Deepening Participation

and Improving Aid Effectiveness

through Media and ICTs
A Practical Manual Translating Lessons Learned into Daily Practice
SDC Working Paper
2
Title photo:
Exclusion from decision-making processes is a key characteristic of poverty. Applying Infor-
mation and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and Media as an enabling tool can help
address this gap. For instance, interactive Community Radio Stations can - alongside broad-
casting the usual mix of music and news- encourage debate between the community and
decision-makers on issues of concern. Through listeners clubs and phone-ins, different
voices are included in lhe debale al local level while being ampliled lo lhe nalional and
global level through applying various ICT and media channels. In this picture, the Self-
Employed Womens Association (SEWA) in India is collecting and debating issues of its
members which are captured for a community radio broadcast, distributed widely among
its members, uploaded to the internet and published in newspapers to be brought to the
attention of local and national authorities.
Copyright: Kalas / SEWA 2007
3
Executive Summary
After more than ten years of support in the
realm of Information and Communication
Technologies (ICTs) for Development, the
Swiss Agency for Development and Coope-
ration (SDC) has looked back: What do we
really know about ICTs, and how can those
insights be made useful for the daily prac-
tice of development cooperation and parti-
cularly in governance programs to enhance
voice and accountability? A critical review of
project reports, studies, and evaluations was
conducted to distil lessons learned and find
out what really works and why.
The results of this review are close to a paradigm
shift:
Starting as a magic solution from its beginnings,
ICTs are now considered as just another normal
media channel useful for enhancing the effective-
ness of development cooperation programs.
It is not the technology that counts; it is the eco-
nomic and social processes behind the techno-
logy that drives the change.
Thus, ICTs are instrumental, not a goal in itself,
and they should serve to improve the practice of
development cooperation.
The once harsh contrast between ICTs and old
media is already close to be overcome, and both
are seen as just different instruments for different
purposes applicable to different target groups.
To reach the poor and marginalized and get their
participation ensured (voice), radio is still the
most appropriate media channel, at best com-
bined with mobile telephony, to which all seg-
ments of society are increasingly gaining access.
Internet and PCs are more appropriate for the
urban elite, for NGOs and other intermediaries to
the poor and marginalised.
Thus a largel group specilc approach lo lCTs and
media is the most promising for improving deve-
lopment cooperation projects.
This operational manual, conceptualized as a SDC
working paper, summarizes these and many other
lessons learnt from existing studies, evaluations, and
lileralure on lCTs lor Developmenl and idenliles cur-
renl delciencies in lhe leld. ll draws praclical con-
clusions for the work of SDC operational units and
its partners, and makes suggestions on how ICTs and
media should be used, both in classical development
programs (health, rural development and climate
change) and for enhancing governance and accoun-
tability.
The authors intend for operational units to refer to
this manual particularly during the designing of coun-
try strategies and planning of cooperation projects,
as media and ICTs are often overlooked as practical
lools lor improving lhe ellecliveness and ellciency
of projects, despite their promising potential. The
manual provides ideas, opportunities, and options on
what can be useful for whom and why.
Furthermore, based on its project experiences, SDC
suggests considering that ICTs and media become
an strategically integrated part of standard planning
processes at project and policy level for operational
units and partners.
4
Editorial
SDC Working Paper
Authors:
Patrick Kalas (SDC) and Christoph Spurk (Strategieberatung fr Medien)
Published by:
Federal Department of Foreign Affairs DFA
Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation SDC
3003 Berne
Internet: www.sdc.admin.ch
E-mail: info@deza.admin.ch
Layout:
Tobias Sommer
Berne, 2011
Disclaimer: The opinions presented herein are uniquely those of the authors,
and in no way relecl ollcial posilions ol lhe Swiss Conlederalion.
5
Table of Contents
Executive Summary 3
Table of Contents 5
Introduction 7
A. ImporIanI DeniIions 8
B. What Do We Know After More Than Ten Years of Support for ICTs
for Development? 10
1. From euphoria to reality based assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2. Access to ICT and old media - the status quo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3. Main insights and lessons learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
C. Practical Consequences Opportunities for Operational Units 17
1. General insights and
recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2. Opportunities for SDC operational units and partner organisations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3. Enabling factors for effectiveness in ICT and media support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
D. Practical Applications and Next Steps How to Really Implement? 22
1. Project level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2. Policy level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Bibliography 24
6
The concerns of rural women in West Africa are recorded
during a cultural celebration, broadcasted and debated on
the local community radio station, fostering voice and par-
ticipation.
Source: AMARC 2009.
7
Introduction
After more than ten years of support for a
people-centered approach to embedding
modern ICTs within Poverty Alleviation Pro-
grams, the Swiss Agency for Development
and Cooperation (SDC) has reviewed project
reports, study program evaluations and meta-
evaluations, in order to distil lessons learned
on how ICTs can really help to improve deve-
lopment cooperation programmes and more
particularly to enhance voice and accountabi-
lity programs.
SDC has been among the pioneers in supporting
the use of modern Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT) for strengthening and improving
development cooperation, supporting good gover-
nance, and making the voices of the poor and mar-
ginalised heard in national and international public
discourses. In cooperation with other donors, SDC
has also invested in elaborating practical lessons lear-
ned through evaluating the work of various ICT for
development initiatives.
