CW Chap04

Chapter 4
Synthetic Aperture Concepts

4.1 Introduction SynApt intro.tex Jan 12, 2004
The purposes of this chapter are to explain the term synthetic aperture
in the radar context, and to derive associated parameters such as azimuth
bandwidth and resolution. The chapter begins with an explanation of the
SAR geometry in Section 4.2 and the special terminology that is used in the
imaging radar. Then, Section 4.3 outlines the range equation, detailing how
the distance from the sensor to the target changes with time.
The next three sections describe how the SAR signal is acquired. First,
the form of the transmitted radar pulse is given in Section 4.4, pointing out the
relationship between transmitted bandwidth and achievable processed range
resolution. The received echo from the pulse is a convolution of the pulse and
the ground reectivity.
Second, the form of the SAR signal in the azimuth direction is discussed in
Section 4.5. The notion of pulse coherency and the timing of the transmitted
pulses are presented. The timing, as characterized by the pulse repetition
frequency or PRF, is aected by many of the SAR system design parameters,
and its choice is quite restricted in a satellite sensor. After discussing the
factors aecting the received signal strength, the important signal parameters
of exposure time, Doppler frequency and bandwidth are discussed.
Third, Section 4.6 explains how the received signal can be considered as
a two-dimensional signal, and how it is written into the range and azimuth
dimensions of the signal processor memory. This structure is needed so these
signals can be processed into a two-dimensional image of the Earths surface.
The concept of the impulse response of the SAR sensor is introduced, and
typical aircraft and satellite SAR parameters are given.
The central idea of SAR processing is based upon matched ltering of
107
108 Chapter 4. Synthetic Aperture Concepts
the received SAR signal in both the range and azimuth directions. Matched
ltering is possible because the acquired SAR data are modulated in these
directions with an appropriate phase function. The modulation in range is
provided by the phase encoding of a transmitted pulse, while the modulation
in azimuth is created by the motion of the radar platform.
1
The phase contains
the most important information in the signal, so the phase characteristics of
these modulations are examined throughout this chapter. More details of the
SAR signal properties are given in Chapter 5.
So far, the ground work for matched ltering and range resolution has
been established. By now, the concept that a high azimuth resolution can
also be obtained by matched ltering should be apparent. The classical limit
of azimuth resolution, which is half the antenna aperture, is derived in Section
4.7.1 from the viewpoint of processed bandwidth and SAR system velocities.
Finally, the foregoing discussion leads to the concept of synthetic aperture,
which is presented in Section 4.7.2. The signal processor operates on a group of
signals obtained during the time that the sensor illuminates a selected target,
and in doing so, creates the eect that would be obtained by a single antenna
with a very long aperture. This concept of synthetic aperture also leads to an
alternate derivation of azimuth resolution.
The chapter ends with three appendices. The rst appendix derives a
simple form of the range equation for a satellite orbit that is locally circular,
and an Earth that is locally spherical. It justies the approximate radar
velocity used in Section 4.3.1. The second appendix describes quadrature
demodulation in detail, including how to correct for calibration errors between
the two quadrature channels. The third appendix takes another look at the
meaning of synthetic aperture, this time from an antenna viewpoint.
4.2 SAR Geometry SynApt sarGeom.tex
The purposes of this section are to describe SAR data acquisition geometry
and to dene the geometry-related terms used in the text.
4.2.1 Denition of Terms
Figure 4.1 shows a simple geometric model of the radar location and the beam
footprint on the Earths surface. Radar systems can be monostatic, bistatic
or multistatic, depending upon the location of the receiver in relation to the
1
The term platform or sensor is used for aircraft and/or satellite in this book for
simplicity. The terms aircraft and satellite are used in the respective specic situations
when the distinction is important.
4.2 SAR Geometry 109
transmitter. A monostatic radar, in which the same radar antenna is used
for transmission and reception, is assumed throughout this book. Monostatic
radars are typically used in remote sensing, although an interesting multistatic
conguration known as the interferometric cartwheel has been proposed by
Massonnet [1, 2].
Target
S
e
n
s
o
r
p
a
th
R
a
d
a
r
B
e
a
m
fo
o
tp
rin
t
Nadir
Squint
angle
G
r
o
u
n
d
r
a
n
g
e
(
a
f
te
r
p
r
o
c
e
s
s
in
g
t
o
z
e
r
o
D
o
p
p
le
r
)
P
2
R
0
Slant range
(after processing
to zero Doppler)
Slant range
(before processing)
r
a
d
a
r
tr
a
c
k
(
a
z
im
u
th
)
R
R
0
X
Plane of zero
Doppler
P
1
Figure 4.1: Radar data acquisition geometry.
The terms used to describe the SAR geometry are dened as follows:
Target: This is a hypothetical point on the Earths surface that the SAR
system is imaging. The SAR system actually images an area on the
ground, but to develop the SAR equations, a single representative point
on the ground is considered. This point is called a point target or
point scatterer, or simply target or scatterer.
Beam footprint: As the platform advances, pulses of electromagnetic en-
ergy are transmitted at regular intervals towards the ground. During the
transmission of a particular pulse, the radar antenna projects a beam
onto an area of the ground referred to as the beam footprint. The
position and shape of the footprint is dictated by the antenna beam
pattern and the sensor/Earth geometry. This footprint is said to be
illuminated by the radar beam.
Nadir: The nadir is the point on the Earths surface directly below the
sensor, so that the normal to the Earths surface at the nadir passes
through the sensor. For a spherical Earth model, the vector from the
sensor to the Earths center intersects the Earths surface at the nadir,
but not for an ellipsoidal model.
Radar track: As the nadir point moves along the Earths surface, it traces
out the radar track.
Velocities: There are two system velocities to consider:
2
Platform velocity: This is the velocity, denoted by V
s
, of the plat-
form along the ight path.
Beam velocity: This is the velocity, denoted by V
g
, with which the
zero Doppler line sweeps along the ground.
For the satellite case, V
s
is the orbital velocity, which can be expressed
in either Earth centered inertial (ECI) coordinates or Earth centered
rotating (ECR) coordinates. The set of ECI axes does not move with
Earth rotation, while the set of ECR axes does, as discussed in Chap-
ter 12. For a circular orbit with a constant angular velocity, V
s
is a
constant in ECI coordinates, but varies in ECR coordinates due to the
dierence in Earth tangential speeds at dierent latitudes.
3
From now
on, V
s
is assumed to be expressed in ECR coordinates, as this simplies
some formulations.
The velocity V
g
is the speed of the zero Doppler line along the Earths
surface. Assuming the satellite attitude is controlled so that the beam
center is approximately steered to zero Doppler (or other suitable ref-
erence), V
g
can be considered to be the velocity of the beam sweeping
along the surface. For a satellite with an altitude of 800 km, V
g
is about
12% less than V
s
, because the orbit circumference is greater than the
track circumference (see Figure 4.5). In addition, V
g
varies around the
orbit as the Earths radius and tangential speed change.
For the aircraft case, V
s
is the nominal aircraft speed relative to the
Earth. It can be assumed that V
g
= V
s
for the aircraft case. The true
aircraft speed varies, but is compensated by changing pulse repetition
frequency (PRF) to make the pulses evenly spaced on the ground.
2
Strictly speaking, velocity is a vector, but in this book, velocity is loosely used to
mean magnitude of the velocity vector. The term velocity vector is used when the true
vector velocity is meant.
3
The dierence of V
s
between ECR and ECI coordinates is only a few percent. The
conversion of this velocity between these two sets of coordinates is treated in Chapter 12.
The orbit model can express V
s
accurately in both ECI and ECR coordinates.
Azimuth: In the context of SAR processing, this is a direction aligned with
the relative platform velocity vector (or sensor velocity vector in ECR
coordinates). It can be considered as a vector parallel to the net sensor
motion, as in Figure 4.1, or as a vector in the slant range plane, as in
Figure 4.2.
Zero Doppler plane: This is the plane containing the sensor that is per-
pendicular to the platform velocity vector (in ECR coordinates). It is
approximately perpendicular to the azimuth axis, where the approxi-
mation comes from the fact that the platform may be climbing or de-
scending. The intersection of this plane with the ground is called the
zero-Doppler line. When this line crosses the target, the relative radial
velocity of the sensor, with respect to the target, is zero.
Range of closest approach: The distance from the radar to the target
varies with time as the platform moves. When the range is a minimum
(when the zero Doppler line crosses the target), it is called the range of
closest approach, denoted by R
0
in Figure 4.1.
Position of closest approach: The position of closest approach is the po-
sition of the radar when it is closest to the target, as shown by point
P in Figure 4.1. Note that the target may not be illuminated when the
sensor is at this point, because of beam squint.
Zero Doppler time: This is the time of closest approach, measured rel-
ative to an arbitrary time origin.
4
Most SAR processing algorithms,
including the ones discussed in this book, register targets to positions
corresponding to their zero Doppler times, referred to as compression
to zero Doppler.
Beamwidth: The radar beam can be viewed as a cone and the footprint
viewed as the intersection of the cone with the ground. The beam has
two signicant dimensions: its angular width in the azimuth and el-
evation planes respectively. In each plane, the half power beamwidth
or simply beamwidth is dened by the angle subtended by the beam
edges, where the beam edge is dened where the radiation strength is
3-dB below the maximum.
5
In azimuth, with a uniformly illuminated aperture, the beamwidth is
approximately the wavelength divided by the antenna length in this di-
rection. In elevation, the beamwidth governs the width of the imaged
4
For a single point target, this origin is often chosen to be the time of closest approach,
for convenience of analysis.
5
In a monostatic SAR, the same antenna is used for receiving as for transmitting. Upon
reception, the signal has been inuenced by the beam pattern twice, so the received signal
strength at the beam edges is 6-dB below the maximum strength.
range swath. Its formula is more complicated, as the elevation radia-
tion pattern is usually shaped with a non-uniform illuminated aperture.
The radar beamwidth is not aected by Earth curvature or rotation, but
it is shown later that the exposure time, the azimuth bandwidth and the
resolution are aected (see Section 4.5.5).
Target trajectory: The range from the radar to a target changes during
the time that the target is illuminated by the radar beam. When drawn
on a two-dimensional plot vs. range and azimuth, the locus of received
target energy is curved, and is referred to as the target trajectory in
signal space (see Panel (b) of Figure 4.2).
Beam center crossing time: This is the dierence between the time when
the zero Doppler line crosses the target and the time when the beam cen-
terline crosses the target. It is positive when the beam points backwards
relative to the zero Doppler line, in other words, when the beam center
crosses the target after the zero Doppler line crosses the target. It is
sometimes referred to as the beam center oset time.
Signal space and image space: There are two two-dimensional spaces
used for the SAR data in the signal processor. The signal space contains
the received SAR data and the image space contains the processed data.
If the data in the signal are displayed, features imaged by the radar
are not recognizable. The features will emerge only after extensive pro-
cessing is performed on the input data. The processed data are dened
in the image space since the data now form a meaningful image. See
Figure 4.2.
Radar
(c) SAR image space
Range
Range
A
z
i
m
u
t
h
B
e
a
m
c
e
n
tr
e
A
A
B
D
(a) Data acquisition (b) SAR signal space
A
z
i
m
u
t
h
A
z
i
m
u
t
h
A
B
C D
C
C
B
D
R' R'
0
R
Figure 4.2: Denitions of range at dierent points in the SAR system and
processor.
Range: First, the generic term range can mean slant range or ground
range, as shown in Figures 4.1 or 4.3. The former is measured along
the radar line-of-sight, while the latter is measured along the ground.
Because all SAR processing operations use the slant range denition,
the usual convention is that range defaults to slant range when not
specied.
Second, there are two cases to consider in the denition of range: signal
space and image space. In signal space, range is a distance measured
from the radar antenna to the target on the ground it is not orthogonal
to the azimuth axis unless the squint angle, as dened in Figure 4.1, is
zero. This range direction is called the radar line-of-sight it is
approximately along the beam centerline or boresight, but the direction
varies with the location of the target within the beam. After the SAR
processing, the image is registered to the azimuth position of closest
approach, and to the range of closest approach. At this point, the range
axis is perpendicular to the azimuth axis.
6
Figure 4.2 shows the dierence between range in the input signal space
and in the nal image after compression to zero Doppler. Panel (a)
shows the physical coordinates, with four targets on the Earths surface.
The antenna is assumed to look ahead (i.e., squinted forward), as in
Figure 4.1, except that the antenna is looking left in this gure. The
radar is moving down the page, and the beam center crosses Targets A
and B at the same time. Later it crosses Target D and nally, Target
C. The range R is measured along the radar beam, as in Figure 4.1.
In Panel (b), the target trajectories are shown in the signal memory at
the input to the SAR processor. They are located according to their
range (horizontally) and their beam center crossing time (vertically). In
this memory, the range R
is relative to the rst sample, as controlled

by the range gate delay, RGD
R = R
+ RGD c/2 (4.1)

