An executive summary for managers and executives can be found at the end of this article

The effect of the servicescape on customers behavioral intentions in leisure service settings
Kirk L. Wakefield and Jeffrey G. Blodgett

Service encounters of short duration

Services research to date has focussed mainly on service encounters of relatively short duration, such as those in travel agencies, banking, insurance, dry cleaning, pest control, fast-food restaurants, and public utilities (see Bitner, 1990; Cronin and Taylor, 1992; Parasuraman et al., 1991). In these types of service encounter customers typically spend only a brief period of time inside the service facility (if at all, as in the case of pest control or utilities). In these cases, service quality is apt to be perceived by customers primarily on the basis of intangible factors such as reliability, responsiveness, assurance and empathy (see Parasuraman et al., 1988), and less on the tangible aspects, such as the physical facilities of the service provider (i.e., the servicescape; see Bitner, 1992). For example, customers of dry cleaners are likely to place greater emphasis on how long it takes to have the clothes cleaned (i.e., reliability and responsiveness) and how courteous the personnel are (i.e., assurance) than on the aesthetics of the dry cleaning facility. Leisure services (such as amusement parks, water slide parks, concert halls, theaters, recreation or health clubs, hotels, resorts, cruises, and sporting events, etc.), on the other hand, generally require customers to spend extended periods of time in the physical surroundings of the service provider (see Turley and Fugate, 1992). In such cases, the perceived quality of the servicescape may play an important role in determining whether or not consumers are satisfied, which in turn influences how long they desire to stay in the facility (and hence how much money they will spend) and whether or not they intend to repatronize the leisure service provider. For example, while it may be obvious that customers at an upscale restaurant will evaluate the quality of the food and the service personnel, other factors, such as the quality of the architecture, layout and interior design of the facility, may strongly influence how long customers will stay in the restaurant and how often they will return to it. Likewise, the layout and design of a stadium or arena may partly determine whether sports fans will stay for the entire game or exit early to avoid congestion at crowded games. The servicescape is especially salient when one considers other leisure services such as Six Flags, Disney World, Carnival Cruise Lines, and Club Med. This paper builds on selected aspects of Bitners (1992) servicescape framework (see Figure 1), which illustrates the effects of the servicescape on customers behavioral responses such as approach/avoidance, spending money, and repatronage intentions, etc. In this paper we examine the effects of layout accessibility, facility aesthetics, electronic equipment, seating comfort, and cleanliness on the perceived quality of the servicescape. We hypothesize that perceived quality will have a positive effect on customer satisfaction with the servicescape, which in turn will affect how long
45

Importance of quality of servicescape in leisure services

Servicescape framework

THE JOURNAL OF SERVICES MARKETING, VOL. 10 NO. 6 1996, pp. 45-61 MCB UNIVERSITY PRESS, 0887-6045

Environmental dimensions

Holistic environment

Internal responses

Behavior

Ambient conditions Temperature Air quality Noise Music Odor Etc. Space/function Layout Equipment Furnishings Etc. Signs, symbols and artefacts Signage Personal artefacts Style of decor Etc.

Perceived servicescape
(perceived quality)

Customer responses
(satisfaction)

Approach/ avoidance
(stay, return)

Source: Adapted from Bitners (1992) Framework for Understanding Environment-user Relationships in Service Organizations

Figure 1. Servicescape framework

customers desire to stay in the leisure service setting and whether they intend to repatronize the service provider. The hypothesized model is shown in Figure 2. Theoretical importance This paper is of both theoretical and managerial importance. First, although theory related to service environments has been well developed, little consumer research has been conducted to test some of the basic relationships in Bitners (1992) servicescape framework. Wakefield and Blodgett (1994) examined the overall effect of perceived quality and satisfaction with the servicescape on repatronage intentions; however, in their model they did not
Environmental dimensions Holistic environment Internal response Behavioral intentions

Layout accessibility
H1

Facility aesthetics

H2 H7

Repatronage intentions

Seating comfort

H3

Perceived quality of servicescape

H6

Satisfaction with servicescape

H8

H4

Electronic equipment/ displays

H5

Desire to stay

Facility cleanliness

Figure 2. Hypothesized model

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explicitly identify the key elements that determine servicescape quality. Second, little consumer research has been conducted in the area of leisure services (Taylor et al., 1993). Researchers have spent considerable effort on exchanges which primarily provide utilitarian satisfaction, but have expended much less effort on products or services which are consumed for more hedonistic purposes (see Babin et al., 1994) for extended periods of time (e.g. Arnould and Price 1993; Price et al., 1995). It is important to study these types of services, considering that Americans spend tens of billions of dollars annually on spectator amusements (movies, theaters, sporting events) and commercial participant amusements (video arcades, water slide parks, amusement parks, casinos, golf courses, etc.). Finally, by providing more insight into the various elements of the servicescape leisure service managers may have a better idea as how to enhance the perceived quality of their facilities.
Servicescape dimensions

