Journal of Business Ethics (2009) 88:103113 DOI 10.

1007/s10551-009-0113-1

Springer 2009

Marketing Communications and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): Marriage of Convenience or Shotgun Wedding?

Khosro S. Jahdi Gaye Acikdilli

ABSTRACT. This paper aims to examine the role(s) that the various vehicles of marketing communications can play with respect to communicating, publicising and highlighting organisational CSR policies to its various stakeholders. It will further endeavour to evaluate the impact of such communications on an organisations corporate reputation and brand image. The proliferation of unsubstantiated ethical claims and so-called green washing by some companies has resulted in increasing consumer cynicism and mistrust. This has made the task of communicating with, and more importantly convinc` ing, an organisations stakeholders vis-a-vis its CSR credentials even more difficult. This paper argues that marketing communications tools can play a major role in conveying a companys CSR messages and communicating a more socially responsible image. KEY WORDS: marketing, marketing communications, corporate social responsibility, ethics

with multi-factor operations and multi-site locations. Many of these strangely resembled Chandlers M-form rm, which apparently was not developed until the late 19th century. Although these rms marketing activities have remained unknown, some 1,000 years later, during the medieval commercial revolution, there is evidence of major multi-national players such as the Medici Bank (www.lycos.com/ info/medici-medici-bank.html). In addition, market records of the era and the arrival of the rst textbooks on commerce inform the reader of the nature of marketing activities (Jahdi, 2006).

Methodology For the purpose of this paper, overall secondary research through in-depth review of the literature was employed. References were also made to a case study on an ethical bank in the UK, i.e. the Co-operative Bank, and its press advertising. The bank not only highlights its ethical/green position in the marketplace, but also attempts to minimise the impact of similar advertising and publicity by other major UK banks. In addition, observation and anecdotal evidence relating to the use of marketing communications tools for the purpose of ethical/CSR message conveyance and so forth was incorporated. The primary purpose was to focus on press advertising. However, communications tools tend to impact on each other (favourably or adversely), and as such, the inuence of advertising might be detected on other tools such as public relations (PR), and so forth, as well as ultimately on the corporate image.

Introduction It can be argued that marketing has been in existence in some shape or form for as long as human beings have lived or traded with each other. Moore and Davis (1999) suggest that, as early as ancient Sumeria and Babylon, large cities existed and required imported commodities. For this purpose, long-distance trade routes were established, and for instance, agricultural produce was exchanged for manufactured goods. Phoenician city states such as Tyre, Sidon and others gained prominence due to becoming entrepots, i.e. marketing transaction centres, for parties from various locations in the Middle East and the Mediterranean. Moore and Davis (1999) further state that true multinational private-sector rms emerged

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Khosro S. Jahdi and Gaye Acikdilli numbers of chief executives with a marketing background, such persuasion is an extremely hard task to implement (Marketing, 2 February, 2005). An even more arduous task faces those in charge of marketing communications, in justifying their existence and contribution to an organisations wellbeing and prosperity. Marketing, as with any management discipline, is rapidly changing and going through a continuous metamorphosis. Amongst Balmers models of power relationships in marketing (2006), namely, the manipulative model, the transactional model, the service model and the corporate model, perhaps the last is the one worthy of further examination. As far as the power balance in the marketplace is concerned, consumers and stakeholders (but consumers represent one among many stakeholder groups) dominate. The origin of consumer needs/desires rests with consumers and stakeholders. With respect to consumer power type, consumer and stakeholder sovereignty exists. The marketplace warning is: caveat societas (company beware). And nally, the marketers role is to be the stakeholders servant and to work with consumers and stakeholders.