The RGD is the dierence in time between the transmission of the pulse
and the recording of the rst sample of the associated echo, and c =
2.99792510
8
m/s is the speed of light.
In Panel (c), the targets are focused in image space to positions according
to their zero Doppler times. Range now lies in the zero Doppler direction,
like R
0
in Figure 4.1. The zero Doppler time is independent of the
antenna squint angle, so the target positions in the nal image do not
depend upon the squint angle. Similar to the signal space, the range
variable R
0
is relative to the rst processed sample, and for a given
target, its slant range of closest approach is R
0
= R
0
+ RGD c/2.
6
Between the signal and image stages of the SAR processing, range can either be line-
of-sight or orthogonal to azimuth.
Slant range plane: This is the plane containing the relative (ECR) sensor
velocity vector and the slant range vector for a given target. The orien-
tation of this plane, relative to the local vertical, changes with targets
at dierent ranges R
0
, so the plane is only used for conceptual purposes.
Ground range: This is the projection of slant range onto the ground. If the
image is to be presented in a map-like format, the slant range variable is
converted to ground range. Assuming that the data is registered to zero
Doppler, ground range is the direction orthogonal to the azimuth axis
and parallel to the Earths surface with its origin at the nadir point, as
shown in Figure 4.1.
Squint angle: This is the angle
sq
that the slant range vector makes with
the zero-Doppler plane,
7
and is an important component in the descrip-
tion of the beam pointing direction. It is measured in the slant range
plane. If viewed from above (i.e., projected to the ground plane), it
coincides with the beam yaw angle. The squint angle depends upon the
target range R
0
for a given beam pointing direction.
Note that the zero Doppler time of a target is independent of the squint
angle, but the beam center crossing time does depend upon the squint
angle. Since the zero Doppler plane in ECR coordinates (from which
sq
is measured) accounts for Earth curvature and rotation,
sq
is not
the squint angle in inertial space. The computation of
sq
from beam
pointing and Earth/platform geometry is discussed in Chapter 12.
Cross range: This is a direction orthogonal to the radars line-of-sight. Un-
less the squint angle is zero, the cross range and azimuth axes are not
parallel. Theoretically, azimuth resolution is developed along the cross
range axis instead of the azimuth axis. But in stripmap SAR, the cross
range resolution does not dier signicantly from the azimuth resolution,
because the squint angle is usually small. Since this book concentrates on
processing stripmap data, the generic denition of azimuth resolution
is used throughout the book, and the cross-range/azimuth distinction is
pointed out as necessary.
4.2.2 Satellite Slant Range vs. Ground Range Geometry
The SAR focusing steps produce an image in slant range vs. azimuth coor-
dinates, as in Figure 4.2(c). It is often desirable to resample the image to
coordinates corresponding to those of a map or an optical sensor, where the
range and azimuth axes have equal scales. In this post-processing step, the
7
Sometimes in the literature, the squint angle is measured from the sensor velocity vector
instead of the plane of zero Doppler.
concept of ground range arises, which is a distance measured along the sur-
face of the Earth, approximately perpendicular to the azimuth direction. The
conversion from slant range to ground range provides a geometrically-realistic
image, approximately aligned with the radar track.
8
Target
Radar
E
R
e
R
e
h
Center of earth
R
0
G
i
n
Target
G
ro
u
n
d
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l
R
a
d
a
r

b
e
a
m
R
G
i
Blowup of target area
Figure 4.3: Satellite cross-track geometry, illustrating slant range R
vs. ground range G, and the associated sample spacings R and G.
For the case of zero squint and a locally circular Earth, the relationship
between slant range and ground range coordinates is illustrated in Figure 4.3.
Let the line joining the radar and the Earths center intersect the Earth at
Point E. Ground range is the arc length along the Earths surface from E to
the target. It is marked by G in the gure, and
e
is the angle subtended
by G at the Earths center. R
e
is the local radius of the Earth, taken at
the scene center. Also, let h be the altitude of the platform with respect to
E,
n
the o-nadir angle and
i
the incidence angle. For the locally circular
Earth approximation, the geometric variables in Figure 4.3 are related by the
law of sines and cosines
R
e
sin
n
=
R
e
+h
sin
i
=
R
0
sin
e
(4.2)
8
If target altitudes are available, they can be included in the ground range conversion,
making the converted image more geometrically correct.
cos
e
=
R
2
e
+ (R
e
+h)
2
R
2
0
2 R
e
(R
e
+h)
(4.3)
and by
G = R
e
e
(4.4)
The incidence angle
i
is larger than the o-nadir angle
n
by the angle
e
.
The dierence is negligible in the airborne case, but is a few degrees in the
satellite case.
An expanded view of the target area is shown on the right side of Fig-
ure 4.3. The length R represents the distance between two slant range
samples and the dotted line is a small part of a constant range circle. The
ground is assumed to be locally at and the dashed line is the local vertical.
Then G is the distance along the ground represented by the range sample.
260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420
840
860
880
900
920
S
l
a
n
t

r
a
n
g
e

(
k
m
) R = 6368 km
e
h = 800 km
260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
I
n
c
i
d
e
n
c
e

a
n
g
l
e

(
d
e
g
)
260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420
25
30
35
40
Ground range (km) >
G
r
o
u
n
d

r
a
n
g
e

r
e
s
o
l
.

(
m
)
Slant range resolution = 13.6 m
Figure 4.4: The variation of ground range resolution for the RADARSAT-1
W1 beam.
For a given radar mode, the slant range sample spacing R is a constant,
and the ground sample spacing G varies with the local incidence angle
G =
R
sin
i
(4.5)
The quantities R and G can be thought of as one range resolution cell,
and sin
i
gives the ground range resolution as a factor of the slant range
resolution. Equation (4.5) shows how the ground range resolution degrades
with a decreasing o-nadir angle, with the worst case occurring when
i
is
zero. This is unlike optical sensors, which enjoy the best resolution when
looking straight down.
The variation in ground range resolution with range is largest when the
incidence angle is small. It is interesting to consider the RADARSAT-1 beams,
as RADARSAT exhibits a large variety of beams with dierent incidence an-
gles. There are seven regular beams, called S1 to S7, and three wide swath
beams, called W1 to W3 [3]. The largest variation of ground range resolution
occurs in Beam W1, which is the widest non-ScanSAR beam with the smallest
incidence angle. Figure 4.4 shows the slant range, incidence angle and ground
range resolution for the W1 beam. As the slant range resolution is 13.6 m for
this RADARSAT-1 beam, the ground range resolution varies from 27 m at far
range to 40 m at near range.
4.2.3 Satellite Orbit Geometry
A generic satellite geometry is illustrated in Figure 4.5. The satellite orbit is
approximately a low-eccentricity ellipse, dened by the length and hour angle
of the semi-major and semi-minor axes, and by the inclination of the orbit
plane with respect to the equator.
9
The choice of the orbit parameters for remote-sensing SARs involves a
number of complicated tradeos, and a few considerations are mentioned here.
The orbit altitude above the Earths surface is often around 800 km, being
a compromise between power requirements and atmospheric drag. The orbit
eccentricity is close to zero so that the altitude is nearly constant around the
orbit. If the orbit is circular, the square of the orbit period P is related to
the cube of the orbit radius R
s
by
P
2
=
4
2
R
3
s
e
(4.6)
where
e
= 3.9860 10
14
is the gravitational constant of the Earth, and the
period is expressed in seconds. This corresponds to a satellite angular velocity
of
s
=
2
P
=
_
e
/R
3
s
(4.7)
9
The inclination is the angle that the normal of the orbit plane makes with the vector
from the center of the Earth to the north pole. In Figure 4.5, by applying the right hand rule,
the normal points westward and slightly to the south of the equator; hence the inclination
angle is greater than 90
.
Lat. and long. lines are drawn 10 deg.
apart (1100 km at the equator)
RADARSAT1 altitude 800 km
Inclin = 98.6 deg. period 100 min
The Earth rotates 25 deg. to the east
every orbit (2830 km at the equator)
Equator
Satellite orbit
Radar beam
S
Radar beam
Im
aged
swath
50150 km
Satellite
orbit
Figure 4.5: Earth/Satellite Geometry with RADARSAT-1 parameters.
radians/s and to a satellite inertial speed of
V
s
= R
s
s
=
_
e
/R
s
(4.8)
For example, a satellite with a nominal altitude of 800 km (i.e., an orbit
radius of 7168 km) has a period of 100.66 minutes, an angular velocity of
1.0403 milliradians/s, and a tangential speed of 7457 m/s, assuming a circular
orbit.
The orbit inclination is usually set at around 98
, so that the orbit is

sun-synchronous. With this inclination, the Earths oblateness causes the
orbit plane to precess once per year, so that it has a xed angle with respect
to the sun. This simplies the power collection strategy of the solar panels,
an important issue as the radar coverage and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is
directly proportional to the available power. An inclination greater than 90
indicates that the satellite is orbiting the Earth in a westerly direction. As a

point on the Earths surface is moving eastward, the average relative target
velocity and the average beam velocity is higher than if the satellite were
moving eastward. This gives a slightly higher coverage rate over the Earths
surface.
4.3. THE RANGE EQUATION 119
4.3 The Range Equation SynApt RangeEqn.tex
The single most important parameter in SAR processing is the slant range
from the sensor to the target. This range varies with azimuth time, and is
dened by the so-called range equation.
10
As the sensor approaches the target
through the motion of the radar platform, the range decreases with every
pulse. After the sensor passes the target, the range increases with every pulse.
This change in range has two important implications. It causes a phase
modulation from pulse to pulse, which is necessary to obtain ne azimuth
resolution in the SAR processor. However, it also causes the received data to
be skewed in computer memory, an eect called range cell migration (RCM).
As shown later, this range/azimuth coupling must be taken into account in
the SAR processing.
To get the exact range equation, one must be able to model the sensor
motion, plus the motion of the target or surface, if any. This can get quite
complicated but, in most cases, the simple geometry of Figure 4.1 can be used,
with an appropriate choice of sensor velocity. This results in a hyperbolic form
of the range equation, which allows the signal properties in various domains to
be represented conveniently and the processing equations to be derived easily
(see Chapter 5). For these reasons, this section focuses its discussion on a
hyperbolic model.
4.3.1 Hyperbolic Form of the Range Equation
To develop the hyperbolic form of the range equation, a simplied form of the
geometry of Figure 4.1 is considered. In this case, the ight path is assumed
to be locally straight, and the Earth is assumed to be locally at and not
rotating. This is a good model for the aircraft case, where the distances
are much shorter than the satellite case, and the aircraft follows the Earths
atmosphere as it rotates.
Assuming a velocity V
r
pertaining to the simplied case, the distance X
in Figure 4.1 equals V
r
, where is the azimuth time referenced to the time
of closest approach. Then, using the Pythagoras theorem, the range to the
target R() is given by the hyperbolic equation:
R
2
() = R
2
0
+V
2
r

