To say that the invention of semiconductor devices was a revolution would not be anexaggeration.

Not only was this an impressive technological accomplishment, but it paved thewa y for d e v el o p m e nt s t ha t wou ld i n de li bl y a lt e r m o d er n so ci et y . S e mi c o ndu c to r d ev i c e sm a d e p o s s i b l e m i n i a t u r i z e d e l e c t r o n i c s , i n c l u d i n g c o m p u t e r s , c e r t a i n t y p e s o f m e d i c a l diagnostic and treatment equipment, and popular telecommunication devices, to name a fewapplications of this technology.Tiny particles of matter called protons and neutrons ma k e u p th e c en t er o f t h e a to m ; electrons or bi t l ik e pla n et s a r ou n d a sta r . T h e nu c l eu s ca rr i e s a p o siti v e e l e ctr i ca l c ha r g e, owing to the presence of protons (the neutrons have no electrical charge whatsoever), whilethe atoms balancing negative charge resides in the orbiting electrons. The negative electronsare attracted to the positive protons just as planets are gravitationally attracted by the Sun, yetthe orbits are stable because of the electrons motion. We owe this popular model of the atomto the work of Ernest Rutherford, who around the year 1911. asalamsaad,pkt,2011

Valence and Crystal structure Ve e al nc : The electrons in the outer most shell, or valence shell, are known as valence electrons. These valence electrons are responsible for the chemical properties of the chemicalelements. It is these electrons which participate in chemical reactions with other elements. Ano v e r s i m p l i f i e d c h e m i s t r y r u l e a p p l i c a b l e t o s i m p l e r e a c t i o n s i s t h a t atoms tr y t o for m a compl et e out er shell of 8 el ect r ons ( t wo for t he L shel l) . At oms ma y gi ve a wa y a fewelectr ons to expose a n u nder lying complete shell. Atoms ma y a ccept a few electr ons tocomplete the shell. T hese two pr ocesses for m ions fr om atoms. Atoms ma y even sha r eelectr ons a mong a toms i n a n a t t e m p t t o c o m p l e t e t h e o u t e r s h e l l . T h i s p r o c e s s f o r m s molecular bonds. That is, atoms associate to form a molecule.For example group I elements: Li, Na, K, Cu, Ag, and Au have a single valence electron.(Figure 1.3) These elements all have similar chemical properties. These atoms readily giveaway one electron to react with other elements. The ability to easily give away an electronmakes these elements excellent conductors. asalamsaad,pkt,2011 Figure 1.3: Periodic table group IA elements: Li, Na, and K, and group IB elements: Cu, Ag, and Au have oneelectron in the outer, or valence, shell, which is readily donated. Inner shell electrons: For n= 1, 2, 3, 4; 2n2 = 2,8, 18, 32. Grou p VII A e l e m en t s: F l, C l, Br, a nd I a ll ha v e 7 el e ct ro n s i n t h e ou t er sh e ll . T h e se e le m e n t s r ea di l y a c c ep t a n el e c tr on t o fil l u p th e ou t er sh e ll wit h a fu l l 8 el e ctr o n s. ( Fi gu re1.4) I f t he se el e m e nt s do a c c ep t a n e l ec tr o n, a n ega ti v e io n i s fo r m ed fr o m t h e n eu tra l a t o m .These elements which do not give up electrons are insulators. Figure 1.4: Periodic table group VIIA elements: F, Cl, Br, and I with 7 valence electrons readily accept anelectron in reactions with other elements. Grou p VIII A el e m e nt s: H e , N e , Ar, Kr, Xe a ll ha v e 8 e l e ctr o n s i n th e va l e nc e sh ell .(Figure below) That is, the valence shell is complete meaning these elements neither donatenor accept electrons. Nor do they readily participate in chemical reactions since group VIIIAelements do not easily combine with other elements. In recent years chemists have forced Xea n d Kr t o for m a fe w c o m pou n d s, h o wev e r for t h e pu r p o se s o f ou r di scu ssio n t hi s i s n o tapplicable. These elements are good electrical insulators and are gases at room temperature. asalamsaad,pkt,2011