Three primary dimensions of the servicescape

Bitner (1992) identifies three primary dimensions of the servicescape (see Figure 1) that influence customers holistic perceptions of the servicescape (i.e. perceived quality) and their subsequent internal (i.e. satisfaction with the servicescape) and external responses (i.e. approach/avoidance, staying, repatronage). These dimensions are: (1) ambient conditions (i.e. weather, temperature, air quality, noise, music, odors), (2) spatial layout and functionality (i.e. the way in which equipment and furnishings are arranged, and the ability of those items to facilitate consumers enjoyment), and (3) signs, symbols and artefacts (i.e. signage and dcor used to communicate and enhance a certain image or mood, or to direct customers to desired destinations). From a facility planning and management standpoint the second and third dimensions are more commonly referred to as interior layout and design (Brauer, 1992), or what Bitner (1992) succinctly labels as the built environment. We focus on the built environment since it can be controlled, to a large extent, by management. Conversely, we do not focus on ambient conditions in this study since they can be more difficult to control, particularly in some leisure field settings, such as open-air stadiums or theaters, amusement parks, and other outdoor settings.
The servicescape model: hypotheses

Interior layout and design

Five servicescape factors that parallel the primary elements of interior layout and design as suggested by Baker et al. (1994), Bitner (1992) and Brauer (1992) are layout accessibility, facility aesthetics, seating comfort, facility cleanliness, and electronic equipment and displays. In this section we will define and discuss these five servicescape factors in more detail, and present our hypotheses. Layout accessibility Within the leisure service context, layout accessibility refers to the way in which furnishings and equipment, service areas, and passageways are arranged, and the spatial relationships among these elements (Bitner, 1992). An effective layout will provide for ease of entry and exit, and will make ancillary service areas such as concessions, restrooms, and souvenir stands more accessible. Just as the layout in discount stores and banks facilitates the

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fulfillment of functional needs (Baker et al., 1994; Rinne and Swinyard, 1992), an interesting and effective servicescape layout may also facilitate fulfillment of hedonic or pleasure needs. That is, by making ancillary service areas more accessible customers are able to spend more time enjoying the primary service offering. Accordingly, we hypothesize that: H1: Layout accessibility will have a positive effect on the perceived quality of the servicescape. Facility aesthetics Facility aesthetics are a function of architectural design, as well as interior design and dcor, both of which contribute to the attractiveness of the servicescape. From an external viewpoint, as customers approach or drive by restaurants, casinos, stadiums and other leisure services they are likely to evaluate the attractiveness of the exterior of the facility. Once inside the service facility, customers of leisure services often spend hours observing (consciously and subconsciously) the interior of the facility. These evaluations are apt to influence their attitudes toward the place (Baker et al., 1988; Kerin et al., 1992). In addition to the appeal of the facilitys architectural design, customers may be affected by the color schemes of the facility walls, faades, floor coverings, and seats. Unpainted or dull colored faades, seats, and steps may be relatively unattractive compared with brightly colored walls, seats, and steps (see Tom et al., 1987). Other aspects of interior design, such as ornamental signs, banners, pictures, and other fixtures, may also serve to enhance the perceived quality of the servicescape. We hypothesize that: H2: Facility aesthetics will have a positive effect on the perceived quality of the servicescape. Seating comfort Seating comfort is likely to be a particularly salient issue for customers of leisure service settings who must sit for a number of hours observing or participating in some form of entertainment. Seating comfort is affected by both the physical seat itself and by the space between the seats. Some seats may be comfortable/uncomfortable because of their design or condition (new vs deteriorating, padded vs nonpadded, bench seats vs seats with backs). Seats may also be comfortable/uncomfortable because of their proximity to other seats; customers may be physically and psychologically uncomfortable (see Barker and Pearce, 1990) if they are forced to sit too close to the customers next to them. Indeed, previous research related to perceived crowding (Eroglu and Machleit, 1990; Hui and Bateson, 1991) suggests that cramped seating quarters are likely to be perceived as displeasing and of poor quality. The amount of space between rows of seats is also an important dimension, in that it affects the ease with which customers may exit their seats to use ancillary service areas (i.e. restrooms, concession areas, etc.). Furthermore, when rows are too narrow other customers are frequently forced to stand or shift in their seats to let other customers pass by. Based on previous research the following hypothesis is offered: H3: Seating comfort will have a positive effect on the perceived quality of the servicescape. Electronic equipment and displays Electronic equipment and displays are signs/symbols/artefacts that can be used to enhance the leisure experience. Some electronic equipment is used to
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Attractiveness of the exterior