2
(4.9)
where R
0
is the slant range when the radar is closest to the target, that is,
R
0
is the range of closest approach.
10
The range equation should not be confused with the radar equation (1.1), which pertains
to transmitted power and received SNR.
For the aircraft case, the beam is assumed to be stationary with respect
to the ight direction, so that the geometry of Figure 4.1 remains stable for
a given radar scene. The variable V
r
is the nominal aircraft speed, and
also equals the speed of the beam footprint along the surface. However, in
the satellite case, the geometry is more complicated, as the orbit is curved,
the Earths surface is curved, and the Earth is rotating independently of the
satellite orbit [4, 5].
When an accurate, curved-geometry model is used, it turns out that the
range equation is still very close to a hyperbola, within the limits of the target
exposure time. Thus, the parameter V
r
can still be used as a type of velocity
in the satellite case, provided it is interpreted in a special way. Specically,
when R
2
() is expressed as a power series in , the cubic and higher terms
are very small for typical remote sensing SARs, particularly the C-band and
higher frequency SARs. Then, V
2
r
is the quadratic coecient of (4.9), and can
be calculated from a geometry model as half the second derivative of R
2
().
With this assumption, the hyperbolic range equation (4.9) holds for a
satellite, except that V
r
is not a physical velocity, but a pseudo-velocity,
selected so that the hyperbola (4.9) models the actual range equation. The
parameter V
r
has been called the radar velocity, eective velocity or
speed parameter by several authors [4]. A better term may be eective
radar velocity, although some authors prefer not call it a velocity at all [6].
Important dierences from the aircraft case include the fact that V
r
varies
with range, and varies slowly with azimuth as the satellite orbit and the Earth
rotation component changes. Its numerical value lies between the satellite
platform velocity, V
s
, and the lower speed, V
g
, with which the beam moves
along the ground. The hyperbolic model is adequate over the duration of the
target exposure time, which is typically in the order of a second.
To see how the radar velocity V
r
relates to the physical velocities of the
satellite and the beam, it is useful to consider the two geometry models in
Figure 4.6. Panel (a) shows the radar/beam geometry in the slant range
plane, assuming a curved orbit and a curved Earth. The satellite moves with
tangential velocity V
s
and the beam footprint moves along the surface with a
velocity V
g
. Assume that the beam centerline CB makes a squint angle
sq
with respect to the zero Doppler line CA, and illuminates a point, B, on the
ground.
Now, can this curved geometry be related to the rectilinear geometry of
Panel (b)? A rectilinear geometry can be formed out of the curved geometry
if tangential lines are drawn through points C and A, and the angle
sq
is
increased by swinging the vector CB outwards, until it meets the tangential
line through A (keeping its length R the same). Using the primed notation
for the rectilinear geometry in Panel (b), the vectors C
and C
are the
4.3 The Range Equation 121
D
q
sq
Satellite
Orbit
Earth's
surface
X
g
A
B
C
q
r
A' B'
C' D'
V
r
V
r
V
g
V
s
(a) Curved earth geometry (b) Rectilinear geometry
R
0
R
0
R
0
R
0
R
R
X
r
q
g
X
s
Figure 4.6: Approximation of curved Earth geometry by rectilinear geometry.
same length as their associated vectors in Panel (a), but the distance X
r
is larger than X
g
because the angle ACB has increased. The new angle
A
is used in SAR processing, and it is called

r
. Distances and angles
have been distorted in Panel (b), but time is unaltered, i.e., the time taken
for the satellite to move from C to D is the same as that from C
to D
,
and is the same as it takes the beam centerline to go from A to B and from
A
to B
.
By comparing the two geometries in Figure 4.6, it can be seen that A
>
AB, and that C
< CD, so that the eective radar velocity V

r
> V
g
and V
r
< V
s
. Note that V
g
< V
s
models the property that the satellite
attitude changes by 2 radians every orbit. As shown in Appendix 4A, an
approximation for V
r
is
V
r

_
V
s
V
g
(4.10)
Note that V
s
and V
g
vary with orbit position and range, because the magni-
tude and relative direction of the Earth rotation changes and V
r
is expressed
in ECR coordinates. In this way, V
r
changes with time and range, and must be
updated around the orbit. The main approximation in (4.10) comes from the
fact that the orbit is not circular. An example in Section 13.3 indicates that
the approximation is accurate to approximately 0.6 % for typical RADARSAT
parameters.
While the approximation (4.10) is not accurate enough for calculating the
azimuth matched lter coecients in precision SAR processing, it is adequate
for analysis purposes such as nding the exposure time and Doppler band-
width in Section 4.5.5. For precision SAR processing, the velocity V
r
must
be calculated from a rened geometric model, as shown in Chapter 12.
Note that V
r
and V
g
vary with range. They are calculated at the zero
Doppler point of the target, so they are a function of R
0
, and do not vary along
the target exposure. That means V
r
is a constant for a particular target, an
important fact to note in a point target simulator. This property is also used
when the targets spectrum is derived in Chapter 5.
Which velocity is to be used depends upon the application. As shown
later, V
r
is the velocity used to obtain the RCM and the azimuth FM rate in
the azimuth SAR processing, and V
s
is used to obtain the Doppler bandwidth.
Finally, when ground resolution and distance are concerned, V
g
is used.
4.3.2 Relationships between Velocities and Angles
To help understand the physical meaning of the various velocities, distances
and angles in Figure 4.6, it is useful to examine the relationship between:
V
s
, X
s
and
sq
in curved Earth geometry along the orbit,
V
g
, X
g
and
g
in curved Earth geometry on the ground, and
V
r
, X
r
and
r
in rectilinear geometry.
Using small angle approximations in the curved Earth geometry of Fig-
ure 4.6(a), the squint angle
sq
is dened as
sin
sq
=
X
g
R()
=
V
g

R()
(4.11)
and a new angle
g
is dened as
sin
g
=
X
s
R()
=
V
s
R()
(4.12)
The negative signs are due to the fact that for a positive
sq
and
g
, the
radar looks ahead, and hence the position of closest approach, where is
dened to be zero, has not been reached yet. In other words, is negative for
positive squint angles. Note that
g
is not the radar incidence angle, because
Figure 4.6 depicts the geometry in the slant range plane.
In the rectilinear geometry of Figure 4.6(b), a new squint angle
r
can
be dened that is useful for analysis and, sometimes, for data processing.
Rearranging the range equation (4.9) as
R
0
=
_
R
2
() V
2
r

2
= R()
1
_
V
r

R()
_
2
(4.13)
4.4. SAR SIGNAL IN THE RANGE DIRECTION 123
the new squint angle is dened in the equivalent rectilinear geometry using
sin
r
=
X
r
R()
=
V
r

R()
(4.14)
Similar to the variable V
r
, the angle
r
is not a physical angle, but serves
a useful purpose in SAR signal analysis. Since this is the angle often used
in SAR system analysis instead of the physical squint angle, it is called the
squint angle for brevity.
Combining (4.11) and (4.14), and using small angle approximations, the
following ratios are equal
sq
:
r
:
g
= V
g
: V
r
: V
s
= X
g
: X
r
: X
s
(4.15)
From the above equation and (4.10), it is found that the squint angle
r
is a
scaled version of the physical squint angle
sq
r
=
V
r
V
g
sq
=
V
s
V
r
sq
(4.16)
For a typical satellite case,
r
is about 6% larger than
sq
, but the cosines of
these two angles dier by less than 0.08% for a squint angle as large as 6
.
However, it is important to distinguish between these angles when their sines
or tangents are invoked.
The following formulae are also useful. Using (4.14), cos
r
can be written
cos
r
=
1
_
V
r

R()
_
2
(4.17)
and from Figure 4.6, it is seen that
R
0
= R() cos
r
(4.18)
Since the hyperbolic equation assuming rectilinear geometry is used in
the processing, the angle
r
is relevant, but the angles
s
and
g
are rarely
used. For example, the cross track direction is at an angle
r
with respect to
azimuth (Section 5.5 addresses this), hence the eective velocity and ground
velocity components in the cross range direction are V
r
cos
r
and V
g
cos
r
respectively, and the latter velocity component is used to derive the (cross-
range) resolution.
4.4 SAR Signal in the Range Direction
. SynApt RangeDir.tex
It is convenient to rst consider the SAR signal in the range or beam direction,
then in the azimuth direction. Later, the signal coupling between the range
and azimuth coordinates will become apparent. In the range direction, the
radar sends out an FM pulse given by
s
pul
() = w
r
() cos
_
2
N
n=0
P
n
n
_
(4.19)
where is the range time and P
n
are the phase coecients, when the signal
phase is expressed as a power series. The pulse envelope is usually approxi-
mated by a rectangular function
w
r
() = rect
_

T
r
_
(4.20)
where T
r
is the pulse duration. Even if the pulse envelope is not quite rect-
angular, it is usually safe to assume a rectangular envelope when dening the
matched lter for the processing. In early radar systems, the pulse was gen-
erated by an analog Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) device [7], but now it is
generated by a digital synthesizer.
The most commonly used pulse is a linear FM one
s
pul
() = w
r
() cos
_
2 f
0
+ K
r

2
_
(4.21)
where K
r
is the FM rate of the range pulse. Here is referenced to the
center of the pulse for convenience.
11
In this form, the phase coecients are
P
0
= 0, P
1
= f
0
, P
2
= K
r
/2, and P
n
= 0 for n > 2. For ease of analysis,
this simple linear FM form is assumed from now on, unless otherwise stated.
The instantaneous frequency of the signal s
pul
() varies with fast time
. For a linear FM pulse, given by (4.21), the instantaneous frequency is
f
i
= f
0
+K
r
. As the radar wavelength is c/f
i
, it also varies within the pulse.
But it is assumed to be the wavelength corresponding to the center frequency,
= c/f
0
, which unless otherwise stated is the denition of used in this
book.
The radar designer has a choice of the sign of the FM rate, i.e., the sign
preceding K
r
. When the sign is positive, the pulse is an up chirp because
the pulse frequency increases with time. Similarly, when the sign is negative,
the pulse is said to be a down chirp. The direction of the chirp neither
aects the structure of the SAR processing nor the quality of the processed
image.
The signal bandwidth is a very important parameter as it governs the range
resolution and the sampling requirements. The signal bandwidth is given by
11
Sometimes the leading edge of the pulse is taken as the range time reference. Care must
be taken to dene the range time reference, to avoid azimuth focusing and range registration
errors.
4.4 SAR Signal in the Range Direction 125
K
r
T
r
and, when the demodulated received signal is sampled, the complex
sampling rate F
r
must be higher than the bandwidth to prevent aliasing.
The range oversampling ratio
r
is the sampling rate divided by the signal
bandwidth and, in practice, is usually between 1.1 and 1.4.
Thus the range complex sampling rate is
F
r
=
r
|K
r
| T
r
(4.22)
The range resolution is approximately 1/(|K
r
|T
r
) in seconds, or c/(2K
r
T
r
)
in meters. The pulse compression gain is the time-bandwidth product, K
r
T
2
r
,
as derived in Chapter 3.
Figure 4.7 shows how the data are acquired across a range swath. The
radar beam has a certain 3-dB width in the elevation plane, called the el-
evation beamwidth. The beam illuminates a section of the ground, lying
between near range and far range in the gure. At a given instant in
time, the pulse has a nite extent, between the two dashed arcs in the gure.
O
Radar
Near
range
Far
range
Nadir
Earths surface
L
e
a
d
i
n
g

