins and ends with a two-celled symbol; the hypercomplex fraction line begins and ends with a three-celled symbol. The numerator and denominator are centered relative to these lines. Cancellations within the simple fraction portions of complex and hypercomplex fractions are displayed. example #6_4 cancellations within the simple fraction portions are displayed #2 ?333# {5} #1 ,?333333,# .k ?4/7# #7 ?3333# {10} #2 example #7_4 steps in the cancellation displayed #2 #2 {10} ?333#`*?3333# .k ?4/7# {5} #7 #1 example #8a_4 a problem presented without cancellations

392

#2y ?333# #7 ,?333333,# #2y ?3333333333# (x-y)(x+y) ,,?333333333333,,# #2(x+y) ?3333333# #14 example #8b_4 the same problem with cancellations displayed {2y} ?3333# {7} ,?33333,# {2y} ?333333333333# (x-y){(x+y)} ,,?33333333333333,,# .k x-y {2}{(x+y)} ?3333333333# {14} Review Problems displaying cancellations with fractions must be presented spatially. The rules for all spatial displays of fractions should be followed. Leave a blank braille line before and after the problem presented spatially, unless it is the first problem on a new page or it ends at the bottom of a braille page. Enclose cancelled portions within the opening and closing cancellation indicators. When any portion of a fraction is cancelled, a spatial arrangement must be utilized. Each cancelled item must be enclosed in separate sets of cancellation indicators. Since fractions do not contain material aligned for computation, the numeric indicator and English letter indicator must be used, where necessary. Fractions without cancelled items should be arranged horizontally. Opening cancellation indicator Braille configuration: dots two four six Braille symbol: {

393

Closing cancellation indicator Braille configuration: dots one two four five six Braille symbol: } Usage: The cancellation indicators are used in pairs to enclose a cancelled expression and to distinguish the cancelled expression from the remaining expressions. In print, the cancelled portions are displayed with lines drawn through them. Rules: #1_4 Enclose the cancelled portion with the opening and closing indicators. #2_4 Account for the indicators when centering expressions relative to the fraction line composed of dots two five. #3_4 Fractions containing cancellations must be displayed spatially; all other fractions are displayed in a linear arrangement. There are no exercises for this section due to its spatial nature. #18.1 Sigma notation Explanation The symbol used for sigma is the capital Greek letter, s. In braille, this is a three-celled symbol with the Greek letter indicator, dots four six, in the first cell, the capitalization indicator, dot six, in the second cell, and the braille letter, ;s, in the third cell. The sign for sigma is usually displayed with other characters. In print, it may have mathematical characters or expressions below or above it, or superscripted or subscripted to its right on the baseline.
Braille .,s Symbol Name sigma Configuration dots 4-6, 6, 2-3-4 Print Symbol

Expressions directly under and over the sign for sigma For material that is positioned directly under or over the sigma, the following five-step rule for brailling modified expressions is used. #1_4 Use the multipurpose indicator, dot five, before the modified expression to indicate that it is altered. #2_4 Braille the basic expression that is being modified, in this case, the sign for sigma.

394

#3_4 Use the directly under indicator, dots one four six, or directly over indicator, dots one two six, to show the position of the modifiers. #4_4 The modifier immediately follows the positioning indicator. #5_4 To signal the end of the modification, the termination indicator, dots one two four five six, follows the modifier. Material that is directly under the sign for sigma is brailled first; this is usually an equation that shows the starting value for the summation. The material directly over the sign for sigma, the value where the summation ends, is brailled next. The sign for sigma is treated like a sign of operation; thus, it is unspaced from the expression related to it. The expression #5n is unspaced from the termination indicator in example #1_4
Teaching Tips If a student cannot remember whether to braille the item directly over or the item directly under first, reinforce that one must first identify a starting value. This would be the item directly under (at the bottom of the stairs where each stair represents the successive terms). It and the directly under indicator are brailled first. Since the ending value is at the top of the sigma and is used last in the computations, it and the directly over indicator are brailled last.

example #1_4 sigma notation with the equation n .k #1 directly under it, the numeral nine directly over it, and #5n on the baseline; read as: modified sigma, directly-under ;n equals sign one, directly-over nine end modification, five ;n ".,s%n .k #1<9}5n example #2_4 p .k #7 is the starting value. #20 is the ending value. #2p+1 is the expression that is to be used for the consecutive sums. This is spoken as: modified sigma, directlyunder ;p equals sign seven, directly-over twenty end modification, two ;p plus one. The entire equation p .k #7 is directly under the sign used for sigma in print. ".,s%p .k #7<20}2p+1 example #3_4 sigma notation with uppercase letters as variables. Read as: modified sigma, directly-under capital ,I equals sign one hundred, directly-over one hundred fifty end modification, capital ,I superscript two. "k,s%,i .k #100<150},i^2

395

example #4_4 a complete summation ".,s%t .k #1<3}2t .k #2(1)+2(2)+2(3) The multipurpose indicator is only used before the sign for sigma to show that it is being changed. When a numeral, variable, expression or other material is presented before the sign for sigma, the multipurpose indicator is not the first character on the line. example #5_4 the result of the summation in the sigma notation portion of the expression is to be multiplied by two. Read as: two, modified sigma, directly under ;r equals sign one, directly over three end modification, three ;r. #2".,s%r .k #1<3}3r The sign for sigma may be displayed with a bar line directly over it or directly under it. example #6_4 sigma with bar line over it; note that the multipurpose indicator, dot five, is not used because the sign for sigma is a letter. The five-step modification is not required when any letter, including a Greek letter, has a bar line directly over it. .,s<:} example #7_4 modified sigma with bar line under ".,s%:} Sigma notation with subscripts and superscripts The rules regarding subscripts and superscripts apply to subscripts and superscripts related to the sign for sigma. If a numeral follows the single sigma, the subscript indicator is not required because the sigma is a Greek letter. Subscripted expressions other than a number require the subscript indicator. Superscripts always require the superscript indicator. Subscripts are brailled first in expressions containing both subscripts and superscripts. Follow these steps when brailling the sign for sigma with subscripts and superscripts. #1_4 Braille the sign for sigma. #2_4 Braille the subscripted material, which may or may not require the subscript indicator. #3_4 Braille the superscript indicator and superscript.

396

#4_4 Use the baseline indicator to indicate a return to the baseline. #5_4 Braille the baseline expression. example #8_4 a sigma that does not require the subscript indicator because a single numeral follows the single Greek letter. Read as: sigma, subscript three, superscript five, baseline w. .,s3^5"w .k (3)+(4)+(5) Because the subscript in example #9 is an expression, the subscript indicator is required. Also note that the subscript indicator is repeated before the equals sign to indicate that it, also, is subscripted to the sigma and is not part of the baseline expression. Without the second subscript indicator, the space before the equals sign would indicate an end to the subscript. example #9_4 read as: sigma, subscript expression ;j equals sign one, superscript five, baseline three ;j .,s;j ;.k #1^5"3j example #10_4 a baseline expression, enclosed in parentheses, with a superscript .,s;l ;.k #5^10"(5l-2)^2 example #11_4 the baseline expression that follows the sigma has its own subscripted values .,s;p ;.k #2^10"(a;p+1"-a;p) Other sigma notation The sign for sigma does not always occur with material positioned at different levels. Occasionally, a list of values is shown in the expression that follows the sigma. example #12_4 may be found in the study of statistics; frequencies and midpoints are provided in set lists; the expression with the sigma notation that uses the values in the set lists follows the lists. (f) .k .(1, 2, 5, 2.) (,x;m") .k .(8, 26, 54, 115.) Find .,sf*x;m Review

