CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

1-1

OBJECTIVES

The followings are the objectives of this chapter:Ability to describe basic environmental engineering components comprising air, water and land. Ability to explain the concept of aspect and impact factors. Ability to describe and relate Environmental Quality Act 1974 to environmental issues.

1-2

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering principles to manage and improve the environment. As such, topics discussed in relation to the environment normally include water, air and land resources. Sustainable development aims at providing healthy water, air and land for human habitation, for other organisms to survive, and to remediate polluted sites as well. Human interaction with the environment could give rise to an impact on the environment and sometimes is being adversely impacted by pollutants in the environment. A large amount of data will have to be interpreted in the light of the need for sustainable development. As such, environmental engineers will have to be conscious of and find viable ways to cope with such a situation. Environmental crisis is a crisis of the senses, imagination, and use of pertinent tools, that guide us in our ways of thinking, developing concepts, and postulating theories. In the context of sustainable development, aspect and impact factors affecting the environment are of prime importance in discussing the future of sustainable development. As such, any decision making process on environmental management must be based on both these factors. 1-2.1 THE ENVIRONMENT Simply stated, the environment is ones surroundings. To the environmental engineer, the word environment may take on a wide definition and requires a global perception. It should not be a narrow definition dealing only with liquid, gaseous or solid materials within a treatment plant reactor, but it should go beyond that. Global environment comprises the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere in which life sustaining resources of the earth are contained. The atmosphere , a mixture of gases extending outward from the surface of the earth, evolved from the elements of the earth that were gasified during its formation and metamorphosis. The hydrosphere consists of oceans, lakes, streams, and shallow groundwater bodies that interflow with surface water. The lithosphere is the soil mantle that wraps the core of the earth. The biosphere, a thin shell that encapsulates the earth, is made of the atmosphere and lithosphere adjacent to the surface of the earth, together with the hydrosphere. It is within the biosphere that the life forms of earth, including humans, live. Life sustaining materials

in gaseous, liquid, and solid forms are cycled through the biosphere, providing sustenance to all living organisms. 1-2.2 POPULATION Growing population puts pressure on both the economic and environmental systems. It brings along a need for more food, fuel, water, and goods and services. As such, it is vital to discuss on the interaction of the aspects of demographic and environment. Population growth means more demand for good lifestyle. Above all, it creates a requirement for more investment to be committed to meet all these needs. Consequently there bounds to be a rise in economic activities, a direct impact on a lot more people, and an increasing burden on the ecosystem. However, this should not be a case for an argument to be made against population growth. If the environmental, economic and social carrying capacities of the system can cope with the demands, then it will be well and good. It must be emphasised that the purpose of an economy is to provide sufficient supplies of goods and services for the people and not to create more problems. However, there is one vital caveat: for the system to be sustainable it must have the capacity to generate enough wealth to provide for the necessary investments for the maintenance of the environment and the material requirements of the population as well. In moving towards an era in which environmental stability is a prime factor in economic and social survival, similar observations with the earlier transition from the agricultural age to that of the industrial one can be inferred. That transition became possible only when agricultural production was sufficient to support not only those living on the agricultural land, but also the new industrial population. 1-2.3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Population, economic development, and the environment are among the three important elements in the sustainability equation. Take one example: that of dealing with the unwanted waste products of developmentnot simply referring to solid industrial or domestic waste -but also various forms of water and air pollution generated by humans that contribute to the build-up of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere. An ecologically satisfactory solution may be pursued in three ways: limiting economic activity and thereby cutting down on the waste generating process; investing in technologies that limit and render the waste harmless; or ensuring that population growth does not exceed the capacity of the economy to evolve in accordance with environmental requirements. If the first route is emphasised then this may well imply that we should move away from our present technologically oriented society and go for a simpler lifestyle. The problem is that it would have to be much simpler, and at a population density far lower and not to resort to draconian measures. It would also entail a very long period of adaptation. If the second route is chosen as the main solution, then policy makers must be fully committed to the cause. To deal with problems of waste through the wider application of technology, we will need large capital investments. In order to create this we will, in turn, need a level of industrial output that exceeds both consumption and economic requirements so that there will be enough money available for the investment in the necessary technologies. The snag here is that the higher the levels of industrial output required, the higher will be the generated waste. Thus we have the twin feedback loops to address in every system: a positive and a negative. The third route is to ensure that the population