The purpose of this paper is to provide a tool box
for operational units at SDC, its partners and external
parties. It should inform about how to use ICTs stra-
tegically (in combination with old media) for impro-
ving development processes. It aims at strengthening
the effectiveness both in classical development pro-
grammes and in governance-related programmes,
i.e. enhancing democratisation and making the
voices of the poor and marginalised
1
heard as major
tools for achieving poverty reduction.
1 During the course of this text, poor and poor and
marginalised will be used interchangeably.
The Manual/Tool box is based on former evaluative
studies on ICTs for Development, programme eva-
luations, experiences of Non Governmental Organi-
salions (NCOs) and scienlilc lileralure on how lCTs
can and have effectively contributed to better partici-
pation, especially by the poor and marginalised. This
body of experience was complemented with current
knowledge on journalism, media and communica-
tion mainly within developing countries.
The paper slarls wilh a lew clarilcalions on concepls
and delnilions moving on lo explain our currenl
knowledge (and ils delciencies) on lCTs in develop-
ment. It then lists major insights on how to use ICTs
in combination with old media and tailor efforts for
different topics and target groups. Finally, we invite
operational units to look at the practical opportuni-
lies lo use lCTs and media wilhin dillerenl lelds.
8
A. ImporIanI DeniIions
What are ICTs?
The usual understanding of Information and Com-
munication Technologies (ICTs) is the package of
new communication technologies consisting of
the Internet, the PC, and the mobile phone which
then enabled applications like the World Wide Web,
Email, blogs, electronic archives, Web 2.0, as well
as the wide range of social media (Facebook, Twit-
ter). Some studies also include old electronic media
under ICTs, i.e. radio and television, supported by
the fact that digitalization provides opportunities for
easy exchange between various media types (media
convergence). Nevertheless, and without going into
further discussion, the current understanding of
most NGOs and donors is to differentiate ICTs from
the old, traditional media (radio, TV, and print) and
moving into a fruitful discussion of whether and how
they should/can be combined.
Why are ICTs important for
development cooperation?
ICTs provide opportunities for more effective deve-
lopment cooperation for mainly two reasons. One
is simply information. Information is delivered by
government and development agencies to target
groups/benelciaries/slakeholders. This helps lo
improve the effectiveness of operations and streng-
thens the achievement of results. In some program-
mes information is at the core of the projects, for
example in health programmes that attempt to
convince people to change their health protection
behaviour. In others it is an important component
by providing access to knowledge, for example in
increasing agricultural productivity, where farmers
will not only need better fertilizers or better access to
land, but also sound information on new techniques
or seeds, or land rights. This kind of information deli-
very is not completely new to development coopera-
tion, but with ICTs it is expected that it can be spread
faster, easier, more tailor-made while reaching larger
audiences.
The second application for ICTs in development is
communication. It stresses that through using ICTs,
the poor and marginalised or target groups of
development cooperation will start a communica-
tion process that makes them more aware of their
problems, their potential for self-help and change
possibilities, which in turn empowers them to take
appropriate action. Participation lies at the heart of
this process. The focus on this participatory commu-
nication lies within enhancing local and bottom-up
movements that challenge governments to become
more responsive and to improve a given situation.
9
There are different operational labels to describe
this participatory communication approach. For
instance, the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO) labels it communication for
developmenl (ComDev)', delning lhis as
a participatory approach that integrates the
use of communication strategies, media and
processes to enable people and institutions to
share knowledge and information and reach
consensus towards common action.
(FAO 2010)
The London-based Non-Governmental Organisation
(NGO) Panos calls it voice or participatory commu-
nication (in contrast to transmitting information)
while the New York based Consortium for Commu-
nication for Social Change and UNICEF call is Com-
munication for Social Change and UNDP Commu-
nication for Empowerment (C4E).
Within SDC, the term ICT-enhanced communica-
tion and voice for development (C4D) evolved.
Recognizing that exclusion (i.e. voicelessness) from
decision-making processes is a key characteristic of
poverty, SDC conceptualized its Module ICT-enhan-
ced Voice and Communication for Development
(SDC 2006). The aim was to introduce the approp-
riate application of ICTs within established C4D pro-
cesses in order to strengthen the capacity of poor
and marginalised people to articulate their concerns,
amplify their voices while contributing to a more
favorable policy environment (Davies 2002). Thus,
voice goes beyond the project level and points to
establishing genuine participation on national level
and in government policy.
For the purposes of this working paper no distinction
will be made among lhe dillerenl delnilions menli-
onned above.
ICTs, media and country ownership:
Accra
In this participatory sense, ICTs can also contribute
to achieve country ownership, which according to
the High Level Meeting in Accra in September 2008,
is among the three most important preconditions for
development. The Accra Consensus has established
a range of technical measures such as making gre-
ater use of developing countries systems to deliver
aid, and increasing lhe prediclabilily ol aid lows, in
order to get the developing countries into the driver
seat of the development process. But some authors
go beyond those technical measures arguing that
the Accra - Agenda for Action calls explicitly for
combating the social and political exclusion of the
poor and marginalised, and for true participation
of the people in governing processes (Booth 2008).
Within this understanding voice and participatory
communication are essential for achieving country
ownership (Deane 2008). It should strengthen the
true inclusion and participation of the population in
politics as well as the political commitment to genu-
ine development by the government/political elite.
10
B. What Do We Know After More Than Ten Years
of Support for ICTs for Development?
