W ILD F ELID M ON ITOR

Publication of the Wild Felid Research and Management Association

Summer 2010, Volume 3, Issue 2

CONSERVING WILD FELIDS IN HUMANIZED LANDSCAPES

Strategies for reducing conicts between jaguars and cattle
Rafael Hoogesteijn, Panthera, Brazil, ra oogesteijn@gmail.com Almira Hoogesteijn, CINVESTAV, Mexico, almirahoo@mda.cin estav.mx

he elimination of jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma predators) due to increased hunting pressure by humans that has been concolor) as retaliation for depredations on cattle is, along with stimulated by human population growth, decreased economic produchabitat loss and opportunistic hunting, the major cause of their tivity, increasing in ation and disregard for private property rights; 3) demise throughout Latin America. It is the nal step in the process increased jaguar numbers due to the ending of the international fur of their disappearance outside protected areas, which begins with the trade and organized sport hunting. loss and fragmentation of habitat (Nowell e need to include private property in Cattle ranching causes signi cant habitat & Jackson 1996). is problem arises in loss for Latin American felids. Still, extenthe entire jaguar range from northern conservation programs for large felids in sive ood-plain ranching in natural grassMexico to northern Argentina, including the Americas is a necessary reality. land savannas is more cost-e ective and national parks and protected areas, which are also used for cattle. Of these two species, the jaguar has a more less environmentally destructive compared to intensive agricultural compromised future because it has a more restricted distribution and production of large-scale crops such as soybeans, rice, cotton, corn and sugarcane that usually brings deforestation, grading, ood control, and is less resilient than the puma. agro-chemicals. Such ood-prone savannas are distributed over the In recent years we have recorded intensifying predation by cats on live- Llanos of Venezuela and Colombia, the Beni of Bolivia, the Pantanal in stock caused by at least three factors: 1) the reduction of wildlife habitat Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay, and the higher and more forested savandue to the expansion of agriculture and livestock ranching in virtually nas of Guyana. In the Llanos of Venezuela, the best livestock-managed ranches are also those that hold (or held) the best faunal populations all of Latin America especially in the Llanos (Hoogesteijn & Mondol 1992) and the Brazilian Pantanal (Harris et al. 2005); 2) an increased (Hoogesteijn et al. 2005). ese ranches also diversi ed their income number of wounded jaguars (which results in a larger number of cattle through ecotourism (Hoogesteijn & Hoogesteijn 2010). (cont p. )