Customers of leisure services must sit for a number of hours

deliver and enhance the primary service offering. For example, high quality projection and sound systems at some movie theaters and concert halls, and the type and quality of video or slot machines at arcades or casinos, can have a positive impact on customers overall perceptions of the servicescape. Other electronic equipment is ancillary, in that it is used to display information and entertain customers during gaps in the primary service offering (e.g. in between plays or periods at sporting events). This type of electronic display can play an important part in the servicescape because it makes waiting times more pleasurable. For example, in sports settings modern graphic scoreboards can be used to generate excitement in between innings or periods. Besides providing game scores and player information, some scoreboards allow for sports trivia quizzes, instant replays, and highlight videos that keep customers entertained throughout the event. Accordingly, we hypothesize that: H4: Electronic equipment and displays will have a positive effect on the perceived quality of the servicescape. Cleanliness associated with quality Cleanliness Cleanliness is an important part of the servicescape, especially in those situations in which customers must spend several hours in the leisure service setting. Many consumers implicitly associate cleanliness with the quality of the servicescape. For example, whether or not floors and carpets are clean, whether restrooms are polished and disinfected, whether or not concession areas are kept clean, and whether garbage cans are overflowing or if they are continually emptied, etc., will affect the perceived quality of the service facility. Indeed, cleanliness has been found to exert a strong influence on consumers perceptions of retail stores and services (Garry and Sansolo, 1993; Martin, 1986; Miller, 1993). From a management standpoint there are two aspects to cleanliness; preevent preparation and ongoing cleanup. Ideally, a leisure service provider should not only work to prepare the servicescape prior to customers arrival, but should also monitor the servicescape and maintain cleanliness throughout the leisure service event. However, some leisure service providers do little or no monitoring of the servicescape beyond the pre-event preparation by janitorial personnel. Restrooms and concession areas may become overflowing with trash and spilled drinks by the middle and latter parts of the event (i.e. the concert, the game, etc.). In these types of situation customers are likely to become dissatisfied. Therefore, we hypothesize that: H5: Cleanliness will have a positive effect on the perceived quality of the servicescape. Positive responses will result in approach behavior Perceived quality, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions Bitners (1992) framework suggests that positive responses (e.g. satisfaction) to overall perceptions of servicescapes (e.g. perceived quality) will result in approach behavior (attraction, stay/explore, spend money and return). Two crucial concerns for leisure services managers are, first, how long consumers will desire to stay in the establishment once they enter, and second, whether they will want to repatronize the establishment in the future. Customers may initially patronize the establishment because of their interest in the primary service offering, but may not return if they are not satisfied with the physical surroundings of the leisure setting. While repatronage is obviously vital to the ongoing success of the leisure service provider, the length of time customers stay in the servicescape
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should also be a fundamental consideration for management, because in most leisure servicescape settings, the longer one stays in the facility the more money one is likely to spend. Indeed, research in retail shopping has found a positive relationship between time spent in the facility and money spent (ONeill, 1992). Similarly, an important goal for leisure service management is to create and maintain a satisfying environment to influence customers to want to stay as long as possible. Satisfaction influences both length of stay and repatronage Prior research suggests that the length of time that customers will desire to stay in the leisure service setting, and whether they will repatronize the service provider, is in part a function of their satisfaction with the servicescape (Bateson and Hui, 1992; Hui and Bateson, 1991). Based on Bitners framework and on previous service quality research (see Cronin and Taylor, 1994; Parasuraman et al., 1994), we expect the same qualitysatisfactionbehavioral intentions relationship to hold in regard to servicescapes. Therefore, we hypothesize that: H6: The perceived quality of the servicescape will have a positive effect on customers satisfaction with the servicescape. H7: Consumers satisfaction with the servicescape will have a positive effect on the length of time they desire to stay in the servicescape. H8: Customers satisfaction with the servicescape will have a positive effect on their repatronage intentions.
Research methodology and findings

Three leisure service settings

Procedure The model was tested in three leisure service settings in which customers spend moderate amounts of time, and which are increasingly familiar to the majority of American consumers: major college football, minor league baseball, and casinos. With the recent influx of new casinos (as riverboat and reservation gambling has been approved in many states) and new or renovated sports facilities in professional and college sports, these types of service encounter are dominant outlets for Americans leisure expenditures. Americans have been spending approximately $13 billion a year in casinos and $3 billion a year on professional and collegiate sporting events, and there are expectations of continued growth in both markets (Waddell, 1993; Waddell and Muret, 1994). Furthermore, the ticket purchase to a sporting event is typically accompanied by nearly equal or greater expenditures on complementary purchases (i.e. food, beverages, souvenirs) within the servicescape itself (see Helyar, 1994) and results in significant economic effects on the local community (i.e. money spent on parking, lodging, restaurants, gasoline, gifts, etc.). A field study approach was chosen because subjects are in a position to observe and experience the servicescape directly and to offer more valid responses than if surveyed outside the service encounter. Therefore, data were collected via a self-report questionnaire at five different major college football stadiums, two minor league (AA) baseball games in a large southern city, and at three different casinos in Reno, Nevada. Appropriate minor changes were made in the wording of survey items (as noted in Table AI in the Appendix) across the three different settings. In the football setting, a systematic random sample of 3,600 consumers resulted in a 39.4 percent response rate, while in the baseball setting a systematic random sample of 600 consumers resulted in a 54.6 percent usable response rate. A stratified
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Field study approach

50

quota sampling of the three casinos (100 at each casino across weekday and weekend patrons) resulted in a 90.67 percent usable response rate. Research findings LISREL VII (Jreskog and Srbom, 1990) was used to test the servicescape model. The model fitted the data reasonably well across all three settings, as evidenced by the GFI, Tucker-Lewis, and CFI fit indices (see Table I). Overall, these results provide strong support for the servicescape model. (See the Appendix for a more complete discussion of how the model was tested.) Layout accessibility and facility aesthetics H1 and H2 were fully supported, with layout accessibility (H1) and facility aesthetics (H2) having positive effects on perceived quality across each of the three leisure settings (see Table AI). H3 and H4 were partially supported. In the football and baseball samples seating comfort (H3) had a positive effect on perceived quality. However, the effect of seating on perceived quality was nonsignificant in the casino sample. Electronic equipment and displays (H4) had a positive effect on perceived quality in both the football and casino samples. However, in the baseball sample, the effect of electronic equipment and displays on perceived quality was nonsignificant. H5 was fully supported; cleanliness had a positive impact on perceived quality in each of the three samples, particularly in the casino sample. Together, these five variables (layout accessibility, facility aesthetics, seating comfort,