1. From euphoria to reality
based assessment
With the start of the massive proliferation of the
Internet and the inception of the mobile telephony
revolution more than ten years ago, modern Infor-
mation and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have
started to become integrated in development coope-
ration. Bridging the digital divide was and still is an
endeavour to make modern technology available for
developing countries. The two World Summits on
the Information Society in Geneva (2003) and Tunis
(2005) were an expression of this worldwide interest.
Huge efforts in building infrastructure for using ICTs
(Internet, mobile telephony) were conducted with
the aim for developing countries and its people to
become more able to use the emerging new fea-
tures of ICTs such as searching information, sending
text messages and Emails, receiving tailor-made
information, actively publishing information, blog-
ging, and later different social media.
ln lhe lrsl years ol supporling lhe use ol lhose
modern ICTs development agencies had utterly high
expectations, sometimes even euphoria: ICTs were
perceived as a miracle tool for solving the problems
of underdevelopment and ultimately achieving both
poverty reduction and good governance at once and
for all in a short time.
we believe that the more recent attention
to ICTs has to do with the constant search for
the magic solution despite years of research
that tell us that information is necessary but
insufcient to bring about this change, ICTs
have become the most recent iteration of the
holy grail for development
(Ogan et al. 2009: 666).
This kind of technologically-driven euphoria has
meanwhile come to a hold, conceding space to
a more sober and self-critical view at the obvious
opportunities and limits of ICTs in achieving develop-
ment objectives.
In the 1990s, ICT enthusiasts were over-
optimistic that technologies themselves
would transform societies. Many projects
such as rural telecentres were established,
with often disappointing results. Experience
showed that there are many barriers to using
a technology: cost and reliability, skills and
management, lack of useful content, or a lack
of t between the new technologies and the
existing communication needs and ows of
the target community. (Panos 2007: 8)
Due to those initially disappointing results (at least
measured against high expectations) various studies
have been commissioned by donors, assessing ICTs
for Development initiatives for helping to achieve:
classical social and economic objectives of deve-
lopment cooperation (poverty reduction, health
status, income generation, provision of educa-
tion, water supply, etc.) and
democratic participation objectives, mainly of the
poorest strata of society as a way for achieving
good governance, a responsive government and
accountability of the state.
In the same endeavour various NGOs and think
tanks, engaged with ICT and media, were eager to
produce lessons learned by looking critically at their
own inilialives. Mosl remarkably a specilc inilialive
partially funded by SDC including donors and NGOs
to evaluate the impact of ICTs in development (Buil-
ding Communication Opportunties, BCO Initiative).
11
2. Access to ICT and old media
- the status quo
Before stating lessons from those studies a short
overview should be given to the current status quo
of access to different kinds of ICTs and media.
2.1 ICTs
Mobile phones: The true revolution has been the
mobile telephony, especially in many developing
countries where the land lines had traditionally
been in a poor state. Although the usage of mobile
telephony accounts for a considerable amount of
available income, especially among the poor and
marginalised, the number of mobile phones is still
increasing considerably:
Mobile subscriptions in Africa rose from 23 mil-
lion to almost 350 million between 2002 and
2008, the quickest growth in the world. (Smith
2009)
On average there are now 48 mobile subscrip-
tions for every 100 people in developing coun-
tries more than eight times the level of penet-
ration in 2000.
Given these trends it will not take long until the deve-
loping world will reach a status in which everybody
will have access to a mobile phone. The mobile revo-
lution has strong social consequences: Now, even
the very poor and marginalised people have access
to a personalized channel to the outside world.
Many mobiles have a widely used radio application,
breaking the longstanding monopoly of the (male)
household head in owing a radio set.
Internet: The Internet has been on the increase as
well, but the number of people with Internet access
is still low throughout developing countries.
While more than half of the developed world
population is now online, the corresponding
share is 15% in developing economies (ITU 2010).
ln Alrica lhe lgure slands currenlly al 9.6"
which is considerable progress - compared to
lhe below !"-lgure in 2002 - bul slill limiled,
illustrating the persisting digital divide in terms of
internet access.
Additionally, access is geographically and socially
biased: For example Algeria, Egypt, Morocco,
South Africa, and Tunisia account for 90% of all
subscriptions in Africa. There is also a large gap
in terms of broadband speed and cost, which
in some African countries belong to the most
expensive in the world.
2.2. Old media
Radio: Radio is still the most important medium
to reach large segments of populations, especially
in rural regions of Africa. After the liberalization of
the airwaves and the introduction of more liberal
press freedom laws, many radio stations have
been founded since the mid-1990s, and many of
them broadcast nowadays in vernacular languages,
reaching the majority of the rural population. Radio
is the medium that causes discussions directly
after consumption as it is often listened to while
travelling (buses) or in the workplace (breaks), at taxi
waiting stands, or in the family (Greene 2008).
Radio is also regarded as suitable to reach the larger
parts of societies with a large share of poor and mar-
ginalised people. It is a cheap medium that can pene-
trate even remote areas; any individual can receive it
regardless of literacy or education level; rural radio
provides region specilc inlormalion, easily incorpo-
rates local concerns and feedback and can operate
in local languages.
Until other ICTs can replicate these
advantages at the same cost, then it is likely
that radio will continue to be the most
relevant technology for the rural poor.
(BCO 2008: 63)
12
Additionally, one has to keep in mind that a lot of
new vernacular radio stations have come up or are
close to do so. They reach new audiences that for-
merly almost never belonged to any media audience
such as segments of the poor rural women, or rural
marginalized groups.
