1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Preliminaries Approaches to research Developing your ideas Selecting the method(s) of collecting data Practicalities of data collection Analysing and interpreting your findings Writing the report
Chapter 1 Preliminaries
Websites on topics covered in this chapter
http://www.intute.ac.uk/socialsciences/ INTUTE: Social Sciences (formerly known as SOSIG the Social Science Information Gateway) is an absolutely invaluable resource for anyone carrying out a research project using social science methods. Discussed in detail in chapter 3.
Team building
http://www.wpi.edu/Academics/GPP/Students/ch7a.html Invlauable for anyone working on a group project. Written by James Groccia, John T. O'Connor, and Susan Vernon Gerstenfeld from Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA.
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Action research
Introduction to action research
http://www.enquirylearning.net/ELU/Issues/Research/Res1Ch4.html A useful chapter on what is meant by action research and how to do it. By Rob McBride and John Schostak, Manchester Metropolitan University.
Case study
Introduction to case study
http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-2/tellis1.html Provides a general discussion of case study methodology in the context of a specific example on the introduction of information technology at a university. By Winston Tellis in the ejournal Qualitative Report. http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR6-2/zucker.html Another useful paper, from the e-journal Qualitative Report, on case study. Focus is on nursing research, but generally applicable. By Donna Zucker, University of Massachusetts.
Documentary analysis
See section in chapter 4 below.
Ethnographic research
What is ethnography?
http://cira.med.yale.edu/events/mbseminars/mbs070705.pdf
Evaluation research
The worldwide evaluation gateway
http://www.policy-evaluation.org/ Includes a wide range of articles, papers and reports. Links to methods, also to data, e-mail lists, other resources. Very comprehensive. Part of the the Virtual Library' Project.
Evaluation resources
http://gsociology.icaap.org/methods/ A list of free resources for methods in evaluation and social research. The focus is on how to do evaluation research and the methods used: surveys, focus groups, sampling, interviews and other methods. Most of the extensive links are to resources that can be read over the Web. By Gene Shackman, applied sociologist.
Experiments
Note: I have had some difficulty in selecting websites to recommend. Many I have come across contain dogmatic and debatable views about experimentation.
Experimental design
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/desexper.htm
This can definitely be recommended. Includes sections on two-group experimental designs, classifying experimental designs, factorial designs, randomized block designs, covariance designs and hybrid experimental designs. From Bill Trochim's Research Methods Knowledge Base'. See alsohttp://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/quasiexp.htm for quasi-experimental designs.
Introductory text
Robson, C. (1994) Experiment, Design and Statistics in Psychology, 3rd edition. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Out of print but available at http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/researchproject/experiments.asp
Feminist research
Methodological and epistemological issues
http://www.socresonline.org.uk/2/3/3.html Covers a range of issues raised when doing feminist research. A paper from Sociological Research Online by D. Millen. http://www.qualitative-research.net/fqs-texte/1-01/1-01westmarland-e.htm Discusses the appropriateness of qualitative and quantitative methods for feminist research. A paper by Nicole Westmarland in Forum: Qualitative Social Research.
Grounded theory
Introductions to grounded theory
www.analytictech.com/mb870/introtoGT.htm
A straightforward account of what grounded theory is and how to use it by Steve Borgatti. The paper outlines the key principles of grounded theorizing and then goes on to discuss open, axial and selective coding in turn, using worked examples of qualitative data. http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arp/groundedition.html A very useful thumbnail sketch'. Addressed to psychologists but generally applicable. By Bob Dick, Southern Cross University.
Qualitative research (includes stuff on action research, case study, grounded theory, ethnography, etc.)
How to do qualitative research
http://www.qual.auckland.ac.nz/ Wide-ranging introduction to what is involved in doing a project based on collecting qualitative data. Written for students of information systems but generally applicable. By Michael Myers, University of Auckland.
ESDS Qualidata
http://www.esds.ac.uk/qualidata/ A service providing access to a range of social science qualitative datasets. The focus is on digital data collections from purely qualitative and mixed methods contemporary research and from UK-based classic studies'.