Football Layout PQ Aesthetics PQ Seating PQ Electronics PQ Cleanliness PQ PQ satisfaction Satisfaction repatronage Satisfaction staying

Baseball Standardized coefficients 0.262 0.332 0.137 0.046* 0.183 0.804 0.342 0.557 Fit indices 273 182.98 0.000 0.93 0.97 0.98 58.6 64.6 11.9 22.4

Casino

H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8

0.188 0.395 0.139 0.144 0.103 0.938 0.321 0.549 715a 321.49 0.000 0.95 0.97 0.98 54.4 88.1 11.1 13.2

0.188 0.286 0.017* 0.158 0.389 0.899 0.330 0.837 275 251.02 0.000 0.91 0.95 0.96 69.3 80.8 8.7 47.3

n 2115 GFI Tucker-Lewis CFI SMC (quality) (%) SMC (satisfaction) (%) SMC (repatronage) (%) SMC (staying) (%)

Notes: All coefficients are significant at the 0.05 level, unless otherwise noted a For modeling purposes, a subsample (approximately 50 percent) of the larger data set was selected * Not significant

Table I. The servicescape structural model: standardized coefficients and fit indices
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electronic displays and equipment, and cleanliness) explained between 54-69 percent of the variance of perceived quality. H6, H7 and H8 were all fully supported. As hypothesized, perceived quality (H6) had a positive effect on satisfaction across all three leisure settings, explaining between 65-88 percent of its variance. Satisfaction, in turn, had a positive effect on the length of time customers desired to stay in at the leisure service (H8) and on their repatronage intentions (H7). Across the three samples, satisfaction explained between 9-12 percent of the variance of respondents repatronage intentions, and 13-47 percent of the variance of desire to stay.
Discussion and implications

This study illustrates that the servicescape has a relatively consistent and strong effect on the length of time customers desire to stay in the leisure service setting and on their repatronage intentions. These findings provide support for the central premiss of this paper, that the servicescape is an important determinant of customers behavioral intentions when the service is consumed primarily for hedonic purposes and customers spend moderate to long periods of time in the servicescape. In the next section we will discuss these findings in more detail, and will elaborate on the managerial implications of the five servicescape factors. The effect of satisfaction on repatronage intentions and desire to stay Satisfaction with the servicescape was found to have a positive effect on customers repatronage intentions. This finding illustrates the importance of the servicescape in keeping customers coming back to the leisure service provider. Managers who focus entirely on the service event itself may be failing to satisfy customers completely. In order to maximize customer satisfaction, leisure service managers should constantly evaluate the quality of their servicescape through visual inspection, customer comments, and by comparison with competitors. It might also be beneficial to hire an outside consultant to evaluate the quality of the servicescape and make recommendations. Some leisure service managers may, over time, become so accustomed to the servicescape that they do not recognize deficiencies, and hence may be losing customers because of the servicescape when the primary service offering is otherwise of satisfactory quality. Satisfaction with the servicescape also had a positive impact on the length of time customers desired to stay in the servicescape. Keeping customers in the facility as long as possible is a critical concern for leisure service operators, because customers are likely to spend additional monies on concessions and souvenirs, etc. Sales of these high margin items often generate as much profit as admission revenues, or more. Customers who leave early owing to dissatisfaction with the servicescape are going to spend less money on concessions and souvenirs (at ballgames or themeparks), video games and slot machines (at arcades and casinos), or on drinks and desserts (at restaurants). In order to motivate customers to stay for longer periods of time, and hence increase profits, leisure service operators need to create and maintain an interesting and high quality servicescape. Interestingly, satisfaction with the servicescape consistently had a stronger effect on customers desire to stay than on their repatronage intentions, particularly in the casino sample (see Table AI). This finding indicates that
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Satisfaction with servicescape

Keeping customers within the facility

although customers may be attracted to leisure services for a variety of reasons, it is their satisfaction with the servicescape (in large part) that keeps them there. Some customers may be attracted to the leisure service provider because they are highly involved with that particular type of leisure service, while others are variety seekers who patronize the leisure service provider occasionally for a change of pace. However, once inside the leisure service setting, the length of time these customers stay is largely dependent on their satisfaction with the servicescape. Thus, service operators who provide a good primary service may not be maximizing profits if they do not also provide it in an enjoyable, high quality environment. The effects of the servicescape on perceived quality Facility aesthetics. The primary determinant of perceived servicescape quality in this study was the aesthetic appeal of the facility architecture and decor. Often customers form a first impression about a service provider based on the appearance of the facilities. In the case of many leisure services, the servicescape is the object of constant observation and evaluation, thus intensifying the effect. While the issue of changing architectural design would be a major decision, managers should not overlook some other basic issues of aesthetic quality. Simple tasks such as repainting the facility, adding new carpeting, adding decorative fixtures such as pictures or other interesting props, or completely changing the interior decor may be necessary to enhance the attractiveness of the servicescape. Managers whose principal focus is on delivering the primary service may be losing ancillary sales, and may be losing customers who are reluctant to repatronize the service provider owing to the poor aesthetic quality of the servicescape. Layout accessibility. Another servicescape element that consistently influenced perceived quality is layout accessibility. Layout accessibility is critical in leisure services of the type studied because ease of entry and exit may dictate the extent to which customers are able to experience and enjoy the primary service offering. Furthermore, customers who have difficulty reaching ancillary service areas, or who have to stand in lines for long periods of time, may do so at the expense of missing some of the primary service offering. Remedies for accessibility problems Problems with layout accessibility may be remedied by reallocating some space (perhaps by reducing the number of seats) to enlarge service areas and thoroughfares, or by improving the signage to distribute the flow of customers to available service areas. In some servicescapes the majority of customers tend to crowd into a few service areas on the main concourse of the facility, while other service areas in the facility go relatively unused. If this is the case, appropriate signage or helpful service attendants may better direct the flow of customers to less crowded service areas. Similarly, larger aisles and walkways and additional entrances/exits will better facilitate the flow of customers before, during, and after the leisure service event. Cleanliness. Another element that was found to be an important determinant of perceived servicescape quality in all three leisure service settings (i.e. baseball, football, and casinos) was cleanliness. Cleanliness may be particularly important for females and for customers with young children, who especially do not appreciate unclean restrooms and concession areas. From a leisure management viewpoint, cleanliness is probably the most
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Issues of aesthetic quality