TV: Television has now become more popular in
urban areas of developing countries, as cheaper
receiver sets are available, and electricity supply has
become more reliable. TV slalions have lourished in
many developing countries. Legislation permitting, in
some urban areas of developing countries the tele-
vision has replaced the radio as the most important
and mostly used information provider.
Nevertheless, in many developing countries the state
still exercises strong control on TV airwaves and
restricts media freedom and founding of new private
stations. International Satellite TV stations like CNN
or Al-Jazeera are widely used, especially when dome-
stic programming of national stations is low.
Print media: Newspapers and magazines are incre-
asing in developing countries due to rising numbers
of people with higher educational levels. Neverthe-
less, it is still considered the medium of the elite and
the educated, although many poor and marginalised
people use it if access is possible.
3. Main insights and lessons
learned
This sub-chapter provides main lessons from revie-
wed studies, taking into consideration the status quo
of access to ICTs and old media.
3.1. The mobile telephony revolution
offers a new direct and inter-active
communication channel to individuals
(one-to-one) or groups (group text
messages) in developing countries, and
even to very poor people.
This new opportunity has been already used by a lot
of social and economic development initiatives, for
example by providing price inlormalion lo lshermen
and merchants, by offering weather and other agri-
cultural information to farmers, or by sending com-
pliance medication recalls to patients. However, this
individual tailor-made channel to an immense part of
the population is an opportunity so far not fully and
sullcienlly used by developmenl agencies.
3.2. ICTs contribute to economic efficiency
and better service delivery as they lower
business transaction and administration
costs.
Compared to former working methods or communi-
calion channels, eleclronic lles slorage, price inquiry
via mobile, contacting customers via websites, and
money transfers on Internet or mobile phone are
cheaper and more labour ellcienl, bolh in adminis-
lralion and business. linding a lle (lor car regislra-
tion, land titles, tax payments etc.) was often next to
impossible in many developing countries, as long as
lles were physically slored in weakly organised archi-
ves. With introducing ICTs, an opportunity for impro-
ved service delivery has opened up. That doesnt
guarantee good services, but the likelihood of better
quality has increased.
13
3.3. It is not the new ICT technology that
brings success; it is the economic or social
idea behind the technical solution that
counts.
For a long time a technologically-centred focus on
ICTs has prevailed. It was assumed that technical
solutions like mobile phone or Internet yield auto-
matically and directly social, economic or even poli-
tical effects. That view has changed: The idea and
the push for innovative solutions is not provided by
technology but by social, economic, political or civil
society actors and organisations.
In all these initiatives a solid social organisation needs
to be behind the technical service, as any website,
mobile tool, or other service needs to be run by
somebody who collects, reviews, assesses and re-
compiles all sorts of information. In short, the service
itself is key, while the technology used to provide it
needs to be appropriately chosen depending on the
target group.
3.4. People first, technology second -
Social processes are much more important
for stimulating change than technology.
The importance of social processes for achieving
change is obvious. For example, in health commu-
nication aiming at achieving behaviour change, it
needs much more lhan specilc messages delivered
by a specilc lechnology. lnslead, a social process
with community and peers needs to be triggered,
sometimes even challenging power relations:
Firstly, people learn more effectively and
adopt new ideas as their own when they learn
from their peers, rather than when they
passively receive information from outside.
Secondly, if a development strategy requires
communities to adopt new habits or systems
the new system is more likely to be accepted
and successful if people have built ownership
by participating in identifying and setting it
up themselves. The communication process
has to be much more than simply telling
people that something is happening. Thirdly,
it is not easy for individuals to adopt new
personal behaviour unless the culture they
are part of also changes: safe sex, for instance,
has to become the norm in a young mans
peer group before he will practise it himself;
Any effort to change individuals behaviour
has to target the whole community.
(Panos 2007: 26)
An example from the business world
Banking by mobile phone has become very popu-
lar in Kenya. The already existing availability of the
mobile access to almost everybody (especially the
poor) in Kenya made il prollable lor innovalive
telephone companies to enter the banking busi-
ness. The lnancial needs ol large parls ol lhe
population for example in transferring small
money to and receiving from family members,
spread in various parts of the country - were for-
merly almost completely neglected by the estab-
lished banking sector. The main phone providers
established a system with electronic bank accounts
connected to individuals mobile phones. The new
service is called M-Pesa, which means M(obile)-
Money in Suaheli. The system allows individuals
to cheaply transfer money to any other mobile
phone. Money received by phone can then be
cashed in at any M-Pesa store, found now all
over the country.

14
3.5 The suitability of ICTs and old media
differs largely for different users.
As the former technologically-centred approach to
ICTs was replaced by the people-centred approach
(SDC 2006), naturally the question came up what the
specilc inlormalion and communicalion channels ol
different target audiences are.
f Personal computers (PCs) and Internet are
mainly not suitable for the poor.
Although it was one of the big expectations that PCs
and the Internet might help the poorest of the poor
directly, it needs to be acknowledged that Internet
connectivity is still low in developing countries and
especially among the poorest of the poor. As internet
access is costly and requires a fair degree of (mostly
English) literacy and information competencies, the
lnlernel is moslly used by lhe alluenl polilical elile,
donors and staff of modern NGOs.
f Communication technologies like radio and
mobile phones are much more suitable for poor
people compared to information-processing
technology like PCs and the Internet.