397

Capital Greek letter sigma Braille configuration: dots four six, six, two three four Braille symbol: .,s Usage: the sign for sigma is used in mathematics to indicate a series of sums is to be calculated. Rules #1_4 The five-step rule for modifying an expression is used with material that is positioned directly under and directly over the sigma sign. #2_4 Do not use the directly over indicator to indicate that a bar line is positioned directly over the sign for sigma. #3_4 If a bar line is positioned directly under the sign for sigma, enclose the bar line with the directly under indicator and the termination indicator. #4_4 If the sign for sigma has subscripted and superscripted material associated with it, apply the rules for subscripted and superscripted material. If a letter or an expression is subscripted, then the subscript indicator is required. If a sign of comparison is part of the material that is subscripted, then the subscript indicator must be placed immediately before the sign of comparison. The baseline indicator precedes the expression to which the sigma notation refers. A single numeral subscripted to the sign for sigma does not require the subscript indicator. #5_4 The sign for sigma is a mathematical symbol. In general, it is unspaced from the material associated with it unless the spaces occur naturally as part of an expression. Punctuate as a mathematical symbol. Exercises Prompt to Braille modified sigma directly under ;r equals zero directly over ten end modification three ;r plus seven ".,s%r .k #0<10]3r+7 sigma subscript expression ;r equals seven superscript ten of the baseline expression three ;r plus seven .,s;r ;.k #7^10"3r+7 modified sigma directly under ;n equals one directly over four end modification cosine of ;n

398

".,s%n .k #1<4]cos n modified sigma directly under ;k equals one directly over fifty end modification open paren two ;k plus two close paren ".,s%k .k #1<50](2k+2) sigma with bar over .,s<:} sigma subscript expression ;t equals ten superscript one hundred baseline of the expression six raised to the ;t power .,s;t ;.k #10^100"6^t three modified sigma directly under ;q equals one directly over five end modification ;q factorial #3".,s%q .k #1<5]q& modified sigma directly under ;n equals zero directly over infinity end modification open paren three ;n plus seven close paren ".,s%n .k #0<,=](3n+7) sigma a with simultaneous subscript ;a and superscript three .,s;a^3 Braille to Speech modified sigma directly under ;t equals zero directly over ten end modification open paren two ;t minus five close paren ".,s%t .k #0<10](2t-5) sigma subscript expression ;n equals zero superscript five baseline expression four raised to the nth power .,s;n ;.k #0^5"4^n three sigma subscript expression ;t equals two superscript ten baseline expression sixteen ;t squared #3.,s;t .k #2^10"16t^2 modified sigma directly under ;q equals zero directly over infinity end modification sine of ;q pi ".,s%q .k #0<,=]sin q.p modified sigma with bar line under ".,s%:]

399

modified infinity paren ;s ".,s%s .k

sigma directly under ;s equals one directly over end modification the fraction ;s factorial over open plus one close paren factorial #1<,=]?s&/(s+1)&#

sigma ;f multiplication dot ;x .,sf*x sigma subscript expression ;r equals one superscript infinity baseline of the fraction one over the square root of ;r .,s;r ;.k #1^,="?1/>r]# modified sigma directly under ;f equals zero directly over negative ten end modification one plus ;f ".,s%f .k #0<-10]1+f seven modified sigma directly under ;v equals zero directly over fifty end modification three raised to the two ;v power #7".,s%v .k #0<50]3^2v Proofreading modified sigma directly under ;u equals ten directly over twenty end modification two ;u minus one ".,s%u .k #10<20]2u-1 .,s%u .k #10^20]2u-1 sigma subscript ;b equals zero superscript ten baseline expression three ;b squared .,s;b ;.k #0^10"3b^2 .,s;b .k #0^10"3b^2 #18.2 Limits Explanation Function name and function abbreviation guidelines The term, limit, is a function name, and lim is the function name abbreviation. Function names and abbreviations are mathematical expressions. The rules that apply to all function names and function abbreviations, as presented in lesson #7, apply to limits. A space is left between a function name or abbreviation and the expression on which it is acting. Numerals that follow the space require the use of the numeric indicator. The word, limit, or its abbreviation, lim, is often displayed with material directly under it or directly over it. The modification procedure is exactly the same as for sigma

400

notation, lesson 18.1_4 That is, the five-step rule for modifications is applied. The steps are the same for either the function name or its abbreviation. Following are the five steps for brailling limit or lim. #1_4 Precede the function name or abbreviation with the multipurpose indicator, dot five. #2_4 Immediately following the function name or abbreviation, place the directly under or the directly over indicator, with no intervening space. #3_4 The modifying symbols follow the indicator. #4_4 To signal the end of the modification, the termination indicator follows the modifying symbols. #5_4 A space follows the termination indicator, because a space would normally follow a function name.
Braille % < ] Symbol Name directly-under indicator directly-over indicator termination indicator Configuration dots 1-4-6 dots 1-2-6 1-2-4-5-6 Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille

In example #1, the expression x $o #7 is displayed in print directly under the abbreviated function name. The arrow is a sign of comparison. The baseline expression, #3x, is the argument of the function; therefore, a space is required between it and the function name. example #1_4 read as: the limit as ;x approaches seven "lim%x $o #7} #3x example #2_4 the values of ;x as they approach -#2 are used in the baseline expression shown in parentheses "lim%x $o "-#2} (x^2-3x+1) example #3_4 the values of ;x are shown "lim%x $o #7} #2x "lim%5} #2(5) .k #10 "lim%6} #2(6) .k #12 "lim%6.5} #2(6.5) .k #13 "lim%6.999} #2(6.999) .k #13.998

401

example #4_4 displayed material; runovers indented two braille cells "lim%x $o c} `(f(x)-g(x)`) .k "lim%x $o c} f(x)+"lim%x $o c} g(x) example #5_4 a fraction associated with a function name; the definition of a derivative f'(c) .k "lim%x $o #0} ?f(c+h)+f(c)/h# example #6_4 an expression embedded in text; runovers placed at margin If "lim%x $o ,=} ?a;n"/b;n"# .k #0 and .,sb;n converges, then .,sa;n converges. Function name or abbreviation with a horizontal bar directly over it The function name, limit, or its abbreviation, lim, may appear in print with a horizontal bar line below or above it. The horizontal bar line is not a modifier; therefore, the five-step rule is not used when only one bar line is displayed. Instead, the directly over indicator or the directly under indicator precedes the function name or the abbreviation. example #7_4 directly over indicator signifies that the horizontal bar line is above the function name. The line represents the upper limit. The ellipsis represents any expression on the baseline. <lim ''' example #8_4 horizontal bar line appears directly below the function name %limit ''' example #9_4 function abbreviation with a horizontal bar line directly over it and an expression directly under it. The fivestep rule for modified expressions is used. The Greek letters for theta and pi are used in this example. "<lim%.? $o .p/2} (cos .?) Review Limit is a function name. Lim is a function abbreviation. Usage: this function determines the extent of values used as a replacement set in the expression on the baseline. The five-step rule for modifications is used when expressions appear directly under or over the function name or abbreviation.

402

#1_4 The multipurpose indicator precedes the function. #2_4 Braille the function name or abbreviation. #3_4 Braille the directly under or directly over indicator. #4_4 Braille the expression that is located directly under the function. #5_4 Signal the end of the modification with the termination indicator, followed with a space between the modified function name and the expression on the baseline. If a horizontal bar line is the only symbol used with the function name or abbreviation, do not apply the five-step rule. Instead, use either the directly over indicator or the directly under indicator. This signifies the position of the bar line, representing either an upper or lower limit. Function abbreviations are mathematical expressions; all rules pertaining to mathematical expressions apply. Function names can be either mathematical or literary. They are to be treated according to the context in which they occur. Exercises Prompt to Braille the limit as ;x approaches ten of the expression ten ;x "lim%x $o #10] #10x the limit as ;t approaches zero of the expression ;f of ;t "lim%t $o #0] f(t) the limit as ;x approaches five of the expression the square root of ;x squared plus nine "lim%x $o #5] >x^2"+9] the limit as ;f approaches infinity of the fraction one over the expression one plus ;f "lim%f $o ,=] ?1/1+f# limit with bar line directly over it of the expression cosine of pi <lim cos .p the limit with bar line directly over; directly under is the expression ;q approaches zero end of modification of the expression sine squared of ;q

403

"<lim%q $o #0] sin^2 q the limit as ;t approaches five of the expression three raised to the ;t power "lim%t $o #5] #3^t Braille to Speech the limit as ;x approaches three of the expression open paren ;x minus one close paren "lim%x $o #3] (x-1) the limit as ;z approaches minus one of the expression five ;z squared plus ;z "lim%z $o -#1] #5z^2"+z the limit as ;n approaches zero of the fraction one over the square root of ;n "lim%n $o #0] ?1/>n]# the limit as ;x approaches ten of five raised to the expression ;x squared plus two ;x plus one "lim%x $o #10] #5^x^^2^+2x+1 bar line over limit of two ;f <lim #2f the upper limit as theta approaches square root of two of the expression sine of three theta "<lim%.? $o >2]] sin #3.? Proofreading the limit as ;x approaches infinity of the expression ;f of ;x "lim%x $o ,=] f(x) "lim x $o ,=] f(x) the limit as ;y approaches four of the expression ;y minus two "lim%y $o #4] y-2 "lim%y $o #4 y-2 #18.3 Integrals and partial derivatives Explanation The elongated letter ;s is the most commonly used notation for integral or indefinite integral. The braille symbol for the integral sign is not a letter; therefore, it is not treated as a letter, but as a mathematical symbol.