e
d
g
e

o
f

p
u
l
s
e
T
r
a
i
l
i
n
g

e
d
g
e

o
f

p
u
l
s
e
Elevation
Beamwidth
Figure 4.7: Illustrating the radar beams 3-dB elevation beamwidth and the
radar pulse spreading outward in concentric spheres.
The pulse expands outwards in concentric spheres, expanding at the speed
of light. The lower dashed arc in Figure 4.7 shows the pulse at the instant it
reaches the ground, at a time t
1
after it leaves the transmitting antenna. At
time t
2
, a fraction of a millisecond later, the trailing edge of the pulse passes
the far range point. In this way, each point on the ground, between near
range and far range, is illuminated by the beam for a duration of T
r
. Note
that, at any instant, only a portion of the beam footprint is illuminated by the
pulse, and this portion sweeps outwards at the speed of light divided by sin
i
,
which
i
is the local beam incidence angle shown in Figure 4.3. The reected
energy at any illumination instant is a convolution of the pulse waveform and
the ground reectivity g
r
within the illuminated patch:
s
r
() = g
r
() s
pul
() (4.23)
This energy arrives back at the receiving antenna between times 2 t
1
and
2 t
2
. The receiver starts sampling a few microseconds before 2 t
1
and nishes a
few microseconds after 2 t
2
, thereby recording the ground reections between
near range and far range. If the elevation beam is too wide in relation to the
interpulse period, range ambiguities may occur, which result from the mixing
of reected energy from consecutive pulses at the receiver.
Consider a point target at a distance R
a
away from the radar, with a
magnitude A
0
, which models the backscatter coecient,
0
. This means that
g
r
() = A
0
( 2R
a
/c) in (4.23), where 2R
a
/c is the delay time for that
reector. The signal received from the point target, from (4.21) and (4.23), is
then:
s
r
() = A
0
s
pul
( 2 R
a
/c)
= A
0
w
r
( 2R
a
/c)
cos
_
2 f
0
( 2R
a
/c) + K
r
( 2R
a
/c)
2
+
_
(4.24)
The scattering process may cause a phase change in the radar signal upon
reection from the surface, which is accounted for by the variable in the
equation. The present analysis is unaected, as long as the phase change is
constant for a given reector within the radar illumination time. Note that
all variables in (4.24) are real.
The echo s
r
() contains a high frequency component cos(2 f
0
) which
is the radar carrier frequency, and a low frequency component consisting of
the rest of the terms in (4.24). Appendix 4B shows how the high frequency
component is removed by a quadrature demodulation process, so that the
maximum signal frequency is in the order of the transmitted signal bandwidth.
The data often has a radiometric variation in the range direction caused
by several factors. First, the echo power is inversely proportional to the fourth
power of the slant range. Second, the elevation beam pattern of Figure 4.7
is not uniformly weighted. The antenna gain at the upper elevation angle is
sometimes designed to be higher than that at lower angles, to compensate
4.5. SAR SIGNAL IN THE AZIMUTH DIRECTION 127
for the 1/R
4
law. Third, the reectivity of the ground is a function of the
beam incidence angle
i
. Finally, there is a geometrical 1/ sin
i
term as the
ground area is converted to an equivalent area, perpendicular to the radar
beam. These eects, if uncorrected, will cause a variation of intensities across
the range swath in the processed image. The correction can be performed in
the processor, assuming a knowledge of the above factors.
4.5 SAR Signal in the Azimuth Direction
. SynApt AzimDir.tex
In the previous section, the signal received from a single pulse was discussed.
As the sensor advances along its path, subsequent pulses are transmitted and
received by the radar. The pulses are transmitted every 1/PRF of a sec-
ond, where PRF is the pulse repetition frequency. But before getting too far
into a discussion of azimuth parameters, an intuitive explanation of Doppler
frequency is needed.
4.5.1 What is Doppler Frequency in the SAR Context?
Consider a radar that transmits a pure tone, which is generated by a local
oscillator. The signal is transmitted through the antenna, and the resulting
electromagnetic (EM) wave travels to the ground where it hits an object and
is reected (scattered). The reected EM wave travels back to the antenna,
where it is converted into a voltage. The received signal has the same wave-
form as the transmitted signal, but is much weaker and has a frequency shift
governed by the relative speed of the sensor (antenna) and the scatterer. If
the distance from the antenna to the scatterer is decreasing, the frequency of
the received signal increases. On the contrary, if the distance to the scatterer
is increasing, the frequency of the received signal decreases. The situation is
analogous to a high (low) frequency heard from the siren on an approaching
(receding) ambulance.
It is this frequency, governed by the relative speed of the sensor and
the target, which is called the SAR Doppler frequency, in analogy with the
well-known eect in physics. This discussion has taken a few shortcuts, but
does give an intuitive description of the Doppler eect in coherent radars.
The radar is coherent if the consistent timing of the local oscillator allows
one to observe the change in phase and frequency of the received signal very
accurately.
Omitted from the above discussion are the following:
1. The radar system generates and transmits a nite-duration pulse, rather
than a pure tone.
2. The radar electronics upconverts the pulse to a very high frequency (the
radar carrier frequency) and subsequently downconverts the received
signal to the original frequency (or even lower, to baseband).
3. The pulse has a linear FM waveform rather than a tone and, after re-
ception and downconversion, it is converted (compressed) to a sharp
impulse that has the approximate shape of a sinc function.
4. The Doppler frequency is a function of the carrier frequency rather than
the original baseband pulse frequency.
5. The pulses are repeated at a precisely controlled time interval, called
the pulse repetition interval or PRI. The inverse of this interval is the
pulse repetition frequency or PRF.
Despite these simplications in the analogy, the concept of Doppler fre-
quency is still valid in the modulated, pulsed radar. The eect of the pulses
is to sample the waveform representing the Doppler-shifted, received signal,
with the sampling frequency being the PRF.
The sampling of the continuous signal creates an aliasing eect when the
Doppler frequency exceeds the sampling frequency (the samples are complex,
so the aliasing rules, including the folding or Nyquist frequency, follow the
rules for complex signals). It is the sampling that profoundly aects how the
Doppler frequency is observed and how it is estimated.
4.5.2 Coherent Pulses
The transmitted pulses are evenly-spaced, as shown in Figure 4.8, with each
pulse represented by (4.19) or (4.21). Coherent means that the start time
and phase of each pulse is carefully controlled. The receiver and demodulator
must also maintain high timing accuracy. This coherency is an important
property, necessary to obtain high azimuth resolution in the SAR system.
Pulse Repetition Interval = 1/PRF
l
Transmit Receive
Figure 4.8: Timing of transmitted radar pulses (not to scale).
4.5 SAR Signal in the Azimuth Direction 129
When the radar is not transmitting, it can receive echoes reected back
from objects and surfaces on the ground. A time line of transmitted pulses
and received echoes is shown in Figure 4.9. In an airborne case, each echo
is received directly after the transmitted pulse, before another pulse is trans-
mitted. In a satellite-borne case, the echo from a specic pulse is received
after 6 to 10 intervening pulses have been transmitted, because of the much
longer ranges involved. For a satellite SAR with a PRF of 1700 Hz and a pulse
duration of 34 s, the time available to receive the echo is 554 s, although
a few s are needed at either end of the receive window to switch the signal
path. This time allows a slant range swath width of up to 80 km, although
other constraints usually keep it smaller, such as a varying satellite altitude
that requires the receive window to be moved.
Pulse
Echo
Time
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
Figure 4.9: Illustrating the transmit and receive cycles of a pulsed radar.
Between successive pulses, the radar platform advances in the azimuth
direction by a small amount. The separation between the footprints of each
pulse, also known as azimuth sample spacing in the input data, is the footprint
velocity divided by the PRF. For an aircraft, the footprint velocity equals the
platform velocity, but for a satellite, the footprint velocity is about 12% less
than the satellite velocity, as discussed in Section 4.2. The separation of
footprints is generally about 40% of the SAR antenna length, although it can
be smaller than 40% in aircraft cases (because aircraft SARs do not come close
to hitting the range and azimuth ambiguity limitations [8]). The separation
is about 4 m for the ERS/ENVISAT satellites and 5 m for RADARSAT.
4.5.3 Choice of PRF
The azimuth sampling rate or PRF is selected by considering the following
parameters and criteria:
Nyquist sampling rate: The PRF should be larger than the signicant az-
imuth signal bandwidth, as it corresponds to a complex sampler. The
azimuth oversampling factor O
s
is usually about 1.1 to 1.4. If the PRF
is too low, azimuth ambiguities caused by aliasing will be troublesome.
The azimuth oversampling ratio is usually higher than the range over-
sampling ratio because the azimuth spectrum rolls o more slowly than
the range spectrum.
Range swath width: The sampling window can be up to 1/PRF T
r
seconds long, corresponding to a slant range interval of (1/PRFT
r
) c/2
meters. The PRF should be low enough so that most or all of the near
range to far range interval illuminated by the beam (the swath width)
falls within the receive window, as shown in Figure 4.9. If the PRF is too
large in relation to the echo duration, range ambiguities occur because
of echoes from dierent pulses overlapping in the receive window. If the
range ambiguities are too large and the PRF cannot be lowered, the
antennas elevation beamwidth can be reduced by making the antenna
wider or by adjusting the antenna weighting.
Receive window timing: The signicant energy from the ground must ar-
rive at the receiving antenna between the pulse times. Unlike the pre-
vious criterion, which concerns the length of the receive window, this
concerns the start time of the window. The start time is particularly
aected by the PRF in the satellite case when a given transmitted pulse
is not received until several pulse intervals have elapsed.
Nadir return: Sometimes a signicant amount of energy arises from ground
reections at the nadir point, and causes a bright streak in the image.
This nadir return is bright because, when the incident angle is small,
each range cell covers a large area and specular reections occur. This
energy is unwanted in satellite SARs as it is range ambiguous, and it is
usually possible to choose a PRF for which the nadir return does not
fall within the receive window (or at least not within the main part of
the imaged swath).
Each of these criteria is in conict with some or all of the other criteria, so
a compromise is needed, especially in the satellite case. The tradeo involves
many of the SAR system parameters, notably the platform height and velocity,
operating range, radar wavelength, antenna length and swath width. The
tradeo is mainly between range ambiguity levels, azimuth ambiguity levels
and swath width, and results in a lower limit for the antenna area [8, 9].
However, there have been systems built which accept more compromises, and
use an antenna area smaller than this lower limit [10].
In the aircraft case, these restrictions are usually not a limiting factor,
because the platform velocity is lower, and the beam geometry restricts the
swath width to well below the ambiguity limit. This means that the PRF can
be made higher than that needed to support the azimuth bandwidth. A higher
PRF allows the transmission of a higher average power, without raising the
peak power or the pulse length, thereby improving the SNR. When this occurs,
the azimuth signal can be ltered and the sampling rate reduced, to increase
the eciency of subsequent processing steps. This ltering and sample rate
reduction is called presumming, which lowers the PRF, resulting in more
ecient SAR processing.
4.5.4 Azimuth Signal Strength and Doppler History
As the platform advances, a target on the ground is illuminated by many
hundreds of pulses. For each pulse the strength of the signal varies, primarily
because of the azimuth beam pattern.
12
The azimuth beam pattern for a zero
squint case is shown in the top part of Figure 4.10 for three positions of the
sensor, as seen in the slant range plane. At sensor position A, the target is
just entering the main lobe of the beam. The received signal strength is shown
in the middle part of the gure. The signal strength increases until the target
lies in the center of the beam, as shown at position B.
Azimuth >
Beam pattern
Target
Sensor position A B C
target
slant
range
R
0
Azimuth time >
Received signal strength
0
Azimuth time >
Frequency
0
Figure 4.10: Azimuth beam pattern and its eect upon signal strength and
Doppler frequency.
After the beam center crossing time, the signal strength decreases until
the targets lies in the rst null of the beam pattern, when the sensor is at
12
Any small dependence of the complex backscattering constant on the viewing angle is
ignored in this book.
position C. From then on, a small amount of energy will be received from
side lobes of the beam pattern. The energy in the outer edges of the main lobe,
as well as the energy in the side lobes, contribute to the azimuth ambiguities in
the processed image, as discussed in Chapter 5. Doppler centroid estimation
errors aggravate these ambiguities (see Chapter 12).
The bottom part of the gure shows the Doppler frequency history of the
target. The Doppler frequency is proportional to the targets radial velocity
with respect to the sensor. When the target is approaching the radar the
Doppler frequency is positive, and is negative when the target is receding.
Thus the frequency vs. time curve has a negative slope.
Revisiting the middle part of Figure 4.10, note that the received signal
strength is governed by the azimuth beam pattern. As most SAR antennas are
unweighted in the azimuth plane, the one-way beam pattern is approximately
a sinc function [9]
p
a
() sinc
_
0.886
bw
_
(4.25)
where is the angle measured from the beam center in the slant range plane,
bw
is the azimuth beamwidth, 0.886/L
a
, and L
a
is the antenna length
along the azimuth direction. The received signal strength is given by the
square of p
a
() because of the two-way propagation of the radar energy, and
is usually expressed as a function of azimuth time
w
a
() = p
2
a
{ () } (4.26)
Equation (4.11) shows how
sq
is related to the azimuth time .
13
The beam center crosses the target when the radar is at point B in
Figure 4.10. The received signal strength is greatest at that time, and in the
case drawn the beam center has zero squint. However, this is usually not the
case, as a certain amount of beam squint is inevitable, due to such causes
as platform or antenna attitude, beam alignment, Earth curvature, Earth
rotation and, in the aircraft case, side winds.
In the general nonzero squint case, the target is illuminated by the beam
center at a beam center crossing time,
c
, referenced to the time of zero
Doppler. When the beam squints forward,
c
is negative, following the pre-
vious convention. Conversely, when the antenna squints backward,
c
is pos-
13
At this point it is useful to review the dierent squint angles used. The angle is
measured from the beam center and it varies with time . The angles
sq
and
r
dened
in Figure 4.6 are measured from the plane of zero Doppler and they also vary with .
In contrast, the angles
sq,c
and
r,c
, used in (4.27) and (4.28), are constants over the
exposure time of a target, but are a function of the pointing angle of the antenna, which
may vary slowly with time.
itive. The time
c
is given by
c
=
R
0
tan
sq,c
V
g
=
R(
c
) sin
sq,c
V
g
(4.27)
where R(
c
) is the slant range to the target at the time it is illuminated by
the beam center, and
sq,c
is the value of
sq
at this time. In the rectilinear
geometry discussed in Section 4.3,
c
can be expressed as
c
=
R
0
tan
r,c
V
r
=
R(
c
) sin
r,c
V
r
(4.28)
where
r,c
is the value of
r
at the beam center crossing time.
In this squinted case, the angle measured from the beam center in
(4.25) equals
sq
sq,c
. Also, using small angle approximations, the two-way
beam pattern becomes
sinc
2
_
0.886 (
sq
sq,c
)
bw
_
p
2
a
_
arctan
_
V
g
(
c
)
R
0
__
(4.29)
which is the expression for w
a
(
c
) in (4.26).
Following this discussion, it is seen that the term R
a
in (4.24) changes
with slow time and is denoted by R(). The signal received from the target
is then
s
r
(, ) = A
0
w
r
( 2R()/c) w
a
(
c
)
cos{ 2f
0
( 2R()/c) + K
r
( 2R()/c)
2
+ } (4.30)
This is the real-valued signal received from a point target, having R
0
as its
range of closest approach and a range R() dened by the range equation
(4.9).
Very often, the SAR data are manipulated in the azimuth frequency do-
main, where the beam center crossing time is transformed into an equivalent
Doppler centroid frequency.
4.5.5 Azimuth Parameters
Other azimuth parameters derived in this section include the exposure time,
FM rate and Doppler bandwidth. These parameters depend on the antenna
squint and are evaluated at =
c
, hence the squint angle
r,c
is used instead
of the variable
r
.
Doppler centroid
The Doppler centroid frequency at =
c
is proportional to the rate of change
of R() which is given by (4.9)
f
c
=
2
dR()
d
=
c
=
2 V
2
r