Modern marketing per se, it has been suggested, began in the period 19001940, and more particularly, during the years 19101925, when a number of practical and theoretical approaches came together. Several of the elements of marketing had been in existence over the centuries, as mentioned above. However, this relatively brief period witnessed the emergence of a coherent, unied subject. It is further suggested that the majority of such developments occurred in the USA, while countries such as the UK were amongst the major contributors to specialist sub-disciplines such as advertising (Jahdi, 2006). Balmer and Greyser (2006) write that any discussion of marketing is hampered by a variety of problems, including the lack of consensus on its nature. They further cite Crosier (1975) as nding at least 50 denitions of the term, envisioning it as a process, a business orientation and a philosophy. King (1985) had offered four misinterpretations of marketing: thrust marketing, marketing department marketing, accountant marketing and formula marketing, while Gilligan and Wilson (1998, p. 4) regard marketing as something more than a functional process. They assert that marketing is increasingly being conceptualised as an organisational philosophy (Gilligan and Wilson, 1998, p. 4). They view marketing as an approach to doing business and strategic in nature as opposed to tactical or functional. They cite McDonalds denition as underpinning such an approach:
Marketing is a management process whereby the resources of the whole organisation are utilised to satisfy the needs of selected customer groups in order to achieve the objectives of both parties. Marketing, then, is rst and foremost an attitude of mind rather than a series of functional activities. (McDonald, 1989, p. 8)

The trouble with marketing Except for accounting and nance, marketing perhaps more than other management disciplines is viewed with a great deal of cynicism and suspicion when it attempts to convey a more socially responsible image. Nantel and Weeks (1996, p. 9) write that: marketing is a discipline that provokes much debate. Very often, this controversy is linked to a lack of understanding what the actual denition of marketing is. Most denitions of marketing invariably refer to customer need and want satisfaction. Nantel and Weeks suggest that this is an entirely utilitarian aspect of the denition, providing marketing with a more socially acceptable image. Therefore, if the tendency in marketing is primarily utilitarian, then on this level, it can be highly ethical, as proposed by Fritsche and Becker (1983) and by Fraedrich et al. (1991). Marketings subsets in the form of communications vehicles are the tools by which it can strive to

One problem that marketing managers encounter is that, although most businesses appreciate the need for marketing, there are reservations about its ability to inuence top-line growth. The challenge facing marketing is to convince nance-driven organisations of its importance. In the absence of large

Marketing Communications and Corporate Social Responsibility achieve CSR objectives (Jahdi, 2006). However, defeatism and resignation to accepting the perceived negative image of marketing does not help to dispel what is to some extent a myth, i.e. marketing is the cause of certain societal problems/evil. Marketing has undoubtedly been responsible for a wide variety of social ills; nevertheless, there are socially responsible companies that employ ethics successfully as a marketing strategy. Fraedrich et al. (1991, p. 169) echo such a sentiment: One of the most powerful arguments for including ethics and social responsibility in the strategic market planning process is the increasing evidence of a link between social responsibility, ethics, and marketing performance. Basu and Palazzo (2008) suggest three fundamental lines of CSR inquiry prevalent in academic literature as follows: 1. Stakeholder driven. This is a reaction to the demands of external stakeholders that might include NGOs, governments and pressure groups. Since this is a reactive response and even knee-jerk in some cases, it can be argued that the organisations heart is not really in it, and this might be viewed as largely cosmetic. 2. Performance driven. The concept of good ethics is good for business, or to cite Carroll (1998, p. 1): What is business expected to be or to do to be considered a good corporate citizen? In this case, the real motive behind the organisations efforts at communicating an ethical message/image could be purely for nancial gains. 3. Motivation driven. Either extrinsic motives, such as corporate image improvement, preempting legal penalties and risk management, or intrinsic motives, such as virtue ethics, Kantian ethics and so forth. Extrinsic motives are not dissimilar to number (2) above, while intrinsic motives are indicative of an organisations commitment to ethical and/or environmental issues, such as in the example of the Co-operative Bank. Possible approaches to how marketing could contribute to CSR (Jahdi, 2007) can be listed as follows:
Approach Posthumous Pantomime Piecemeal Public relations Parsimonious Parrot fashion Prot driven Proactive Partnership Philanthropic How carried out

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CSR applied for damage-limitation purposes Supercial; play-acting dressed up as CSR Token gestures at application of CSR Communicating CSR intentions to stakeholders Frugal application of CSR Following competition or market leader CSR application for economic gains only Anticipation of need for and possible benets of CSR Co-operation with customer and/or other rms Attention to welfare of fellow humans in the shape of CSR

