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Thursday, January 6, 2011

Photosynthesis
-process by which autotrophs trap energy from the sunlight and use it to make carbohydrates -anabolic process which produces organic compounds (therefore building up reactions) -it occurs in the chloroplast

Image from http://www.scsc.k12.in.us/SMS/Teachers/Martin/chloroplast.jpg

Summary of the photosynthetic reaction: 6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy -----> C6H12O6 + 6O2 -actual process has many steps, each with own enzymes 2 Stages: Light stage (requires light) - this is the "photo" part, light energy is trapped and converted

into ATP and H2O is split Dark stage (light independent) - this is the "synthesis" part, simple sugars are formed from CO2 and H+ (gained from water splitting) Light Stage Outline: 1. Chlorophyll traps light energy and converts it to ATP (will be the energy for the dark stage). 2. Photolysis of H2O occurs, which produces O2 and electrons and protons (H+). This occurs in the granum of the chloroplast. 3. H+ combine with NADP+ to form NADPH+H+ (provides H2 for dark stage). Review/reminder: What is light? -energy in packets called photons travel at different wavelengths. -white light is a mix of the whole range from red (700nm) to violet (400nm) -objects have colours because they absorb certain wavelengths and reflect others. Chlorophyll appears green becasue it reflects green light and absorbs the others. -different photosynthetic pigments trap different wavelengths: the primary pigment, chlorophyll a (bluish-green), absorbs mainly blue-violet and some red the accessory pigments include chlorophyll b (yellowish-green, absorbs blue-violet, red), carotene (orange-yellow, absorbs blue), xanthophyll (yellow, absorbs blue-green) -accessory pigments pass the absorbed energy on to the primary pigments, this increases effectiveness and protects the primary pigment from excessive light. Photosystems In the thylakoid (of the chloroplast), pigments are arranged into clusters calledphotosystems. These are designed to catch photons.

Image from http://kvhs.nbed.nb.ca/gallant/biology/photosystem.jpg

-each photosystem (PS) has about 250-400 pigment molecules -energy absorbed by a pigment is passed to a neighbouring pigment until it reaches theprimary electron acceptor (chlorophyll a) - in green plants and algae, there are 2 photosystems (I and II) -photosystem I contains carotene, chlorophyll b and chlorophyll a. P700 is the chlorophyll a that is associated with the reaction centre of this photosystem. Its name indicates that 700nm is its peak absorption spectrum. -photosystem II contains xanthophyll, chlorophyll b and chlorophyll a. P680 is the chlorophyll a that is associated with its reaction centre. 680nm is its peak absorption. -there are thousands of photosystems in the thylakoid membranes of just one chloroplast (and many chloroplasts in a photosynthetic plant cell) How does photosynthetic pigment bind light energy? - pigment molecules have conjugated double bonds, this means that every second bond is a double bond (see image below)

Image from http://www.lycocard.com/images/main/chem_structure.gif

-the electrons in these bonds are easily "detachable", so when a light photon excites (gerjeszt) them, the energy level of one of the electrons in the bond increases, then the energy is quickly given off as heat, light, phosphorescence or it can be transferred to another pigment molecule. -when chlorophyll a in the reaction centre gets excited, it releases an electon to an electron acceptor -the electron acceptor is the 1st member of the electron transport chain. The electron acceptor is a special protein called a cytochrome, which is designed to carry electrons as it has a central Fe ion that can change oxidation states (2+/3+)
Z scheme of photosynthesis

Image from http://www.biology.arizona.edu/biochemistry/problem_sets/photosynthesis_1/graphics/zscheme.GIF