c
R(
c
)
= +
2 V
r
sin
r,c
(4.31)
in units of Hz. Equation (4.14) has been used to obtain the nal equality. It
is possible to express the Doppler frequency in terms of the physical satellite
velocity V
s
and the physical squint angle
sq,c
. Using (4.16), f
c
can be
written as
f
c
=
2 V
s
sin
sq,c
(4.32)
This expression can be visualized from the fact that V
s
sin
sq,c
is the radial
velocity of the radar along the line-of-sight to the target, and V
s
is in ECR
coordinates.
Doppler bandwdith
From (4.31), the azimuth bandwidth of the target can be derived as
f
dop
=
2 V
r
cos
r,c
V
s
V
r
bw
=
2 V
s
cos
r,c

bw
(4.33)
in which the scaling factor V
s
/V
r
is due to the rectilinear geometry assump-
tion. This equation makes use of the fact that the bandwidth is the frequency
excursion experienced by the target during the time in which the target is illu-
minated by the 3-dB width of the radar beam,
bw
= 0.886 /L
a
. Therefore,
the Doppler bandwidth is
f
dop
= 0.886
2 V
s
cos
r,c
L
a
(4.34)
This bandwidth governs the sampling requirements, that is, it denes the
lower limit of the PRF. However, the signal strength is only down by 6 dB at
the beam edges dened by
bw
, and the azimuth spectrum rolls o slowly. An
oversampling factor of 1.1 to 1.4 is usually used to reduce azimuth ambiguity
power, that is, the PRF is set to the oversampling factor times f
dop
(see
Section 5.4).
Target exposure time
Two other important parameters are target exposure time T
a
and the azimuth
FM rate K
a
. The exposure time, as dened by how long the target stays in
4.6. THE TWO-DIMENSIONAL SIGNAL 135
the 3-dB beam limits, is given by
T
a
= 0.886
R(
c
)
L
a
V
g
cos
r,c
(4.35)
In the above equation, 0.886 /L
a
is the azimuth beamwidth, therefore 0.886
R(
c
) /L
a
is the projection of this beamwidth on the ground. This projection
is lengthened in azimuth by the factor 1/cos
r,c
for a nonzero squint angle.
Again, note that the use of the velocity, V
g
, the smallest of the three velocities
dened in Figure 4.6, takes into account the satellite attitude drift through
which the sensor nadir remains pointed at the local vertical as it proceeds
around its orbit. This attitude drift has the eect of lengthening the exposure
time.
Azimuth FM rate
The azimuth FM rate is the rate of change of azimuth or Doppler frequency
K
a
=
2
d
2
R()
d
2
=
c
=
2 V
2
r
cos
2
r,c
R(
c
)
=
2 V
2
r
cos
3
r,c
R
0
(4.36)
where the azimuth frequency is 2/ times the rst derivative of range. Also, as-
suming the velocity approximation (4.10) and the relation R
0
= R(
c
) cos
r,c
,
an alternate derivation of the Doppler bandwidth of (4.34) is obtained by mul-
tiplying (4.35) and (4.36).
4.6 The Two-Dimensional Signal
. SynApt 2Dsignal.tex
This section rst shows how the received radar signal is congured as a two-
dimensional signal, within the signal processor. Then the important SAR
sensor impulse response is presented. Finally, typical values of the parameters
of the two-dimensional signal are given.
4.6.1 Data Arrangement in Signal Memory
In a simple sense, the received radar signal is one-dimensional a voltage as a
function of time. In accordance with the transmit/receive cycles of Figure 4.9,
the waveform of the received signal could take the form shown in Figure 4.11,
where each segment of the signal represents the ground echo received during
one pulse cycle. The gaps between each segment represent the time when
the receiver is turned o, which includes the pulse transmission time, plus
an allowance for switching of the signal paths. The format of the signal in
Figure 4.11 is how it might appear in a one-dimensional storage media, such
as a magnetic tape.
Time >
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

>
Figure 4.11: Voltage or amplitude of the received radar signal.
To see how this signal can be considered as a two-dimensional signal,
it is useful to re-examine the SAR data collection scenario, as portrayed in
Figure 4.12. For simplicity, assume that the radar beamwidth is nite in
azimuth. When the sensor is at Point A, a target is just entering the radar
beam. The received signal from the target, which is part of the echo from a
given transmitted pulse, is written into one row of SAR signal memory. While
this memory may actually be on tape or in downlink memory for the time
being, it can be considered as being in the memory at the input to the SAR
signal processor.
Then, as the sensor advances, more pulses are transmitted, and the as-
sociated echoes are written into successive rows in the signal memory. When
the sensor is at Point B, the target leaves the beam, and the last received
energy of that target is written into SAR signal memory. Naturally, the signal
memory contains data from many targets, not just the one shown in the g-
ure. Also, the azimuth beamwidth is not nite in practice, which means that
energy received from the azimuth side lobes from each target is also recorded
before A and after B.
Going back to the one-dimensional signal, shown in Figure 4.11, one
can also think of this format as two-dimensional, where the received signal
is sampled and written into a computer memory, as in Figure 4.13. The
data from each segment or pulse are written into a new row in memory. The
beginning of each row occurs at a xed time delay with respect to the pulse
transmission time, referred to as the range gate delay in (4.1). In this way, the
horizontal axis in Figure 4.13 represents the travel time or range from
the sensor to the ground. From another viewpoint, one can consider a single
column in Figure 4.13, in which each sample corresponds to the same range
from the sensor. A column is sometimes called a range gate and a row called
a range line.
Now consider the vertical axis of the two-dimensional memory of Fig-
ure 4.13. While each sample in a given column is at the same range, the
sensor has moved a small amount in the azimuth direction from one sample
4.6 The Two-Dimensional Signal 137
F
lig
h
t
p
a
th
A
B
N
a
d
ir
A
z
im
u
th
R
a
n
g
e
Target
SAR
R(h
A
)
R(h
B
)
B
e
a
m
m
o
tio
n
a
lo
n
g
th
e
s
u
rfa
c
e
S
A
R
S
ig
n
a
l
M
e
m
o
ry
Figure 4.12: How the received SAR data ts into a two-dimensional signal
memory.
to the next, so this vertical axis can be labelled azimuth or azimuth time
. Data have now been recorded, corresponding to two near-orthogonal direc-
tions on the Earths surface, which is appropriate as the objective is to make
a two-dimensional image of the Earths surface.
In this way, one can see how a two-dimensional signal is obtained from
the radar system, with the coordinates being range time and azimuth time.
14
The range time is also called fast time and the azimuth time is called slow
time, because the range distance is related to range time by the speed of
light and the azimuth distance is related to azimuth time by the much slower
forward motion of the beam footprint.
A more realistic view of the two-dimensional memory is given in Fig-
14
Where the geographer thinks of distance along the Earths surface, the radar engineer
thinks of time in the radar system or computer memory. Thus, time and distance are used
interchangeably in this context.
Range time >
<

A
z
i
m
u
t
h

t
i
m
e
Figure 4.13: How the voltage of the received radar signal of Figure 4.11 is
written into the two-dimensional signal processor memory.
ure 4.14, where the locus of energy from a single point target is outlined.
Items to note are the extent of the echo in the range dimension (the trans-
mitted pulse duration), the extent of the echo in the azimuth direction (the
exposure time or the synthetic aperture length), and the range migration.
The sketch is not to scale, as the range and azimuth extents of the energy are
usually many hundreds of samples. However, the range migration may only
be a few cells.
To summarize, the radar samples originate from the sampling of a contin-
uous-time analog signal, i.e., the echo received from a transmitted pulse, and
these samples are written along the horizontal range axis. In the azimuth
direction, the signal is inherently in discrete-time from the outset, owing to
the discrete nature of the transmitted pulse events. The azimuth samples are
written along the vertical azimuth axis in the two-dimensional signal memory.
4.6.2 Demodulated Baseband Signal
The received signal s
r
contains the radar carrier, cos(2f
0
), which is re-
moved before the sampling by a quadrature demodulation process, as dis-
cussed in Appendix 4B. The demodulated baseband signal from a single point
target can be represented by the complex signal
s
0
(, ) = A
0
w
r
_
2R()/c
_
w
a
(
c
)
exp {j 4 f
0
R()/c} exp
_
j K
r
_
2R()/c
_
2
_
(4.37)
where the coecient A
0
is now a complex constant
A
0
= A
0
exp(i ) (4.38)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Slant range (samples or cells) >
<