Although some researches indicate that communicating about CSR activities does not necessarily reect positively on a company (Sen and Bhattacharya, 2001), others show that organisations communicating a socially responsible image are perceived more positively and trusted more (Swaen and Vanhamme, 2004). The Co-operative Bank and Suma Wholefoods (another co-operative) in the UK are prime examples of such organisations. However, organisations that highlight their CSR credentials come under increased scrutiny lest they err, while those not doing so are less under the spotlight. Benjamin Franklin, the great American inventor, once commented that: glass china and reputation are easily cracked but never well mended. Snider et al. (2003) warn of the considerable growth in corporate communications, with CSR reports lling web pages and brochures, mainly in reaction to stakeholder demands. Sims and Brinkmann (2003, p. 243) cite the case of Enron, which looked like an exceptional corporate citizen with all the corporate social responsibility and business ethics tools and status symbols in place. The trouble with marketing communications The public increasingly wants to know about companies that stand behind the brands and products

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Khosro S. Jahdi and Gaye Acikdilli Schroeder and Borgerson (2005) write that ethically motivated criticisms of marketing communications are often simplistically understood as generalised critiques of capitalism and excessive consumption, citing authors such as Crane and Matten (2004), Smith and Quelch (1993), and Thompson (2004) for further reference. They tend to focus on the impact of image in communications and write that: visual images exist within a distinctive socio-legal environment-unlike textual or verbal statements, such as products claimspictures can be held to be true or false. Images elude empirical vericationthey enable strategists to avoid being held accountable (Schroeder and Borgerson, 2005, p. 580).

presented to them. And use their power to reward good companies and punish the bad ones (Lewis, 2001, as cited in Bowd et al., 2006, p. 148). It is beyond argument that CSR has gained a great deal of prominence and, according to Jackson (2001), it has created a new fashion in business management. This means that organisations are increasingly turning to CSR communications to be viewed as one of Lewiss good companies. In addition, there is also a push from academics, corporate stakeholders, pressure groups and governments for companies to adopt a CSR-orientated approach to their business, according to Bowd et al. (2006). However, adopting such policies requires communication with the stakeholders, not only to convince them that the company is serious about its CSR strategies, but also to reap benets that come with such an image, e.g. competitive edge, keeping out new entrants, avoiding penalties for unethical behaviour, pre-empting the impact of future legislation as well as long-term investment in corporate image. In short, this is paying due attention to the two Cs of marketing communications: Contact and Convince. The rst part may be a great deal simpler than the second, and this is where the importance of source credibility becomes paramount, considering customer cynicism and suspicion of CSR-related communications. It can be argued that any and every marketing communications tool is capable of conveying a companys CSR messages and contributing to its corporate image and brand equity. However, some communications vehicles can be more powerful and effective than others, such as public relations, advertising and sponsorship (invariably dressed up as cause-related marketing). Marketing communications tools, as mentioned earlier, are not perceived in a positive light by consumers or, to a large extent, by businesses. For instance, John Stauber of PR Watch warns of the use of the so-called astroturf campaigns as the appearance of democracy bought and paid for with millions of dollars from wealthy special interests (www.corporatewatch.org.uk). These aim to create the impression of grassroots support for or in opposition to a given project. Occasionally PR rms may organise discontented workers or sections of the public to vent their anger on environmentalists or particular legislation that the client wished derailed.

The trouble with advertising Advertising, as the most visible communications tool, is continuously blamed for a number of problems, including child obesity (see Kitchen et al., 2004), for being pervasive, intrusive and pernicious (Laczniak and Laczniak, 1985). Nairn and Fine (2008) agree that the presence of persuasion knowledge or cognitive defence can offer a plausible test of fairness for informative advertising formats. However, they state that research ndings of neuroscientists and psychologists indicate that advertising techniques that employ evaluative conditioning formats manipulate consumer behaviour by means of implicit attitude change. Nairn and Fine (2008, p. 460) argue that: for these formats the appropriate test of fairness is the ability to resist implicit persuasion. Without this, the child is like the target of subliminal advertising: preferences are mediated by non-conscious, non-rational means that are impossible to resist. The concern is not merely with children, however. Nairn and Fine write that even adolescents may have difculty to resist implicit persuasion, due to lack of possession of sufcient cognitive control capacities. It can be argued that children tend to pay more attention to and be concerned with ethical and environmental issues compared with their parents. Heavy press advertising in the UK by major oil companies such as BP and Shell, usually covering an entire page or even two pages at times (see Shells advert in The Guardian newspaper, 1st December, 2008) boasting about their green initiatives is one example of such a