Fi gu r e 1 .5 : G rou p VIII A el e m e nt s: H e , N e , Ar, Kr, Xe a re la r g el y n o nr ea cti v e si n c e th e va l e nc e sh ell i scomplete. Grou p I VA e l e me n t s: C, Si, G e, ha v i ng 4 el e c tr on s i n t h e val e n c e sh el l a s sh o wn i n Fi gu r e 1 .6form compounds by sharing electrons with other elements without forming ions.T hi s sha r e d el e ct ro n b o n di n g i s k no wn a s covalent bonding

. N ot e t ha t t h e c e nt er a t o m (a n dt h e o t he r s b y e xt e n sio n) ha s c o m pl et e d it s va l e n ce sh ell by sha ri n g e l e ctr o n s. N ot e tha t t h e figure is a 2-d representation of bonding, which is actually 3-d. It is this group, IVA, that weare interested in for its semiconducting properties. Crystal structure: M o s t i n o r g a n i c s u b s t a n c e s f o r m t h e i r a t o m s ( o r i o n s ) i n t o a n or d er e d a rra y k no wn a s a crystal . T h e ou te r el e c tr on cl ou d s o f a t o m s in t era ct i n a n or d er l ymanner. Even metals are composed of crystals at the microscopic level. If a metal sample isgiven an optical polish, then acid etched, the microscopic microcrystalline structure shows asin Figure 1.6. It is also possible to purchase, at considerable expense, metallic single crystalsp e ci m e n s fro m sp e cia l i z ed su pp li er s. P ol i sh i ng a nd et c hi n g su c h a spe c i m e n di sc lo se s no microcrystalline structure. Practically all industrial metals are polycrystalline. Most modernsemiconductors, on the other hand, are single crystal devices. We are primarily interested inmonocrystalline structures.Ma n y m eta l s a r e so ft a n d ea sil y d e for m e d b y t he va ri ou s m eta l work in g t e c hn i qu e s.T h e mi cr o cr y sta l s a r e d e for m e d in m eta l work i n g. Al so , th e va l en c e el e ct ro n s a r e fr e e to m o v e a b o u t t h e c r y s t a l l a t t i c e , a n d f r o m c r y s t a l t o c r y s t a l . T h e v a l e n c e e l e c t r o n s d o n o t belong to any particular atom, but to all atoms. asalamsaad,pkt,2011

devices Figure 1.6: (a) Group IVA elements: C, Si, Ge having 4 electrons in the valence shell, (b) complete the valenceshell by sharing electrons with other elements. Conduction in Intrinsic Semiconductors Semiconductors are the class of elements which have four valence electrons. Two importantse m i co n du ct or s a r e g er ma niu m (G e) a n d si li c o n ( Si ). Ea r ly sol id -sta t e el e ctr o ni c de v i ce swere fabricated almost exclusively from germanium, whereas modern devices are fabricateda l mo st e x clu siv e ly fr o m sil i c on . Ga ll iu m a r se ni d e (Ga As) i s a se m i co n du ct or c o m p ou n d ma d e u p o f ga ll iu m, whi c h ha s t hr e e va le n c e e l e ctr o n s, a nd a r se ni c , whi c h ha s fi v e . T h i ss e m i c o n d u c t o r i s m a k i n g i n r o a d s i n d i g i t a l a p p l i c a t i o n s w h i c h r e q u i r e e x t r e m e l y h i g h swit c hi n g sp e ed s a nd i n e x tr e m el y h ig h -fr equ e n c y a na l o g a pp li ca t i on s. Ho we v er , sil i co nremains the most useful semiconductor material and is expected to dominate for many yearsto come. Semiconductor materials are normally in crystalline form with each valence electronshared by two atoms. The semiconductor is said to be intrinsic if it is not contaminated withimpurity atoms. Fig. 1.7 shows a two-dimensional view of an intrinsic semiconductor crystal.Ea c h ci r cl e re pr e se nt s bo t h t h e nu cl eu s o f a n a to m a nd a l l el e ctr on s i n t ha t a t o m e x c e pt t h evalence electrons. The links between the circles represent the valence electrons. Each valencee le c tr o n ca n b e a ssu m e d to spe n d ha l f ti m e wit h ea c h o f t wo a t o m s so t ha t ea ch a to m se e seight half-time electrons. Compared to a metal, the valence electrons in a semiconductor aretightly bound. asalamsaad,pkt,2011