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Jaguars play a prominent role in this activity. In the thus, there were no speci c problem jaguars. Crawshaw & uigley ( om p. 1) con ict resolution paradigm biologists and conservationists have to (2002) reported that particularly in the Pantanal, healthy jaguars atunderstand that ranchers are not their enemies. Many have taken over tack cattle as if they were wild prey, as cattle move freely in the mosaic the responsibility of maintaining wildlife on their properties, in spite of open grasslands, woodlands and forests. of sometimes considerable losses. Greater threats are the large development and agriculture mega-projects, which result in irreversible An integrated jaguar conservation strategy should be based on four ecological changes (White 2008). key criteria (based on: Rabinowitz 1995; Crawshaw & uigley 2002; and Hoogesteijn & Hoogesteijn 2005). 1) Larger and more extensive In several areas of the Pantanal, the jaguar has become a major eco- protected areas should be created throughout the jaguars range. 2) tourist attraction, generating income for farmers, guides and locals Deterrent mechanisms have to be instituted to prevent the illegal killthat more than o set losses caused by predation (Hoogesteijn & ing of jaguars, pumas and wild prey, and to strengthen monitoring and Hoogesteijn 2010). However, poor ecotourism practices can also enforcement of wildlife protection. 3) Education and management increase the risk of attacks by jaguars. Marchini et al. (2009) report programs should be provided to local ranchers to help with implementthat using baits or lures to attract jaguars for viewing by tourists may ing jaguar anti-predation strategies and controlling predation losses. 4) lead to habituation of jaguars to human presence; it may also cause the Government and private programs need to be organized to promote jaguar to associate people with the presence of food. Because baiting ecotourism, encourage the production of organic meat (Domingos can lead to disastrous consequences, it should be prohibited. 2005), and to grant rewards to farmers who maintain faunal populations on their properties, do not allow indiscriminate hunting of cats In combination with ecotourism, it is also possible to organize organic and adopt management measures designed to minimize cattle losses meat production schemes (Domingos 2005). In the era of antibiotics, caused by predation. hormones and mad cow disease, clean meat that is free of zoonotic diseases and added pharmaceuticals has a better acceptance and can get e protected areas that currently exist are insu cient to ensure the higher prices if marketed correctly. is will provide more income to survival of carnivores in need of large territories, with the exception farmers who participate in these programs, o setting predation losses. of the Amazon in Brazil (Sollman et al. 2008). Approximately 96% of the jaguar distribution in tropical America ood-plain areas is on In workshops conducted by the Wildlife Conservation Society and private property; consequently, the con icting pressures of land use Panthera and involving hundreds of Latin-American ranchers, most make it di cult to get protected areas that are large enough. Multipleranchers indicated appreciation of jaguars on their properties as a use areas containing abundant resources of forests and water sources natural and cultural heritage of which they are proud. But they are also and where hunting of jaguars and their prey is prohibited are needed. compelled to remove jaguars in cases of ongoing predation. Because is has to include private land. e corridors program that is being there are no legal or judicial deterrents to the illegal hunting of jaguars organized in several Central American countries by Panthera, and and pumas (or their prey), and complaints to the authorities about which will be expanded to other countries in South America, may help cattle predation usually receive no response, many ranchers take mat- remedy this problem. If large enough for jaguars and other species of ters into their own hands. e policy applied by many ranchers today wildlife, these areas will facilitate the maintenance of jaguar diversity is Shoot, Shovel and Shut Up, which treats the symptoms but doesnt for future generations (Rabinowitz & Zeller 2010). resolve the causes of the problem. Predation rates are related to local habitat variables, such as the distance to forested or riparian areas, the proportion of forested areas close to paddocks or to the cattle ranch headquarters and some interactions between these factors (Azevedo & Murray 2007; Michalski et al. 2006). Predation rates also vary according to the local ecological conditions and the individual predators age, being generally associated with very old or injured animals, females with cubs, or young animals in search of a new home range (Leite et al. 2002). erefore it has been suggested that management e orts be directed towards the problem animal and not to all the carnivores in the area (Silveira et al. 2008). In support, in northwestern Mexico, Rosas-Rosas & Valdez (2010) showed the clear existence of problem jaguars whose removal, in their opinion, would enhance the local conservation of the jaguar population. Conversely, in the Pantanal, Cavalcanti (2008) showed that all the jaguars in the study area consumed cattle to a greater or lesser extent throughout the year;

e use of the jaguar as a agship species in ecotourism is generating important sources of revenue for local populations who cohabit with this formidable feline. is photo was taken in the Brazilian Pantanal. Note jaguar on bank. Credit: Steve Winter, Panthera

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(1995), Nowell & Jackson (1996), Crawshaw & uigley (2002), Hoogesteijn et al. (2002), Shia no et al. (2002), Polisar et al. (2003), Hoogesteijn & Hoogesteijn (2005), Michalski et al. (2006), Azevedo & Murray (2007), Palmeira et al. (2008), Rosas-Rosas et al. (2008), Hoogesteijn & Hoogesteijn (2009), and Cavalcanti et al. (In Press). Livestock Management 1) Stop the indiscriminate and opportunistic hunting of jaguars and pumas, and protect natural prey populations through e ective surveillance (public or private). Ban the commercial hunting of caimans and capybara, unless it is well managed and a ects only a small percentage of the populations. Organize security services or cooperative e orts between several ranches (with government support if possible) to reduce cattle rustling and wildlife poaching (Hoogesteijn & Arenas 2008). 2) In areas with high predation, keep cattle in small paddocks, pens or corrals near human habitation at night. Lighting and the presence of dogs increases e ectiveness. e con nement corrals or paddocks can also be combined with electric fences. Despite a small increase in farm labor and operating costs, this simple measure is very e ective and the cattle herds are easily habituated to it. ere are several practices to train herds into corrals, including burning dry dung during the night to repel insect pests, or placing mineral supplements in feeders. 3) Create water sources for wildlife in various areas on the ranch to increase prey abundance and in uence their spatial distribution, helping to direct the use of di erent areas by cats especially during the dry season (Polisar et al. 2003).