Marketing Communications and Corporate Social Responsibility persuasive approach. These companies main products are pollutants, and any investment in alternative energy tends to be a minute percentage of overall company investment in the production of petroleum. In a similar manner, BP has been re-branding itself. It uses lower case letters bp to denote a more friendly face, and uses the letters to highlight its move to beyond petroleum. It, too, advertises heavily in the UK press for reasons similar to Shell. Greenpeaces media head refers to the growing amount of cynical advertising by organisations with poor environmental track records, such as oil companies. Claims made by advertisers about their green attempts do not negate the overall impact of their operations and/or products on the environment. Shells adverts in The Guardian suggested that it had come to save the world (Monbiot, 2009), tackling climate change and providing fuel for a growing population seems like an impossible problem, but at Shell we try to think creatively. The same company boasted in the year 2000 that it would be investing US $1 billion in renewable energy between 2001 and 2005. However, no gures for its renewables budget have been produced. The company states that it is investing signicantly in wind energy, but not clarifying what signicantly means. Car manufacturers, too, have jumped on the green/ethical bandwagon, and use advertising in newspapers for this purpose. Fiat combined lower cost and ecology to advertise its cars (see The Guardian newspaper 29th February 2008), while Toyota was actually criticised by the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) for making misleading claims about the environmental credentials of its Prius hybrid car (Guardian, 18th June, 2007). Volkswagen was also under the spotlight for an advertisement in which its Golf GT TSI was claimed to have lower CO2 emissions than other engines with similar power outputs. Scottish and Southern Energy Group in the UK made an unsubstantiated claim that it planted trees in order to balance out the CO2 emissions of its customers gas heating and household waste products. It was duly criticised by the ASA in 2007, following a complaint. EasyJets claims to have more environmentally friendly airplanes were inaccurately portrayed as such according to ASA, again following a customer complaint. Indeed there could be advertisements that appear to

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make similar claims but which may escape the watchful eyes of critics. Amongst the major criticisms of advertising is that, without such expenditure, the product would cost the consumer less money. However, companies such as Kelloggs that spend an approximate 50 million per annum on advertising see it as an investment. The results of such investment are reected in their market share (Lawrence, 2008). An investigative UK magazine called Which? had carried out research that analysed 275 major breakfast cereals in 2006. The outcome was that 75% contained high levels of salt, based on the guidelines of Food Standards Agency (FSA). Furthermore, approximately 90% of those targeted at children were high in sugar, 13% high in salt and 10% high in saturated fat (Lawrence, 2008). When a UK communications watchdog, Ofcom, proposed to restrict TV advertising to children of unhealthy foods, Kelloggs campaigned vigorously to stop such limitations. According to Lawrence (2008, p. 22) the managing director of the aforementioned company, when asked to reduce sugar and salt content of cereals even further (following a 25% reduction in salt by the rm), had replied: and the risk is, if you take the salt out you might be better off eating the cardboard carton for taste. With reference to breakfast cereals, they are invariably advertised as healthy eating. However, according to Lawrence (2008), one of the highest costs is not the value of ingredients, nor the cost of production, but the marketing, with a typical 2025% of the sales value. Needless to say, a large percentage of that expenditure is allocated to advertising with children as the target audience. Shimp (1997) cites the following negative effects of advertising on society: It is untruthful, deceptive, manipulative, offensive and in bad taste. It creates and perpetuates stereotypes. It encourages purchase of items not really needed. It plays upon individuals fears and insecurities. Pollay and Gallagher (1990) offer a tabulated consequences of advertising, some of which are cited below:

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When advertising appeals to Mass markets Sexuality Fears Status Youth Newness

Khosro S. Jahdi and Gaye Acikdilli

It also promotes: Conformity Pornography Chronic anxieties Envy, social competitiveness Disrespect of family elders Disrespect of tradition

As cited in Yeshin, 2006, p. 14.