devices Figure 1.7: Two-dimensional illustration of the crystal lattice of an intrinsic semiconductor. The thermal energy stored in a semiconductor crystal lattice causes the atoms to be inc o n s t a n t m e c h a n i c a l v i b r a t i o n . A t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e v i b r a t i o n s s h a k e l o o s e s e v e r a l va len c e e l e ctr o n s wh i ch t h e n b e c o me fr e e el e ctr o n s. I n in tri n si c si li c o n, t h e nu mb e r o f fr e e el e ct ro n s i s ap pr o xi ma t el y o n e i n 1 0 1 2 o f t h e t ota l nu mb e r o f va le n c e e l e ctr o n s. T he fr e e electrons behave similarly to those in a metal. Under the influence of an applied electric field,t h e y h a v e a m o b i l i t y a n d e x h i b i t a d r i f t v e l o c i t y w h i c h p r o d u c e s a c o n d u c t i o n c u r r e n t . H o we v er , b e ca u se o f t h e sma l l nu m b er o f fr e e el e c tr on s, t he c on du ct iv it y o f a n i n tri n si c semiconductor is much lower than that of a metal.W h e n a n e le c tr o n i s sha k e n l o o se fr o m a n a t o m, a n el e c tr on va ca n c y i s l e ft whi c h i scalled a hole. The parent atom then becomes an ion. The constant mechanical vibration of thelattice can cause the ion to capture a valence electron from a neighboring atom to replace themissing one. When such a transfer takes place, the position of the hole moves from one atomt o a n ot h er . T hi s i s e qu i va l e n t t o a p o sit i v e c ha r g e + q m o vi n g a b ou t i n th e se mi c on du ct or .(The motion of a hole can be likened to the motion of a bubble in water.) Like free electrons,holes have a mobility and exhibit a drift velocity which produces a conduction current under the influence of an applied electric field. Because of the opposite charge polarity of electronsand holes, they drift in opposite directions under the influence of a field. Figure 1.7 illustratest h e dr i ft o f fr e e el e c tr on s in a n i nt ri n si c se mi c o ndu ct or u n d er t h e a p pl i ca ti o n o f a n el e ct ri c fi el d t ha t i s d ir e ct e d fr o m l e ft t o r ig h t. W h e n a n el e c tr on i s sha k e n l oo se fr o m it s va l e n c e asalamsaad,pkt,2011

shell, an electron-hole pair is form

ed. The force generated by the electric field causes the freeelectrons to drift to the left. Fig. 1.7 illustrates the drift of holes. In effect, a hole drifts to theright when a bound valence electron shifts to the left from one atom to another. The arrows inthefi gu r e p o in t fro m t h e n ew po sit io n o f a h ol e t o it s for m er po sit io n , i. e. i n t h e dir e c ti o n o f movement of the bound electrons in the lattice. The movement of holes may be likened to themovement of bubbles of air in water, where the water represents the bound electrons and the bubbles represent the holes. The movement of a bubble in one direction is really the result of a m o v e m e n t o f w a t e r i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . I n s u m m a r y , t h e f l o w o f c u r r e n t i n t h e semiconductor is the result of the flow of two components. One component is the flow of freeelectrons in one direction. The other component is the flow of the absence of bound electronsin the other direction. Because of the opposite charge polarities, the electron current and thehole current add to produce the total conduction current

n-Type and p-Type Semiconductors The preceding example illustrates how poor a conductor intrinsic silicon is at r o o m t e m p era tu r e . T he c on du ct iv it y ca n b e i n cr ea se d b y a d di n g c erta i n i m pu r iti e s i n ca re fu ll y c o n t r o l l e d minute quantities. When this is done, the semiconductor is called a doped semiconductor. There are two classes of impurities that are used. These are donor impuritiesand acceptor impurities. Typically one impurity atom is added per 108 semiconductor atoms.A semiconductor that is doped with a donor impurity is called an n-type semiconductor. Onethat is doped with an acceptor impurity is called a p-type semiconductor

n-Type Semiconductor An n-type semiconductor is produced by adding a donor impurity such as arsenic, antimony,or ph o sp h oru s to a n i n tri n si c se mi c o n du c t or. Ea c h d o no r a t o m ha s fiv e va l e nc e el ect ro n s.W h en a d o no r a t o m r e pla c e s a n a t o m in t h e cr y sta l la t ti c e,

