Modern chemistry attempts to produce new materials which through their various characteristics and properties can be bet

ter used for all types of purposes. One prerequisite of choosing the necessary c hemical reactions necessary to synthesise some new product is a detailed knowled ge of the structure of the reactants and their characteristic properties, includ ing some knowledge of the course of the chemical reactions and the mechanisms wh ich make them go and influence them. A chemical reaction is a change in molecules and elements which results in new molecules with new properties being formed. The course of a reaction is d escribed by a chemical equation. The materials which react together are called r eactants; the materials which are formed in a reaction are called products. A re action equation, or a chemical equation, is used to abbreviate and symbolise a c hemical reaction. The reactants, the materials which begin a chemical reaction, are written on the left side of a chemical equation, in front of an arrow, and t he products are written on the right side of this arrow: Fe(s) + S(s) ® FeS(s) Iron (in the carbon group) and sulphur (same group) react to produce iro n sulphide. In many reactions, the state of matter of the materials changes. For thi s reason, whether the material, either reactant or product, is in the solid (s), liquid (l), or gaseous (g) state is indicated with the corresponding lower case letter, in parentheses as above. If a reaction results in the amount of product s being less than reactants, we call this a combination, or synthesis reaction. If there are more products than reactants, this is a dissociation, or breakdown reaction. Energy and Chemical Reactions Elements try to attain a state which is the most natural or most energet ically advantageous for them, that is, one where the outermost electron shells a re filled. For this reason, electrons are very often transferred between atoms, either donated or accepted. Some elements donate their electrons more easily, wh ile some elements accept electrons more readily. In extreme cases, the electrons of one atom are completely transferred to an atom of another or the same elemen t. But most of the time, electrons are not completely transferred, but rather sh ared between two atoms, though those electrons may be attracted to one of the at oms more strongly than the other. This is a chemical bond. The most ideal state for atoms and molecules is always that state with t he lowest energy. In most chemical reactions, then, the energy that was included in higher-energy bonds is released to the surroundings. But in order for such a n energy-releasing reaction to occur, the reactants must be infused with enough energy to break the original bonds and allow the formation of new ones. Most of the time, a certain amount of energy has to be added to the system (usually in t he form of heat), to start the reaction, or to make it go. This energy is called the activation energy of a reaction. In order for new compounds to be formed, the bonds of the reactants must first be broken. An activation energy must be introduced into the system. This helps in the formation of new bonds which are more energetically favourable for the atoms and molecules involved in the reaction. If a reaction evolves more ene rgy than was necessary to begin it (activation energy), this reaction proceeds o n its own, resulting in the release of some energy to the surroundings.

This is an exothermic reaction. If, however, the energy released in form ing new compounds is less than its activation energy, energy must be constantly added as the reaction proceeds. This type of reaction does not proceed on its ow n. It is an endothermic reaction. The energy released can be in the form of heat, but it can be light or e lectricity, too. The variety of energetic phenomena released by chemical reactio ns is called heat of reaction. Every chemical reaction goes at its own pace (reaction rate). Influencin g this rate is very important in chemistry. The concentration of individual reac tants and products can be determined, as can changes in heat and temperature. In gaseous state of matter reactions, reaction rate can be influenced by pressure, with higher pressures resulting in more rapid reactions. Reaction rate increase s as the concentration of reactants increases, too. Greater temperature also cau ses reaction rate to rise. A rise of 10 Kelvin (= 10° C) causes reaction rat e to double. Reaction rate is also markedly influenced by the size of the surface on which reactants are allowed to react. In other words, if reactants are divided i nto smaller particles, a reaction proceeds more quickly than if reactants are le ft in bulk. Formation of Ions In many compounds, atoms form what is called an ionic bond. In this type of bonding, electrons in one atom's outer shell are transferred from that atom to another, which accepts them. This is a complete transfer. The atom which acce pts the electron or electrons completely fills its outer shell, thus attaining a noble gas electron configuration. The donor atom, the one which gives up its el ectrons, also attains a noble gas electron configuration (at a lower energy leve l) by emptying its most outer shell. The transfer of negatively charged electrons leads to an excess of posit ively charged protons in the donor atom, thus forming an ion which is overall ch arged positively (cation). The second atom, the one which accepts the electron o r electrons, becomes a negatively charged ion (anion). An ionic bond is based on the electrostatic attraction of two ions of opposite charges. Salts make up a great percentage of the compounds which form ionic bonds . They are composed of atoms or molecules with a positive charge (cations) and t he second half of an acid, which is a negatively charged anion. The reaction mec hanism begins when an atom (or atoms) of hydrogen escape the acid, forming a pos itive ion. This positively charged hydrogen atom is replaced with another cation (or cations). For example: HCl (hydrochloric acid) + NaOH (sodium hydroxide) = NaCl (t able salt)+ H2O (water) The valence of a salt is given by the number of hydrogen ions which are able to be transferred in a given reaction. In the above reaction, just one hydrogen ion is replaced by one sodium i on, forming sodium chloride (table salt, NaCl). For this reason, table salt has one valence. Salts are soluble (able to dissolve) in water, and they have high m elting and boiling points. Salts, when they are found in the solid state of matt er, are crystalline in form. Ionic compounds are usually spatially repeating molecules. In other word s, they form crystals. Crystals can grow out of, or crystallise from, a saturate d solution (from a solution which has exceeded its maximum solubility, where the re is more salt than can be dissolved). Or, crystals can be grown from the trans