404

Brailling the integral There are no spaces between the braille symbol for the integral, dots two three four six, and the expression associated with it, including the final portion of the expression, often written as dx or dt. Some material transcribed prior to an errata published by BANA may show the spaces.
Braille ! Symbol Name integral sign Configuration dots 2-3-4-6 Print Symbol

example #1_4 the integral sign with no modifications !x^2"dx .k ?1/3#x^3"+,c example #2_4 the integral sign with no modifications !(x+3x^2")dx Integrals may be double or triple. example #3_4 a double integral; represents a volume under a surface !!`(3f(x, y)-g(x, y)`)d,A example #4_4 a triple integral, without the expression on which it is operating; demonstrates the triple integral beginning and the anti-derivative variable ,V .k !!!dxdydt
Note For more information on integrals and their relationships with summations (sigma notation) and limits, consult an appropriate level math text which presents calculus.

Material directly under and over the integral sign The integral sign may appear with material directly over it and under it or may have material that is superscripted and subscripted. In addition, there may be a bracket after the expression that contains superscripted or subscripted material.
Note The material that is displayed directly under is brailled after the integral symbol and is followed by the material displayed directly over. This is similar to what is done when brailling sigma notation.

example #5_4 an improper integral with material directly over it and under it; the interval from #1 towards infinity appears with the starting value displayed under the integral "!%1<,=]3x^2"dx

405

example #6_4 f(x) can be any mathematical expression; in this example, equations appear directly under and directly over the integral sign "!%x .k a<x .k b}f(x)dx Material preceding the integral sign in an expression is not included in the five-step process for modification. example #7_4 an equation ,S .k #5"!%a<b}2.py>1+y^2"}dx Material subscripted and superscripted to the integral sign The general guidelines for superscripted or subscripted expressions apply to superscripts or subscripts to the integral sign, with one exception. Numeric subscripts require the subscript indicator because, unlike the sign for sigma, which is a letter in both print and braille, the integral sign is not a letter. The subscript is brailled first and is also the starting value of the interval. example #8_4 a definite, or Riemann, integral !;-1^2"(3x^2"-2x+3)dx .k #15 example #9_4 an improper integral with a function name; a space occurs after the function name !;0^,="sin xdx Multiple integrals may each have their own subscripts and superscripts. example #10_4 a double integral with subscripts and superscripts, with an expression as part of one of the superscripts !;0^1"!;0^3x-1"x^2"dx example #11_4 f(x) as a generic expression on the baseline; a closing bracket with its own subscripts and superscripts is displayed !;t^r"f(x)dx .k ,F(x)`);t^r Integrals with horizontal bar lines The directly over or directly under indicator precedes the integral sign, if a bar line is positioned directly over or directly under the integral sign. The integral sign may also have subscripts and superscripts.

406

example #12_4 a horizontal bar line in the expression <!;t^4">t}dt example #13_4 a horizontal bar line in the expression %!;w^q"f(x)dx .k #0 Integrals modified by superimposed symbols The integral sign may have a variety of shapes or symbols superimposed on it. In print, a circle, square, rectangle, or a sign for infinity may appear in the center of the integral sign. In braille, the modification is displayed with the integral sign first, dot four to indicate there is a superimposed symbol, the symbol or symbols that are superimposed, and the termination indicator to signal the end of the modification. The modified integral sign is punctuated and spaced in the same manner as an unmodified integral sign. Following is a list of common integrals modified by superimposed symbols. Note use of the shape indicator. Integral with a circle superimposed on it: !`$c} Integral with a rectangle superimposed on it: !`$r} Integral with a square superimposed on it: !`$4} Integral with the infinity sign superimposed on it: !`,=} example #14_4 a subscripted integral with a superimposed circle !`$c};3"y^2"dx+xdy Partial derivative The partial derivative is displayed in print as a rounded letter, d. It is brailled as a script letter, d: dots four, one four five. It is treated as any other mathematical symbol. example #15_4 the partial derivative ?`d/`dx#f(x, y) example #16_4 the partial derivative ?`df/`du# .k ?`df/`dx#?`dx/`du# Review Integral Braille configuration: dots two three four six Braille symbol: ! Usage: used to show an anti-derivative. Multiple integrals may appear with an associated expression.

407

Use the five-step process to modify an integral with material directly under or directly over the integral sign. Material positioned directly under the integral sign is brailled immediately following the sign. If material is subscripted or superscripted to the integral sign, the appropriate indicators are used, even if a numeral is subscripted. If a horizontal bar line is positioned directly under or directly over the integral sign, the directly under indicator or the directly over indicator precedes the integral sign. Partial derivative Braille configuration: dots four, one four five Braille symbol: `d Usage: a mathematical symbol indicating a partial derivative; treat as a mathematical symbol. Exercises Prompt to Braille the integral of four ;x cubed ;d ;x equals ;x raised to the fourth power plus cap ;,C !4x^3"dx .k x^4"+,C the triple integral of ;f of ;x plus ;g of ;y plus ;h of ;t ;d ;x ;d ;y ;d ;t !!!f(x)+g(y)+h(t)dxdydt the modified integral directly under zero directly over four end modification open paren four ;x squared plus four close paren ;d ;x "!%0<4](4x^2"+4)dx the integral subscript zero superscript four of the expression open paren four ;x squared plus four close paren ;d ;x !;0^4"(4x^2"+4)dx the modified integral directly under negative one directly over two end modification two ;x squared ;d ;x "!%-1<2]2x^2"dx the modified double integral directly under cap ;,R end modification of ;m ;d cap ,A "!!%,R]md,A the integral subscript zero superscript infinity of the expression cosine of three ;x ;d ;x !;0^,="cos #3xdx

408

the modified integral directly under ;t equals a directly over ;t equals ;b end modification of ;f of ;t ;d ;t "!%t .k a<t .k b]f(t)dt two modified integral directly under zero directly over two end modification ;x squared ;d ;x #2"!%0<2]x^2"dx multiple integral: the integral subscript zero superscript two integral subscript zero superscript one of the expression three ;x squared ;y ;d ;x ;d ;y !;0^2"!;0^1"3x^2"ydxdy Braille to Speech the integral of ;f of ;x ;d ;x !f(x)dx the modified integral from pi to two pi ;n modification of the expression two sine of ;t ;d ;t "!%.p<2.pn]2sin tdt three integral subscript zero superscript two of the expression open paren eight ;x plus ;x squared close paren ;d ;x #3!;0^2"(8x+x^2")dx the integral of ;t squared ;d ;t !t^2"dt the modified integral from one to infinity end modification of three pi ;x ;d ;x "!%1<,=]3.pxdx the modified integral from negative infinity to zero end modification of tangent of ;x ;d ;x "!%-,=<0]tan xdx bar over integral subscript a superscript ;b <!;a^b multiple integral: modified integral from one to two of the integral from zero to the expression ;x minus seven end modification of ;y ;d ;y ;d ;x "!%1<2!%0<x-7]ydydx

409

Proofreading the integral two ;x cubed ;d ;x !2x^3"dx z2x^3"dx the modified integral from negative one to two end modification of three ;x squared ;d ;x "!%-1<2]3x^2"dx "!<-1%2]3x^2"dx the integral subscript minus infinity superscript three of the expression open paren ;x plus one close paren ;d ;x !;-,=^3"(x+1)dx !-,=^3"(x+1)dx

410

411

Nemeth Code Quick Reference Charts

Nemeth Code Numbers
Braille

# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

Symbol Name numeric indicator One Two Three four five six seven eight nine zero

Configuration dots 3-4-5-6 Dot 2 dots 2-3 dots 2-5 dots 2-5-6 dots 2-6 dots 2-3-5 dots 2-3-5-6 dots 2-3-6 dots 3-5 dots 3-5-6

Print Symbol # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

Symbols Used in Mathematics

Braille

`c `s `0 , . .* .p _0 ,= ! `d .* | ,|

Symbol Name cent sign dollar sign percent sign comma, mathematical decimal point degree* pi empty set infinity integral partial derivative composite functions absolute value matrix/determinant

Configuration dots 4, 1-4 dots 4, 2-3-4 dots 4, 3-5-6 dot 6 dots 4-6 dots 4-6, 1-6 dots 4-6, 1-2-3-4 dots 4-5-6, 3-5-6 dots 6, 1-2-3-4-5-6 dots 2-3-4-6 dots 4, 1-4-5 dots 4-6, 1-6 dots 1-2-5-6 dots 6, 1-2-5-6

Print Symbol

$ % , .

| |

*When the degree symbol is presented with other symbols (e.g. 212), it is preceded by the superscript indicator (dots 4-5) to indicate its raised position.