Fan (2005), while remarking on advertising as the most visible element of marketing, suggests that it is branding that is at the heart of any marketing communications, citing Benettons controversial 1990s advertising campaigns. Schroeder and Borgerson (2005, p. 578) write that it is no longer satisfactory to associate advertising solely with persuasion, rather advertising must be seen as a representative system, with pedagogical as well as strategic functions. Research carried out by Bowd et al. (2006) amongst stakeholders and managers of a major northeast England retail centre relating to CSR communications found that both groups shared a similar view of CSR. Furthermore, the most successful methods of communicating CSR to a wider spectrum of stakeholders tended to be on-site marketing communications techniques highly visible to users. Amongst these were the large-screen TV in the shopping centre, centre brochures, signs within it as well as the actual experience, i.e., experience from the interaction of stakeholders with the retail mall. From a theoretical point of view, this emphasises the importance and relevance of the concept of customer involvement. The above study also found that only a limited range of CSR activities were known to the stakeholders as a whole and via a limited number of communication methods. This level of awareness and the success of communications methods appears to be linked to what is communicated and evident to centre users (Bowd et al., 2006, p. 152). A unique means of communicating company CSR has been in the form of social responsibility disclosure utilising marketing communications tools such as advertising and/or the Internet, and so forth. Gray et al. (1996, p. 3) dene social responsibility as the process of communicating the social and environmental effects of organisations economic

actions to particular interest groups within society and to society at large. For instance, Branco and Rodrigues (2006) examined the case of Portuguese banks and their CSR information disclosure which included environmental information. They found that banks with a higher visibility among consumers seem to exhibit greater concern to improve the corporate image through social responsibility information disclosurethus suggesting that legitimacy theory may be an explanation of social responsibility disclosure by Portuguese banks (Branco and Rodrigues, 2006, p. 232). The legitimacy theory here suggests that better-known banks have more reason to justify their existence to society by means of social responsibility disclosure.

Source credibility and source attractiveness Recent press advertising by BP and Shell in the UK explaining carbon footprints and so forth could not be taken seriously coming from companies whose products pollute the atmosphere and which minimally invest in renewable energy. In a recent interview carried out by The Guardian newspaper of the UK, Shells chief executive was asked: is there any investment you would make on ethical grounds? (Monbiot, 2009). The chief executive was unable to provide an example. The critics of advertising see, for instance, the creation of hyper-reality by the media, where imagery replaces reality in the society, i.e. the gap between image and reality becomes indistinguishable. Mellahi and Wood (2003) state that marketing managers have collectively gained the power to shape the choices and lifestyles of large numbers of consumers. Such power could also be used to alter existing ethical norms and/or manipulate them in the companys interest. As for public relations, it is invariably viewed with suspicion in the oft-ridiculed guise of spin doctoring. Ewen (2003) said that the history of public relations (PR) is one of a battle for what reality is and how people will see and understand it. Public relations can be employed as a major marketing communications tool to convey an organisations CSR policies to its stakeholders. However, if one is to cite

Marketing Communications and Corporate Social Responsibility Grunig and Whites (1984) four models of public relations, perhaps the two-way symmetric approach would be an ideal choice. The more recent addition, i.e. online communications in the form of websites and emails, has not been treated with any more respect. Regarding CSR communications the examples of British American Tobacco (BAT) and its social responsibility website or the British arms manufacturer BAE systems similarly titled web offerings further fuel suspicion, cynicism and derision. The World Health Organisation (WHO) states that smoking causes more death and disability than any single disease. Sadly, prothungry companies are still permitted an unfettered trade, as well as investing in branding designed to attract new customers as old ones die off (The Guardian newspaper, 2008). The defence used by the tobacco companies refers to the advertising ban that came into effect in the UK in 2003. Alternative means of covert advertising have been found by these rms. The ash of gold that transforms Marlboro Lights into a handbag accessory is advertising in all but name, according to The Guardian (2008). In the past, without making text-based claims about their products, visual imagery had been used, such as the lone cowboy roaming the American West (Schroeder and Borgerson, 2005). Pollach (2005), in her research on World Wide Web (WWW) and corporate self-presentation, recommends that companies use a number of persuasive appeals, such as third-party evidence or humanisation of their web-based messages, in order to enhance credibility. Unfortunately, rms have a habit of making gross overstatements when describing themselves. Audience involvement can also be employed to remedy this problem. However, at times, attitude change and image formation might be required to help improve the situation. The former is required at times when an existing organisation attempts to alter adverse perception of itself and thus create loyalty amongst customers. The latter can benet a newcomer in the marketplace in the absence of any stakeholder perception. A more credible source might be an organisation that is well known for its CSR reputation. The UK Co-operative organisations press advertising (Guardian Magazine, 20 September, 2008, p. 80) reads in large lettering: our green policies are so effective (that) other retailers are recycling them. It