controllable element of quality. Tile floors, carpets, seating areas, concourses, restrooms, and concession areas, etc. can (and should) be thoroughly cleaned prior to the service event. These areas also need to be maintained throughout the event. This task may present special challenges for managers of some leisure services where huge crowds congregate in a short period of time (e.g. at football games), and where alcohol is served; however, management should make a concerted effort to monitor and clean these areas constantly. Cleanliness had greatest effect in casino sample Interestingly, cleanliness had fairly modest effects on perceived quality in both the baseball and football samples, but had a major effect on perceived quality in the casino sample. This finding is probably a function of the amount of time spent in the different leisure service facilities. Whereas baseball and football fans typically spend only a few hours in the facility, casino patrons may spend the better part of several days in the facility. This finding implies that managers of leisure services which require to customers to spend several days in the servicescape should place an even greater emphasis on cleanliness. Seating comfort. Seating comfort had a significant effect on perceived servicescape quality in the two sports settings, but had no effect on quality in the casino setting. These findings may be due to the fact that sports spectators sit for hours in the same seat, whereas casino patrons are apt to be more mobile. Based on these findings, one would expect seating comfort to be important for other leisure services wherein customers remain in the same seat for extended time periods of time (e.g. concert and opera halls, movie theaters, etc.). Given that seating comfort was important in the two sports settings, it might be expected that leisure service providers that provide only rudimentary seating in some sections of the facility (e.g. bench seats with no clear individual space allocation, folding chairs, or deteriorating seats) may have difficulty reaching capacity except when customers desire to see the primary service offering (e.g. a big game) outweighs their need to be comfortable. From a facility construction or facility management viewpoint, a potential trade-off may exist between maximizing seating capacity and providing more comfortable seating. While more seats allow for greater revenues during occasional sell-outs, more comfortable seats may induce people to stay longer and visit more often. More comfortable seating may consistently attract a larger crowd, which may more than make up for the opportunity cost of any lost ticket revenues during the occasional sell-outs. In calculating this trade-off, one would also want to take into consideration the additional concessions revenue generated from the increased number of fans who end up staying for the entire game because of the more comfortable seating arrangements. Electronic equipment and displays Electronic equipment and displays. Electronic equipment and displays had a significant effect on perceived servicescape quality in the football and casino samples, but had no effect on quality in the minor league baseball sample. Again, one of the reasons why electronic displays and equipment can play an important part in the servicescape is that they make the waiting time more enjoyable. In many spectator settings there are frequent gaps in the primary service offering (e.g. between innings or timeouts, or between performances). Effective use of electronic displays and equipment may help
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to maintain interest and excitement during these gaps. The implication from this study is that if a service provision involves a substantial amount of passive waiting time, investments in high quality electronic display equipment should improve the perceived quality of the servicescape. (We should point out that the minor league baseball team had a mascot that entertained fans between innings; therefore, electronic displays and equipment in this setting were not as critical.)
Limitations and future research

Tangible factors must be looked at as well as intangible

In summation, a key theoretical implication of this study is that service quality research, particularly in the case of leisure services, should not only look at intangible factors (e.g. reliability, responsiveness, empathy and assurances), but should also more thoroughly investigate the tangible aspects of the service; namely, the servicescape. Future research could build on SERVQUAL (Parasuraman et al., 1988) by also measuring those tangible servicescape factors that have been shown to affect customers overall, or global, service quality perceptions (e.g. Baker et al., 1994; Parasuraman et al., 1994). An opportunity also exists to investigate and compare the effects both of the servicescape and SERVQUAL on global satisfaction and customers behavioral intentions within a variety of utilitarian and hedonic service settings. Such research might offer a better understanding of the relative importance of the primary service offering (as may be reflected by the intangible SERVQUAL factors) versus the built environment, for different types of service providers. From a practical standpoint, this information would help different service providers to estimate the impact of investments designed to improve service quality processes versus those designed to improve the service facility. Since this study did not address ambient conditions, an opportunity exists to study more closely the effects of ambient conditions in leisure service settings. In addition to music, weather, and temperature factors in leisure servicescapes, another interesting element that has received little research attention is the effect of aromas in leisure service settings (i.e. the smell of popcorn at the theater, the aroma of hotdogs at the stadium, etc.). An interesting research question is: to what extent do aromas, and other ambient conditions, influence the perceived quality of the servicescape? A carefully controlled investigation of these ambient elements could help leisure service managers to provide more pleasant and enjoyable servicescapes. In summary, this study has shown that the servicescape does have a significant impact on leisure service customers repatronage intentions and on the length of time they desire to stay in the leisure service. Managers who focus on the servicescape, in addition to the primary service offering, have the greatest chance of maximizing current and long-term profits.
References and further reading Anderson, J.C. and Gerbing, D.W. (1988), Structural equation modeling in practice: a review and recommended two-step approach, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 103, pp. 411-23. Arnould, E. and Price, L.L. (1993), River magic: extraordinary experience and the extended service encounter, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 20, June, pp. 24-44. Babin, B.J., Darden, W.R. and Griffin, M. (1994), Work and/or fun: measuring hedonic and utilitarian shopping value, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 20, March, pp. 644-56. Baker, J., Berry, L.L. and Parasuraman, A. (1988). The marketing impact of branch facility design, Journal of Retail Banking, Vol. 10, Summer, pp. 33-42.