412

Special Signs Unique to Braille

Braille

? # _? _# ] _ ~ ; " . _ ;

Symbol Name opening fraction indicator closing fraction indicator opening mixed number indicator closing mixed number indicator termination indicator punctuation indicator superscript indicator subscript indicator baseline indicator italic font indicator boldface font indicator English letter indicator

Configuration dots 1-4-5-6 dots 3-4-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 1-4-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 3-4-5-6 dots 1-2-4-5-6 dots 4-5-6 dots 4-5 dots 5-6 dot 5 dots 4-6 dots 4-5-6 dots 5-6

Print Symbol none none none none none none none none none none none none

Signs of Operation
Braille

+ `* * ./ _/ / 333 o > ] +& .% .+ `#

Symbol Name plus minus multiplication cross multiplication dot divided by division, slash division, fraction bar division, long radicand (root)* plus and minus factorial intersection union asterisk

Configuration dots 3-4-6 dots 3-6 dots 4, 1-6 dots 1-6 dots 4-6,3-4 dots 4-5-6, 3-4 dots 3-4 dots 1-3-5, 2-5* dots 3-4-5, 1-24-5-6 dots 3-4-6, 3-6 dots 1-2-3-4-6 dots 4-6, 1-4-6 dots 4-6, 3-4-6 dots 4, 3-4-5-6

Print Symbol

+ / ___ ! *

*If only the radicand is displayed in print, without the vinculum, then only dots 3-4-5 are to be brailled; in all other cases, the radical needs the termination indicator. In spatial displays, a row of dots 2-5 is placed above the radicand symbol and extends to the same cell as the termination symbol.

413

Signs of Comparison
Braille

.k .1 "k .1: "k: `: `:.k /.k /.1 /"k /.1: . "k: /: /:.k _l /_l `:`: `e ;2 "1 _"k _.1 _"k: _.1: $o $[33 $p $l \

Symbol Name equals sign greater than less than greater than or equal to less than or equal to similar congruent not equal not greater not lesser not greater than or equal not less than or equal not similar to not congruent identity not identity approximately equals element of proportion ratio (colon) proper subset proper superset reflexive subset reflexive superset left arrow right arrow perpendicular to parallel to such that

Configuration dots 4-6, 1-3 dots 4-6, 2 dots 5, 1-3 dots 4-6, 2, 1-56 dots 5, 1-3, 1-56 dots 4, 1-5-6 dots 4, 1-5-6, 46, 1-3 dots 3-4, 4-6, 13 dots 3-4, 4-6, 2 dots 3-4, 5, 1-3 dots 3-4, 4-6, 2, 1-5-6 dots 3-4, 5, 1-3, 1-5-6 dots 3-4, 1-5-6 dots 3-4, 1-5-6, 4-6, 1-3 dots 4-5-6, 1-2-3 dots 3-4, 4-5-6, 1-2-3 dots 4, 1-4-6, 4, 1-5-6 dots 4, 1-5 dots 5-6, 2-3 dots 5, 2 dots 4-5-6, 5, 13 dots 4-5-6, 4-6, 2 dots 4-5-6, 5, 13, 1-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 4-6, 2, 1-5-6 dots 1-2-4-6, 13-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 24-6, 2-5, 2-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 12-3-4 dots 1-2-4-6, 12-3 dots 1-2-5-6

Print Symbol

= > < ~
> / < / / / ~ / /

: : :
P

414

Shape Symbols
Braille

$a $c $d $e $g $h $i $l $o $p $q $r $s $t $z .$ $[ $4 $5 $6 $7 $8 $9 $n

Symbol Name arc (upward) circle diamond ellipse (oval) parallelogram rhombus intersecting lines parallel to right arrow perpendicular to quadrilateral rectangle star triangle trapezoid inverted triangle angle square

Configuration dots 1-2-4-6, 1 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-4 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-4-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-2-4-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-2-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-4 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-2-3 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-3-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-2-3-4 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-2-3-4-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-2-3-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-3-4 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-3-4-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-3-5-6 dots 4-6, 1-2-4-6 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-4-6 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-5-6

Print Symbol

pentagon hexagon

dots 1-2-4-6, 2-6 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-3-5

heptagon octagon

dots 1-2-4-6, 2-3-5-6 dots 1-2-4-6, 2-3-6

nonagon n-agon (with n number of sides)

dots 1-2-4-6, 3-5 dots 1-2-4-6, 1-3-4-5 (with additional braille numerals)

415

Fonts: Script and Sans-Serif

Braille

,.;,b ,.;d `;,l `;,r `;m

Symbol Name sans-serif uppercase B, English alphabet sans-serif lowercase d, English alphabet script uppercase L, English alphabet script uppercase R, also used to denote the set of real numbers script lowercase m, English alphabet

Configuration dots 6, 4-6, 5-6, 6, 12 dots 6, 4-6, 5-6, 1-4-5 dots 4, 5-6, 6, 1-2-3 dots 4, 5-6, 6, 1-2-3-5 dots 4, 5-6, 1-3-4

Print Symbol

B d

L R

Serif letters are those with short lines stemming from and at an angle to the upper and lower ends of the strokes of a letter as in the letters B and p. Sans-serif letters are those without these short lines, as in B and p.

Uppercase Greek Letters

Braille

.,a .,b .,g .,d .,e .,? .,l .,p .,r .,s .,u .,f .,w

Symbol Name Alpha Beta Gamma Delta Epsilon Theta Lambda Pi Rho Sigma Upsilon Phi Omega

Configuration dots 4-6, 6, 1 dots 4-6, 6, 1-2 dots 4-6, 6, 1-2-4-5 dots 4-6, 6, 1-4-5 dots 4-6, 6, 1-5 dots 4-6, 6, 1-4-5-6 dots 4-6, 6, 1-2-3 dots 4-6, 6, 1-2-3-4 dots 4-6, 6, 1-2-3-5 dots 4-6, 6, 2-3-4 dots 4-6, 6, 1-3-6 dots 4-6, 6, 1-2-4 dots 4-6, 6, 2-4-5-6

Print Symbol

416

Lowercase Greek Letters

Braille

.a .b .g .d .e .? .l .p .r .s .u .f .w

Symbol Name alpha beta gamma delta epsilon theta lambda pi rho sigma upsilon phi omega

Configuration dots 4-6, 1 dots 4-6, 1-2 dots 4-6, 1-2-4-5 dots 4-6, 1-4-5 dots 4-6, 1-5 dots 4-6, 1-4-5-6 dots 4-6, 1-2-3 dots 4-6, 1-2-3-4 dots 4-6, 1-2-3-5 dots 4-6, 2-3-4 dots 4-6, 1-3-6 dots 4-6, 1-2-4 dots 4-6, 2-4-5-6

Print Symbol

Uppercase Russian (Cyrillic) and Hebrew Letters

Braille

``,a ``,b ``,w ``,g

Symbol Name Russian Ah Russian Beh Russian Veh Russian Gheh

Configuration dots 4, 4, 6, 1 dots 4, 4, 6, 1-2 dots 4, 4, 6, 2-4-5-6 dots 4, 4, 6, 1-2-4-5