formation of an amorphic material (from a material without a regular crystalline structure). What is the difference between a crystal and an amorphous material? Amor phous materials are not repeating, fixed, regular structures. On the other hand, crystalline structures have completely determined inner arrangements - their cr ystal lattice. Every crystal has specific angles which together form the sides of that crystal. These repeat in a formation, with proportions which are highly specific . Other types of bonds can be integrated into a crystal lattice, as its co nstituent parts. Crystals can be of various shapes and sizes. These varying crys talline structures, with their different forms and sizes, are what differentiate s atoms, molecules and ions. It all depends on the exact geometric arrangement o f a crystal, with its defined borders and in some cases sharp angles. The ideal crystal lattice is a thing of beauty, in which all of the points of the lattice are perfectly arranged in their natural places. In reality, however, such perfec t crystals are quite rare. Most of the time, crystals which occur in nature are imperfect. Some points on the crystal lattice contain components which do not be long. Sometimes, the lattice is quite flawed. The growth of a crystal or crystals is dependent on external factors, su ch as temperature, the natural speed of crystal growth, solution concentration, the amount of crystallising material and the presence, if any, of foreign materi al in the solution. Crystals can be described with the help of two terms: Proportion of Crystal and Type of Crystal Agglomerates which appear from various materials can combine to form a c omplex, varied, imperfect crystalline structure. Crystals can also be differentiated according to their crystal lattice. According to this criterion, there are simple crystals, in which individual poin ts of the crystal lattice are occupied by parts of the same kind. The growth of a crystal can be imagined as a kind of regular swelling, on all sides, at its wa lls and edges. Besides those, there are complex crystals which are composed of m ultiple simple crystals. Crystals can be investigated by structural analysis procedures. There ar e 7 basic types of crystal lattices and 7 other derivatives of these. All togeth er, around 1000 crystalline structures are presently known. Polymorphic crystals can appear in various forms. Materials which are fo rmed from crystals can actually change their crystal lattice depending on temper ature. Graphite (a component of pencil leads) and diamond are both modifications of the crystalline structure of the carbon atom ( C ). The differing characteri stics come from differing attractions and forces between the various atoms. An allotrope (allos from the Greek - different, trope - change) is a com pound which is able to take on various forms. Monotropes are those crystals that can be arranged in various ways, but only one of these is stable. The other forms, when they are present, tend to tra nsform into this most stable form. Since temperature differences are not relevan t to this situation, these transformations may not be considered as temperature based. While allotropic materials can be found in a variety of forms, monotropes