The BCO (2008) study the major donor funded con-
tribution to the ICTs for development debate has
clearly stated that the poorest of the poor do not and
cannot use the Internet appropriately and are better
served by trusted community institutions and inter-
mediaries.
Evidence suggests that the information
needs of the poorest will be met more by
informal, organic information systems that
are locally contextualised than by formal,
ICT-based information systems This may
come about through interaction between
communities and community members rather
than from the typical ICT-based pattern of
data transfer.
(Duncombe 2008: 70)
The BCO study claims that new information must be
provided by technology that can be easily integra-
ted into existing ones, and by technology that offers
the most affordable access. Thus, radio and mobile
phone are better suitable for the poor. Based on this
fundamental insight, Ducombe claims that Internet
and PCs should be used by information intermedi-
aries (infomediaries) that compile and assemble
information for the poor, and that the poor are
reached by and communicate themselves via radio
and mobile.
ICTs [the author refers to Internet and PC,
not to mobile phones] can be of greatest
value to provide information from and about
the poorest. To do this the poorest need
infomediaries to use ICTs. Indeed, ICTs
currently have a far greater enabling value
in building capacity within intermediary
institutions in helping the helpers than in
directly affecting the poorest.
(Duncombe 2008: 70)
3.6. The divide between modern ICTs
and old media has come to an end. ICTs
are most probably more effective in an
intelligent combination with other media.
Based on those insights described above it becomes
obvious that a combination of Internet, PCs, mobile
and old media offers a range of advantages to fos-
ter interactivity and participation when its use is pru-
dently tailored for the right purposes and the right
target groups.
f Combining radio and mobile phones
To reach the poor and marginalised and support their
communication needs, the radio - in combination
with mobile phones - is rather well suited. For poverty
reduction purposes radio is very effective for disse-
mination of information, gathered from different
sources and then redistributed widely. This makes it
also advisable to equip radio stations with Internet
access for exactly the purpose of gathering informa-
tion from a fair diversity of sources and assemble it
for their audience.
15
On the other side, radio is effective for communica-
tion for and by the poor, especially in combination
with mobile phones. Radio can work for communica-
ting to the poor as well as for communicating among
the poor and between the poor and the government.
Using mobile phones, callers from the poor strata of
society can phone-in into radio magazines or send
text messages to the presenter, making their com-
ments and their opinion known. This has become a
very popular radio format in Africa. The radio enhan-
ces public debates as it collects popular feedback and
airs the views of various groups. This is by far not a
negligible contribution to democratization processes.
The combination of ICTs and mass media is as well
recommended for urban areas or the modern sectors
of developing countries. For instance regime critical
messages get a far larger outreach when different
media work together. It might be the case, that
opposition leaders can use the Internet or Email to
inform the mass media. If they in turn then broad-
cast the messages to larger audiences, the political
effect is much broader compared with the message
circulates only in small elitist audience (Greene 2008:
22). However, one has to keep in mind that this also
works the other way round. Hate messages were
distributed widely via SMS during post-election vio-
lence in Kenya in 2007, as well as messages to stop
violence.
f Supporting the Internet for participation and
democracy addresses mainly intermediaries
The use ol lnlernel is also encouraged lor inluencing
political processes. However, this does not work for
all citizens, but only for the well-educated strata of
society such as elites, civil society and policy makers.
The BCO study says that Internet and PCs are mostly
appropriate for intermediaries, like media and civil
society organisations. Some applications of Inter-
net and PCs are highly conducive for challenging
the government and claiming responsiveness. For
example, website based systems of public expen-
diture or corruption tracking are highly suitable for
modern Civil Society Organisations (CSOs). Political
blogs can conlribule lo inluence agenda selling and
opinion building inside the political elite. However,
by using the Internet only, this discourse will not
trickle down to the population by itself. But if there
are social and political actions, grown out of those
initiatives, it can also contribute to become a natio-
nal discussion and nation wide movement. This can
in turn strengthen civil society, which can become
even stronger when the debates are proliferated by
traditional mass media.
Project Example SDC with IICD in Burkina
Faso: Embedding Interactive Community Radio
within Womens Association PaglaYiri
PaglaYiri is a large Womens Association in rural
Burkina Faso active in agricultural production and
rural livelihood issues. One key challenge within
their daily work was how to overcome the infor-
malion and communicalion delcil due lo lhe
large rural dispersion of its members. It was dif-
lcull lo reach members in order lo provide more
frequent and timely access market information
(prices) or knowledge to improve their agricultural
production methods. Consequently, the Associa-
tion decided to introduce an interactive commu-
nity radio to serve the information and communi-
cation needs of its members. SDC, through IICD,
supported this endeavor which included going
beyond infrastructure and hardware to include
capacity development (training) of community
members to utilize the tool and to create con-
tent. As an unintended consequence, the com-
munity radio became more than just a one-way
instrument to transmit information. It has evolved
into an interactive platform where issues beyond
agriculture are discussed within the community.
In sum, through interactive programming and
listeners clubs, the radio has become a public
space to engage the members within the com-
munity to debate issues important to them (e.g.
bad roads or lack of access to drinking water),
channel their views and concerns to local deci-
sion-makers and through this process providing
marginalized groups with an enhanced voice in
decision-making processes.
16
3.7. Connectivity is not sufficient;
capability needs to be enhanced for
enabling the poor using media and other
communication channels
Some analysts mainly of the communication for
empowerment approach point to the fact that...