Print Symbol

Lowercase Russian (Cyrillic) and Hebrew Letters

Braille

``a ``b ``w ``g

Symbol Name Russian ah Russian beh Russian veh Russian gheh

Configuration dots 4, 4, 1 dots 4, 4, 1-2 dots 4, 4, 2-4-5-6 dots 4, 4, 1-2-4-5

Print Symbol

417

Nemeth Code Summary Charts

Complex Fractions: Horizontal and Diagonal Lines
Braille

,/ ,_/

Symbol Name horizontal complex fraction line diagonal complex fraction line (slash)

Configuration dots 6, 3-4 dots 6, 4-5-6, 3-4

Print Symbol _________

1. These symbols are used to separate the numerator and denominator of the complex fraction. 2. The symbols are used in relation to the opening and closing complex fraction indicators in horizontal displays. 3. In spatial displays, the complex horizontal fraction line is converted to become a row of dots 2-5 (of varying length) preceded and followed by the opening and closing fraction indicators. (Refer to Lesson 17)

Complex Fractions: Opening and Closing Indicators

Braille

,? ,#

Symbol Name opening complex fraction indicator closing complex fraction indicator

Configuration dots 6, 1-4-5-6 dots 6, 3-4-5-6

Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille

1. These symbols are used in pairs and begin and end the portion of an expression that is a complex fraction. 2. The complex horizontal fraction line or diagonal complex fraction line (slash) is used to separate the numerator and denominator of the complex fraction. 3. The symbols may be used in a linear (horizontal) display or in a spatial (vertical) display. (Refer to Lesson 17)

418

Foreign Language Indicators: English, Greek, German

Braille

; ., . _

Symbol Name English letter indicator Greek letter indicator (uppercase) Greek letter indicator (lowercase) German letter indicator

Configuration dots 5-6 dots 4-6, 6 dots 4-6 dots 4-5-6

Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille

1. Precede the letter with the appropriate braille foreign language letter indicator. 2. The foreign language indicators influence extends only to the (single) letter which follows it. 3. The foreign language indicators are used as mathematical symbols and are subject to the rules for such symbols. (Refer to Lesson 9)

Foreign Language Indicators: Hebrew, Russian (Cyrillic)

Braille

,, ``

Symbol Name Hebrew letter indicator Russian (Cyrillic) letter indicator

Symbol Name dots 6, 6 dots 4, 4

Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille

1. Precede the letter with the appropriate braille foreign language letter indicator. 2. The foreign language indicators influence extends only to the (single) letter which follows it. 3. The foreign language indicators are used as mathematical symbols and are subject to the rules for such symbols. (Refer to Lesson 9)

419

Fractions: Simple and Mixed-Number Indicators

Braille

? # _? _#

Symbol Name simple opening fraction indicator simple closing fraction indicator mixed-number opening indicator mixed-number closing indicator

Configuration dots 1-4-5-6 dots 3-4-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 1-4-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 3-4-5-6

Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille

1. Use these to enclose fractions; the mixed-number indicators only enclose the fractional part of the number. 2. Use the horizontal division bar line to separate the numerator and denominator. 3. Use the mixed-number indicators for expressions which begin with a numeral and are followed by a simple fraction; an expression is not a mixed-number if it contains any letter, even if it is in the same form. 4. Punctuate as mathematical symbols. (Refer to Lesson 5)

Gradient Symbols: Degree, Minutes (Prime), Seconds

Braille

^.* ' ''

Symbol Name degree minutes, feet, prime seconds, inches

Configuration dots 4-5, 4-6, 1-6 * dot 3 dots 3, 3

Print Symbol

' ''

1. Place in the same position as the corresponding print symbol. 2. Do not space between these symbols and adjacent symbols. 3. Punctuate as mathematical symbols. 4. For the degree sign only: a. the superscripts indicator must be used unless the symbol stands apart from other symbols, b. if an abbreviation for the temperature scales of Fahrenheit and Centigrade are used following the degree symbol, space after the degree symbol and use the English letter indicator (dots 4-5) and the capitalization indicator (dot 6) before the letter F or C, *c. if a sign of operation or other symbol immediately follows the degree, insert a baseline indicator (dot 5) between the degree symbol and the adjacent symbol. (Refer to Lesson 3)

420

Hypercomplex Fractions: Horizontal and Diagonal Lines

Braille Spatial format: Symbol Name hypercomplex horizontal fraction line Configuration dots 6,6,1-4-5-6, 2-5,2-5,,6,6,3-45-6 or dots 6,6,3-4 dots 6,6,4-5-6,3-4 Print Symbol ______________

,,?3333,,#
Linear format:

,,/ ,,_/
hypercomplex diagonal fraction line

1. The complex horizontal fraction line of varying length is used in a spatial display (or mixed linear and spatial display) to represent the horizontal hypercomplex fraction line. 2. The dots 2-5 portion of the hypercomplex fraction line is the same length as the longest expression in either the numerator or the denominator. The numerator and denominator are centered in relation to this line. 3. The three-celled hypercomplex fraction line is used only in linear (horizontal) displays. 4. The diagonal hypercomplex fraction line is used in a linear (horizontal) display when the print shows a slash fraction line separating the complex fraction portion from the remaining section. (Refer to Lesson 17)

Hypercomplex Fractions: Opening and Closing Indicators

Braille

,,? ,,#

Symbol Name opening hypercomplex fraction indicator closing hypercomplex fraction indicator

Configuration dots 6, 6, 1-4-5-6 dots 6, 6, 3-4-5-6

Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille

1. These two symbols are used in pairs. 2. In spatial and mixed linear and spatial displays, they begin and end the fraction line (row of dots 2-5). Refer to Table B. 3. In linear (horizontal) displays, they mark the beginning and the end of a hypercomplex fraction. (Refer to Lesson 17)

421

Level Indicators: Combined Superscript and Subscript

Braille

~; ;~

Symbol Name combined superscript and subscript combined subscript and superscript

Configuration dots 4-5, 5-6 dots 5-6, 4-5

Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille

1. The first level change is handled with a base level indicator appropriate for that level. 2. The first cell of the combined level indicator indicates the position relative to the baseline material; the second cell indicates the position relative to the superscripted or subscripted material being supplemented. 3. Other multiple indicators can be created in a similar fashion. (Refer to Lesson 12)

Level Indicators: Superscript, Subscript, Baseline

Braille

~ ; "

Symbol Name superscript indicator subscript indicator baseline indicator

Configuration dots 4-5 dots 5-6 dot 5

Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille

1. For first order superscripts: precede the portion that is raised by using the superscript level indicator. 2. For first order subscripts: use with non-numeric subscripts, material subscripted to a baseline numeral, left numeric subscripts; do not use with right numeric subscripts to letters or abbreviated function names. 3. For levels other than first order: use as many level indicators as the level on which the item is placed; return to a reduced level with the number of indicators appropriate to that level. Return to the baseline with the baseline indicator. 4. The baseline indicator is used to show a return to the baseline of print when material not associated with the superscripted or subscripted items follows. 5. The influence of level indicators is terminated by a space, another level indicator, the baseline indicator, a punctuation indicator or a transition to a new braille line. (Refer to Lesson 12)

Monetary Symbols: Decimal, Dollar, Cent, Pound Sterling

422

Braille

. `s `c `l

Symbol Name decimal point dollar sign cent sign pound sterling

Configuration dots 4-6 dots 4, 2-3-4 dots 4, 1-4 dots 4, 1-2-3

Print Symbol

. $

1. Place in corresponding position as it would appear in print in both horizontal and vertical spatial presentations. 2. Do not leave a space between these symbols and the numbers or mathematical symbols to which they pertain. 3. These are mathematical symbols and should be punctuated accordingly. (Refer to Lesson 3)

Numeric and Punctuation Indicators

Braille

# _

Symbol Name numeric indicator punctuation indicator

Configuration dots 3-4-5-6 dots 4-5-6

Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille

1. The numeric indicator: place before a numeral at the beginning of a line or after a space. (Lesson 1) 2. The punctuation indicator: place between a mathematical symbol and the punctuation mark (list:?.:;); do not use with (list:,- --). Use with: _____ long dash. (Refer to Lesson 1)

Percent, Infinity, Empty Set

Braille

`0 ,= _0

Symbol Name percent sign infinity empty set

Configuration dots 4, 3-5-6 dots 6, 1-2-3-4-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 3-5-6