o nl y fou r va l en c e el e ct ro n s a r e sha r ed wi t h t h e su rr ou n d in g a t o m s. T h e fi fth va l e n c e el e c tr on b ec o m e s a fre e el e ct ro n a si llu st ra t e d in F i g. 1 .8 . T h e nu mb e r o f fr e e e l ec tr o n s d o na t e d b y t h e d on or a t o m s i s mu c h greater than the number of free electrons and holes in the intrinsic semiconductor. This makest h e c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e n - t y p e s e m i c o n d u c t o r m u c h g r e a t e r t h a t o f t h e i n t r i n s i c semiconductor. Because the number of free electrons is far greater than the number of holes,t he fr e e el e ctr o n s a r e t h e ma j o rit y ca r ri er s. T h e se mi c o ndu c to r i s ca l le d n -t y p e b e ca u se th e majority carriers have a negative charge. Figure 1.9: Two-dimensional illustration of the crystal lattice of an n-type semiconductor asalamsaad,pkt,2011

Hole-electron pairs are continually formed by thermal agitation of the lattice in an n-typese mi c on du ct or . B eca u se o f t h e la r g e nu m b er o f d o n or e l ec tr o n s, t h er e a r e ma ny m or e fr e eelectrons available for recombination with the holes. This decreases the mean lifetime for theho l e s wh ic h d e c rea se s t h e nu m b er o f h ol e s i n t h e n -t y pe se mi c o n du c t or c o m pa r e d to t h ei nt ri n si c se mi c o ndu ct or . F or th i s r ea so n, t h e cu rr e n t du e t o t h e fl o w o f h o l e s i n a n n -t y p e se mi c o n du c t or i s o ft en ne g l ec t e d i n ca l cu la t io n s. I t i s im p or ta n t to u n d er sta n d t ha t a d on or atom is electrically neutral if its fifth valence electron does not become a free electron in thela t ti c e. I f t h e fi fth el e ct ro n b e c o m e s a fr e e el e ctr o n, t h e nu m b er o f pr ot o n s in t h e a to m i sgr ea t er tha n t h e nu m b er o f el e c tr on s by on e . In t hi s ca se, t h e d o no r a t o m b e c o m e s a b ou n d positively charged ion. p-Type Semiconductor A p-type semiconductor is produced by adding an acceptor impurity such as gallium, boron,or i nd iu m t o a n i nt ri n si c se mi c o ndu ct or . Ea c h a c c e pt or a t o m ha s t hr e e va l e n c e e l e ctr o n s. W h en a n a c c e pt or a t o m r e p la c e s a n a t o m i n th e cr y sta l la tti c e , th er e a re o nl y t hr e e va l e n c e electrons shared with the surrounding atoms. This leaves a hole as illustrated in Fig. 1.9. Then u m b e r o f h o l e s c r e a t e d b y t h e a c c e p t o r a t o m s i s m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n t h e n u m b e r o f f r e e electrons and holes in the intrinsic semiconductor. This makes the conductivity of the p-typesemiconductor much greater that of the intrinsic semiconductor. Because the number of holesi s f a r g r e a t e r t h a n t h e n u m b e r o f e l e c t r o n s , t h e h o l e s a r e t h e m a j o r i t y c a r r i e r s . T h e se mi c o n du c t or i s ca l l ed p -t y p e b e ca u se t h e ma j ori t y ca rr i er s ha v e a p o sit i ve c ha r ge . Ho l e -e l e c t r o n p a i r s a r e c o n t i n u a l l y f o r m e d b y t h e r m a l a g i t a t i o n o f t h e l a t t i c e i n a p - t y p e semiconductor. Because of the large number of holes, there are many more holes available for recombination with the free electrons. This decreases the mean lifetime for the free electronsw h i c h d e c r e a s e s t h e n u m b e r o f e l e c t r o n s i n t h e p - t y p e s e m i c o n d u c t o r c o m p a r e d t o t h e intrinsic semiconductor. For this reason, the current due to the flow of free electrons in a p-type semiconductor is often neglected in calculations.It is important to understand that an acceptor atom is electrically neutral if the hole created bythe absence of its fourth valence electron is not filled by an electron from an adjacent siliconatom. Once an electron fills the hole, the number of electrons in that atom is greater than the asalamsaad,pkt,2011 n u m b e r o f p r o t o n s b y o n e . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e a c c e p t o r a t o m b e c o m e s a b o u n d n e g a t i v e l y charged ion. Figure 1.10: Two-dimensional illustration of the crystal lattice of a p-type semiconductor. The Open-Circuited p-n Junction