A
z
i
m
u
t
h

(
s
a
m
p
l
e
s

o
r

p
u
l
s
e

n
u
m
b
e
r
)
c
End of target exposure
Start of exposure
S
y
n
t
h
e
t
i
c

a
p
e
r
t
u
r
e

l
e
n
g
t
h
Radar pulse length
Figure 4.14: The locus of energy of a single point target in the two-dimensional
signal processor memory, within the exposure time (the target energy extends
beyond these limits with a smaller magnitude).
where A
0
is the real coecient in (4.24).
The signal can now be sampled in range. Since it has a range bandwidth
of K
r
T
r
and is complex, the complex sampling rate should be
F
r
> |K
r
| T
r
(4.39)
to satisfy the Nyquist sampling criterion.
Equation (4.37) represents the demodulated baseband SAR signal received
from a point target, with coecient A
0
. It is the signal that is usually recorded
or downlinked in a SAR system and is referred to as the raw data, SAR
signal data or SAR phase history. The signal is at baseband in the range
direction only, as the azimuth signal often has a nonzero center frequency (see
Chapter 5).
4.6.3 The SAR Impulse Response
If A
0
is ignored, (4.37) is the impulse response of a point target having unity
amplitude. Thus the important SAR sensor impulse response is given by
h
imp
(, ) = w
r
_
2R()/c
_
w
a
(
c
)
exp {j 4 f
0
R()/c} exp
_
j K
r
_
2R()/c
_
2
_
(4.40)
To model the signal received from a general ground surface, the ground
reectivity is convolved with this impulse response in two dimensions to give
the baseband SAR signal data
s
bb
(, ) = g(, ) h
imp
(, ) + n(, ) (4.41)
where n(, ) is an additional noise component that is present in all practical
systems. The noise originates mainly from the front end receiver electronics,
and can be modelled as Gaussian white noise. The SAR system model cor-
responding to (4.41) is shown in Figure 4.15. In the following development
of matched ltering, the noise can be ignored. In simulation experiments,
one may wish to include noise in order to see the power of matched ltering
at work the wanted signal emerges from the noise oor as illustrated in
Figure 3.7.
Figure 4.15: SAR system model with additive noise.
SAR processing is assumed to start with this demodulated baseband sig-
nal. SAR processing algorithms attempt to solve for g(, ), which is a de-
convolution process. The diculty, and also the challenge, lies in the fact
that the impulse response is both range and azimuth dependent and contains
range-varying RCM.
4.6.4 Typical Radar Parameter Values
Table 4.1 gives a representative set of SAR parameter values for both a
satellite-borne case and an airborne case. For the satellite case, a set of param-
eters broadly representative of the SEASAT, J-ERS, ERS, RADARSAT and
ENVISAT remote sensing satellites is used, assuming a C-band wavelength
and a 10 m antenna.
For the aircraft case, a generic X-band system with a 1 m antenna is
considered. The table is separated into those parameters which primarily
aect range processing, and those which mainly aect azimuth processing.
The squint in the satellite case is caused by Earth rotation, assuming no yaw
steering. In the airborne case, the squint is caused by side winds and physical
antenna motion.
Table 4.1: Representative Airborne and Spaceborne SAR Parameters
Parameter Name Symbol Aircraft Satellite Units
Range parameters
Slant range of scene center R(
c
) 30 850 km
Transmitted pulse duration T
r
10 40 sec
Range FM rate K
r
10 0.5 MHz/sec
Signal bandwidth 100 20 MHz
Range sampling rate F
r
120 24 MHz
Range swath width 30 100 km
Azimuth parameters
Eective radar velocity V
r
250 7100 m/s
Radar center frequency f
0
9.4 5.3 GHz
Radar wavelength 0.032 0.057 m
Azimuth FM rate K
a
130 2070 Hz/sec
Synthetic aperture length 0.85 4.3 km
Target exposure time T
a
3.4 0.65 sec
Antenna length L
a
1 10 m
Doppler bandwidth f
dop
440 1340 Hz
Azimuth samp. rate (PRF) F
a
600 1700 Hz
Beam squint angle
sq,c
< 8 < 4 deg
4.7 SAR Resolution and Synthetic Aperture
. SynApt SARres.tex
The purpose of this section is to derive the azimuth resolution obtainable
from the SAR system. The azimuth resolution is derived from the concept
of azimuth bandwidth here, and is also derived from antenna concepts in
Appendix 4C.
15
4.7.1 Resolution Derived from Bandwidth
In the range direction, the received signal has FM characteristics, inherited
from the transmitted pulse. A high resolution can be obtained by matched
ltering. The resolution is governed by the pulse bandwidth as shown in (3.28)
of Section 3.3. In time units (seconds), it is 0.886 times the reciprocal of the
range bandwidth in Hz. Multiplying further by c/2 gives the resolution in
slant range units (meters).
In the azimuth direction, the beamwidth is given by 0.886 /L
a
. Without
SAR processing, the azimuth resolution is the projection of the beamwidth
onto the ground
a
= R(
c
)
bw
=
0.886 R(
c
)
L
a
(4.42)
This is called the resolution of a real aperture radar. It is in the order of several
hundreds of meters in an airborne case and several kilometers in a satellite
case.
In Section 4.5, it is shown that the signal in the azimuth direction is also
frequency modulated by virtue of motion of the platform. Hence, as in the
range direction, one would expect to obtain a high resolution by matched
ltering. The azimuth resolution that can be obtained (in time units) is 0.886
times the reciprocal of the bandwidth (4.33). In distance units, the obtainable
resolution is
a
=
0.886 V
g
cos
r,c
f
dop
=
L
a
2
V
g
V
s
(4.43)
The azimuth resolution normally quoted is
a
= L
a
/2, which ignores the
V
g
/V
s
0.88 factor in the satellite case. This means that the inherent azimuth
resolution is approximately one half the antenna length and is independent of
range, velocity or wavelength. This is the most distinguishing result in SAR
systems and is widely quoted in the literature. Equation (4.43) represents
15
As pointed out in Section 4.2, the azimuth resolution derived here is actually the cross
range resolution. Since the squint angle being considered is small, the azimuth resolution
does not dier signicantly from the cross range resolution. A special mention is made when
the azimuth resolution is not the cross range resolution.
4.7 SAR Resolution and Synthetic Aperture 143
the cross range resolution, as cos
r,c
is used for projecting the resolution in
that direction. But if the squint angle is small, (4.43) eectively gives the
achievable azimuth resolution.
The above result is an approximation because it has been assumed that
the antenna pattern in the azimuth frequency domain is a rectangular window,
spanning the width of the 6-dB (two-way) bandwidth. In practice, the beam
pattern is not at (it is usually a sinc squared function, as in (4.29)), and it
has signicant energy beyond the 6-dB points.
16
The actual resolution is a
function of how much of the bandwidth is processed, and the combined shape
of the beam pattern and the weighting function. Therefore, processing the en-
tire spectrum would give a slightly better resolution than just processing the
6-dB bandwidth. However, because of the roll-o, processing extra bandwidth
does not have a large eect on the resolution, so the eective obtainable az-
imuth resolution is quite close to (4.43). The actual resolution can be derived
experimentally, for a given PRF, antenna pattern, processed bandwidth and
weighting function.
L
s
q
syn
q
bw
q
bw
Azimuth
Satellite
Orbit
Earth's
surface
R
0
Target
q
bw
A
B
C
D
E
F
Figure 4.16: Antenna azimuth beamwidth and synthetic angle. For clarity, the
beamwidth and synthetic angle are exaggerated, and a zero squint angle is used.
Sometimes the resolution is expressed in terms of the synthetic angle,
syn
. This angle is the change in the viewing angle of the target between
the times when the target enters and exits from the beam. This angle is
shown in Figure 4.16. For an airborne case, the synthetic angle is equal to
16
The PRF is usually higher than the 6-dB bandwidth, so that some spectral energy
beyond the 6-dB points is available for processing. However, the energy outside the 6-dB
limits has a higher level of azimuth ambiguities, and is usually not processed.
the beamwidth.
17
For a satellite case, the synthetic angle is a little larger
than the beamwidth, because the antenna rotates slowly as the nadir remains
pointed towards the Earths center. In the satellite case, examining
sq
and
g
in Figure 4.6(a) and using (4.15), the synthetic angle is
syn
=
V
s
V
g
bw
(4.44)
which can be determined by comparing the approximate triangles AEC and
DBF in Figure 4.16 (the ratio of the path lengths ABC to DEF is V
s
/V
g
using small angle approximations). Substituting this angle into (4.33), the
Doppler bandwidth f
dop
can be expressed in terms of
syn
as
f
dop
=
2 V
g
cos
r,c
|
syn
| (4.45)
By combining the rst part of (4.43) and (4.45), the desired result is
obtained, showing that the resolution is
a
=
0.886
2
syn
(4.46)
The resolution is now independent of the squint angle. This form of the reso-
lution equation is used more frequently in spotlight SAR [11, 12] and inverse
SAR (ISAR) [7, 13] than in stripmap SAR (see Section 1.3).
4.7.2 Synthetic Aperture
The purpose of this section is to explain the term synthetic aperture in the
SAR context. This gives another derivation of the azimuth resolution.
The azimuth resolution of a conventional radar, or a SAR before process-
ing, is given by the azimuth beamwidth. The beamwidth is determined by
the radar wavelength and the antenna length or aperture, L
a
. Both these
parameters are xed for a given radar system. To improve the resolution, it
would be desirable to reduce the eective beamwidth.
Similar to creating (synthesizing) a narrow pulse in range, the trick is to
use signal processing to synthesize a narrow beamwidth in azimuth. Since the
beamwidth is inversely proportional to the antenna aperture, synthesizing a
narrow beamwidth is equivalent to synthesizing a large aperture. In practice,
the synthesized aperture can be several hundred meters long in the airborne
17
This denition assumes that the target is not rotating. If the target is rotating, the
rotation angles, caused by the changing beam viewing angle and by the target rotation angle,
must be added to get the synthetic angle.
4.8. SUMMARY 145
case and several thousand meters long in the satellite-borne case, whereas the
antennas real aperture, L
a
, is only in the order of 1 to 15 meters in length.
The synthetic aperture is shown by L
s
in Figure 4.16. It is the length
of the sensor path during the time that a target stays within the radar beam.
This length governs the amount of data that is available for processing from
a given target. The synthetic aperture L
s
is given by
L
s
=
R
0

bw
cos
r,c
V
s
V
g
=
0.886 R
0

L
a
cos
r,c
V
s
V
g
(4.47)
where
bw
= 0.886/L
a
and the ratio V
s
/V
g
is due to the dierence between
the beamwidth
bw
and the synthetic angle
syn
.
Appendix 4C shows that this denition of synthetic aperture gives a null-
to-null beamwidth of /L
s
. From the sinc function presented in Section 2.3.4,
the synthesized half-power beamwidth is
s
=
0.886
2 L
s
(4.48)
where the factor of 2 accounts for the two-way path, as shown in Appendix 4C.
Assuming an antenna having a beamwidth
s
, the azimuth resolution is then
R(
c
)
s
= R
0
s
/ cos
r,c
. Using (4.47) and (4.48), the azimuth resolution
becomes
a
=
0.886 R
0
2 L
s
cos
r,c
=
L
a
2
V
g
V
s
(4.49)
As an example, let L
a
= 10 m, = 0.057 m, R
0
= 900 km, V
g
/V
s
= 0.88
and assume a small squint angle. Then the obtainable resolution from (4.43)
is 4.4 m, the real aperture required to yield this resolution from (4.42) is
about 10.3 km, and the synthetic aperture from (4.47) is about 5.15 km. This
example shows that the equivalent real aperture is twice the length of the SAR
synthetic aperture.
4.8 Summary SynApt summary.tex
In this chapter, the geometry of the SAR data collection is discussed. Of
particular importance is the origin of the frequency modulations in range and
azimuth. The range modulation is achieved by the design of the transmitted
pulse. The azimuth modulation is introduced by the motion of the platform.
The SAR signal is the convolution of the ground reectivity with the SAR
system impulse response, which is range varying and possibly azimuth varying
also. SAR processors solve for the ground reectivity from this convolution
equation.
An important result, derived in this chapter, is that the available azimuth
resolution is about half the antenna length. Two dierent methods have been
shown to arrive at the same result. One is by utilizing the bandwidth of
a signal captured within the exposure time. Another method starts with
the denition of synthetic aperture and then derives the resolution from the
synthesized, much narrower, beam width.
It appears that SAR violates two common sense principles:
Resolution vs. range: In general, the closer a sensor is to a target, the
more the target details are revealed. But in SAR the azimuth band-
width, and hence the resolution, is independent of range and this can
be explained as follows. The exposure time is proportional to range,
but the azimuth FM rate is inversely proportional to range; hence the
signal bandwidth, being the product of the exposure time and FM rate,
is independent of range. Note however, that the SNR decreases with
R
3
, and under power-limiting conditions, this SNR loss obscures target
details at longer ranges.
Sensor size: Also, in general, a larger sensor can see more details than a
smaller sensor (as in a telescope or microscope). This is true for a real
aperture radar, but the opposite is true if the received data are processed
in SAR mode. The beamwidth increases with a smaller antenna and,
in turn, the exposure time and signal bandwidth increase, leading to a
ner resolution. However, ambiguities and SNR place a lower limit on
the antenna size.
The important equations derived in this chapter are summarized in Ta-
ble 4.2. In this table, use V
s
= V
r
= V
g
for an airborne case, and cos
r,c
= 1
for a negligible squint angle.
4.8 Summary 147
Table 4.2: Summary of Key Synthetic Aperture Equations
Parameter Name Symbol Expression Units
Range bandwidth | K
r
| T
r
Hz
Slant range R()
_
R
2
0
+V
2
r

2
m
w
r
( 2R()/c) w
a
(
c
)
Impulse response h
imp
(, ) exp {j 4 f
0
R()/c}
exp
_
j K
r
( 2R()/c)
2
_
Azimuth beamwidth

bw
0.886 /L
a
rad
Azimuth beam
footprint

a
0.886 R(
c
) /L
a
m
Synthetic aperture L
s
[0.886R(
c
)/(L
a
cos
r,c
) ] (V
g
/V
s
) m
Synthetic angle
syn
(V
g
/V
s
)
bw
rad
Doppler frequency
at =
c
f
c
2 V
r
sin
r,c
/ = 2 V
s
sin
sq,c
/ Hz
Beam center
crossing time

c
R
0
tan
r,c
/V
r
= R
0
tan
sq,c
/V
g
s
Doppler bandwidth f
dop
0.886 (2 V
s
cos
r,c
/ L
a
) Hz
Exposure time T
a
0.886 R(
c
) /(L
a
V
g
cos
r,c
) s
Azimuth FM rate K
a
2 V
2
r
cos
2
r,c
/ [ R(
c
) ] Hz/s
Azimuth resolution

a
V
g
cos
r,c
/ f
dop
m
Azimuth resolution

a
(L
a
/2) (V
g
/V
s
) L
a
/2 m
Azimuth resolution

a
0.886 / (2
syn
) m
4.8.1 Example of a SAR Image
An example of a SAR image taken by the RADARSAT-1 sensor is shown in
Figure 4.17. The image was acquired on March 22, 1996, and its size is 102
by 102 km. It was processed by Radarsat International Inc. using the range
Doppler algorithm to a resolution of 25 m, 4 looks.
18
The image shows the Dead Sea at 31.5
N and 35.4
E. Israel and the