Print Symbol

1. Do not space between a symbol and adjacent symbols with which it is associated. 2. These symbols occupy the same position in braille as they do in print. 3. They are to be punctuated as mathematical symbols. (Refer to Lesson 3)

Punctuation Marks with Indicator

423

Braille

' 6 8 0 4 8 3 2

Symbol Name apostrophe exclamation opening quotes (double) closing quotes (double) period question mark colon semicolon

Configuration dot 3 dots 2-3-5 dots 2-3-6 dots 3-5-6 dots 2-5-6 dots 2-3-6 dots 2-5 dots 2-3

Print Symbol

' ! . ? : ;

1. Use these marks with the punctuation indicator (dots 4-5-6). 2. Space after the mark of punctuation. 3. Do not use the exclamation point to represent the print mathematical symbol used to indicate the factorial. (Use dots 1-2-3-4-6 for the factorial.) 4. Do not use this colon to represent the print mathematical symbol indicating ratio. (Refer to Lesson 1)

Punctuation Marks without Indicator

Braille

, --

Symbol Name comma hyphen dash

Configuration dot 6 dots 3-6 dots 3-6, 3-6

Print Symbol

, --

1. The comma: use to separate place values, in lists, with coordinates, as a mark of punctuation for mathematical items; do not use the punctuation indicator. 2. Use dash without the punctuation indicator. (Exception: the punctuation indicator is needed when a long dash is used in a mathematical context, e.g., as a sign of omission. NBC 37iv). (Refer to Lesson 1)

Radical Modifiers:

424

Index of Radical and Order of Radical Indicators

Braille

< .

Symbol Name index-of-radical indicator order-of-radical indicator

Configuration dots 1-2-6 dots 4-6

Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille

1. The index-of-radical indicator is used preceding a value which in print is tucked into the crook of a radical indicator. It is followed by the value which is the index, the radical indicator, radicand, etc. (Refer to Lesson 13.1). 2. The order-of-radical indicator is used when radicals are nested within other radicals. The indicator precedes the radical indicator (or the index-of-radical indicator if one is present) of the imbedded radical and precedes the termination indicator for the radical. Each imbedded radical requires the same number of order-of-radical indicators as its level of nesting. (Refer to Lesson 13)

Roman Numeral Indicators

Braille

; , ,,

Symbol Name English letter indicator capitalization indicator double capitalization indicator

Configuration dots 5-6 dot 6 dots 6, 6

Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille

1. Use the English letter indicator with lowercase Roman numerals; use the English letter indicator, along with the capitalization indicator, with single uppercase Roman numerals; both are placed unspaced before the numerals. 2. The capitalization indicator (single), when used, follows the English letter indicator. 3. The double capitalization indicator is used before Roman numerals consisting of more than one uppercase letter. (Refer to Lesson 7)

Shape Indicators:

425

Directly-Over, Directly-Under, Filled-In, Shaded

Braille

< % _ .

Symbol Name directly-over indicator directly-under indicator filled-in shape indicator shaded shape indicator

Configuration dots 1-2-6 dots 1-4-6 dots 4-5-6 dots 4-6

Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille

1. When a shape is positioned above or below material, precede the affected material with the multipurpose indicator, braille the affected material, followed by the position indicator and the shape (e.g., arrow, line). End with the termination indicator. 2. When shaded or filled-in shapes are brailled: braille shape indicator, shaded (or filled-in) indicator, character(s) representing the shape. (Refer to Lesson 14)

Shape Indicators: Shape, Multipurpose, Termination

Braille

$ " ]

Symbol Name shape indicator multipurpose indicator termination indicator

Configuration dots 1-2-4-6 dot 5 dots 1-2-4-5-6

Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille

1. The shape indicator precedes a letter, character or numeral which identifies the shape. 2. The multipurpose indicator, when applied to shapes: a. precedes material to introduce a modification and to indicate that what follows the material (the shape) is being modified by the directlyover or directly-under indicators. b. follows a regular numbered polygon shape used as a sign of operation when a numeral follows the shape. 3. The termination indicator ends shape modifications. (Refer to Lesson 14)

Shape Indicators: Structural and Interior Shape Modification

426

Braille

. _$

Symbol Name structural shape modification indicator interior shape modification indicator

Configuration dots 4-6 dots 4-5-6, 1-2-4-6

Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille

1. For structural modifications of a basic shape: braille a shape indicator, the basic shape, the shape modification indicator, character(s) making the alteration, and end with the termination indicator. 2. For interior modifications to a basic shape; braille the basic shape (with its shape indicator), the interior shape modification indicator, the symbol which is interior to the shape, and end with the termination indicator. (Refer to Lesson 14)

Sigma, Limit, Integral

Braille

.,s lim !

Symbol Name sigma lim (also limit) integral

Configuration dots 4-6, 6, 2-3-4 dots 1-2-3, 2-4, 1-3-4 dots 2-3-4-6

Print Symbol

These methods are used to present material positioned at different levels from the symbol or abbreviations: 1. Each of these may be modified by material positioned either directly over or under the symbol. These modifications will require the use of the five-step rule for modifications and the directly-over and/or directly-under indicators. 2. A horizontal line positioned directly over or under the items in this group is not treated as a modification requiring the five-step rule (Lesson 14). The sigma is a letter, however, and it uses dots 1-5-6 to indicate the line (as with other single letters and digits). Limit and integral symbols require that the directly-over/under indicator be placed before the symbol. 3. The sigma, integral or limit may have material in superscripted and/or subscripted positions. These modifications require the use of appropriate level indicators and baseline indicators. When a sign of comparison is at a different level from the sigma or integral, it, too, is preceded by the appropriate level indicator. 4. When expressions appear at different levels other than the baseline, the lower expression is brailled first. 5. The expression on the baseline following the sigma or integral is brailled, unspaced from the symbol (or the final symbol of its modification). 6. Lim is a function name abbreviation and a space follows the name or the end of a modification to the abbreviation. (Refer to Lesson 18)

lim

Signs of Comparison: Element Of, Proper Subset, Subset, Superset

427

Braille

`e _"k _"k: _.1

Symbol Name element of proper subset subset (inclusion) superset (reverse inclusion)

Configuration dots 4, 1-5 dots 4-5-6, 5, 1-3 dots 4-5-6, 5, 1-3, 1-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 4-6, 2

Print Symbol

1. Space before and after the sign of comparison. A space must be left (on both sides) between a sign of comparison and any other mathematical symbols or expressions which precede or follow it. Refer to rule 2 for exceptions. a. The space requirement also applies when words are used with the comparison signs, as in three + seven = ten. b. Contractions and short-form words may not be used before or after the space that precedes or follows the sign of comparison (55 NBC). 2. Do not space between a sign of comparison and a mark of punctuation, a braille indicator (e.g., italic font indicator), or a sign of grouping that is associated with it. The use or non-use of the punctuation indicator (dots 4-5-6) follows the rules which cover the application of that symbol. 3. Punctuate as a mathematical symbol. 4. When a long problem must be divided between braille lines (avoid dividing a problem, expression or compared expressions, if possible): a. the split should occur before the sign of comparison, b. in embedded material, the runover portion is placed on the next braille line at the margin of the material preceding it, c. in displayed material, the runover portion is placed on the next braille line and is indented two cells from the margin of the material preceding it. 5. For material following the space after a sign of comparison, use the numeric indicator according to the rules which apply to it. (Refer to Lesson 11 and Lesson 12)

Signs of Comparison: Equal, Not Equal, Similar To, Congruent

428

Braille

.k /.k `: `:.k

Symbol Name equal not equal similar to congruent

Configuration dots 4-6, 1-3 dots 3-4, 4-6, 1-3 dots 4, 1-5-6 dots 4, 1-5-6, 4-6, 1-3