Surveys
Guide to doing survey research
http://www2.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/pa765/survey.htm Detailed coverage of most aspects of survey design. Online material linked to the course Quantitative Research in Public Administration' by G. David Garson, North Carolina State University.
Survey design
http://www.wpi.edu/Academics/GPP/Students/ch10.html Introduction to survey methodology and design. Includes material on sampling, response rates, Choosing the right survey method, Question wording, questionnaire design, pretesting, survey implementation, ethical considerations, and reporting on survey methodology. Prepared by James K. Doyle, Worcester Polytechnic Institute.
Other approaches
Narrative-based research
http://www.enquirylearning.net/ELU/Issues/Research/Res3.html An introduction to the basic ideas behind using narrative as a vehicle for research by John Schostak, Manchester Metropolitan University.
Hermeneutics
http://www.enquirylearning.net/ELU/Issues/Research/hermeneutics.html A short introduction to using a hermeneutic approach. Also by John Schostak, Manchester Metropolitan University.
Discourse analysis
http://extra.shu.ac.uk/daol/ This is the homepage of a relatively new online journal dedicated to the theory and practice of discourse analysis (DA). Edited by a team at Sheffield Hallam University, it contains a range of interesting articles that you can browse from the current and previous editions of the journal; these include themed issues' on topics such as feminist DA. Useful section on DA resources.
Conversation analysis
http://www-staff.lboro.ac.uk/~ssca1/sitemenu.htm Tutorial covering the basic principles of conversation analysis written by Charles Antaki at Loughborough University. See also http://www-staff.lboro.ac.uk/~ssca1/home.htm. A course designed for a group of Danish students studying for an English degree by Charles Antaki. The basic idea of thelectures is to give a reasonable grounding in Conversation Analysis, or CA and http://www-staff.lboro.ac.uk/%7Essca1/antaki1.htm which includes several papers on the topic
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Introduction
Topic selection
Getting started
http://www.socscidiss.bham.ac.uk/s5.html Discusses how to find a topic and suggests some sources that may prove helpful. Part of The Social Science Undergraduate Dissertation Companion' edited by Malcolm Todd from Sheffield Hallam University
Sources
How to do a literature search
www.ccsr.ac.uk/methods/festival2004/programme/Sat/pm/D/Documents/Booth_000.ppt Entertaining and enlightening PowerPoint presentation from a workshop presentation by Andrew Booth of Sheffield University and Mary Dixon-Woods of Leicester University.
Library Research
http://www.library.cornell.edu/olinuris/ref/research/tutorial.html Seven Steps to Effective Library Research by Michael Engle, Olin and Uris Libraries, Cornell University. http://www.socscidiss.bham.ac.uk/s6.html How to get help with finding literature and research. Part of The Social Science Undergraduate Dissertation Companion' edited by Malcolm Todd from Sheffield Hallam University.
Reference styles
Psychology
http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/ref_apa.html Detailed guide to the American Psychological Association (APA) referencing system, commonly used in both social and natural sciences. By David Baker and Lynn Henrichsen, Brigham Young University.
Sociology
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_docsocio.html Formatting in Sociology.
Humanities
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_mla.html Using the Modern Language Association (MLA) format common in the humanities.
Ethics
Research ethics for projects
http://www.socscidiss.bham.ac.uk/s8.html Discussion of research ethics for projects in Sociology, Anthropology, Politics, Social Policy, Social Work and Criminology. There are links to various useful documents: Research Ethics Proposal, Participant Information Sheet, Sample Consent Form, Risk Assessment Proforma. A resource developed in partnership by the Higher Education Academy's Centre for Sociology, Anthropology and Politics, the Centre for Social Work and Policy and Sheffield Hallam University
Education
http://www.aera.net/aboutaera/?id=222 American Educational Research Association. http://www.scutrea.ac.uk/library/beraethguide.pdf British Educational Research Association guidelines.