Effects of ambient conditions should be studied

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Baker, J., Grewal, D. and Parasuraman, A (1994), The influence of the store environment on quality inferences and store image, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 22, Fall, pp. 328-39. Barker, R.T. and Pearce, C.G. (1990), The importance of proxemics at work (space and human comfort in the work environment), Supervisory Management, Vol. 35, July, pp. 10-12. Bateson, J.E.G. and Hui, M.K. (1992), The ecological validity of photographic slides and videotapes in simulating the service setting, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 19, September, pp. 271-80. Bentler, P.M. (1990), Comparative fit indexes in structural models, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 107 No. 2, pp. 238-46. Bentler, P.M. and Bonett, D.G. (1980), Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 88, pp. 588-606. Bitner, M.J. (1990), Evaluating service encounters: the effects of physical surroundings and employee responses, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 54, April, pp. 69-82. Bitner, M.J. (1992), Servicescapes: the impact of physical surroundings on customers and employees, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 56, April, pp. 57-71. Brauer, R.L. (1992), Facilities Planning: The User Requirements Method, AMACOM, New York, NY. Churchill, G.A. (1979), A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 16, February, pp. 64-73. Cronin, J.J. and Taylor, S.A. (1992), Measuring service quality: a reexamination and extension, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 56, July, pp. 55-68. Cronin, J.J. and Taylor, S.A. (1994), SERVPERF versus SERVQUAL: reconciling performance-based and perceptions-minus-expectations measurement of service quality, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 58, January, pp. 125-31. Eroglu, S. and Machleit, K.A. (1990), An empirical study of retail crowding: antecedents and consequences, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 66, Summer, pp. 201-21. Fornell, C. (1992), A national consumer satisfaction barometer: the Swedish experiment, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 56, January, pp. 6-21. Garry, M. and Sansolo, M. (1993), 60th annual report of the grocery industry: consumers show cautious optimism, Progressive Grocer, Vol. 72, April, pp. 88-94. Helyar, J. (1994), Watching football in person costs even more, Wall Street Journal, September 8, p. B1. Hui, M.K. and Bateson, J.E. (1991), Perceived control and consumer choice on the service experience, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 18, September, pp. 174-85. Jreskog, K.G. and Srbom, D. (1990), LISREL VII: Analysis of Linear Structural Relationships by the Method of Maximum Likelihood: Users Guide, Scientific Software, Mooresville, IN. Kerin, R.A., Jain, A. and Howard, D.J. (1992), Store shopping experience and consumer price-quality-value perceptions, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 68, Winter, pp. 376-97. Marsh, H.W., Balla, J.R. and McDonald, R.P. (1988), Goodness-of-fit indexes in confirmatory factor analysis: the effect of sample size, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 103 No. 3, pp. 391-410. Martin, C.L. (1986), A preliminary investigation of consumer commitment and enduring involvement life cycles, doctoral dissertation, Texas A&M University. Miller, C. (1993), US European shoppers seem pleased with their supermarkets, Marketing News, Vol. 27, June 21, p. 3. ONeill, R.E. (1992), How consumers shop, Progressive Grocer, Vol. 71, December, pp. 62-4. Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V.A. and Berry, L.L. (1988), SERVQUAL: a multiple-item scale for measuring customer perceptions of service quality and its implications for future research, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 64, Spring, pp. 12-40. Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V.A. and Berry, L.L. (1991), Refinement and reassessment of the SERVQUAL scale, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 67, Winter, pp. 420-50. Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V.A. and Berry, L.L. (1994), Reassessment of expectations as a comparison standard in measuring service quality: implications for further research, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 58, January, pp. 111-24.