In most poorer countries people lining
on poverty do not yet use the media to
any great extent to exchange information,
communicate their views or participate
in public dialogue. They continue to rely
on traditional communication forums
such as village meetings and market place
discussions.
(Gray-Felder and Forde 2010)
Participation in political processes is especially impor-
tant for the poor and marginalized, but they are
often the ones with the least capability to do so.
Thus promoting the capacities of a community radio
may nol be sullcienl lo enable poor people lo use
il. To lhe conlrary, il needs more specilc supporl lor
citizen empowerment processes before participation
can take place. Info-intermediaries like NGOs could
develop interactive programmes to help poor groups
use the media, or be linked to civic education initi-
atives. Poor people still rely mainly on face-to-face
meetings, in villages or public gatherings, in which
mainly the chiefs and other eminent persons of the
community speak out. In these cases community
radio can trigger a dynamic where radio becomes a
new channel for leaders supplementing village mee-
tings, and where local initiatives educate people to
form listener groups.
3.8. 5IiII IiIIIe knovIedge abouI e!!ecIs
Even after considering the latest studies there are still
no comprehensive evaluations of the impact of ICTs
on voice, participation and democratization. Facing
a generally weak evaluation culture in many ICTs for
Development projects - no baseline studies prior to
inception of projects, weak data collection during
implementation, hardly any structured monitoring
- the industry so far relies mainly on viewpoints of
stakeholders and experts when it comes to outco-
mes and impacts. Though collecting viewpoints is
good, and even essenlial, il is delnilely nol sullcienl
to come up with not only opinion-based results. Evi-
denced based data is also required.
In the light of this shortcoming, it is not surprising,
that most studies, even those labelled as evalua-
tions, describe mainly potentials of ICTs and media
(they can contribute, they could provide, etc.).
It is generally felt within the development
community that the evidence base for ICD is
weaker than it is in most development sectors.
Although there is now a good deal of written
(academic and institutional) literature about
ICD, a high proportion of this is concerned
with the potential which its authors (and ICD
agencies) feel can be derived from ICTs rather
than with the assessment of experience to
date.
(BCO 2008: 176)
Thus, BCO concludes that improved planning, pre-
paration, and permanent context analysis are highly
needed to enable sound evaluation and gain lessons
learned.
17
1. General insights and
recommendations
What does the former analysis mean for SDCs ope-
rational units and partner organisations in their work
with project and programmes?
f ICTs and media are instrumental. The main
concern of operational units is achieving social, eco-
nomic or political goals. ICTs and media only come
into focus when operational units assess whether
and how projects and programmes might improve
ellecliveness, oulreach, ellciency and suslainabilily.
f Modern ICTs and old media are one tool box
that offers different instruments for different purpo-
ses and target groups. Internet and PCs are generally
appropriate instruments for an urban elite, modern
CSOs, and literate and educated youth, whereas the
radio suits mainly poor, rural audiences. Additionally,
the mobile provides meanwhile access to almost eve-
rybody. Considering these channels and differentia-
tion of various target groups, a sound analysis of
needs and potentials in a particular project and con-
text will tell the operational project manager what
kind of ICTs or media or any combination might be
useful in a particular case.
f Combining modern ICTs and old media seems
to be the most effective approach, especially the
combination of radio and mobile for fostering public
discussion and increased inclusion of the poor.
C. Practical Consequences Opportunities for
Operational Units
f It is worth to mention that voice and parti-
cipation can also be supported by means other
than ICTs and media, such as direct support to civil
society, support to education and literacy, support
to capacity building in administration which are all
essential in itself and complementary to media sup-
port at the same time. Making a coordinated and
coherent support to media, civil society and the state
has been recently recommended by a research pro-
ject, supported by SDC among others (Paffenholz
2009).
f Support to both sides of the equation is nee-
ded. As numerous studies have shown (Paffenholz
2009; Menocal 2009) voice support is more effective
when efforts are made to support both the voice
side, i.e. strengthening communication by and
among poor people, and the accountability side,
i.e. the capacity of the state administration to be res-
ponsive in the same intervention (Menocal 2009: 3).
The tables on next pages provide recommendations
and outline opportunities for different types of pro-
jects.
18
2. Opportunities for SDC operational units and partner
organisations
Table 1: Opportunities for using ICT and media for objectives in
development sectors
According to prior analysis of needs and potential,
activities and programmes of other actors, SDC units
and partner organisations have a diverse menu of
options to choose from for selecting the appropriate
way of support. This Manual distinguishes objectives
Agriculture / Rural
Development
1
Environment and
Climate Change
2
Finances
Health
i Health programme on the (vernacular) radio or on national radio. Call-in programme (via mobile calls,
texts, letters) to support participation in the programme. Political talk plus ask the expert etc.
i Exchange and Networking of journalists with medical staff/scientists
i For participation: Installation of Listener clubs; feedback to radio stations
i Websites of specialised NGOs on special health topics for informing media directly or other beneficiaries
i Mobile phones as new channels to the poor: Installation of services for reminders for drugs
compliance? Tracking patients in remote areas? Alert services via SMS.
i Price information per mobile to small farmers
i General agricultural information: Agency provides information on pests and pesticides, veterinary
information, weather forecasts; for example by radio or by telecentre that cooperates with radio
i Agricultural radio: Tips for farming, discussion with experts and call-in programmes
i PC and Internet for rural telecentres: gathering information for special requests from farmers
i Agricultural magazine for in-depth information.