Psychology
http://www.apa.org/ethics/ American Psychological Association http://www.psychology.org.au/about/ethics/
Australian Psychological society http://www.bps.org.uk/the-society/code-of-conduct/code-of-conduct_home.cfm British Psychological Society http://www.cpa.ca/aboutcpa/committees/ethics/codeofethics/ Canadian Psychological Association http://www.psychology.org.nz/Code_of_Ethics New Zealand Psychological Society
Social anthropology
http://www.aaanet.org/committees/ethics/ethcode.htm American Anthropological Association http://www.nomadit.net/asatest/ethics/guidelines.htm Association of Social Anthropologists of the Commonwealth
Social work
http://www.basw.co.uk/about/code-of-ethics/ British Association of Social Workers http://www.socialworkers.org/pubs/code/code.asp National Association of Social Workers (USA) see section 5.02 on research and evaluation
Sociology
http://www.asanet.org/about/ethics.cfm American Sociological Association http://www.britsoc.co.uk/equality/Statement+Ethical+Practice.htm
Criminology
http://www.britsoccrim.org/codeofethics.htm British Society of Criminology
Oral History
http://www.ohs.org.uk/ethics/index.php Oral History Society
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Reliability
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/reliable.htm Bill Trochim's chapter on reliability in the Research Methods Knowledge Base.
Interviews
Interviewing Techniques
http://www.wpi.edu/Academics/GPP/Students/ch11.html
Includes material on when interviews are appropriate, choosing the right interview method, getting the interview, ethical considerations, in-depth qualitative interviews, selecting participants, deciding how many interviews to conduct, preparing to interview, the interview process, and reducing and analyzing the data. Also covers similar issues on the running of focus groups. Prepared by James K. Doyle, Worcester Polytechnic Institute.
Focus groups
http://www2.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/pa765/focusgroups.htm Short, clear review of the issues involved in running focus groups by G. David Garson, North Carolina State University.
Questionnaires
Questionnaire design
www.statpac.com/surveys A very useful tutorial teaching how to design a questionnaire and conduct a survey. Very practical, covering aspects such as planning the structure of the questionnaire, working out its layout, writing a cover letter, following up non-responders, and managing the data. By David Walonick at the University of St Thomas, Minnesota.
www.socresonline.org.uk/2/2/7.html The use of diaries as a qualitative research method, particularly in relation to medical sociology by H. Elliot (from Sociological Research Online). http://www.socresonline.org.uk/10/4/hislop.html Using audio diaries to research sleep. By Jenny Hislop and colleagues (also in Sociological Research Online).
Scaling
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/scaling.htm Bill Trochim's chapter on scaling in the Research Methods Knowledge Base. Covers Thurstone or Equal-Appearing Interval Scaling, Likert or Summative' Scaling and Guttman or Cumulative' Scaling.
Observation
General
http://www.who.int/docstore/hiv/Core/Chapter_9.6.html Covers the use of different types of observation in real world projects. Part of the Rapid Assessment and Response Technical Guide, by Gerry Stimson and colleagues from the World Health Organization.
Participant Observation
http://www.qualitative-research.net/fqs-texte/2-05/05-2-43-e.htm Very useful, thorough discussion of the issues involved in using participant observation as a data collection method. includes exercises for developing observation techniques. A paper by Barbara Kawulich in Forum: Qualitative Social Research.
Structured observation
http://informationr.net/tdw/publ/INISS/Chap1.html Example of a project using structured observation, with details of procedures and methodology. From Tom Wilson and David Streatfield, Project INISS. http://www.isec2000.org.uk/abstracts/papers_p/pratchett_2.htm Use of a movement observation schedule with children with profound and multiple learning difficulties. A paper by Glynis Pratchett presented at ISEC 2000.
A simple classroom observation schedule by Vidijka Harej and colleagues. From the South East Europe Education Cooperation Network (SEE-ECN). (PDF file needs Adobe Reader) http://portal.wpspublish.com/portal/page?_pageid=53,70384&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) by Catherine Lord and colleagues at the University of Michigan.