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Price, L.L., Arnould, E.J. and Tierney, P. (1995), Going to extremes: managing service encounters and assessing provider performance, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 59, April, pp. 83-97. Rinne, H. and Swinyard, B. (1992), Discounters: a competitive study, Stores, Vol. 74, December, pp. 54-8. Taylor, S.A., Sharland, A., Cronin, J.J. Jr. and Bullard, W. (1993), Recreational service quality in the international setting, International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol. 4 No. 4, pp. 68-86. Tom, G., Barnett, T., Lew, W. and Selmants, J. (1987), Cueing the customer: the role of salient cues in consumer perception, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 4, Spring, pp. 23-8. Tucker, L.R. and Lewis, C. (1973), A reliability coefficient for maximum likelihood factor analysis, Psychometrika, Vol. 38, pp. 1-10. Turley, L.W. and Fugate, D.L. (1992), The multidimensional nature of services facilities: viewpoints and recommendations, Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 6, Summer, pp. 37-45. Waddell, R. (1993), Sports GNP: fans still attending & spending, Amusement Business, Vol. 105, January 4-10, pp. 13-14. Waddell, R. and Muret, D. (1994), Nation taking plunge into riverboat gambling, Amusement Business, Vol. 106, July 4, pp. 20-21. Wakefield, K.L. and Blodgett, J.G. (1994), The importance of servicescapes in leisure service settings, Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 8 No. 3, pp. 66-76. Appendix Scale development Multiple item scales were developed for each of the constructs, as recommended by Churchill (1979). Prior to collecting the final sets of data a formal pretest of the questionnaire was conducted at two major college football games. Based on statistical examination (inter-item correlations, reliabilities, principle components, factor analysis, etc.) of the pretest data, some of the items were modified. Once the final sets of data were collected statistical analyses were performed again. The five servicescape scales developed for this research were generated from observation of each of the different servicescapes, interviews with customers, and consultation with facility management and marketing research departments. Further consultation with stadium architects revealed that the items used in this survey are very similar to scales used in their facility assessment. As can be seen in Table AI, these scales were reliable across the different settings (with alphas ranging from 0.75 to 0.95). Based on Fornell (1992), perceived quality was measured with three items reflecting consumers perceptions of the servicescape relative to performance, expectations, and normative standards. Similar to many service quality studies (e.g. Cronin and Taylor, 1994), satisfaction was measured with an overall satisfactiondissatisfaction item, as well as the affective response attributed to the servicescape (see Bitners 1992 framework). Repatronage intentions was measured using a single item, similar to that used by Cronin and Taylor (1994), wherein subjects were asked about the extent to which they planned to patronize the leisure service provider in the future. Analysis of results Lisrel VII (Jreskog and Srbom, 1990) was used to test the servicescape model across each of the three leisure service settings. As recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988), we followed a two-stage approach in which we first confirmed the measurement model and then tested the structural model. The measurement model provides an assessment both of convergent and discriminant validity. Given that the measurement model fits the data, Anderson and Gerbing (1988) state that the structural model then provides an assessment of nomological validity (p. 411). Measures of fit. Several indices were used to evaluate the fit of the models. Since it is well established that the chi-square statistic is adversely affected by sample size (Bentler and Bonett, 1980) we relied on the widely used goodness-of-fit index (or, GFI; see Jreskog and Srbom, 1990), the Tucker-Lewis index (Tucker and Lewis, 1973), and Bentlers comparative fit index (or, CFI; see Bentler, 1990). Marsh et al. (1988) found that of all the stand alone indices (i.e. indices that are based solely on the hypothesized model, such as 2, 2/df, GFI,

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Alpha (lowest of three samples) Layout accessibility The facility layout makes it easy to get to the kind of food service you want The facility layout makes it easy to get to your seat (the gaming areas) The facility layout makes it easy to get to the restrooms Overall, this facilitys layout makes it easy to get where you want to go Facility aesthetics This facility is painted in attractive colorsa The interior wall and floor color schemes are attractiveb This facilitys architecture gives it an attractive character This facility is decorated in an attractive fashion This is an attractive facility Seating comfort There is plenty of knee room in the seats There is plenty of elbow room in the seats The seat arrangements provide plenty of space This facility provides comfortable seats Electronic equipment and displays The scoreboards (slot/video machines) are entertaining to watch The scoreboards (slot/video machines) add excitement to the place The scoreboards provide interesting statisticsa The slot/video machines make this place interestingb This facility has high quality scoreboards (slot /video machines) Cleanliness This facility maintains clean restrooms This facility maintains clean food service areas This facility maintains clean walkways and exits Overall, this facility is kept clean Desire to stay I enjoy spending time at this facility I like to stay at this facility as long as possible Perceived quality (seven-point, bi-polar scales) The overall quality of this facility is: terrible great much worse than I expected much better than I expected not at all what it should be just what it should be Satisfaction (seven-point, bi-polar scales) The overall feeling I get from this facility: is dissatisfaction is satisfaction puts me in a bad mood puts me in a good mood Notes: a These items were used only for the football and baseball samples b These items were used only for the casino sample 0.90

0.91

0.86

0.77

0.82

0.75

0.76

0.89

Table AI. Cronbachs alpha and list of items for each construct
AGFI, AIC) GFI is least affected by sample size and performs better than any other standalone index (p. 396). The Tucker-Lewis index and the CFI are incremental indices, in that they compare the hypothesized model to the null model of complete independence. The Tucker-Lewis index takes into account degrees of freedom, and reflects model fit very well at