Night corrals are an e ective and easy way to decrease predation and cattle the . Credit: authors Education on sound management practices will help increase livestock productivity and therefore economic standards. Presently, many cattle ranchers ignore how improved and more e cient livestock management can provide them with signi cant increases of income. In general, the more organized ranches in the savanna oodplains have higher productivity as well as abundant wildlife populations and fewer predation problems (Hoogesteijn & Chapman 1997). Many ranchers (and farm workers) still believe that felids have little or no economic value and that they constitute a threat to their way of life. ere is very little consciousness of the important role that predators play in maintaining the communities of their natural prey and the integrity of natural ecosystems. Rosas-Rosas & Valdez (2010) successfully developed and organized an innovative white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) sport-hunting program in northwestern Mexico. Funds from the program were paid to landowners, and convinced them to suspend jaguar and puma predator-control e orts in the area. However, these programs wont have any e ect if they are not accompanied by legal mechanisms that prevent opportunistic felid hunting and prey poaching with heavy penalties to the o enders.

4) Fence o watering places in forested areas to prevent access by cattle and build alternate water sources in cattle pastures. is is especially important during the dry season when prey and predators usually interface in riparian areas, increasing the vulnerability of livestock to predation (Rosas-Rosas et al. 2008). Keeping herds away from forested core areas used by jaguars reduces the potential for con ict (Azevedo & Murray 2007, Michalski et al., 2006). is recommendation can A NTIPREDATORY STRATEGIES be easily implemented on small and medium-sized ranches that are adjacent to forested areas and on large ranches that have narrow strips ere are a number of anti-predatory strategies available (some proven of gallery forest along rivers and seasonal water streams. However, it and others in trial) that are not being used or are used in a very small is not easy to implement on large ranches with large forested areas degree because of ignorance, the methods are contrary to their cus- because it requires a large investment in fence construction and yearly toms, or because they involve additional expense and work. e ease maintenance. of implementing these measures is directly related to the intensity of livestock management and inversely related to the size of the ranch. 5) Establish short breeding seasons of 3-4 months. is improves liveere is no single solution for all cattle ranches as the implementation stock operation e ciency and allows for closer supervision of newborn of these strategies depends largely on the willingness of owners to calves (Hoogesteijn & Hoogesteijn 2005). Concentrated births make control the problem and to compensate employees that participate in supervision cost-e ective and easier, especially in clean pastures away these programs, since they require more work and an economic incen- from forested areas (Palmeira et al. 2008). During the calving season tive to recover losses. ere is a great opportunity to improve jaguar it is easy to recruit more workers, allowing for increased surveillance. conservation through NGOs and government agencies working with It is important to keep calves in pastures away from wooded areas for ranchers. up to three months post-birth (Michalski et al. 2006), to signi cantly reduce predation. Hoogesteijn & Hoogesteijn (2009) demonstrated e following actions to reduce predation problems were summarized the bene t of establishing a breeding season on the reduction of from information taken from Hoogesteijn et al. (1993), Rabinowitz predation in a ranch located in the ooded savanna area of Cojedes

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state (Venezuela). e short calving season allowed for better control of the maternity paddocks, decreasing predation by 1.2% over prior years, which corresponded to 82 less calves killed by predators. e organization of the breeding season in beef cattle ranches is thoroughly discussed in Stwe et al. (2001) and in Stwe & Hoogesteijn (2006). 6) Do not keep calving cow herds in paddocks near forested areas, but preferably in open areas located near human dwellings. is measure can be easily applied to small and medium-sized farms, especially those that already work under a breeding season scheme with a limited calving season of 3 - 4 months/year. It is also advisable to keep grass and vegetation short within the calving paddocks to avoid possible ambush sites by felids (Cavalcanti et al. in press). Calving paddocks can also be protected with electric fences. 6%, which is feasible using present technology (Hoogesteijn & Mazzei 2003) would result in about 220 additional calves, about ve times the number of calves killed by jaguars and pumas. e birth of weak, predation-prone calves would also be avoided.