The pathway of electrons in photosynthesis is shown with red arrows in the diagram above. Each step in this pathway is a coupled oxidation-reduction reaction. Water is oxidized (split) as a result of the light reaction of photosystem II. From photosystem II, electrons pass to the electron transport chain (redox chain) and energy released along this part allows for the formation of ATP. Another light reaction at photosystem I activates electrons for transfer to ferredoxin (Fd), and finally to NADP+, where the protons from water splitting are used up to form NADPH + H+. At the end of the light stage the net gain is NADPH + H+, ATP You can watch a more complete explanation at http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=hj_WKgnL6MI&feature=related, or a slightly simpler one at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eY1ReqiYwYs&feature=related Dark Stage -these reactions occur in the stroma -CO2 is reduced to simple sugars (CO2 enters the leaf through the open stomata and then diffuses into mesophyll cells and then into the stroma of the chloroplasts that are found in them) -energy (ATP) and hydrogen (NADPH + H+) are required and are obtained from the light stage reactions The dark stage is also called the Calvin cycle (named for Melvin Calvin, who won the Nobel Prize in 1961 for mapping out the cycle)

Image from http://kvhs.nbed.nb.ca/gallant/biology/calvin_cycle.jpg

When looking at the diagram, carefully follow the carbons through. -the final product of the cycle is glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, which reacts further to form glucose, sucrose, starch, cellulose and other organic compounds that the plant requires. 2 other similar cycles are known in tropical and desert plants, where the need to conserve H2O is important and stomata cannot remain open for long periods -C4 cycle in tropical plants (CO2 binds a reactive C3 molecule to form a C4 compound, which can later regenerate CO2 and enter the Calvin cycle - all this require more energy though!) -CAM (or crassulean acid metabolism) in desert plants (stomata are only open at night, so CO2 only enters at night. It is then stored as an acid until daytime, when it can then be extracted and converted into sugars - once again, a less energy efficient process) And just for some entertainment: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wi60tQa8jfE&feature=related http://www.mrdurand.info/singscience.html Chemosynthesis (a different process from photosynthesis, but needs a brief mention) -some bacteria are capable of obtaining energy from chemical reactions - this is chemosynthesis Examples: Nitrifying bacteria: oxidize NH4 in soil to HNO2 (nitric acid) and then HNO3. This is extremely useful to plants.

Methane-producing bacteria: found in marshes, lake sediments and ruminants stomachs. These are anaerobic bacteria which convert CO2 and H2 to CH4 Sulfur bacteria: found in deep-sea vents. They are the basis of whole deep sea communities. They gain energy from chemical reactions carried out with the sulfur coming from the vents.
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Cellular Respiration
Cell respiration is catabolic. This means organic compounds are broken down into smaller molecules (like CO2 and H2O) and energy is released - carbohydrates (mainly glucose) and fats are the main sources of energy -proteins are rarely used for energy - they are important as building blocks for growth and repair - they will only be converted to carbohydrates and used for energy if there are no carbohydrates available. 2 types of respiration: 1. Aerobic: called biological oxidation, it needs O2 -in simplified version: C6H12O6 and 6 O2 reaction in the presence of enzymes to produced 6 H2O, 6 CO2 and energy. 2. Anaerobic: called fermentation, it doesn't need O2, the overall process is simpler and faster than biological oxidation, but produces much less energy. GLYCOLYSIS - this is the 1st step of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration -it occurs in the cell cytosol -it doesn't need O2, but it does require energy (2 ATP)

Image from http://www.factmonster.com/images/cig/biology/03fig02.png

Step 1. Energy is required to begin the process, so a molecule of glucose accepts two

high-energy phosphate groups from two ATP molecules. Step 2. The resulting intermediary molecule immediately divides into two, three-carbon molecules called PGAL, each containing a high-energy phosphate group. Step 3. A second high-energy phosphate group is added to the three-carbon PGAL molecule and two NADH + H+ molecules are produced. Step 4. Finally, the three-carbon PGAL molecules donate their high-energy phosphate to create ATP and the three-carbon pyruvate forms as the final products. - 4 ATP molecules are produced in glycolysis, but since 2 are required to start the process, the net gain is 2 ATP. This is not sufficient energy to maintain complex life systems, so pyruvate (which still contains energy) will continue into biological oxidation or fermentation, depending on the availability of O2

-if O2 is present, then pyruvate enters the mitochondria: AEROBIC RESPIRATION - has 2 parts: biological oxidation and terminal oxidation -requires O2 -occurs in the mitochondria

Image from http://imagineannie.files.wordpress.com/2009/11/mitochondria1.jpg

Biological oxidation -the first reaction occurs in the outer membrane: pyruvate (CH3COCOOH) reacts with CoA (coenzyme A)to form acetyl-CoA (CH2COCoA) by losing a carbon as CO2.