i Training of journalists: agricultural knowledge, agricultural policy, world markets
i Environmental programme on radio or TV: raising awareness in different strata of society.
i Websites of specialised NGOs on special environmental topics for informing media directly or other
beneficiaries
i Environmental blog for urban issues (waste management)
i Support to civil society organisations: exchange and networking
i Exchange and networking journalism/experts
i Budget monitoring systems and corruption tracking systems
i Support websites of those activities
i Contribute to business and finance TV or radio programmes: call-ins, experts, discussion.
i Support exchange and networking between journalists, government, business and civil society
in classic development cooperation and in Voice,
Participation and Accountability programmes. In the
following some opportunities for applying ICTs and
media are presented, with which programmes can
improve their outreach, effectiveness and success.
1 See also the SDC Rural Development Shareweb and its ICT for Rural Development Window:
http://www.sdc-ruraldevelopment.ch/en/Home/Thematic_basket/Knowledge_and_innovation/
Information_and_Communication_Technology_ICT
2 For ICTs in Climate Change Adaptation Progremmes see Kalas and Finlay, 2009 or Heeks and
Ospina, 2009
19
Table 2: Opportunities for using ICT and media in voice, participation and
accountability programmes
Projects in voice and participation aim at trigge-
ring debate and ultimately political or social action
for a particular purpose. Considering ICTs and media
to foster participation and voice, development actors
need lo delne lrom lhe beginning whose voice lhey
want to support (Menocal 2009). In reality, the voices
of the poor are far from homogeneous and these
voices may not necessarily be complementary but
Create conducive
environment for
debate
Strengthen
specific social
action/movement
for specific
practical change
Strengthen local
and national
administration
and feedback
mechanisms
towards them
Strengthen
feedback from
public to websites
and media
Foster national
or local debate
on specific
development or
governance topics
i Enable blogs and websites for urban/centre discussion inside elite
i Support topical programmes in various media (print, TV, radio) for the non-elite part of the population
i Journalism training in (development and governance) topic is essential
i Support media education (capability to use media) especially for the poor and disadvantaged
i National Conferences on topics
i Advocacy for media freedom, freedom of information etc.
i Defence of human rights
i General media support (as for example explained in SDC Media Orientation guide, or Panos, a case for
communication, p 44-58)
i Strengthen think tanks and civil society (Internet? Networking?) to enable them to bring up topics at
least to elite debate and then later to mass media.
i Capacity building for poor and marginalized to gain capability to use all media channels
i Enhance state administration in their responsiveness to civil society/peoples demands
i Support to media work of those social movement (websites, brochures, PR staff etc.)
i Support to info-intermediaries (infrastructure, training etc.) to make sure that all strata of society are
well informed.
1
i Support to international networking of that social movement
i Journalism training (knowledge) on topic of that social movement
i Support to cooperation of various media channels, i.e. networking of advocacy websites and media;
TV or radio talk shows pick up discussions from blogs or websites.
i Support to listener groups formed around media coverage of these topics
i Support PCs and office or data bases software: efficiency of administrative processes is enhanced with
PC operated files instead of physical storage (Panos 2007: Box 5 E-governance in India).
i Support to citizen report card as feedback mechanism
i Public Expenditure Tracking Systems
i Support to ombudsmen in media
i Structured feedback mechanism from audience to mass media
(phone hotlines; audience reaction programmes)
actually compete with one another. At least during
the planning stages it is necessary to distinguish bet-
ween elite and non-elite segments of the population,
as the two are approached differently. In case some
of those discussions, inspired by ICTs and media, have
larger outreach and are conducted at the national
level, then country ownership is strongly enhanced.
1 Info-intermediaries are actors or organisations gathering and collecting information on a topic and
re-compiling them for different audiences. These can be media staff or CSOs. They might need PC and Internet,
but then assemble information for use in all kinds of media, from websites to radio or mobile services.
20
3. Enabling factors for
effectiveness in ICT and media
support
As mentioned before ICT and media for development
programmes lack genuine evaluation studies. It is not
yet exactly known what works and under what con-
ditions. Nevertheless, there are some insights regar-
ding enabling factors for better effectiveness of inter-
ventions.
f Media or ICT information is more effective
when they can relate and are supported by per-
sonal, peer or community communication
Many development efforts become more effective
when they are shared by peers or when people learn
from trusted community members. New behaviour
is better adopted when culture also changes, and
when it is in line with already existing expectations of
that community. Therefore, communication projects
lry lo inluence communicalion wilhin lhe lamily
(health, education), and actual changes are expected
to derive from those discussions (Panos 2006: 26-27).
Applying this principle to higher levels, it beco-
mes obvious that major challenges of development
cooperation, such as considerably changing national
policy, need a large effort of debating options. As a
consequence, country ownership can emerge.
f ICTs and media need embeddeding in compre-
hensive social change and action programmes
as technology itself will not bring real change.
Communication and participation are rather futile
exercises when not followed by actual change. Any
health communication about condom use is help-
less when condoms are not available. Media reports
on corruption are useless, when the culprits dont
face consequences. Thus, it needs social activism
and social movement to make ICTs or media useful
(Panos 2006: 30; Greene 2008).
f Media need to build trust before they can
think of achieving an effect, requiring indepen-
dent media and ICTs.