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says that it would be even more proud if more of its ethical/environmental practices were recycled by its competitors. That particular organisation has been voted Britains greenest high-street retailer. This is related to its CSR activities, amongst which is an investment of 1 million to supply free solar panels to UK schools. A January 2008 press advertisement by the respectable Marks and Spencer (M&S) company asked readers to take their unwanted M&S clothes to their local Oxfam, and receive a 5 M&S voucher to use next time they spend 35 or more at a M&S store. What were the motives behind M&Ss advert in this case? To highlight their CSR credentials by encouraging recycling and helping Oxfam or to create trafc in their stores by offering the 5 voucher? Why was there a minimum 35 clause attached to this CSR effort? Banks and nancial institutions do not usually come across as heroes of morality or CSR. Social responsibility disclosure by six Irish banks and four international institutions incorporating websites were examined by Douglas et al. (2004). The ndings suggested that the Irish nancial institutions seemed to be lagging behind international counterparts social responsibility disclosure. They seemed to focus mainly on corporate governance and human resources, with no environmental policy disclosures. In addition, the Irish institutions used websites rather than annual reports for CSR information purposes.

Media choice? The choice of media for CSR information disclosure is dependent on the target audience. Zeghal and Ahmed (1990) also add that the lower cost of producing and distributing brochures allows organisations to treat in greater depth themes of special interest. Branco and Rodrigues (2006, p. 235) suggest that such reasoning can also be used when analysing social responsibility disclosure through the internetit is natural for companies to give prominence to community involvement and products/ consumers information. Pollach (2005) asserts that the WWW and corporate websites are superior to the conventional mass media in a variety of ways. She cites the WWWs capacity to transmit an unlimited amount of information to all potential target audiences, making a

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Khosro S. Jahdi and Gaye Acikdilli Cognitive. What rms think: identity orientation and legitimacy Linguistics. What rms say: justication and transparency Conative. How rms tend to behave: posture, consistency and commitment For CSR communications to succeed, paying due attention to all those main dimensions would be a requirement. A further explanation of the second component, i.e. linguistics, might be useful here. As far as justication is concerned, this is the manner in which rms justify their actions to others, or as Ferraro et al. (2005, p. 16) write: how we talk about behaviour inuences that behaviour. Transparency, on the other hand, can either be in a balanced manner, where scientic and documented evidence is offered, or in a biased fashion, where only positive results are made available. Balmer (2006), in his six Cs of corporate marketing, reiterates the importance of integration and co-ordination of all those mix elements. The absence of or limited attention to one or more could jeopardise the task of corporate marketing. Below is an explanation of the six Cs: Character, also known as corporate identity what we indubitably are Culture, also known as organisational identity what we feel we are Communication, also known as corporate communication what we say we are Conceptualisations, also known as corporate reputation what we are seen to be Constituencies, also known as marketing and stakeholder management whom we seek to serve Covenant, also known as corporate brand management what is promised and expected For the purpose of marketing communications and CSR, missing from the above model are the words consistency, integration and commitment. Messages conveyed by the rm, whether aimed at internal customers or other stakeholders, should be consistent, and whatever media are employed, the integration of marketing communications must be taken seriously. Senior-management commitment to CSR strategies and their implementation as well as effective communication would also be crucial to