-acetyl-CoA will enter the Kreb's Citric Acid Cycle in the mitochondrial matrix

Note: Acetyl-CoA is a 2-carbon compound, citric acid is a 6-carbon compound and oxaloacetic acid is a 4carbon compound. When CoA is released it will return to the membrane to produce more acetyl-CoA.
Image from http://www.factmonster.com/images/cig/biology/03fig03.png

- the image above is a summary of nine enzyme-controlled reactions.

Step 1. Acetyl-CoA donates the two-carbon acetyl group to a four-carbon intermediary compound, oxaloacetic acid, to create the six-carbon citric acid molecule. Step 2. The high-energy electrons are oxidized to create the energy-rich NADH + H+ molecule when the six-carbon compound loses a carbon dioxide molecule to become a five-carbon molecule. Step 3. A second molecule of NADH + H+ and a molecule of ATP are produced when another carbon dioxide molecule is released from the five-carbon molecule, which then degrades to a new four-carbon molecule. Step 4. The four-carbon molecule is further oxidized to transfer high-energy electrons to create the high-energy compound, FADH2, and more NADH + H+. Step 5. Enzymes rearrange bonding within the four-carbon molecule to become oxaloacetic acid, which combines with the acetyl-CoA to restart the Kreb's cycle.

Summary: The Kreb's Cycle produces 10 ATP and molecules of FADH2 and NADH + H+, which will be used in terminal oxidation. The CO2 is a waste product and will be expelled.

-Szent-Gyrgyi Albert won a Nobel Prize in 1937 for his discoveries in connection with biological oxidation Terminal Oxidation -it occurs on the cristae (inner membrane) of the mitochondria -it is an electron transport chain, made up of a series of coupled oxidation-reduction reactions -each of the reactions releases energy, which is eventually used to form ATP from ADP and P.

Image from http://www.molvray.com/sf/exobio/images/electron_chain.jpg

Step 1: High energy electrons from NADH + H+ and FADH2 enter the electron transport chain and are passed from molecule to molecule, losing energy in a controlled stepwise manner.
Step 2: The energy lost from the electrons is used to pump hydrogen ions from the inner mitochondrial compartment to the outer mitochondrial compartment across the mitochondrial membrane. This creates an area of high hydrogen ion concentration on one side of the mitochondrial membrane and a low hydrogen ion concentration on the other side of the membrane. The result is a concentration gradient across the inner membrane creating a source of potential energy, which is again comparable to the potential energy of water held back by a giant dam.

Step 3: The concentration gradient is used as a source of potential energy to drive the chemiosmotic synthesis of ATP. Step 4: A carrier protein helps the hydrogen ions diffuse through a channel protein opening in the membrane. As the hydrogen ions diffuse from the area of high concentration to the area of low concentration, the carrier protein harnesses the kinetic energy of the hydrogen ion to add a high-energy phosphate group to ADP forming ATP, with the help of the enzyme ATP synthetase. Step 5. The high-energy electron is passed along the electron transport chain until the excess energy is removed and then it is combined with the excess hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water, which then becomes a waste and must be removed from the system. For an animated view see: The electron transport chain (http://vcell.ndsu.edu/animations/etc/movie-flash.htm) - don't worry about the names of all the cytochrome enzymes! In summary, the oxidation of glucose is approximately 37 percent efficient and produces all the energy required for almost every type of cell. The complete aerobic respiration of 1 molecule of glucose creates a maximum yield of 36 ATP molecules, as follows: -Glycolysis = 4 ATP molecules -Kreb's cycle = 10 ATP -Electron transport chain = 22 ATP

If there is no O2 as a final acceptor, the whole system jams and another pathway must be followed: FERMENTATION -occurs when there is no O2 -after glycolysis, there are 2 pyruvates, 2 ATP's and 2 NADH + H+ -the reaction occurs in the cytosol