14) Implement the Wagon Wheel or Pizza paddock system, in which a group of paddocks is fenced with the same arrangement as the spokes of a wagon wheel with a central axis. With divisions made generally with electric fences, all paddocks converge towards a square or central area, equipped with feeders and water troughs. In this intensive grazing system, animals remain in each paddock for a short number of days. During the day the animals graze high quality forage in a paddock and have access to water and minerals from the central area. At night they sleep locked in the central area. Consequently, a smaller area is under livestock production, leaving a larger area that can 7) Keep some experienced horned bulls, steers and/or old cows in be used as a preserve. It requires hands-on management, and a higher the herd to teach appropriate grouping behavior to younger animals, initial investment in equipment, but eventually results in signi cant thereby e ectively reducing predation. savings in equipment, maximization of production, and reduction of predator losses. 8) Replace cattle breeding operations with rearing (animals over 1-2 years of age) operations in areas with high predation incidence. 15) Keep good records. Good management practices include the identi cation of each animal in the herd, updated livestock inventories, 9) Move herds that graze in lower savanna areas (e.g. in the Pantanal, and documentation of the cause of every loss. is information has Llanos and Beni) to higher non- ooded areas to avoid isolation and to be summarized each year. ese records identify the real causes of weakening by the oods that makes them more prone to predation. the losses, the level of predation problems in relation to other causes of mortality, and the most frequent predation locations within the 10) Dispose of carcasses of dead domestic animals to prevent them farm. Ranchers are frequently surprised when, a er one or two years being scavenged by felids, which may become habituated to their of gathering information, they discover that fewer animals die from consumption. predation than other causes, or predation losses are lower than the number they estimated (Hoogesteijn et al. 1993). 11) Use indigenous cattle breeds with anti-predator dispositions. Today, most cattle in the American tropical areas are of Zebu (Bos 16) Physically deter predators. Propane explosives and pyrotechnic indicus) descent, purebred or mixed in various degrees with European material have been used successfully to frighten felids and reduce (Bos taurus) breeds. Some cows defend their newborns from predator predation. Explosives may force predators to move or change their way attack (e.g., Nelore Zebu) but most ee in the presence of the predator, of approaching the herd. Other techniques include the use of nonleaving the young calves alone and prone to attack (Hoogesteijn & lethal visual and acoustic stimuli such as electronic shepherds, motion Hoogesteijn 2009). In the Venezuelan Llanos and in the Pantanal,the detectors, non-lethal shots and sonic collars. Among these, the Radio Bos taurus cattle developed into two rustic and adapted breeds; the Activated Guard was successfully used to repel the attack of wolves on Criollo Llanero and the Tucura respectively(Gomez Perna in press; cattle (Breck et al. 2002), but requires that the o ending animal (or Mazza et al. 1994). Both developed the capacity of defend themselves some members of the pack) be radio-collared or tagged. from predator attacks (Calzadilla Valds 2007; J. Proena pers. comm..), showing a defense behavior similar to the one demonstrated by the 17) Use chemical repellents. Toxic collars can be placed around the Indian water bu alo (see below). ese breeds disappeared almost necks of domestic animals in areas with predation problems (Nowell & completely, absorbed by the zebu breeds. An experimental strategy Jackson 1996). e collar has a capsule that can be lled with irritating that has not yet been developed is a large-scale rescue, recovery and and dissuasive deterrent substances (e.g., capsicum, lithium chloride) utilization of these breeds in areas with high predation incidence. is that bursts when the predator bites its prey in the neck, spilling its strategy, apart from corralling each night, could be the only option contents into his mouth. It has also been used with a potent toxin in available for very extensive cattle ranches in ood-plain areas. coyotes and wolves, selectively killing the o ending predator. 13) Establish an e ective vaccination & health program to o set losses from predation and enhance ranch productivity. Livestock losses from predation are much lower than those caused by various diseases. Hoogesteijn et al. (1993) found that in a well-managed cattle ranch in the Venezuelan Llanos, felids were responsible for 6% of all deaths (or 40 calves) each year. But the loss between pregnancy and calving was 13% (mainly caused by abortive diseases). Decreasing this loss to It is important to mention that felines have a great capacity to adapt to new situations and can habituate to some of the measures explained above. ere is no technique that is totally e ective: the best option will always be to use a combination of methods, varied according to the individual conditions of each ranch.