growth accords with the potential for environmentally sound economic development. Therefore, these are the concerns of those involved in demographic questions. Taking Malaysia as a case in point, her per capita generation rate of solid waste has been reported to be around 0.85-1.4 kg and it is continuously increasing. This generation rate of solid waste is rather alarming. Serious effort should be made to overcome or to prevent this generation rate so that it will not exceed the capacity available to treat it. An integrated approach should be taken in the decision making process and local authorities will have to gear up their plans to deal with the associated problems as they arise. In Johor Bahru for example, the population was rapidly increasing and subsequently posing a serious problem, like the piles and piles of solid wastes that are deposited. In the Johor Bahru region, WPI (Wilayah Pembangunan Iskandar) has been planned and developed that will offer more jobs in that particular area. As a possible impact, the population within this region will increase rapidly, and so will the amount of waste generation. 1-2.4 WATER Water is one of the resources required to sustain life and has long been suspected of being the source of many human illnesses. It was not until approximately 150 years ago that a concrete proof of disease transmission through water was established. In Malaysia for example a few rivers have been identified as highly polluted. Examples are Sungai Skudai and Sungai Juru. Assessments have shown that the impact of industrial area was the main contribution factor to this problem. So, in this regard, it is going to be a tough time for environmental engineers to ensure the attainment of sustainable development. For many years, the major consideration was to produce adequate supplies that were hygienically safe. However, the water sources have become increasingly polluted due to the increased industrial and agriculture activities. Pesticides used in agriculture pose the main threat to water sources. The public has been more precise in the demand for clean and healthy water as time passes by. As such environmental engineers are expected to produce acceptable treated water and maintain cleaner water resources. In water science for example, the management of groundwater is very important compared to others like precipitation. Environmental engineers will have to ensure that groundwater sources are free from pollutants. In Bangladesh for example, their sources of groundwater were heavily contaminated by arsenic. Therefore we have to look at and ensure the management system of groundwater sources is properly carried out. Today, water engineers are expected to produce treated waters that are free of colour, turbidity, taste, odour, nitrate, harmful metal ions, and a wide variety of organic chemicals such as pesticides and chlorinated solvents. At present, more than 85 scheduled chemicals are listed in the U.S Environmental Protection Agencys drinking water standards, and the world health Organization lists over 100 scheduled chemicals in its guidelines for the acceptable quality of drinking water. Health problems associated with some of these chemicals include cancer, birth defects, central nervous system disorders, disruption of the endocrine system and heart disease. As population increases, the demand for water also increases at a much more rapid rate if the unchecked population growth is accompanied by improved living standards. Thus the combination of these factors is placing greater and greater stress on finding adequate sources of clean and healthy water. In many cases inferior-quality, and often polluted,

water supplies are utilized to meet the demand. It is expected that this condition will continue and grow more complicated as the population and industrial development keep on growing.