Image from http://www.bio.miami.edu/~cmallery/255/255atp/mcb8.5.fermentation.jpg

- no ATP is produced by fermentations, BUT NADH + H+ is used up and NAD+ is regenerated and returns to take part in glycolysis reactions, so glycolysis can continue (and produce some ATP). Lactic acid fermentation occurs in some bacteria (this is how we make yogurt and cheese) and in most animals (this causes muscle pain) Alcoholic fermentation occurs in bacteria and fungi (such as yeast). We make use of it to make beer, wine, etc -in general fermentation means that lots of energy is lost. Fortunately, lactic acid can be changed back to pyruvate and run through biological oxidation when O2 is available. Metabolism of other Organic Compounds - while carbohydrates are the major source of energy in the cell, other organic compounds may enter these cycles (although this is not the usual situation!) Lipids: fatty acids are oxidized to form many C2 molecules, which are converted intoacetyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA enters the Kreb's cycle. Glycerol is converted to PGAL, which enters glycolysis. Proteins: NH2 is removed and then resused or excreted. Remaining C chains are broken down to many C2 molecules and converted to acetyl-CoA, which enters

the Kreb's cycle. Nucleic acids N parts are reused or excreted. Pentose sugars are converted to PGAL, which enters glycolysis. (Acetyl-CoA is an extremely important intermediary, which is found in many catabolic and anabolic reactions.) Respiratory quotient (RQ) - Lgzsi hnyados -is a measure of the respiration (oxidation) rate -determined by dividing the amount of CO2 evolved by the amount of O2 consumed. It is usually about 0.8-0.9 in resting animals.
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Wednesday, December 15, 2010

Cell cycle, mitosis and meiosis

DNA is found in the nucleus. It carries the genetic information in all eukaryotes. How is DNA organized? -its basic structure is the double helix -this is then wound around proteins (called histones) to form chromatin. Under an electron microscope, it looks like beads on a chain. This is the form that DNA is stored in between cell divisions -during cell division the DNA winds up more tightly and the chromatin coils on itself, looping and coiling to form thick rods called chromosomes, which are visible under the light microscope

Image from: http://themedicalbiochemistrypage.org/dna.html

What happens? DNA is copied when it is uncondensed, then it condenses into chromosomes that have 2 halves (each a copy of the other). Each half is called a chromatid. Sister chromatids are identical. The point at which the DNA narrows and the chromatids are connected is called the centromere. Each chromosome has many genes, each gene defines a single characteristic. The number and shape of chromosomes are species-specific. eg. Humans = 46 chromosomes, dogs = 78, pea = 14, fruit fly = 8 All sexually reproducing organisms have 2 sets of chromosomes, one from each parent (this is the diploid state). In humans a diploid cell has 46 chromosomes, half from the mother and half from the father (23). The chromosomes which carry the same kind of information are called homologous chromosomes. Cell division There are 2 types: - mitosis (szmtart sejtosztods): purpose is growth and repair, 2 identical daughter cells are produced - meiosis (szmfelez sejtosztods): purpose is to produce gametes for reproduction, 4 genetically different cells are produced The cell cycle describes the typical cycle of a somatic cell that will go through mitosis:

Image from: http://www.cdli.ca/courses/biol3201/unit02/unit02_org01_ilo02/b_activity.html

Mitosis is divided into 4 phases: Prophase: -chromatin condenses to chromosome -nuclear envelope disintegrates and disappears -spindle (magors) forms Metaphase: -chromosomes line up at the equator Anaphase: -chromatids are pulled to opposite poles of the cell Telophase: -cell plasma divides -nuclear envelope reappears

Image from: https://www.msu.edu/~robiemat/science.htm

Image from : http://imcurious.wikispaces.com/Midterm+Exam+2010+Review+P1

Meiosis occurs to produce haploid cells that will be gametes (sperm and eggs). It is a division that reduces the chromosome number by half. It is divided into meiosis I and meiosis II Meiosis I Prophase I