, on the other hand, will sooner or later transform to one, most stable form. Enantiotropes are those crystals which have the ability to change their crystal lattices as a function of temperature. As temperature rises or falls, th ese crystals change their crystalline arrangements. One lattice exists above a c ertain temperature, with another in place below that critical temperature. Most of the time, these critical temperatures are very high. Of interest are a number of forms of iron which are assumed during production. Isomorphs are those substances which share the same crystalline structur e, although they are completely different compounds. One of the simplest crystalline structures is the one which characterise s table salt (NaCl). Its structure is that of a cube which has at its corners io ns of chlorine. Sodium ions are at the centres of the sides and in the centre of the cube. Electron Pairs, Covalent Bonds Bonds between atoms or in some cases molecules can be different. Paired, covalent bonds are found in non-metallic molecules. The atoms in the molecules of basic gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen are all joined together wit h covalent bonds. These types of bonds have atoms connected with the help of the electrons in the outermost shell. The result is the union of two electrons to f orm an electron pair. Negatively charged, bonded electrons are attracted to the positively charged nuclei of both atoms. Because both of the nuclei must now sha re the electrons, they stick together, joined by the union of their electrons, a n electron pair. Each of the two atoms, then, seemingly has one or more electron extra. T he bond between the atoms is based on the attraction of the two nuclei of the at oms to the shared electron pair. The shared electrons belong to both atoms at th e same time. All atoms, in whatever state they are found, have the tendency to w ant to fill their outer electron shells. In the hydrogen molecule (H2), each hyd rogen atom has two electrons associated with it, in its one and only outermost s hell. (An isolated hydrogen atom has only one electron.) When, however, two hydr ogens are bonded together, they achieve the electron configuration of the second element, helium (He). Covalent bonds are very stable, because the atoms involved in a covalent ly bonded compound fill their outermost shells completely, bringing the atoms to their most energetically desirable state. This type of electron arrangement is equivalent to that of a noble gas, because all of the noble gases have a stable electron configuration (filled outermost electron shell). Also, molecules of chl orine, oxygen and nitrogen can reach the stable electron configuration in their outermost shell - by bonding with another atom of their own kind. That is, two c hlorines bonded together, two oxygens, two nitrogens. In order to reach the noble gas electron configuration, it is often nece ssary to fill various spaces in the outermost electron shell. In this case, mult iple electron pairs are needed to fill these "holes". In the oxygen molecule, tw o electron pairs are needed, with the nitrogen molecule three. This is necessary because all atoms taking part in these types of bonding reactions need either 2 electrons in their outermost shell (elements in the first energy level, or peri od, of the periodic table: H and He) or 8 (other groups of the periodic table wh ich are at the right end). These atoms which have incomplete outermost electron shells must attract other electrons, from other atoms, to fill their shells comp letely. An atom like oxygen can join with two atoms, forming an electron pair wi th each of them, or it may join with one other atom to form two electron pairs w ith the one atom, called a double bond. There are also triple bonds. Carbon (C)