West Bank lie to the east, and Jordan lies to the west of the sea and the Rift
Valley. The city of Jerusalem is near the top left and the city of Amman near
the top right of the image.
Figure 4.17: RADARSAT-1 S4 ascending image of the Dead Sea Rift Valley
in the Middle East. Copyright, Canadian Space Agency.
18
Note that because of le size and printing limitations, the image quality portrayed in
the book is not representative of the full quality available from the sensor.
References 149
References
[1] D. Massonnet. Capabilities and limitations of the interferomet-
ric cartwheel. IEEE Trans. on Geoscience and Remote Sensing,
39(3): pp. 506520, March 2001.
[2] T. Amiot, F. Douchin, E. Thouvenot, J.-C. Souyris, and B. Cugny. The
interferometric cartwheel: a multi-purpose formation of passive radar
microsatellites. In Proc. Int. Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symp.,
IGARSS02, volume 1, pages 435437, Toronto, June 2002.
[3] R. K. Raney, A. P. Luscombe, E. J. Langham, and S. Ahmed.
RADARSAT. Proc. IEEE, 79(6): pp. 839849, 1991.
[4] J. Curlander and R. McDonough. Synthetic Aperture Radar: Systems
and Signal Processing. Wiley, New York, 1991.
[5] R. K. Raney. A Comment on Doppler FM Rate. International Journal
of Remote Sensing, 8(7): pp. 10911092, January 1987.
[6] R. K. Raney. Radar Fundamentals: Technical Perspective, chapter 2,
page 59. Manual of Remote Sensing, Volume 2: Principles and Appli-
cations of Imaging Radar. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 3rd edition,
1998.
[7] D. R. Wehner. High Resolution Radar. Artech House, Norwood, MA,
2nd edition, 1995.
[8] R. W. Bayma and P. A. McInnes. Aperture size and ambiguity constraints
for a synthetic aperture radar. In J. J. Kovaly, editor, Synthetic Aperture
Radar. Artech House, Norwood, MA, 1978.
[9] S. W. McCandless. SAR in Space The Theory, Design, Engineering
and Application of a Space-Based SAR System, chapter 4. Space-Based
Radar Handbook, L. J. Cantao, editor. Artech House, 1989.
[10] A. Freeman, W. T. K. Johnson, B. Honeycutt, R. Jordan, S. Hensley,
P. Siqueira, and J. Curlander. The Myth of the Minimum SAR An-
tenna Area Constraint. IEEE Trans. Geoscience and Remote Sensing,
38(1):320324, January 2000.
[11] W. G. Carrara, R. S. Goodman, and R. M. Majewski. Spotlight Synthetic
Aperture Radar: Signal Processing Algorithms. Artech House, Norwood,
MA, 1995.
150 REFERENCES
[12] C. V. Jakowatz, D. E. Wahl, P. H. Eichel, D. C. Ghiglia, and P. A.
Thompson. Spotlight-Mode Synthetic Aperture Radar: A Signal Process-
ing Approach. Kluwer Academic Publishers, New York, 1996.
[13] R. J. Sullivan. Microwave Radar Imaging and Advanced Concepts. Artech
House, Norwood, MA, 2000.
Appendix 4A. Derivation of the Eective Radar Velocity 151
Appendix 4A: Derivation of Approximate Form of
the Eective Radar Velocity SynApt Derive Vr approx.tex
Equation (4.10) states that the eective radar velocity V
r
is approximately
the geometric mean of the satellite velocity, V
s
, and the beam velocity over
the ground, V
g
. The relationship is accurate for zero Doppler pointing and a
satellite orbit that can be assumed to be circular within the target exposure
time. The purpose of this appendix is to prove this relationship. It should be
emphasized that the approximation is adequate for simple geometric analyses,
but is not suciently accurate for precision focusing of the SAR data.
A
B
C Earth's
surface
Satellite velocity V
s
Beam footprint velocity V
g
R
e
R
0
R(h)
Center of Earth
b
e
w
s
h
x
y
z
O
H
Figure 4.18: The SAR geometry, showing the satellite velocity and the beam
footprint velocity.
Figure 4.18 can be used to illustrate the satellite/Earth geometry of the
radar system. Let C be a target on the Earths surface under consideration,
and A be the satellite position when the target at C is at zero Doppler.
The relative orbit time at A is set to zero. Let the satellite, travelling with
angular velocity
s
, advance from position A to B in a time . All velocities,
including V
s
, are in ECR coordinates in which Earth rotation is not a factor.
Assume a right-handed, Earth-centered coordinate system in which the
z-axis points from the center of the Earth to Point A, the y-axis points in
the direction of the satellite ECR velocity vector at Point A, and the x-axis
points to the right to complete the orthogonal system. At = 0, the satellite
position is [0 0 H]
T
. Then, the position of the satellite at time is at B,
given by
P
B
=
_
_
0
H sin
s
H cos
s
_ (4A.1)
and the target position C is
P
C
=
_
_
R
e
sin
e
0
R
e
cos
e
_
_ (4A.2)
where H is the local orbit radius, R
e
is the local Earth radius at the target,
and
e
is the angle between OC and the orbit plane.
The range to the target at = 0 is R
0
and the range at time is
R() = | P
C
P
B
|
=
_
(R
e
sin
e
)
2
+ (H sin
s
)
2
+ (H cos
s
R
e
cos
e
)
2
(4A.3)
Using the small angle approximations, sin
s

s
and cos
s
1
2
s
2
/2, and ignoring terms in
4
, the range can be expressed as
R() =
_
H
2
+R
2
e
2 H R
e
cos
e
+ (H
s
) (R
e
s
cos
e
)
2
=
_
R
2
0
+ (H
s
) (R
e
s
cos
e
)
2
(4A.4)
where the last equation uses the triangle relationship R
2
0
= H
2
+ R
2
e

2HR
e
cos
e
. From the gure, H
s
is the satellite velocity V
s
arising from
the locally circular orbit assumption, and R
e
s
cos
e
is the beam footprint
velocity, V
g
. This value of V
g
assumes that the Earth is locally spherical in
the vicinity of C, so that V
g
is measured parallel to V
s
.
Hence the nal result is
R
2
() = R
2
0
+ V
s
V
g

2
(4A.5)
which shows that the eective radar velocity, V
r
in (4.9), is equal to
_
V
s
V
g
under the conditions of a locally circular orbit and an antenna centered on
zero Doppler.
Appendix 4B. Quadrature Demodulation 153
Appendix 4B: Quadrature Demodulation
. SynApt hetero.tex
The pulses transmitted and received by the radar system are real signals.
This appendix explains how the received signal can be bandshifted, to obtain
a complex baseband signal by a quadrature demodulation process. The de-
modulation removes the high frequency carrier but may create some signal
errors, so the compensation of the errors is also discussed.
4B.1 Theory of Quadrature Demodulation
Let a general real-valued signal, having a high-frequency carrier and a low-
frequency modulation, be represented by
x() = cos{ 2 f
0
+() } (4B.1)
where the frequency of the carrier, f
0
, is several orders of magnitude higher
than the bandwidth of the modulation () (GHz versus MHz).
Figure 4.19 shows the quadrature demodulation process produces two
channels that represent a complex-valued output [11]. First, consider the up-
per channel, where the signal is multiplied by cos(2f
0
). Using the trigono-
metric identity
cos
1
cos
2
=
1
2
cos(
1
2
) +
1
2
cos(
1
+
2
) (4B.2)
the result of the multiplication is
x
c1
() =
1
2
cos{ () } +
1
2
cos{ 4 f
0
+() } (4B.3)
The rst cosine term of (4B.3) has an upper frequency governed by the
bandwidth of (), while the second cosine term has a much higher frequency,
centered around 2f
0
. Therefore, the second term can be removed by a low
pass lter, giving the result
x
c2
() =
1
2
cos{ () } (4B.4)
Similarly, the lower channel of Figure 4.19 is multiplied by sin(2f
0
)
and the following trigonometric identity is used
sin
1
cos
2
=
1
2
sin(
1
2
) +
1
2
sin(
1
+
2
) (4B.5)
ADC
Low Pass
Filter
Low Pass
Filter
ADC
cos( 2pf
0
t)
-sin( 2pf
0
t)
x(t)
Real
channel
Imaginary
channel
I
Q
x
s1
(t)
x
c1
(t)
x
c2
(t)
x
s2
(t)
Figure 4.19: Quadrature demodulation of a signal to remove the carrier.
to express the signal as the sum of high and low frequency components. After
low pass ltering, the signal x
s2
() is
x
s2
() =
1
2
sin{ () } (4B.6)
The signals x
c2
() and x
s2
() are then sampled by the analog-to-digital
converters (ADCs) at a rate at least equal to the bandwidth of (). Because
of the cosine and sine multiplication, the two signals are in phase quadrature,
and represent a complex signal
x
3
() = x
c2
() +j x
s2
() =
1
2
exp{j ()} (4B.7)
The two individual signals are called the quadrature components of the complex
signal, or the I and Q channels for in-phase and quadrature. The signal x
3
()
is the required baseband signal, which is used in the processing of the SAR
signals.
When demodulation is applied to the real SAR echo data from a point
target (4.30) to obtain the complex baseband signal, the phase term () is
() =
4 f
0
R()
c
+ K
r
_

2 R()
c
_
2
+ (4B.8)
The demodulated baseband signal is then given by (4.37).
4B.2 Errors and Corrections
The following errors can occur in the demodulation process:
Appendix 4B. Quadrature Demodulation 155
Frequency mixing: The input signal in analog form goes through two chan-
nels. One channel is multiplied by cos(2 f
0
), and the other channel
by sin(2 f
0
). A constant phase error can be introduced in the mul-
tiplier in each channel, caused by the electronics. The phase dierence
between these two paths, rather than the absolute phase angles, is of
importance for the SAR processing. Let this phase dierence be .
The frequency beating can then be viewed as follows. The upper channel
is multiplied by cos(2 f
0
), and the lower channel by sin[2 f
0
( +
)]. The additional phase is an error. In other words, the signals
in the two channels are no longer orthogonal.
Low pass lter: Ideally, the gains of the low pass lters in the two channels
are equal. Because of imbalance in the electronics, this may not always
be the case. When this imbalance occurs, the signal powers after ltering
are not equal. The ratio of the two gains, rather than the absolute values
of the gains, are of importance. Similarly, each channel has a DC bias,
and the two biases can be dierent.
Analog to digital conversion: In the ADCs, the gains of the two channels
may not be balanced, and there may be a timing error between the two
channels.
The corrections for gain, DC bias and phase should be performed in the
following order: bias removal in both channels, power balancing between the
channels, and phase correction in one channel. The rst two corrections can
be performed quite easily:
1. Determine the DC bias in each channel from the data.
2. Correct the DC bias for each channel.
3. Determine the relative gain of the channels, after the bias removal.
4. Select a channel and correct for the gain.
Correcting the phase
The phase correction is not as straightforward. One method is described
below, assuming that bias removal and power balancing have been performed.
Let

I and

Q denote the pixel intensity in the I and Q channels,

A the
magnitude and

the phase, where the symbol denotes a random variable.
Then the channel intensities can be written
I =

A cos

(4B.9)
Q =

A sin(
+ ) (4B.10)
where the phase error has been included. The probability distribution
of

A is immaterial in the subsequent analysis. The angle

has a uniform
distribution between and . The two random variables

A and

are
statistically independent. The random variables

I and

Q each have zero
mean, because of the cosine and sine factors.
For perfect orthogonality, the cross-channel covariance must be zero. Hence,
any non-orthogonality can be detected from the o-diagonal terms of the co-
variance matrix, and the angle can be determined. Let the covariance be
C, which can be expressed by
C = E{
I

Q} (4B.11)
where E is the expectation over the received data set. Substituting (4B.9) and
(4B.10) into (4B.11), and recognizing the fact that