-chromatin condenses to chromosomes -chromosomes "find" their homologous pairs and crossing over occurs Metaphase I --nuclear membrane disappears -homologous chromosomes line up at the equator and attach to spindle fibres Anaphase I - chromosomes pairs are split as they are pulled to opposite poles Telophase I - cell plasma divides - nuclear membrane reforms Short interphase, with no DNA replication Meiosis II Prophase II -chromosomes condense - nuclear membrane disappears -spindle forms Metaphase II -chromosomes line up at the equator Anaphase II -chromatids are pulled to opposite poles of the cell Telophase II -cell plasma divides -nuclear membrane forms

Image from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Meiosis_diagram.jpg

So mitosis and meiosis share some characteristics, but are also unique in many ways. The following diagram presents a comparison of the two. Be sure to consider how they are similar and how they are different.

Image from: http://bioactive.mrkirkscience.com/09/ch9summary.html

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The Eukaryotic Cell

Generalized animal cell:

Image from: http://www.bio.miami.edu

Generalized plant cell:

Image from: http://www.uvm.edu

Cellular organelles: 1. Cytoplasm: the matrix in which all cell organelles and inclusions (insoluble waste or storage products) are found. Made up of the cytosol and cytoskeleton. -cytosol: 90% water, site of many biochemical reactions -cytoskeleton: made up of microtubules and microfilaments (filamentous proteins). Important in supporting the cell, giving its shape and some cell movements (like the pseudopods in amoebas!), as well as moving organelles within the cell and cell division. The microtubules form parts of the cilia and flagella.
2. Nucleus: control center of most cellular activities. It is surrounded by thenuclear envelope, which contains pores though which materials (proteins and RNA) can pass. The nucleoplasm is found within the envelope, it is similar to the cytoplasm. The nucleolus is the dark patch in the nucleus where ribosomal RNA is formed. Chromatin (DNA and associated proteins) is found around the nucleolus. 3. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): It is a series of interconnected, flattened sacs, tubes and channels formed by the phospholipid bilayer. There are 2 types: rough ER and smooth ER. Rough ER appears bumpy because it is covered with ribosomes. Its function is to isolate, store and transport proteins produced by the ribosomes. The smooth ER produces and stores lipids. 4. Golgi apparatus: functions to modify, sort and package macromolecules (like proteins and lipids) for cell secretion (exocytosis) or use within the cell. In this way it can be thought of as similar to a post office; it packages and labels items and sends them to different parts of the cell. 5. Ribosomes: make proteins from amino acids. They can be found attached to the ER or

floating freely in the cytoplasm. They are made of 2 subunits, each subunit consists of rRNA and protein. In the following picture, the connection between the various cell parts can be observed. Information about how to build a protein comes from the nucleus as mRNA. It attaches to the ribosome, which "reads" the mRNA and builds a protein from amino acids. The protein is released into the rough ER, then it is packaged in a vesicle and transported to the Golgi apparatus, where it may be modified, packaged into a new vesicle and then transported to the cell surface and released (exocytosis).

Image from: http://scienceblogs.com/transcript/upload/2006/07/ergolgi.jpg

6. Mitochondria: small membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm. They are considered the "powerhouse" of the cell as this is where the reactions occur that create ATP (cellular respiration) that provide the cell with energy.

Image from: http://imagineannie.files.wordpress.com/2009/11/mitochondria1.jpg

Image from: http://math.etsu.edu/symbiosis/mitochondria.jpg

7. Chloroplasts: Found only in plants and plant-like protists. They are the site of photosynthesis and contain the green pigment, chlorophyll (along with other, less visible pigments!)

Image from: http://www.scsc.k12.in.us/SMS/Teachers/Martin/chloroplast.jpg

Image from: http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/images/130/Photosynthesis/Chloroplast_EN.gif

8. Lysosomes and peroxisomes: Special vacuoles, which are designed to digest things (such as worn-out or excess cell parts, food particles, invading viruses or bacteria, etc) with digestive enzymes. They contain different digestive enzymes, therefore digest different things. Additionally lysosomes are formed from the Golgi apparatus, whereas peroxisomes are formed from the ER. 9. Cell wall: It is found in plant, algal and fungal cells. It is completely permeable, but it contains cellulose (plants and algae) or chitin (fungus), which protects and supports the cell.