Print Symbol

= ~

1. Space before and after the sign of comparison. A space must be left (on both sides) between a sign of comparison and any other mathematical symbols or expressions which precede or follow it. Refer to rule 2 for exceptions. a. The space requirement also applies when words are used with the comparison signs, as in three + seven = ten. b. Contractions and short-form words may not be used before or after the space that precedes or follows the sign of comparison (55 NBC). 2. Do not space between a sign of comparison and a mark of punctuation, a braille indicator (e.g., italic font indicator), or a sign of grouping that is associated with it. The use or non-use of the punctuation indicator (dots 4-5-6) follows the rules which cover the application of that symbol. 3. Punctuate as a mathematical symbol. 4. When a long problem must be divided between braille lines (avoid dividing a problem, expression or compared expressions, if possible): a. the split should occur before the sign of comparison, b. in embedded material, the runover portion is placed on the next braille line at the margin of the material preceding it, c. in displayed material, the runover portion is placed on the next braille line and is indented two cells from the margin of the material preceding it. 5. For material following the space after a sign of comparison, use the numeric indicator according to the rules which apply to it. (Refer to Lesson 11 and Lesson 12)

429

Signs of Comparison: Equals Approximately, Identity, Ratio, Proportion

Braille

`:`: _l "1 ;2

Symbol Name equals approximately equivalent (identity) ratio (is to) proportion

Configuration dots 4, 1-5-6, 4, 1-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 1-2-3 dots 5, 2 dots 5-6, 2-3

Print Symbol

: ::

1. Space before and after the sign of comparison. A space must be left (on both sides) between a sign of comparison and any other mathematical symbols or expressions which precede or follow it. Refer to rule 2 for exceptions. a. The space requirement also applies when words are used with the comparison signs, as in three + seven = ten. b. Contractions and short-form words may not be used before or after the space that precedes or follows the sign of comparison (55 NBC). 2. Do not space between a sign of comparison and a mark of punctuation, a braille indicator (e.g., italic font indicator), or a sign of grouping that is associated with it. The use or non-use of the punctuation indicator (dots 4-5-6) follows the rules which cover the application of that symbol. 3. Punctuate as a mathematical symbol. 4. When a long problem must be divided between braille lines (avoid dividing a problem, expression or compared expressions, if possible): a. the split should occur before the sign of comparison, b. in embedded material, the runover portion is placed on the next braille line at the margin of the material preceding it, c. in displayed material, the runover portion is placed on the next braille line and is indented two cells from the margin of the material preceding it. 5. For material following the space after a sign of comparison, use the numeric indicator according to the rules which apply to it. (Refer to Lesson 11 and Lesson 12)

430

Signs of Comparison: Greater Than, Less Than, Greater Than or Equal, Less Than or Equal
Braille

.1 "k .1: "k:

Symbol Name greater than less than greater than or equal to less than or equal to

Configuration dots 4-6, 2 dots 5, 1-3 dots 4-6, 2, 1-5-6 dots 5, 1-3, 1-5-6

Print Symbol

> <

1. Space before and after the sign of comparison. A space must be left (on both sides) between a sign of comparison and any other mathematical symbols or expressions which precede or follow it. Refer to rule 2 for exceptions. a. The space requirement also applies when words are used with the comparison signs, as in three + seven = ten. b. Contractions and short-form words may not be used before or after the space that precedes or follows the sign of comparison (55 NBC). 2. Do not space between a sign of comparison and a mark of punctuation, a braille indicator (e.g., italic font indicator), or a sign of grouping that is associated with it. The use or non-use of the punctuation indicator (dots 4-5-6) follows the rules which cover the application of that symbol. 3. Punctuate as a mathematical symbol. 4. When a long problem must be divided between braille lines (avoid dividing a problem, expression or compared expressions, if possible): a. the split should occur before the sign of comparison, b. in embedded material, the runover portion is placed on the next braille line at the margin of the material preceding it, c. in displayed material, the runover portion is placed on the next braille line and is indented two cells from the margin of the material preceding it. 5. For material following the space after a sign of comparison, use the numeric indicator according to the rules which apply to it. (Refer to Lesson 11 and Lesson 12)

431

Signs of Division: Divided by, Diagonal (Slash), Horizontal Bar, Curved Division
Braille

./ _/ / o

Symbol Name divided by diagonal fraction horizontal bar line curved division

Configuration dots 4-6, 3-4 dots 4-5-6, 3-4 dots 3-4 dots 1-3-5

Print Symbol

____

1. Do not space before or after the signs unless a natural space or line beginning occurs. 2. The curved division sign should be used without the separation line if the division contains only a divisor and a dividend but no partial differences and no quotient above it. 3. 4. The horizontal bar line should be used with fractions. Punctuate these signs of operation as mathematical symbols.

Refer to Lesson 5)

Signs of Grouping: Brace, Vertical Bar Line

Braille

.( .) \ \

Symbol Name opening brace closing brace opening vertical bar line closing vertical bar line

Configuration dots 4-6, 1-2-3-5-6 dots 4-6, 2-3-4-5-6 dots 1-2-5-6 dots 1-2-5-6

Print Symbol

{ }

1. Signs of grouping should appear in the same position as they do in print. 2. No one-cell whole-word alphabet (e.g., but, can, do),whole or partword (e.g., of, the, for, and),or whole-word lower-sign (e.g., enough, was, in, by, to) contractions may be in contact with these symbols. 3. The use or non-use of the numeric indicator or English letter indicator depends upon the rules for those symbols. 4. Punctuate as mathematical symbols. 5. Other rules for enlarged, double and boldface symbols and for the use of braille contractions may apply. (Refer to Lesson 10)

432

Signs of Grouping: Parenthesis, Bracket, Brace

Braille

( ) `( `) .( .)

Symbol Name left parenthesis right parenthesis left bracket right bracket left brace right brace

Configuration dots 1-2-3-5-6 dots 2-3-4-5-6 dots 4, 1-2-3-5-6 dots 4, 2-3-4-5-6 dots 4-6, 1-2-3-5-6 dots 4-6, 2-3-4-5-6

Print Symbol

( ) [ ] { }

Signs of Multiplication: Dot, Cross, Parentheses

Braille

* `* ()

Symbol Name dot cross opening and closing parentheses

Configuration dots 1-6 dots 4, 1-6 dots 1-2-3-5-6 opening; dots 2-3-4-5-6 closing

Print Symbol

( )

1. Do not space before or after the sign unless a natural space or line beginning occurs. 2. Do not use the numeric indicator for numbers enclosed in the parentheses when multiplication is indicated. 3. Punctuate as a mathematical symbol.

(Refer to Lesson 4)

433

Signs of Omission: Ellipsis, General Omission, Long Dash

Braille

''' = ----

Symbol Name ellipsis omission (general) omission (long dash)

Configuration dots 3, 3, 3 dots 1-2-3-4-5-6 dots 3-6, 3-6, 3-6, 3-6

Print Symbol

? (or a blank space)

1. Space between an ellipsis or long dash and the adjacent symbols with which it is associated (even with signs of operation and others that normally do not require a space). 2. Exceptions: do not space between a sign of omission and: a. adjacent punctuation (other than the hyphen). These symbols are to be punctuated as mathematical symbols when used mathematically and the long dash and ellipsis punctuated according to literary format when used in a literary context. b. a related monetary symbol ($, , ), decimal, percent or prime sign. c. braille indicators (numeric indicator, English letter indicator, etc.) d. with symbols of grouping (such as parentheses, brackets, etc.; refer to Lesson 10). 3. These symbols occupy the same position in braille as they do in print. 4. Use the general omission symbol (the full braille cell) as it would be used for the symbol it replaces. 5. If a question mark appears over a blank line or with dashes on either side, use only the general omission symbol. (Refer to Lesson 3)

434

Signs of Operation: Asterisk

Braille

`#

Symbol Name asterisk

Configuration dots 4, 3-4-5-6

Print Symbol

When used as a sign of operation: 1. 2. do not space between the asterisk and the mathematical symbols or numbers associated with it, place the numeric indicator between the asterisk and a numeral or decimal point and numeral which follow, (do not use the numeric indicator with any other symbol following the asterisk), punctuate as a mathematical symbol, and if the asterisk symbol is at a different level from the material associated with it, then the appropriate level indicator must be used to indicate its position.

3. 4.