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all sample sizes (Marsh et al., 1988). The CFI also takes into account degrees of freedom, and has been found to be a consistent and reliable indicator of the true population value (Bentler, 1990). Measurement model: confirmatory factor analysis. Owing to the number of constructs included in the model we created one measurement model for the independent constructs (i.e. the five servicescape factors) and another for the dependent constructs (i.e. perceived quality, satisfaction, repatronage intentions, and desire to stay), and tested these across each of the three leisure service settings (resulting in a total of six separate models). The measurement models fit very well across all three settings. All three independent constructs measurement models resulted in Tucker-Lewis and CFI indexes over 0.98 and GFI indexes over 0.97, while the dependent constructs measurement models resulted in Tucker-Lewis indexes over 0.95, and CFI and GFI indexes over 0.97. By providing an acceptable fit to the data, the measurement models provide strong evidence of both convergent and discriminant validity among the independent and dependent constructs (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). The structural model. The structural model fit the data reasonably well across all three settings (see Table I). The football sample resulted in a GFI of 0.95, a Tucker-Lewis index of 0.97, and a CFI of 0.98. In the baseball sample the model produced a GFI of 0.93, a Tucker-Lewis index of 0.97, and a CFI of 0.98, while in the casino sample the model resulted in a GFI of 0.91, a Tucker-Lewis index of 0.95, and a CFI of 0.96. Overall, these results provide strong support for the servicescape model.

Kirk L. Wakefield and Jeffrey G. Blodgett are Assistant Professors of Marketing in the Department of Management and Marketing, School of Business Administration, University of Mississippi, USA.

s
This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives a rapid appreciation of the content of this article. Those with a particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the research undertaken and its results to get the full benefit of the material presented Executive summary and implications for managers and executives That was a smart place. Well go there again The surroundings in which we consume a service affect our perception of that service. This statement is still more true when the service involves our being present in the servicescape for a long period. Wakefield and Blodgett use the examples of major college football, minor league baseball and casinos to investigate how important the effect of surroundings is to our appreciation of a service. The authors focus on elements with the servicescape that can be most easily controlled by the management aesthetics, layout, seating, electronic equipment and cleanliness. Less controllable factors such as other customers are not included in the study. Wakefield and Blodgett find that the factors they identify and assess do affect customer behavior. Most importantly they affect the length of time the customer spends at the particular venue and, as a result, the amount of money spent. For events managers this is very important since an amenable environment means people spending more time and this environment is easily controlled. A classic example of how addressing the servicescape works comes in the English football leagues. Following the disaster at Hillsborough in Sheffield a government enquiry (under Lord Taylor) set out new standards for the design and layout of football stadia. These standards included a move toward all-seater grounds and the improvement of cleanliness and ground facilities. Coupled with growing action against violence and hooliganism these changes have made football grounds more attractive places,
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encouraging people to return. The upshot has been an overall increase in attendance which the quality of the football itself does not necessarily justify. Wakefield and Blodgetts assertion that focussing on the event itself is not enough appears to be borne out. Similar findings are seen in restaurants where improving dcor, introducing non-smoking areas and providing space for customers before and after their meal all enable a restaurant to maintain its clientele. Wakefield and Blodgett also find that the servicescape also affects perceptions of service quality. In particular, interior dcor, cleanliness and accessibility affect this perception. Lets face it, we do not like sitting in a place with dirty carpets, nicotine-colored ceilings and tatty wallpaper. The service business that keeps on top of these things encourages customers to view it as an attractive place worth spending time at and worth revisiting. Another observation made by the authors is that the most important factors vary according to the type of service. For the sports venues the attractiveness and cleanliness of the physical environment was less important. They note the potential for using SERVQUAL in this context and we might therefore suggest that variation in that scales applicability industry by industry are reflected in the findings here. Visitors to a sports venue perhaps expect less in terms of dcor and cleanliness than punters in a casino. In contrast such elements as seating comfort could be more important indeed the authors imply that those managing sports venues should consider improving seating even at the cost of ground capacity if this means more regular attendees. The example of UK football grounds would appear to bear this out especially since the introduction of seating has meant that higher prices can be charged as well. Wakefield and Blodgett also consider the importance of the whole experience. In this context the presence of electronic scoreboards and displays at the sports grounds provides a useful illustration. Since both American football and baseball involve a considerable number of breaks in play, keeping the excitement levels up means that other images and impressions are needed. Similarly the use of other entertainment cheerleaders, dancers, bands and mascots adds to the experience. Spectators are not left with long periods (or what feel like long periods) waiting for the action to begin. There is always something to attract their attention. For some servicescapes this frenetic action may be inappropriate customers of a rural restaurant or country house hotel do not want the sort of nonstop action that customers of themed hamburger houses seem to require. But they still do not want to be kept waiting, desire attentive service and appreciate the right dcor and ambience. This last factor ambience is not covered by the research and the authors suggest that examination of ambient factors could also prove useful to managers in service businesses. They note elements such as temperature, music, aroma and the weather as factors. The importance of other customers has already been mentioned and this links into the problem area of smoking. All these factors are, to a greater or lesser extent, controllable (except,
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perhaps, for the weather) but they also directly impact on the interaction with customers. For those interested in these ambience issues some of the work looking at supermarket and store ambience could be valuable. Herrington and Capellas study of music in service environments (JSM, Vol. 10 No. 2) is one such study worth reading with this in mind as is Richardson et al.s examination of store aesthetics (JPBM, Vol. 5 No. 1). Attention to the environment in which a service is consumed whether or not it is a hedonistic experience is an area to which services marketers need to pay greater attention. Many of us take such things as part of what we are selling rather than seeing them as an important part of the businesss marketing effort. (Supplied by Marketing Consultants for MCB University Press)

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