10. Cell membrane: It is a phospholipid bilayer. It is both elastic and rigid and helps give the cell its shape. It is selectively permeable, thus helps control transport of

substances and homeostasis. It is permeable to gases and water, but many substances can only pass through it with the help of proteins, such as channels, protein pumps and receptor proteins.

Image from: http://macro.magnet.sfu.edu/cells/plasmamembrane/images/plasmamembranefigure1.jpg

The Endosymbiotic Theory - proposed by Lynn Margulis at the end of the 1960s, it was initially ridiculed, but is now well-accepted. - suggests that certain prokaryotic cells engulfed (endocytosed) other cells, but instead of being digested, these cells continued to live and each provided the other with some benefits (symbiosis). - mitchondria: an anaerobic bacteria engulfed a smaller aerobic bacteria. Mutual advantages? The aerobic bacteria provided the larger, anaerobic bacteria with the ability to survive in areas with oxygen, while the larger bacteria ingested food and provided protection to the smaller aerobic one. - chloroplast: a photosynthetic bacteria was engulfed by a larger anerobic bacteria. Advantages? I am sure you can figure these out for yourselves!! - evidence: These organelles are surrounded by a double lipid bilayer (their own, plus the one of the cell that engulfed them!). These organelles also have their own DNA and divide independently of the cells that they are found in.

Image from: http://www.origin-of-mitochondria.net/?attachment_id=120

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Friday, November 19, 2010

Transport across the membranes

The plasma membrane of a cell has many functions: -separate internal and external environment -protect the cell -a place for recognition sites -controls transport processes As such, it is rigid, yet elastic and selectively permeable Structure of the plasma membrane - 7-9nm thick (under an electron microscope it only looks like 2 lines) - organic solvents (eg. alcohol, ether, chloroform) can cross it, since it is made of lipids - in 1959, the unit membrane theory was created, which stated that all membranes (surface and inner) share a basic structure. This is true. It also stated that it was 2 protein layers (for elasticity) sandwiching a phospholipid bilayer (for strength). This was incorrect. - 13 years later (1972) a technique called "freeze-fracture" was used to visualize the membrane and it showed that the unit membrane theory was WRONG! So a new theory called the fluid mosaic model was created (and so far still seems right!). It states that there is: -a phospholipid bilayer in which the phospholipids can move (hence the fluid part of the name) -cholesterol (steroid lipid) is found interspersed in the bilayer. Cholesterol is more rigid than phospholipids, so it provides stability. -globular membrane proteins are embedded in the membrane, but they don't form a continuous layer. Different proteins have different functions, some are transport molecules (they create channels through the bilayer, or they carry certain substances across the bilayer), some are enzymes, some are receptor molecules. Proteins can also move sideways in the membran. Proteins provide the mosaic part of the fluid-mosaic model. -carbohydrates are found on the outside only. They form receptor sites and are attached to proteins or lipids (glycoprotein, glycolipid).

Image from http://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/problem_sets/membranes/graphics/fluid_%20mosaid_model.jpg

Transport Processes - homeostasis maintains constant conditions in a living organism. Membrane control is essential for this. Passive transport This is movement across the membrane without any energy input. There are 3 forms: diffusion, facilitated diffusion and osmosis Diffusion: - particles are in constant motion (Brownian or heat-kinetic motion) -the overall effect of this random motion over time is diffusion (or the movement of substances from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration, thus resulting in equal concentration in both areas) -for this to occur oacross the membrane, the membrane must be permeable to the substances (apolar particles and small molecules like H2O, O2 and CO2) Facilitated diffusion: -a transport protein helps the molecule to pass through the membrane - these proteins usually form channels through the membrane (some may have gates to limit diffusion), although some are carrier proteins -changed ions or polar particles can only move across the membrane with the help of a protein. Osmosis: -diffusion of H2O molecules (a special kind of diffusion) We can observe osmosis by placing cells into different solutions: An isotonic solution has the same concentration as a cell, so no visible changes occur (this is called dynamic equilibrium) A hypotonic solution is less concetrated than the cell, so in this case the cell swells and bursts (or in the case of a plant cell, the cell walls prevent bursting, so there is an increase in turgor pressure) A hypertonic solution is more concentrated than the cell, so the cells shrivels up (in plants this also happens and the cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall, this is called plasmolysis).