is capable of forming single, double and triple bonds. In a covalent bond, a shared electron pair in a molecule is attracted to both nuclei on both sides equally strongly, but only if the two atoms sharing t hat pair are the same. Attractive force depends on the charge of the atomic nucl eus and on the amount of electrons in the atom's electron cloud. The ability to attract electrons by an element was called electronegativity (EN) by L. Pauling (American chemist). The quantity electronegativity is defined as the comparative ability of an atom to be attracted to an individual atomic nucleus. In other words, the flo urine atom attracts bonded electrons most strongly of all atoms. It was therefor e assigned the highest electronegativity of all elements - 4.0. Electronegativit y values of all the elements can be found in the periodic table. In every period , every horizontal row of the periodic table, electronegativity rises from left to right across the period, with rising number of protons, or atomic number. On the other hand, in the main groups, as we move down the periodic table from top to bottom, or vertically, electronegativity decreases. So, the element with the largest value of electronegativity must logically be found in the top right of t he period table. Besides the noble gases, which have their outermost electron sh ells filled, and do not need electrons, the element which attracts electrons mos t readily is flourine (F), with a value of 4.0. At the other end of the periodic table, bottom left, are elements with the lowest electronegativity (Fr 0.7). In compounds composed of two different atoms, an electron pair is not sh ared equally among the two. Instead, it is attracted to the two sides with diffe rent attractive force, based on the atoms' differing electronegativities. In the molecule hydrogen chloride (HCl), the hydrogen atom and the chlorine atom share one electron pair. But because of the greater size of the chlorine nucleus, thi s electron pair is more strongly attracted by the chlorine nucleus than by the h ydrogen nucleus. In addition, the chlorine atom has another 6 electrons in its o utermost shell. These are arranged into three electron pairs - all unbonded. For this reason, the chlorine atom has an overall negative charge to it, if only a partially negative charge. The hydrogen atom, on the other side, has the same va lue of partial positive charge. The molecule HCl, or hydrogen chloride, with its partial positive side (hydrogen) and its partial negative side (chlorine) is sa id to have a dipole, or dipole moment. This means that the one pair of shared el ectrons is not shared equally. In this case, the pair is closer to the chlorine atom. It is partially negatively charged because it now has more electrons than it has protons in its nucleus. Hydrogen, on the other side, has less electrons t han it has protons, and is therefore positive. Bonded electrons are written as a dash, a short line between two element symbols, or between molecular chemical f ormulas. This type of designation is called a valence formula. The electronegativity of an element is determined by the amount of proto ns it has in its nucleus, as well as the number of electrons it contains in its outermost shell. Thanks to the partial transfer of a bonded electron pair to the more electronegative atom in a molecule, that molecule can have a positive and negative side. These sides are called poles, and if they differ in a significant way, the molecule is said to have a dipole. The result is a molecule with one s ide positive, one side negative. This can, of course, affect neighbouring molecu les, attracting or repelling them if they are partially charged. The water molec ule has a partial negative charge, found on the oxygen atom. The two hydrogen at oms have a partial positive charge. Both free electron pairs in the oxygen atom attract the centre of a part ially positively charged neighbouring molecule with their electromagnetic attrac tive force. This type of bonding is called hydrogen bonding. Each molecule of wa ter hydrogen bonds with other water molecules, aligning so as to produce a posit ive, negative repeating pattern. The positive side is hydrogen, the negative oxy

gen. This phenomenon, hydrogen bonding in water, explains water's high surface t ension. This means that the molecules on the surface are weakly bonded to the re st of the liquid, by these hydrogen bonds. For that reason, water, even at relat ively high temperatures, is still a liquid, whereas other similar molecules have already changed to the gaseous state. Bonds between atoms can be depicted in various ways: H : H formula with points, or dots, indicating electrons H - H or with hydrogen chloride H Cl valence formula H2 HCl chemical formula of the molecule Acids, Bases, Salts Intermolecular Forces Most inorganic compounds are categorised as either acids, bases or salts . S. Arrhenius (Swedish physical chemist) came up with one of the most often use d definitions for an acid. According to that definition, acids are materials which when dissolved i n water release hydrogen cations (atoms of hydrogen with a positive charge). Bas es, on the other hand, are materials which release hydroxide anions (negatively charged compounds of one atom oxygen, one atom hydrogen) into solution when diss olved. Salts are made of atoms or molecules, with one side positively charged, the other negatively charged. They are formed from an acid when that acid gives up its hydrogen atoms with their positive charges, only to replace the hydrogen with the ion from a me tal. A number of acids and bases were known long before their chemical makeup s and reaction mechanisms were known. As pure substances they are not distinguis hable from each other. So, acids have to be dissolved in water in order for chem ists to determine their characteristic properties. Acids begin to react when pla ced in water. In an aqueous solution the ions of an acid separate from each othe r, into a hydrogen cation and the corresponding anion. Both of these ions, free in the water, interact with it. In essence, water molecules surround the ions, c reating what is called hydrated ions. So, a hydrogen ion does not remain isolate d, but undergoes a hydration reaction to produce a positively charged "water" mo lecule, in the reaction H2 O + H+ = H3O+. These ions cause a solution to be acid ic in character, and cause the colour of an indicator to change, indicating an e xcess of H3O+ ions in solution. (An indicator is a substance which can differentiate w hether an acid or base is present in a solution.) In addition, ions in solution cause a solution to conduct electricity, or be conductive. When a base is dissolved in water, positive ions are released into solut ion, and so are negatively charged hydroxide ions. A solution which contains hyd roxide ions is a basic solution, or an alkaline solution. Just like with acids, the ions released into solution are hydrated, or surrounded by water. These solu tions also conduct an electric current. Basic solutions also affect the colour o f an indicator, and can produce basic salts when reacted with acids. Bases are b asically lattices of ions. Their solids can also conduct an electric current.