(Refer to Lesson 8)

Signs of Operation: Factorial, Intersection, Union, Hollow Dot

Braille

& .% .+ .*

Symbol Name factorial intersection union hollow dot

Configuration dots 1-2-3-4-6 dots 4-6, 1-4-6 dots 4-6, 3-4-6 dots 4-6, 1-6

Print Symbol

1. Do not space between a sign of operation and the mathematical symbols or numbers associated with it. 2. Do not use the numeric indicator between the sign of operation and the number or symbol following it. 3. Punctuate as mathematical symbols, using the punctuation indicator before all marks of punctuation other than the comma, hyphen and dash. 4. The hollow dot is also used as a symbol for degree when it is superscripted (refer to Lesson 3). (Refer to Lesson 8)

435

Signs of Operation: Plus-or-Minus, Plus Minus, Minus Plus, Minus Minus, Plus Plus
Braille

++"-"+ -"+"+

Symbol Name plus-or-minus plus minus minus plus minus minus plus plus

Configuration dots 3-4-6, 3-6 dots 3-4-6, 5, 3-6 dots 3-6, 5, 3-4-6 dots 3-6, 5, 3-6 dots 3-4-6, 5, 3-4-6

Print Symbol

+-+ -++

1. Do not space between a sign of operation and the mathematical symbols or numbers associated with it. 2. Do not use the numeric indicator between the sign of operation and the number or symbol following it, except when a number follows a minus minus sign, as in: --3. 3. Punctuate as mathematical symbols, using the punctuation indicator before all marks of punctuation other than the comma, hyphen and dash. (Refer to Lesson 8)

Signs of Operation: Plus, Minus

Braille

+ -

Symbol Name plus minus

Configuration dots 3-4-6 dots 3-6

Print Symbol

+ -

1. When it indicates a mathematical operation, do not space between the sign and the symbols on which it is operating; do not use the numeric indicator between it and the symbols on which it is operating. 2. When it indicates a signed number, insert the numeric indicator between the minus sign (-) and the symbol to which it applies, if it occurs as the first symbol on a braille line or after a space. 3. Insert a dot 5 between two adjacent signs (e.g., one is used as a sign of operation and the other is used to indicate a signed number). 4. Punctuate as a mathematical symbol.

(Refer to Lesson 2)

436

Signs of Operation: Radical, Termination Indicator

Braille

> ]

Symbol Name radical termination indicator

Configuration dots 3-4-5 dots 1-2-4-5-6

Print Symbol unique to braille

1. Do not space between a sign of operation and the mathematical symbols or numbers associated with it. 2. Do not use the numeric indicator between the sign of operation and the number or symbol following it. 3. Punctuate as mathematical symbols, using the punctuation indicator before all marks of punctuation other than the comma, hyphen and dash. 4. The radical (root) and termination indicator should be in pairs when a vinculum and radicand are shown in print. (Refer to Lesson 8)

Spatial Displays for Division: Caret, Remainders

Braille

_< ,r" r"

Symbol Name caret remainder (using uppercase R) remainder (using lowercase r)

Configuration dots 4-5-6, 1-2-6 dots 6, 1-2-3-5, 5, and the remainder numeral dots 1-2-3-5, 5, and the remainder numeral

Print Symbol

^ R r

1. Except for separation lines, leave corresponding columns in the problem blank. Leave two columns in the partial products section, if necessary, to achieve alignment. 2. The uppercase R or lowercase r (to indicate a remainder) is separated from the quotient by a space. The multipurpose indicator, dot 5, is inserted between the letter and the numeral comprising the remainder. Extend the separation line(s) one cell past the last digit of the remainder. (Refer to Lesson 6)

437

Spatial Displays for Division: Right Curved, Left Curved, Straight, Separator Line
Braille

333 o 333 [ 333 _ 3333 3

Symbol Name right curved division left curved division

Configuration dots 1-3-5 (a row of dots 2-5 is positioned above) dots 2-4-6 (a row of dots 2-5 is positioned above) dots 4-5-6 (a row of dots 2-5 is positioned above) dots 2-5, 2-5, (a row of dots 2-5)

Print Symbol

straight division

separation line

_________

1. In spatial displays, the numeric indicator is not used before the divisor. 2. The separation line above the dividend begins in the same cell as the right curved division sign and extends one cell beyond the overall arrangement of the problem. 3. If the left curved division sign is used, the separation line extends directly over it. 4. All separation lines, including those separating the partial differences, are of the same length. 5. In addition, subtraction, and multiplication problems, the separation line extends one cell to the left and one cell to the right of the longest line in the problem. 6. Problems arranged spatially are preceded and followed by a blank row unless they are the first or last item on a braille page. (Refer to Lesson 6)

438

Spatial Displays: Carried Number, Cancellation Indicators

Braille

7777 [ ]

Symbol Name carried number indicators opening cancellation indicator closing cancellation indicator

Configuration row of dots 2-3-5-6 dots 2-4-6 dots 1-2-4-5-6

Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille

1. The row of carried number indicators is used with addition problems where regrouping is demonstrated. The row of indicators is the same length as the separation line. The regrouped numbers are placed above this line. 2. The cancellation indicators are used to enclose the numbers which are cancelled with a slash in the print display. 3. The cancellation indicators generally are unspaced from the numbers to which they apply, from another set of indicators, or from adjacent numbers to the left or right. 4. Spaces must be left between indicators and the numbers to which they apply if the regrouped values above consist of more digits than the cancelled value. 5. When the cancellation indicators are used, alignment in the balance of the problem must be achieved. (Refer to Lesson 6)

Tally Mark, At (@) Sign

Braille

_ `a

Symbol Name tally mark at sign

Configuration dots 4-5-6 dots 4, 1

Print Symbol

| @

1. Use the same number of tally marks as are displayed in print; if a fifth cross tally mark is displayed, use an extra (fifth) braille tally mark. An intervening space is used to separate tally marks. 2. When a tally mark is used with a mark of punctuation which requires the punctuation indicator, insert the multipurpose indicator before the punctuation indicator. 3. Punctuate the at sign (@) as a mathematical symbol. 4. In all cases, except when both marks are used with punctuation or signs of grouping or related indicators, both marks are to be preceded and followed by a space.

439

(Refer to Lesson 7)

Transcribers Grouping Symbols

Braille

,'

Symbol Name transcribers grouping symbols

Configuration dots 6, 3

Print Symbol unique to braille

1. Use to enclose a key (to open and close as a sign of grouping) used for figure labels, column headings, table entries, etc. 2. A key must be enclosed in transcribers grouping symbols. The key is preceded by the transcribers grouping symbol. It is indented six cells in from the margin with runovers indented four cells. After a blank line, key entries begin at the margin with runovers indented two cells. The final entry in the key must be followed by the transcribers grouping symbol. 3. The transcribers grouping symbol is also used to enclose explanations of seven or fewer words at a site next to the text being explained. 4. When transcribers notes are longer than seven words, the first character of the transcribers grouping symbol is indented six cells from the margin of the material directly preceding the note, followed by the material in the note. Runovers are indented four cells. (Refer to Lesson 16)

Typeform Indicators: Boldface, Italic, Script, Sans Serif

Braille

_ . ` ,.

Symbol Name boldface type indicator italic type indicator script indicator sans serif indicator

Configuration dots 4-5-6 dots 4-6 dot 4 dots 6, 4-6

Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille

1. These indicators are used to show a modification in print fonts. 2. These are not always used when a change in font takes place. 3. When used with numerals, they are placed before the numeric indicator or decimal point. Their influence extends to a space or to a change in font typeform. 4. When used with letters, they are followed by an alphabetic indicator. Their influence extends only to the letter to the right.

440

Typeform Indicators: Opening and Closing Boldface, Italics

Braille

, '_ _,' , '. ., '

Symbol Name opening boldface type indicator closing boldface type indicator opening italic type indicator closing italic type indicator

Configuration dots 6, 3, 4-5-6 dots 4-5-6, 6, 3 dots 6, 3, 4-6 dots 4-6, 6, 3

Print Symbol unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille unique to braille

1. The italic typeform indicators are only used in the text of labeled statements, not in the label, and in all material in the general text that begins and/or ends with a mathematical symbol. All other material uses the English braille italics form. 2. These indicators are used to show a modification of print when nonregular forms of type fonts are used for mathematical statements, words and phrases. 3. Each indicator is preceded and followed by a space. 4. The appropriate opening indicator is placed before the word or phrase which is in a non-regular form of type; the appropriate closing indicator ends the influence of the modification and follows the last character which is in a non-regular form of type. 5. These indicators are not always used when a change in form of type is displayed in print. In labeled statements, the label is brailled entirely in uppercase letters. (Refer to Lesson 15)

441