1-2.5 WASTEWATER AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROL The disposal of human wastes has always posed a serious problem. With the development of urban areas, it has become necessary, from the aspects of public health and aesthetic considerations, to provide drainage or sewer systems to transport such wastes away from these areas. The normal repository was usually the nearest watercourse. It soon became apparent that rivers and other receiving bodies of water have a limited ability to handle waste materials without creating nuisance. This led to the development of purification or treatment facilities where chemists, biologists, and engineers have played important roles. Water quality managers are concerned with the controlling of pollution arising from human activities to ensure that water produced is suitable for its intended uses. Water quality management is crucial in handling water supply to the community. It is very important to know what level of waste is intolerable for a particular water body. To know how much waste can be tolerated by a water body, water quality managers must understand the type of pollutants discharged and the manner in which they affect water quality. Therefore a good knowledge on good water quality sources like the ones found in Sungai Kejor (in Belum, Perak) and Sungai Sedim (Kulim, Kedah) is important. Originally, the intent of water quality management was to protect the intended uses of a water body while using water as an economic means of waste disposal within the constraints of its assimilative capacity. Water is a natural resource and plays a significant role in human civilization. It has been long known that all natural bodies of water have the ability to oxidize organic matters without the resulting nuisance conditions, provided that the organic and nitrogen (primarily ammonia) loading are kept within the limits of the oxygen resources of the water. It is also known that certain levels of dissolved oxygen must be maintained at all times if certain forms of aquatic life are to be preserved. Many research works have been conducted to establish these limits. Such works require the combined efforts of biologists, chemists, and engineers to realise their values. 1-2.6 INDUSTRIAL AND HAZARDOUS WASTES Nowadays environmental engineers have to face a very tough challenge in dealing with environmental issues. Apart of that, they have to develop effective technologies to meet the demand of sustainable treatment techniques. The great variety of wastes produced from the industries and the introduction of wastes from new processes demand the knowledge of chemistry on the part of environmental engineers to find solutions to most of these problems. The problems associated with managing hazardous wastes are particularly complex. Over 100 millions tonnes of hazardous wastes are generated each year in the United States. The U.S Environmental Protection Agency has placed well over 1200 sites that are contaminated with hazardous chemicals on the National Priority or superfund list because of their potential threat to human health and the environment.

In Malaysia, awareness on this matter is still lacking and requires close monitoring. The Sungai Gatom case is a good example where hazardous wastes had been treated in an improper manner. Aluminium dros which are very harmful had been dumped illegally in this river and that posed a serious danger to public health. As a result the government had to fork out RM1.3 million as the disposal cost to clear the river from the dros. 1-2.7 AIR POLLUTION AND GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE Pollution of the atmosphere increases in almost direct ratio to the population density and is largely related to the products of combustion from plants, incinerators, and automobiles, including gases, fumes, and smokes arising from industrial processes. The resulting emission of NOX and SOX are of concern. However, the vehicles on the road keep on increasing, worsening situation further. The intensity of most air pollution problems is usually related to the amount of particulate matter emitted into the atmosphere. In general, visible particulate matter can be controlled by enforcing relevant regulations. However the present regulations should be standardised to international standards as they lack certain aspects to meet the demand of current solutions to this environmental problem. These regulations must be updated if they are to be more relevant to the present environmental conditions. The most serious situation develops when local conditions favour atmospheric inversions and the products of combustion and of industrial processing that are contained within a confined air mass. In cases where atmospheric inversions occur over metropolitan areas under cloudless skies, haze commonly called smog is produced in the atmosphere. Under such conditions the atmosphere is often highly irritating to the eyes and to the respiratory tract and is far too intense to be accounted for by the materials emitted to the atmosphere from the varying and separate sources. Research on this field has been extensive. Many theories are postulated with regard to this problem, but the consensus is that it is the photochemical action between oxides of nitrogen and unsaturated hydrocarbons from automobile exhaust gases combined with several products of health concern such as ozone, formaldehyde, and organic compounds of nitrogen that give rise to the condition. These substances can condense on particulate matter in the atmosphere to form fog. Knowledge of chemistry helps very much in finding the root cause of this matter. Motor vehicles, factories, and power plants are the main contributors to air pollution. Such pollutants can cause cancer or other serious health effects, such as reproductive or birth defects, damage to the immune system, and respiratory problems, or they may cause adverse effects to the environment itself. The 1990 Clean Air amendments list 188 toxic air pollutants that the U.S Environmental Protection Agency is required to regulate. These include particulate matter; halogen compounds such as tetrachloroethene, dichloromethane, and dioxin; heavy metals such as mercury, cadmium, and lead; volatile organic compounds such as benzene and toluene; and other hazardous compounds such as asbestos. Building materials and furnishings are likely to include toxic chemicals that may be slowly released. Asbestos and radon, products used for household cleaning and maintenance, personal care, or hobbies often contain volatile can also cause serious harm.