According to the Brönsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases, any comp ound which releases a proton, or a hydrogen atom, into solution is an acid. Any compound which accepts a proton is considered a base. Solutions which contain di ssolved bases and acids, because they release protons or hydroxide ions, conduct electricity. The chemical process in which an electrical current runs through a solut ion is called an electrolysis. Bonds are broken in the process due to the electr olysis, with new substances being formed on the ends of the conductors, or elect rodes. Electrolysis reactions require the kinds of solutions which contain diss ociated ions, allowing the solution to carry an electrical current. During the electrolysis of an ionic solution, negatively charged ions (a nions) migrate to the positively charged electrode (anode), while positively cha rged cations migrate to the negatively charged electrode, the cathode. In the ca se of an acidic or basic solution, positive ions migrate to the cathode (the end of the electrode with a negative pole), whereas the negative hydroxide ions swi m to the anode (electrode with a positive pole). In these types of solutions (ca lled electrolytic), there is no movement of electrons as in a crystal lattice, b ut rather movement of free swimming ions to the corresponding electrode. The num ber of ions is the determining factor as to whether, and how well, a solution co nducts electricity. The volume of hydrogen ions in a solution is measured as the value of th e pH of a solution. The value of pH is the negative base ten logarithm giving th e concentration of protons (hydrogen (H), measured from 0 to 14. A pH of O means that the concentration of hydrogen = 1, while a value of 14 means a concentrati on of 0.00000000000001. Solutions with a pH from 0-7 are acidic. The acidic character of a solution decreases with rising pH. At a pH of 7, a solution is neutral. As pH rises from 7, so does the alkalinity of a soluti on. At a pH of 7, there are the same amount of hydrogen ions as hydroxide ions. Indicators are used in order to determine the acidic or basic character of a reaction. These substances have to have the property of changing their colo ur in the presence of an acidic or basic solution. For example, litmus paper cha nges its colour to blue in a basic solution. In a neutral solution, it is pink. In a basic solution, it is red. Colour changes differ from one indicator to anot her, but are characteristic for one specific indicator. With the right choice of an indicator, pH can be fairly accurately determined. The degree with which an acid releases hydrogen ions into solution depen ds on the concentration of an acid. The stronger an acid, the more protons it re leases into solution, and the more negative ions as well. Two well-known strong acids are sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid (HCl). Weak acids, on the other ha nd, do not release as many ions into solution. In other words, they do not disso ciate as completely. Examples of weak acids include citric acid and acetic acid. If we mix an acidic solution with an equally strong basic solution in th e same proportions, the resulting solution will be neutral. This is called a neu tralisation reaction. In a neutralisation reaction, hydrogen ions are neutralise d by hydroxide ions - forming water - and a salt. Heat is also released during n eutralisation reactions. Many chemical reactions that seem not to be working or go at an extremel y slow pace can be accelerated by addition of a small amount of some material. T he material, called a catalyst, is added to the reactants. A reaction which requ ires a catalyst is said to be catalysed.

Catalysts take part in a reaction, but they are not used up by the react ion and are unchanged by the reaction. In the type of reaction which requires a catalyst, the reactants would react either too slowly or not at all. In other wo rds, a catalyst gives the system a boost, an increase in activisation energy. Th e presence of a catalyst in a chemical reaction makes the reaction easier, or in some cases, possible at all: A catalyst takes part in a reaction by reacting wi th one of the original reactants to form a an intermediate product, which goes o n to produce the required end product. One possibility is that one of the reacta nts, with the help of interaction with a catalyst, acquires new spatial dimensio ns or other characteristics which make it more reactive with another of the reac tants. We differentiate between homogeneous catalysts, which are the same state of matter as the other reactants, and heterogeneous catalysts, where the catalys t is in a different state of matter.

This text was drawn from the Chemical Re actions and Energy, Electron Pairs, Covalent Bonds, Acids, Bases, Salts page, wh ere you will find explanatory outlinks. Translation Resources Translated by KENAX Translation Service.

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