A and

are statistically
independent, the covariance is
C = E{(

A)
2
cos

sin(
+ )}
= E{(

A)
2
} E{cos

sin(
+ )}
=
1
2
E{(

A)
2
} E{sin(2
+ ) + sin } (4B.12)
Recognizing that E{sin(2

+ )} = 0 and E{sin } = sin , the covari-
ance is
C =
1
2
E{(

A)
2
} sin (4B.13)
The value of E{(

A)} can be obtained from (4B.9) or (4B.10)
E{(

A)
2
} = 2 E{
I
2
} = 2 E{
Q
2
} (4B.14)
Hence, the required phase correction can be determined by combining
(4B.11), (4B.13) and (4B.14)
sin =
E{
I

Q}
E{
I
2
}
=
E{
I

Q}
E{
Q
2
}
(4B.15)
The phase correction need only be applied to one channel, say the Q chan-
nel. Using of (4B.10), the phase error for this channel can be expressed
using
Q = A sin( + ) (4B.16)
where the has been dropped because the equation now refers to each partic-
ular pixel. The desired result is
Q
= A sin (4B.17)
Appendix 4C. Concept of Synthetic Aperture 157
where has been compensated. Now Q
has to be expressed in terms of the

known variables I, Q, and . Equation (4B.10) can be re-written as
Q = A sin cos + A cos sin (4B.18)
Combining (4B.9), (4B.17) and (4B.18), the phase-corrected channel is
Q
=
Q I sin
cos
(4B.19)
The data I and Q
now form an orthogonal set. It is seen that if = 0 to

start with, then Q
= Q and no correction is needed. From here on, in this

book, it is assumed that the input data have been properly corrected.
Appendix 4C: Concept of Synthetic Aperture
. SynApt Antenna.tex
In Section 4.7, the SAR azimuth resolution is derived from the processed band-
width, using the resolution formula from the pulse compression development
of Section 3.3. In this appendix, the azimuth resolution is derived from a
dierent viewpoint, using antenna beamwidth concepts. In doing so, an intu-
itive explanation of the term synthetic aperture is given. For simplicity, the
development assumes a zero squint case, but it can be extended to a nonzero
squint easily.
4C.1 Antenna Beamwidth
The presentation starts by taking a brief look at antenna theory, and discusses
the meaning of aperture and the resolving power of an antenna. Then, the
operations with which the SAR processor creates or synthesizes an antenna
are examined, which gives an alternate way of deriving azimuth resolution.
Consider a radar antenna consisting of a linear array of identical radiating
elements, as shown in Figure 4.20. The length of the antenna, L
a
, is called
the real aperture (or simply the aperture) of the antenna. This is in analogy
with the aperture or diameter of a lens and is the opening through which
the sensor views the imaged terrain.
Consider the far-eld radiation pattern of the antenna beam as it strikes
the Earths surface. The main lobe of the pattern illuminates a patch of the
ground at any instant and, in a simple sense, this patch is what is observed
at that time. Consequently, the azimuth extent of this patch denes the
resolving power of the antenna in the azimuth direction. More specically,
Azimuth
radiating elements
L
a
q
q
perpendicular to
viewing direction q
Voltmeter
x
R
0
R
Earth's surface
Figure 4.20: Far-eld radiation pattern of a planar antenna array.
the 3-dB width of the radiation pattern is usually taken as the resolution of
the unprocessed received signal.
Suppose it is desired to measure the far-eld strength of the radiated
energy at a point on the ground, using a eld strength meter, placed as shown
in Figure 4.20. Consider a line from the eld strength meter to the center
of the antenna that makes an angle with the normal to the surface of the
antenna. The far-eld assumption states that the rays from each element
to the eld strength meter can be considered to be parallel. The distance
from each element to the eld strength meter is R
0
+x, assuming that the
angle is small. Assuming that the radiation from each element is of equal
amplitude at the eld strength meter, and neglecting the constant phase due
to the range R
0
, the net voltage is given by the sum of the radiation from all
of the radiating elements
p
a
() =

n
exp
_
j 2
x(n)
_
(4C.1)
where n is the element number.
This sum can be recognized as the DFT of a rectangular function. As
the number of radiating elements increases and the elements become closer
together, this sum converges to the familiar Fourier integral that gives the
one-way beam pattern
p
a
() =
_
+L
a
/2
L
a
/2
exp
_
j 2
x
_
dx = sinc
_
L
a
_
(4C.2)
The beam pattern is a sinc function, as illustrated in Figure 2.3.
This eld strength on the ground has a maximum at the boresight direc-
tion, = 0, and the limits of the main lobe are dened by the width of the
two zero crossings adjacent to the peak. Referring to Figure 2.3, the angu-
lar width between the zero crossings can be deduced to be 2/L
a
. Also, by
comparing (4.25) and (4C.2), the half power width is 0.886/L
a
.
The width between the zero crossings can be interpreted as the resolv-
ability of the radar beam, although the 3-dB width, which is about one half
the zero crossing width, is normally considered to be the resolution in radar
terminology. At range R
0
, the 3-dB resolution is 0.886 R
0
/L
a
.
An intuitive way of nding the width between the two zero crossings is to
nd the smallest value of that makes the sum in (4C.1) go to zero. Note
that the contribution of each radiating element to the eld strength is a phasor
exp{j2 x/} with constant amplitude and a phase angle proportional to
. The sum in (4C.1) is zero when the n phasors form a circle, as shown in
Figure 4.21.
Complex
plane
Real
Imaginary
1
2
3
n -1
n
Figure 4.21: Summation of electric vectors from each radiating element, at
the rst null of the beam pattern.
From Figure 4.21, it can be seen that the vector sum is zero if the phasors
from the rst and last radiating elements are aligned in almost the same
direction. Beginning from the antenna boresight and moving outwards, the
phasors are next aligned when the path dierence, L
a
for small , between
the two ends of the aperture to the eld strength meter, is one wavelength.
This occurs at the beam angle of = /L
a
so, from symmetry, the beamwidth
between the nulls adjacent to the main lobe is 2 /L
a
. This agrees with the
previous result.
4C.2 Synthetic Aperture
Now, how does the SAR signal processor contribute to the resolution? In
the SAR system, there are two main dierences with respect to the antenna
model described in the preceding section. First, the location of the radiating
elements in the SAR case is given by the location of the sensor when the
pulses are transmitted and received. Thus, the antenna phase center location
at each pulse epoch is analogous to each element in Figure 4.20, as each pulse
is acting as one contribution to the received signal in the SAR system.
19
Second, the signal strength is being observed at the receiver, rather than
on the ground. This means that the ranges in the analysis of the preceding
section must be doubled. Then, in order to complete the analogy with the
previous section, the eld strength meter in Figure 4.20 is replaced by an
ideal reector (corner reector), and the eld strength meter is replaced by a
voltmeter in the SAR receiver.
X
R
0
R
0
R
0
R
1
R
2
Synthetic aperture length L
s
= 0.886 l R
0
/ L
a
corner
reflector
SAR sensor
location at pulse i
azimuth
O
Figure 4.22: Sensor locations where the data are collected, illustrating the
concept of synthetic aperture.
19
While the SAR antenna actually moves a few meters between the transmission and
reception of a given pulse, this distance is very small compared with the ranges involved, so
it is permissible to assume that the antenna is stationary between the transmit and receive
events. This is sometimes called the start-stop assumption in SAR signal analysis.
This analogy is expressed in Figure 4.22, where the synthetic array length
is given by the distance that the sensor travels while the corner reector is
illuminated by the radar beam. The length 0.886 R
0
/L
a
is used, which
corresponds to the length where the received signal strength is within 6-dB of
its maximum.
The corner reector is located a distance X away from the central axis
of the synthetic array. The perpendicular distance from the corner reector
to the array is R
0
. The distances from the corner reector to either end of
the synthetic array are R
1
and R
2
. Then, for large range distances, the total
path length dierence is
2 (R
2
R
1
)
2 L
s
X
R
0
(4C.3)
and, using the same argument as that associated with Figure 4.21, the rst
null occurs when the corner reector is at
X
null
=
R
0
2 L
s
(4C.4)
and the null-to-null separation of two corner reectors located symmetrically
about the central axis is 2 X
null
. Thus, taking the resolution as 0.886 times
half the null-to-null distance, the azimuth resolution of the processed SAR
data is
a
= 0.886 X
null
= 0.886
R
0
2 L
s
= 0.886
R
0
2
L
a
0.886 R
0
=
L
a
2
(4C.5)
Section 4.7 shows that the achievable resolution is better than this by a ratio
of footprint velocity to satellite velocity.
An alternate way to arrive at the resolution is to follow the development
leading to (4C.2), in which L
a
is replaced by L
s
, and the phase inside exp{.}
is increased by a factor of two due to the two-way path. Then the synthesized
radiation pattern is
p
s
() = p
2
a
()
_
L
s
/2
L
s
/2
exp
_
j4
x
_
dx sinc
_
2 L
s

_
(4C.6)
The term p
2
a
() outside the integral is the antenna beam pattern at each
element position, and the integral is the Fourier transform of a rectangular
function a sinc function. The width of p
2
a
() is much wider than that
of the sinc function because the former is the beamwidth of the original real
aperture, while the latter is of the synthesized beamwidth. The factor p
2
a
()
can then be ignored; hence an approximation sign is used in the last step.
Drawing a further analogy between the synthetic aperture L
s
and a real
aperture antenna, it would take a conventional antenna of length 2 L
s
to
obtain a resolution of L
a
/2 without SAR processing. The synthetic array is
only half this long because the SAR system benets from the two-way radar
path length.
Index
ambiguities
azimuth, 129, 132, 134
range, 126, 130
tradeo, 130
antenna
beamwidth, 132, 157159
size, 146
azimuth
ambiguities, 129
bandwidth, 134
beam pattern, 131
direction, 111
FM rate, 135
resolution, 142145
signal strength, 132
backscatter coecient, 126, 138
baseband signals, 153
beam
footprint, 109
velocity, 110
beam center crossing time, 112
compression
gain, 125
to zero Doppler, 113
convolution
with ground reectivity, 126
cross range, 114
demodulation
errors, 154
Doppler
bandwidth, 135
frequency, 127, 132, 134
down chirp, 124
ENVISAT, 141
ERS, 129, 141
exposure time, 135
far range, 126
fast time, 137
geometry
curved Earth, 120
orbit, 117
rectilinear, 119
ground range, 114
image space, 112
linear FM, 124
Massonnet, 109
nadir
point, 110
return, 130
near range, 126
Nyquist sampling rate, 129
orbit
altitude, 117
eccentricity, 117
inclination, 118
period, 118
radius, 118
orbital velocity, 110
oversampling ratio
azimuth, 129, 134
range, 125
614
INDEX 615
platform velocity, 110
point target, 109
PRF
choice of, 129
minimum, 134
pulse envelope, 124
pulse timing, 128
quadrature demodulation, 153157
I and Q components, 154
phase correction, 155
radar
beamwidth, 111
coherence, 128
real aperture, 142
track, 110
transmitted pulses, 124, 128
RADARSAT, 117, 129, 141
radiation pattern, 158
radiometric
variation with range, 126
range, 112114
ambiguities, 130
bandwidth, 125
FM rate, 124
of closest approach, 111
oversampling ratio, 125
resolution, 125
sampling rate, 125
slant vs. ground, 114117
swath, 125
swath width, 130
range equation, 119122
hyperbolic, 119
receive window, 130
SAR parameters
antenna beamwidth, 157159
aperture length, 160162
SAR signal
at baseband, 138
azimuth, 127135
convolution, 126
data acquisition, 136
deconvolution, 140
demodulated baseband, 139
demodulation, 153157
range, 123127
raw data, 139
signal memory, 136
two-dimensional, 135140
SAR system
geometry, 108118
impulse response, 140
parameters, 140
satellite speed, 118
SEASAT, 141
signal memory, 135138
signal space, 112
slow time, 137
squint angle, 114, 122123
start-stop assumption, 160
synthesized beamwidth, 145
synthetic angle, 143
synthetic aperture, 144145
beamwidth concept, 160162
target trajectory, 112
time bandwidth product, 125
transmitted bandwidth, 125
transmitted pulse, 124
up chirp, 124
velocity
beam, 110
eective radar, 120123
orbital, 110
platform, 110
zero Doppler
compression to, 113
line, 111
plane of, 111
time of, 111

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Chapter 4

Synthetic Aperture Concepts

is relative to the rst sample, as controlled

+ RGD c/2 (4.1)

, so that the orbit is

indicates that the satellite is orbiting the Earth in a westerly direction. As a

is used in SAR processing, and it is called

< CD, so that the eective radar velocity V

E. Israel and the

has to be expressed in terms of the

now form an orthogonal set. It is seen that if = 0 to

= Q and no correction is needed. From here on, in this

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