It has become increasingly apparent in recent years that pollution problems are becoming more global in nature. Usually the impact of human activities significantly cause problem in environmental quality. Apparently, the human activities in one region have a significant impact and affected the quality of air at a much further region. This was true in the case of the radioactive fallout. Current concerns are on global warming and stratospheric ozone depletion. It is very important to grasp well the chemical principles involved to help us understand how these problems arise and how they could be solved. It has been shown that a complex photochemical reaction involving chlorofluorocarbons, emitted at the earths surface and transported to the stratosphere, is destroying the stratospheric ozone layer. This layer is important in protecting the earths surface from cancer-causing ultraviolet radiation. Because of this impact, chlorofluorocarbons are being banned from use globally and as such, replacement compounds are being sought. Greenhouse gases are another issue being discussed globally. Gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour, CFC, oxides of nitrogen and ozone absorb thermal radiation near the earths surface. This reaction led to the phenomenon known as greenhouse gases. As populations increased, the concentrations of these gases are increasing as well in the earths atmosphere mainly due to human activities. Since they do trap heat trying to escape from the earth, they have potential for warming the earth, a process sometimes called global warming. Although there is a consensus on the reasons for increase on the concentrations of these gases, there is still an argument as to whether this will lead to a general increase in temperature. Much remains to be learned here, and the expanding knowledge on environmental engineering will enhance and contribute to a better understanding of this problem.

1-3

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

The Environmental Quality Act 1974 with its latest amendment (2005) contains the guidelines related to environmental issues. It comprises legal matters on air, water, land and their impact on the environment. Aspect and impact factors are very important and play a vital role in protecting our environment. It must be realised that human activities will somehow impinge on the surroundings. Activities in factories for instance, are directly associated with the pollution of the environment. Factories producing paints discharge a lot of toxic substances and they will have to be dealt with properly to avoid the resultant negative impact to surroundings. Understanding of aspect and impact factors is a must for environmental engineers to meet the demand of sustainable development. As a result, we need clear guidelines to be closely followed in order to make sure our activities do not breach the existing laws and regulations. The Environmental Quality Act 1974 allows the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment after consultation with the Environmental Quality Council to define objectionable noise and to prescribe standards for tolerable noise. However, regulations with numerical limits of permissible noise are currently not available. The Environmental Quality (Amendment) Act 1985 makes it mandatory for an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) on various activities scheduled by the Ministry of

Natural Resources and Environment. Approval of such EIA and the projects usually include maximum permissible noise limits at the affected areas that must be complied with during the construction phase of a project, and upon operations of the projects (plants, highway, etc). EIA also requires us to measure the existing environment before a project starts. These include water quality, air quality, and the existing land condition. Therefore Environmental Quality Act 1974 is very important to be referred to before the development can commence. In an industrial area for instance, EQA 1974 will be referred to as a guidance for implementing ISO 14 000 system. Legal compliance is very important when we implement a particular project and apply for certification. On chemical disposal for instance, there are clear guidelines on how to manage toxic wastes based on the relevant regulations. Industrial areas located near to water intake points must be strictly considered in accordance to the law and should comply with Standard A set out in the EQA 1974. Those factories situated away from water intake points must comply with the stipulated Standard B. Section 29; prohibition of discharge of wastes into Malaysian waters states that no person shall, unless licensed, discharged environmentally hazardous substances, pollutants or wastes into the Malaysian waters in contravention of the acceptable conditions specified under section 21 . This is a clear message requiring us to control our water bodies based on the specified law and regulations. Open burning activities are prohibited under section 29A which states that Notwithstanding anything to the contrary contained in this Act, no person shall allow or cause open burning on any premises. This act enables us to regulate open burning that gives rise to a serious problem in the form of haze to the environment. The most important thing that one has to understand is that open burning activities are prohibited by the law. 1-3.1 THE EQA 1974 AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN MALAYSIA 1-3.1 (a) i. ii. iii. Water Quality

Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations 1977 and Amendments 1982. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) Regulations 1978 and Amendments 1981. Noise

1-3.1 (b) i.