Documentary analysis
Example
http://www.ruralnursing.unbc.ca/analysis.php A study of rural and remote nursing practice in Canada based on an analysis of policy documents. Open access to useful detailed report as a PDF file. Produced by a team from several Canadian universities.
Approaches
http://chnm.gmu.edu/worldhistorysources/whmdocuments.html Discusses strategies for analyzing primary sources including newspapers, official documents and personal accounts also material culture (images and objects), maps, music and travel narratives. Part of a project on World History Sources' from George Mason University.
Unobtrusive measures
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/unobtrus.htm Bill Trochim's chapter on unobtrusive measures in the Research Methods Knowledge Base.
Online research
Other methods
Simulation
http://www-personal.umich.edu/~axe/research/AdvancingArtSim2003.pdf. Wide-ranging review of simulation methods and methodology by Robert Axelrod, University of Michigan. (PDF file)
Discourse analysis
http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/discourse.htm Short description with bibliography and links. http://extra.shu.ac.uk/daol/ Home page of Discourse Analysis Online' an online journal covering many aspects of the topic.
Verbal protocols
http://informationr.net/ir/8-4/paper155.html
Example of the use of verbal protocols in observing documentary reading. A paper by Maringela Fujita and colleagues in Information Research'.
Multiple methods
Example
http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-4/jones.html Discusses the use of multiple methods in sports fan research. Paper by Ian Jones in The Qualitative Report'.
Safety issues
Safety in Social Research
http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/SRU29.html
Very useful discussion of the risks involved in social research for researchers, and for those people who agree to take part. A Social Research Update paper by Gary Craig, Anne Corden and Patricia Thornton.
Gantt charts
http://www.ganttchart.com/ Clear diagrams showing the Gantt chart approach.
Sampling
General
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/sampling.htm Bill Trochim's chapter on sampling in the Research Methods Knowledge Base. Sections on Sampling Terminology, Statistical Sampling Terms, Probability and Nonprobability Sampling. http://www.mis.coventry.ac.uk/%7Enhunt/meths/listof.htm Clear and easy to follow discussion of various types of sample. By Neville Hunt and Sidney Tyrrell, Coventry University http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/fact_sample.html A brief introduction to sampling, developed by the Psychology department, UC Davis. http://www2.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/pa765/sampling.htm Excellent detailed coverage of many aspects of sampling by David Garson, North Carolina State University.
Sample Sizes
http://www.resolutions.co.nz/sample_sizes.htm Discusses the factors to be considered when deciding on sample size, and shows the sample sizes needed for a given margin of error at different confidence levels from Research Solutions, an Auckland market research company. An alternative site covering the same issues (and
explaining the meaning of confidence levels and other technical terms) is http://www.surveysystem.com/sscalc.htm. from Creative Research Systems, Petaluma.
Snowball sampling
http://www.respondentdrivensampling.org/ Paper on respondent-driven sampling' (a combination of snowball sampling with a mathematical model that weights the sample to compensate for the fact that the sample was collected in a non-random way). By Salganik, M. J. and D. D. Heckathorn.
Probability sampling
http://www.fantaproject.org/publications/sampling.shtml Guide showing how to choose probability samples (e.g. of communities, households, and/or individuals). Material developed by The Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance (FANTA) Project, Academy for Educational Development, Washington, DC.
Informed Consent
Issues, background etc.
http://sophia.smith.edu/~jdrisko/consent.htm Comprehensive review with wide range of links. from James Drisko, Smith College School for Social Work, Northampton, MA.
Anonymity issues
Anonymity of research participants
http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/SRU27.html Discusses assumptions, ethics and practicalities (and the legal requirements of the Data Protection Act). A Social Research Update paper by Anne Grinyer.