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Electric Fencing e electric fence can be e ective in preventing feline predation on cattle, sheep and goats. Fences must be specially designed to prevent or repel the entrance of felines; fences normally used for livestock (with one or two electri ed wires) will not prevent the passage of a predator. Electric fencing is most practical for use in smaller pastures for daytime use, or in calving paddocks and night enclosures or corrals. In Venezuela (Llanos), Scognamillo et al. (2002) tested a design to protect a calving paddock, nding that a 4-wire fence with high voltage (45005000 volts) e ectively curtailed attacks. Schia no et al. (2002) tested a fence with a single charged wire to prevent predation by jaguars on pigs in northeastern Argentina. Although this design was inadequate A meat - bu alo herd with a Brahman herd managed in in preventing predation, the ight reaction of a jaguar that touched extensive conditions: Credit: authors the electri ed wire indicated the design could be changed to make it e ective. All attacks happened during the night, demonstrating the importance of night penning. In Brazil (Pantanal), Cavalcanti et al. (in press), placed two electri ed wires (5000-7000 volts) outside the 2005; Tiepolo & omas 2006) have expressed concerns over bu alo perimeter of a conventional fence almost 14 km long. e perimeter introductions in ooded savanna areas (i.e. Pantanal). Despite their and the bedding areas were also monitored overnight by a tractor potential advantages, there are pre-requisites and limitations to the use driver equipped with a powerful beacon and reworks explosives, of bu alo. Bu alo require more intensive supervision and some local which were used when a felid was present or suspected. is system markets do not sell bu alo meat. One solution is the introduction of was relatively e ective in reducing predation losses. However, it would small well managed groups of the dairy breeds, such as Murrah, Nili have been more e ective over a smaller area with better consistency in Rahvi and Mediterranean. Some ranches in the Venezuelan Llanos the patrolling activity. e study concluded that due to failures, gaps also handle large herds of bu alo (up to 400 or 500 cows), in large and malfunctioning problems, the potential of having predation losses paddocks with conventional fencing, and milk one third of the herd increases with the size of the area to be electri ed. Despite requiring (Atencio et al. 2008). some investment and technical knowledge, this combination of electried night enclosures is accessible to any willing small, medium or large We believe that the use of bu alo can promote tolerance of ranchers breeder (with the possible support of government or NGOs interested to the big felids. is tolerance can be used to enhance the conservain this eld). Training in its assembly, care and maintenance is a must. tion of the jaguar in areas where the implementation of other control methods is impractical or ine ective. Use of Water Bualo (from Hoogesteijn & Hoogesteijn 2008, 2009) Summary e use of Indian water bu alo (Bubalus bubalis) in areas of forested ooded savannas is an excellent alternative that precludes the need of felid control used by many ranchers where predation losses are high. Bu alo females demonstrate a herd defense behavior forming a circle around their calves, with the bulls walking around this circle, bellowing and aggressively facing the predator. is success of this defense behavior was displayed by an analysis of predation mortality in four herds in Venezuela; the probability that cattle was preyed upon by jaguars and pumas was 25 times higher than for bu alo. e need to include private property in conservation programs for large felids in the Americas is a necessary reality. For this reason, conservation professionals need to work with ranchers and landowners. Fortunately, we have a battery of strategies available to reduce cattle predation by large felines that, if correctly implemented, could develop support for felid protection among cattle ranchers. e importance of jaguars in Central and South American culture and traditions increases the likelihood that many ranchers will cooperate in this endeavor. We cannot stress enough the importance of understanding the particular ecological setting of each ranch, the rancher, the management and herd conditions as well as the legal and political settings related to wildlife and the meat industry in each country. All these factors have to be contemplated in the implementation of the cattle predation reduction agenda to achieve its objective. However, in our experience the most important ingredient to success is a non-judgmental and cooperative approach to a sector of society that makes its living from beef production and who has no obligation (beyond the one each human being has to the other inhabitants of planet Earth) to assume a responsibility which should be on a society as a whole.

Since bu alo are more e cient and pro table than cattle in ooded savanna conditions, they are expanding in the Llanos of Venezuela and Colombia, where they are highly valued for their temperament, productivity, resistance to disease, longevity, meat production in native grasses and defensive behavior. Also the more concentrated milk is used for the manufacture of di erent high quality cheeses. Bu alo can have a greater environmental impact than cattle by over-grazing and trampling vegetation when managed improperly. Bu alo can be mixed with cattle, however further studies are needed to de ne how many bu alo per hectare, and the appropriate proportion bu alo/ cattle, necessary to prevent predation. Some researchers (Harris et al. Please contact authors for references

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