reference to Sharp (2001). Furthermore, Pollach views the WWW as a pull medium, indicating that audiences tend to have more control over what they wish to view compared with the traditional media. As active information seekers, such audiences process the information available more effectively than that accessed/offered via traditional media. In addition, messages conveyed to audiences by organisations are not ltered by gatekeepers, but controlled by the rms themselves (White and Raman, 1999). Ultimately the WWW provides organisations with the ability to learn more about their stakeholders by offering interaction and encouraging dialogue. Added to the usability of the WWW, Pollach (2005) includes credibility and value of the content as further benets. However, what Pollach fails to highlight is that, within the choppy oceans of company websites, locating a beacon of trust, reliability and credibility becomes increasingly difcult. In the absence of media gatekeepers or watchdogs, people become more concerned with the quality and reliability of web-based information, especially when attempting to put across an ethically glossy corporate image. One method to overcome this mistrust is the provision of hyperlinks by companies to trusted organisations such as NGOs, academic institutions and/or government departments (Stewart, 2003). The reference to the M&S advert earlier encouraging customers to donate used clothing to Oxfam is perhaps an example of such a tactic. Other marketing communications tools are not immune to criticism. In the light of the above, the task of the marketing communications manager is not easy and becomes even more difcult when conveying CSR messages. For any communication to be successful, source reliability and credibility are essential requirements. Therefore, the nature of the industry and the companys perceived image and reputation can play crucial roles in the transmission of such messages. Furthermore, the company must also walk the talk, i.e. put words into action. Mere rhetoric will not fool stakeholders. Overall, an integrated, co-ordinated and holistic approach is required to ensure CSR communications can be effective. Basu and Palazzos (2008, p. 125) CSR dimensions of the sensemaking process have the following constituent parts:

Marketing Communications and Corporate Social Responsibility the success of such endeavours. Senior management must view expenditure on CSR and its communication as an investment and not a mere cost.

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Conclusion This paper set out with the view that marketing communications can be employed for ethical and corporate social responsibility purposes. It acknowledged the negative perception that consumers and many businesses have of marketing in general and marketing communications tools in particular. The proliferation of ethical and green claims by companies, some of which appear in the so-called sin industries category, has contributed to growing consumer scepticism of such CSR communications and green-washing. This is a prime example of what can only be termed as a shotgun wedding between marketing communications and CSR. However, there are examples of companies that use CSR and ethics as their unique selling propositions (USPs) and thrive. The UK-based Co-operative organisation, of which the Co-operative Bank is a part, has been used as a glowing example of a nancial institution that offers the customer an ethical choice. Its communications with the stakeholders could be suggested perhaps as more of a marriage of convenience, as far as marketing communications and CSR are concerned. Its press advertising was used in this paper to emphasise the usability of marketing communications in terms of message conveyance of the organisational CSR. However, source credibility and reliability were also cited as major requirements for CSR message acceptance and communications effectiveness. Examples used from the so-called sin industries, such as tobacco manufacturers, oil companies and car producers, desperately attempt to convey an ethically acceptable and even attractive corporate image. There is still a great deal of public scepticism and suspicion in relation to CSR per se. For instance, Frankental, of Amnesty International, views CSR as a PR invention. The Corporate Watch 2006 Report, page 12, makes similar comments. The latter states that like the iceberg, most CSR activity is invisibleIt is often an active attempt to increase corporate dominations rather than simply a defensive image management operation (www.Corporate watch.com).

However, the examples of the purchase of the Body Shop, Ben & Jerrys and Green and Blacks by multi-national companies is an indication of growing customer interest in ethical products and rms. Communications will be essential to their survival, as well as maintaining ethical image (and reputation) or safeguarding their competitive advantage through CSR. Advertising, PR and sponsorship (causerelated marketing) have the potential to make major contributions to publicising and highlighting a transparent, consistent and socially responsible corporate image. Senior-management commitment and dedication to CSR in a holistic manner is absolutely crucial. Shotgun weddings may lead to acrimonious divorces and expenses.

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Khosro S. Jahdi Bradford Business and Law School, Bradford College, Westbrook Building, Great Horton Road, Bradford, West Yorkshire BD7 1AY, U.K. E-mail: k.jahdi@bradfordcollege.ac.uk Gaye Acikdilli Baskent University, Ankara, Turkey E-mail: gaye@baskent.edu.tr