A p-n junction is the junction between an n-type semiconductor and a p-type semiconductor.It i s fa bri ca t ed by i nt ro du ci n g d o no r im pu r iti e s i nt o o n e si d e o f a n i nt ri n si c se mi c o ndu ct o r cr y sta l a nd a c c ep t or i mpu r it i e s i n to t h e o th e r si d e . T h e tra n sit io n b e t we en t h e t wo re g io n soccurs in a very small distance, typically 0.5 m. Fig. 1.11 illustrates the cross section of a p-n ju n ct io n wh er e th e do n or i o n s a r e r e pr e sen t e d b y p o sit i v e si g n s a n d t h e a c c e pt or i on s a r erepresented by negative signs. Initially, we assume that the only charge carriers in the n-typeside are free electrons and that the only charge carriers in the p-type side are holes. asalamsaad,pkt,2011

Figure 1.11: Diagram of a p-n junction with the width of the depletion region greatly exaggerated. Because of the unequal electron concentrations and unequal hole concentrations on the twosides of the junction, a diffusion current consisting of both holes and free electrons will flowa c r o s s t h e j u n c t i o n . ( T h e d i f f u s i o n p r o c e s s i s s i m i l a r t o t h e d i f f u s i o n o f d i f f e r e n t g a s e s between two glass jars joined at the mouths.) Holes diffuse out of the p-type side and into then -t y p e sid e a nd fr e e el e c tr on s di ffu se ou t o f t h e n -ty p e si d e a n d in to t h e p -t yp e si d e. T hi scauses the p-type side to become negatively charged and the n-type side to become positivelycharged. The charges cause an electric field to build up across the junction which is directedfrom the n-type side to the p-type side. The polarity of the electric field is such that the forceit exerts on the holes and free electrons opposes the diffusion process. Equilibrium is reachedwhe n t h e for c e ex e rt e d o n th e cha rg e ca rri e rs by t h e e l ec tri c fi e l d i s e qu a l to t h e d i ffu si o n force.L e t u s n o w c o n s i d e r w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n t h e r m a l a g i t a t i o n o f t h e s e m i c o n d u c t o r lattice produces a hole-electron pair in the region near the junction. The electric field directedfr o m t h e n -t y pe si d e t o th e p -t y p e sid e ex e rt s a for c e o n t h e fr e e el e c tr on a n d ca u se s i t to be swept to the n-type side. Similarly, the hole is swept to the p-type side. The directions that thecharges move are opposite to those due to the diffusion process. When equilibrium is reached,the net number of both electrons and holes crossing the junction is zero. asalamsaad,pkt,2011

devices Depletion Region Because no free electrons or holes can exist is the region about the junction, there aren o mo b il e c ha r g e s t o n eu tra li z e th e i o n s in t hi s re gi o n. T hi s i s i llu st ra t e d i n F i g. 1 .1 2 . T h e i on s on t h e n -t yp e si d e ha v e a po sit iv e c ha r ge on t h e m a n d t ho se on t h e p ty p e si d e ha v e a negative charge. These charges are called uncovered charges. The region about the junction inwhich the uncovered charges exist is called the depletion region. Other names for this are thes p a c e - c h a r g e r e g i o n a n d t h e t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n . F i g . 1 . 1 2 a i l l u s t r a t e s t h e p l o t o f t h e n e t uncovered charge density in the p-n junction as a function of distance from the junction. Thec h a r g e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s c a l l e d a d i p o l e d i s t r i b u t i o n b e c a u s e t h e c h a r g e o n o n e s i d e o f t h e junction is the negative of the charge on the other side. The uncovered charges on each sideo f th e ju n cti o n ca n b e t h ou g ht o f a s t h e c ha r g e s o n th e p la t e s o f a pa ra ll el p la t e ca pa ci t or a sshown in Fig. 1.12b. Figure 1.12: (a) Plot of the charge density as a function of distance from the junction.(b) Parallel plate capacitor analog of the charge distribution. Be ca u se o f c ha rg e n eu tra l it y, t h e to ta l u n c o v er ed cha r ge o n t h e n -t yp e si d e o f t h e d ep l eti o n r eg i on mu st b e e qu a l t o t h e n ega ti v e o f t h e t ota l u n c o v er e d c ha r g e o n t h e p -t y p e s i d e . I f t h e n a n d p c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e e q u a l , i t f o l l o w s tha t t he wi dt hs of t he u ncover edc h a r g e r e g i o n s o n t h e t w o s i d e s o f t h e j u n c t i o n m u s t b e e q u a l . N o w , s u p p o s e t h e p concentration is incr eased while holding the n concentra tion consta nt. C har ge neu tra lity asalamsaad,pkt,2011