Only trusted media can build effects. It is mainly
accuracy and openness that engender trust in media.
This has been known for long, but not understood by
many politicians that prefer to instrumentalize media
directly for their purposes. Serious personal commu-
nication can be triggered by trusted media only, and
this is one way of media having an (indirect) effect
(Greene 2008: 24-26).
21
A training facilitated by the staff of Kothmale Community
Radio (KCR) station in Sri Lanka using the eTUKTUK. The
eTUKTUK is a self-contained mobile telecentre and radio
broadcasting unit which travels into remote villages in the
Kothmale region in Sri Lanka. It provides communities the
opportunity to participate in the KCRs programming as well
as have access to new digital technologies and internet.
Source: UNESCO / K. Wanniarachi
22
It is recommended to embed ICTs and media into the
standard planning processes of operational units and
SDC partners
1
, both at project and policy level.
1. Project level
At SDC, this would mean to anchor this within the
Project Cycle Management (PCM) approach.
During the analysis stage - conducted by operatio-
nal units with their partners to identify what kind
of changes processes they intend to support - it is
already recommended to ask the question whether
the strategic use of ICTs and media could help to
achieve intended results (and hopefully get inspi-
red by the list in Subchapter C.2 Opportunities for
SDC operational units and partner organsiations):
More specilc queslions during lhe planning stages
could include the following:
What are the challenges within a particular deve-
lopment program?
Could Access to Information, Knowledge and
Communication play a role in addressing these
challenges?
Could participation and inclusion within the deve-
lopment intervention be enhanced through com-
munication for development processes?
Helplul in lnding answers are (in alphabelical
order):
- BBC World Service Trusts 5 step approach
of assessing the needs, strengthening local
media, creating broadcasting media program-
ming, engaging communities and measuring
impact (BBC WST 2011)
- FAOs comprehensive ComDev methodo-
logy consisting of six distinct phases appli-
cable throughout the whole project cycle
(FAO 2004)
- Panos 4 step approach on voice, dialogue,
media and networked communication
(Panos 2011)
- UNICEFs 5 step approach of Analysis, Stra-
tegic Design, Development & Testing, Imple-
menting & Monitoring, Evaluation and Repl-
anning (Graeff 2008).
1 There is a particular need to develop the capacities of SDC
implementing agencies and partners to strategically integrate
ICTs and media into their programmes, hence a specific dimension
needing attention.
D. Practical Applications and Next Steps How to
Really Implement?
ln case ol allrmalion, some slruclured media analy-
sis is useful, focussing on:
What are the existing information and communi-
cation needs of institutions, partners and bene-
lciaries?
- UNDP offers a helpful questionnaire for such
a Information and Communication Audit
(Deane, McCall 2006)
What are the existing information and communi-
cation channels available? What are the structu-
res in the media sector?
- Guidance is provided by SDCs orientation
guide: Media a Key Player for Realizing
Social Accountability (SDC 2007).
- UNESCOs Ethnographic Action Research
Handbook on ICTs for Poverty Alleviation
wilh a specilc queslionnaire (Tachi, Slaler,
Hearn 2003).
Answering these questions will help to decide which
lCT or media lools are appropriale lor lhe specilc
purposes of the project.
Summarizing, it can be said that the ICTs and media
component should be embedded during the plan-
ning stages, thus entering into the normal project
cycle management (including monitoring and evalu-
ation) as any other element that is deemed useful for
the project.
Based on previous project experiences, SDC suggests
taking a strategic approach when integrating ICTs
and media into its development programs, meaning
that appropriate tools are embedded and aligned
with the strategic objectives of a particular project
or programme to enhance the effectiveness and
ellciency. lurlhermore and among olhers, lhe '7
Cs approach - complimentary to infrastructure and
connectivity issues - may be helpful when applying
such a strategic approach (Kalas 2011).
23
5pecic experIise may be needed for such a strate-
gic integration of ICTs and media and there is a num-
ber of organisations that can help in this process. In
previous SDC partnerships, the following institutions
(in alphabetical order and non-exclusive) have been
particularly helpful:
Association for Progressive Communication
BBC World Service Trust
International Institute for Communication and
Development
Panos Institute
UN Food and Agriculture Organisation, Commu-
nication for Development Programme
Additional contacts can be found at www.sdc.admin.
ch/ict4d, in SDCs media orientation guide (SDC
2007, webliography), the Global Forum on Media
Development (www.gfmd.info) and the Communi-
cation Initiative (www.comminit.com).
2. Policy level
When designing country programs and overall strate-
gies it looks worth the effort to ask whether ICTs and
media could play a role among all other important
players for fostering democracy (e.g. civil society,
parliament, political parties, and the government).
Media can be one important component of the
enabling environment for democracy and one of the
key players for enhancing good governance.
Therefore, the usual context analysis should comprise
a media sector analysis as well. It should reveal the
main problems with media and what kind of media
support might be appropriate for the needs of the
country. There is a wide range of different opportuni-
ties for media support (see Subchapter C.2 Oppor-
tunities for SDC operational units and partner orga-
nisalions), and each one has ils own specilc delails
lo be considered and specilc implemenlalion pro-
cedures.
At minimum, ICTs and media should at least play a
role in the decision what to support. It should not
be forgotten that accountability a major claim of
the Accra - Agenda for Action is not an automa-
tic process, but the result of many efforts. ICTs and
media could be an important component of ensuring
this kind of true participation.
24
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