Problems
Dealing with clients
http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/SRU27.html How to anticipate possible difficulties. The focus is on contract research but useful suggestions for anyone working in organizations; e.g. What happens if the client does not like the research findings? What ethical issues are raised by the client becoming the subject of the research? If the client objects to the findings, what are the implications for publication? Another Social Research Update paper by Anne Grinyer.
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Quantitative analysis
Online introductory statistics texts
My out of print Penguin text Experiment, Design and Statistics in Psychology' http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/researchproject/experiments.asp HyperStat Online Textbook by David Lane, Rice University http://davidmlane.com/hyperstat/ Descriptive statistics http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/statdesc.htm Inferential statistics http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/statinf.htm Sections on the t-test, dummy variables, posttest-only analysis, factorial design analysis, randomized block analysis, analysis of covariance, nonequivalent groups analysis and regression-discontinuity analysis.
Selecting Statistics
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/selstat/ssstart.htm An online statistical advisor. Answer the questions and it will lead you to an appropriate statistical test for your data. All from Bill Trochim's Web Center for Social Research Methods.
Time-series analysis
http://www2.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/pa765/time.htm Comprehensive coverage of the issues involved in various types of time-series. By David Garson, North Carolina State University.
Qualitative analysis
Grounded theory analysis
www.analytictech.com/mb870/introtoGT.htm A straightforward account of what grounded theory is and how to use it by Steve Borgatti. The paper outlines they key principles of grounded theorizing and then goes on to discuss open, axial and selective coding in turn, using worked examples of qualitative data.
Discussion of the issues involved in doing content analysis in qualitative rather than quantitative terms. Outlines the basic principles of this form of content analysis, including the idea of inductive category development', and then goes on to summarize a number of interesting studies that have used this method to analyse documents, from mass media texts to interview transcripts, diaries and biographies.
Presentation
Presentation of statistical information
http://www.rdg.ac.uk/ssc/publications/guides/toptgs.html Short but authoritative guide from the Statistical Services Centre, University of Reading.
Presenting graphs
http://www.bettycjung.net/Graphing.htm Covers just about everything you are likely to need to know about using graphs (includes section on Gantt charts). By Betty Jung. http://www.scs.gmu.edu/~wss/methods/zawitzg.html An excellent PowerPoint presentation on how to produce good graphs. From the Washington Statistical Society Methodology Seminars by Marianne W. Zawitz, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Presenting tables
http://www.scs.gmu.edu/~wss/methods/zawitzt.html Another excellent PowerPoint presentation this time on how to produce good tables. From the Washington Statistical Society Methodology Seminars by Marianne W. Zawitz, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Report writing
Guides
http://www.socscidiss.bham.ac.uk/s11.html Short review of all aspects of writing a report or dissertation. Part of The Social Science Undergraduate Dissertation Companion edited by Malcolm Todd from Sheffield Hallam University. See also sections on Developing Your Academic Style of Writing' and Preparing the Dissertation for Submission'. http://staff.psy.gla.ac.uk/%7Epaul/tutorials/report/info.htm Brief, clear guide for psychology students to writing reports. From the Psychology Department, University of Glamorgan. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/reportW/ Takes you through some ways to get started writing your report, explains all of the sections of a report, and offers some general technical writing guidelines. Useful sections on pre-writing activities and considering your audience. By Angela Laflen and Erin Karper, Purdue University.
APA style
http://www.uwsp.edu/psych/apa4b.htm Psychology with Style: A Hypertext Writing Guide' (for the 5th edition of the APA Manual) by Mark Plonsky, University of Wisconsin http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops/hypertext/apa/introduction.html Guide to writing a report in APA (American Psychological Associaton) style. APA style is not only used in psychology but also in many other disciplines including sociology, business, economics, nursing, social work, and criminology. From Purdue University.
Plagiarism
http://www.socscidiss.bham.ac.uk/s14.html Defines plagiarism, explains its seriousness, and help you to avoid it. From The Social Science Undergraduate Dissertation Companion e dited by Malcolm Todd from Sheffield Hallam University.
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