Image from http://access.mmhs.ca/docs/Science/MMHS%20Web%20Folder/Kamla/Image130.gif

Active Transport - transport of a substance against the concentration gradient -requires energy -must use transport proteins and ATP -a substance binds the transport protein and energy is released from ATP to allow the protein to change shape or move and release the substance on the other side of the membrane. Example: Na+/K+ pump - this is especially important in nerve and muscle cell

Image from http://bio100.nicerweb.com/doc/classbio1151/Locked/medi/ch07/07_16SodiumPotassiumPump.jpg

- Note that 3 Na+ go out for every 2 K+ that enter the cell, so the cell loses 1 positive change for every cycle of the pump, therefore the cell develops a negative charge (this is called the membrane potential). Endocytosis and Exocytosis - this occurs when large particles (even whole cells) move across the membrane. Endocytosis occurs when something is moved into the cell. The membrane engulfs and encloses the particle - this forms a vacuole or vesicle. - 3 types: phagocytosis: engulfing a very large, solid particle

pinocytosis: engulfing liquid droplets or small particles. receptor-mediated endocytosis: engulfing specific substances which bind to receptors found on the surface of the cell membrane.

Image from http://cellbiology.med.unsw.edu.au/units/images/endocytosis_types.png

Exocytosis occurs when something moves out of the cell. -vesicles fuse with the membrane and dump out their contents -used to expel wastes or secrete substances, such as hormones

Image from http://jpke.nemc.edu.en/cb/kejian/3/lecture3.files/slide0001_image004.gif

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Tuesday, November 9, 2010

More about enzymes

Naming Enzymes - the first enzymes to be discovered were given names which are still used today (traditional names), eg. trypsin, pepsin -most enzymes have a scientific name: substrate reaction+"ase" eg. DNA polymerase (the substrate is DNA, the reaction forms a polymer or a long chain of

DNA) Enzyme Activity 1. pH - each enzyme has a "favourite" pH, even a slight change in pH may cause denaturation. In our digestive system, we have various enzymes. Pepsin functions in the stomach, thus "likes" a pH of 2, while trypsin, which is found in the small intestine, prefers a pH of 7.9-9 2. Temperature - for enzymes in our body, 37C is the "favourite" temperature. A lower temperatures, their activity slows, from 37-40C it speeds up, but above 40C H-bonds are broken and their shapes are distorted (denaturation) 3. Enzyme-substrate concentration - with a given amount of enzyme, the reaction rate will increase with an increase in substrate until all the active sites are constantly in use. Here it will reach a maximum and in this case, the enzyme concentration is the limiting factor. If there is an excess of enzyme with respect to the amount of substrate available, then the activity is substrate-limited. Enzyme Inhibition Enzymes are unable to function if the active site is block or if the shape of the active site is changed. Different chemicals (or enzyme inhibitors) can do this and so stop the enzyme from functioning. This is called enzyme inhibition and there are 2 types: 1. Competitive inhibition: the inhibitor takes the place of the substrate

Image from: http://www.peptide2.com/peptide/Enzyme_wikipedia_the_free_files/400px-Competitive_inhibition.png

2. Non-competitive inhibition: the inhibitor binds to the enzyme and this causes a change to the active site.

Image from: http://upload.wikipedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Noncompetititve_inhibition.svg/800pxNoncompetitive_inhibition.svg.png

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Sunday, October 17, 2010

Enzyme video
One enzyme video and another enzyme video
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Hello and welcome to 11a's biology site. Hopefully this is a place where you can find stuff to help you in your biological studies. If you miss lessons, you should be able to find lesson outlines here. If you want to do something extra or get a bit more information about the topics we are studying, you can check out the extra credit and interesting stuff pages. If you have any ideas or suggestions to improve this page, please let me know (at school or at jentusz@gmail.com). Enjoy!

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