requires the width of the p-type side of the depletion region to decrease if the total uncoveredcharge is to remain constant. Similarly, if the n concentration is increased while holding the pconcentration constant, the width of the n-type side must decrease. We conclude, in general,t h a t increasing either p or n or both decreases the total width w of the depletion regionillustrated in Fig. 1.12a. This has an important effect on the reverse-bias b r e a k d o w n characteristics of a junction. This is discussed in the following chapter. The Biased p-n JunctionReverse Bias Figure 1.13 shows a p-n junction with a dc source connected to it. The polarity of the sourcei s c h o s e n s o t h a t t h e p o s i t i v e t e r m i n a l i s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e n - t y p e s i d e a n d t h e n e g a t i v e terminal is connected to the p-type side. The current that flows across the junction consists of t wo c o m po n e nt s, a d i ffu sio n cu r r en t ca u sed by u n e qu a l ca rri e r c on c e n tra ti o n s o n t h e t wo sides of the junction and a conduction current caused by the electric field across the junction.With VS = 0, these two currents exactly cancel each other so that the net current is zero. asalamsaad,pkt,2011

Figure 1.13: Reverse biased p-n junction. Now let us examine what happens when VS > 0. Because negative charge is attracted b y a po sit iv e vo lta g e a n d p o si ti v e c ha r g e i s a ttra ct e d b y a n e ga t i v e v olta g e, bo t h th e fr e e electrons in the n-type side and the holes in the p-type side are pulled away from the junction.T hi s ca u se s t h e wi dt h o f t h e d e pl e ti o n r e gi o n t o i n cr ea se so t ha t t h er e a re m or e u n c ov e r ed charges on each side of the junction.The potential across the junction which opposes diffusion is increased by the applied bias to the value VB + VS, where VB is the built-in potential. This is greater than VB so thatt h e e l e ctr i c fi el d a cr o ss t h e ju n ct i on i s i n cr ea se d. B e ca u se t h e d i ffu si o n fo r ce o n t h e c ha r g e ca rr i er s i s o p p o sed by t h e fo r ce e x ert e d b y t hi s e le c tri c fi el d , it fo ll o ws t ha t t h e di ffu si o n cu rr e nt i s d e cr ea sed b y t h e a p pl i ed v olta g e. T h e d i ffu si o n cu r re n t a p pr o a c h e s z er o a s VS i sincreased.Although the diffusion current goes to zero, the conduction current due to thermally pr o du c ed ho l e -el e ct ro n pa ir s in t h e d e pl e ti o n r e gi o n c o nt inu e s t o fl o w a cr o ss th e ju nc ti o n. W h en su ch a h ol e -e le c tr o n pa ir i s ge n era t ed , th e el e c tri c fi el d a c ro ss th e ju n cti o n ca u ses t h eelectron to be swept to the n-type side and the hole to be swept to the p-type side. This causes asalamsaad,pkt,2011

It might seem that the potential across the junction which opposes diffusion could bemade to go to zero by increasing VS . Should this happen, the width of the depletion regionwou l d g o t o z er o a n d th e cu rr e nt w ou l d b e c o m e a r bi tra ri l y la rg e . T hi s ca n n ot ha p p en i n a physical p-n junction because the resistance of the semiconductor material and the resistancesof the external metal contacts limit the current. asalamsaad,pkt,2011