Environmental Quality (Motor Vehicle Noise) Regulations, 1978. Waste Management Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations, 1978. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Waste Treatment and Disposal Facilities) Order, 1989. Air Quality Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations, 1978.

1-3.1 (c) i. ii. 1-3.1 (d) i.

ii. iii.

Environmental Quality (Control of Lead Concentration in Motor Vehicles) Regulations, 1985. Motor Vehicles (Control of Smoke and Gas Emission), 1977.

1-3.2 RELATED INTERNATIONAL TREATIES i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. Protocol on Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), Kiev. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto. ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution (Entered into force November 2003. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, Stockholm. Basel Protocol on Liability and Compensation for Damage resulting from Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, Basel. Convention Concerning Safety and Health in Mines, Geneva. Amendment to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, Geneva. International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994, Geneva. Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Vienna. ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Kuala Lumpur.

CHAPTER 2 NOISE POLLUTION

CO5: Ability to describe the basic concept of noise pollution and solve basic calculations relating to it. CO 1: Ability to describe the related legislation on Environmental Quality Act 1974.

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2-1

OBJECTIVES

The followings are the objectives of this chapter:Acquire the basic knowledge of the sound. Ability to solve basic calculations on noise pollution. Familiarize with major noise monitoring devices. Familiarize with the Environmental Quality Act 1974 relating to noise pollution.

2-2

DEFINITION

Sound is the least recognised form of pollution, and as such it is also the least regulated, despite the fact that laws to control noise levels are now being put into place. Many of us are exposed to high levels of noise while at work, travelling, shopping, and where there can be intrusive noise from traffic, domestic appliances, and especially if you are living in badly constructed apartments or terraced homes, from your neighbours. In general, noise can be defined as unwanted signals. To be more specific, noise is defined as unwanted sound. Therefore, noise can be considered as wrong sound at a wrong place and at a wrong time. The term unwanted can sometimes be subjective as sound that is unwanted by some maybe desirable to others, example, loud music. Some people may find it tolerable, while others might find it annoying. Involuntary noise is noise that can be avoided. An example of involuntary noise is noise produced in a crowded area like a packed stadium. Voluntary noise is the noise which can be tolerated and the sufferer is normally being compensated. For example, those who work at an airport have to tolerate aircraft noise. As such they are usually compensated with higher wages.

2-3

EFFECT OF NOISE

The recognition of noise as a serious health hazard, or environmental nuisance, is a rather recent development. In industrialized countries, noise is increasingly an environmental nuisance. Noise reduces the quality of life. It can interfere with human communication and sleep. Noise can also reduce the value of properties, e.g. those near to the airports, highways or busy roads and factories. Noise can also result in both physiological and psychological effects. Extremely loud and sudden noises cause pain to the ears and may cause temporary deafness or permanent damage to our hearing. High noise level of sufficient duration can result in temporary or permanent loss of hearing. Prolonged exposure to noises which are not extremely loud can also affect hearing to a certain extent. Dangerous levels of noise come from industrial activities. Environmental noise intrusions such as traffic noise can interfere with communications, sleep disturbance and interfere with the ability to perform complex tasks.

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The following table shows some sources of noise pollution and their related decibels that maybe harmful to our health Table 2-1 Sources of noise pollution that maybe harmful to health

Decibel (dB) 130 140 120 110

Related Sound Jet Engine at 300 m. Loud thunder Car horn at 10 m. Night club speakers at 10 m. Rock concert Pneumatic drill Chain saw Lawnmower Hair dryer Inside small car Noisy office Alarm clock at 5 m.

100 90 80

2-4

SOURCES OF NOISE POLLUTION

Noise can be emitted from: i) ii) iii) a point source, (e.g. electric fan) an areal source (e.g. stadium) a line source (e.g. moving train)

Noise pollution comes from: i) ii) iii) iv) traffic noise (the main source) industrial activities construction activities sporting and crowding activities, etc.

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Figure 2-1 Major Contribution to noise pollution is traffic

2-5

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOUND

A sound wave is any disturbance that propagates in an elastic medium, which may be in the form of a gas, liquid or solid. If the noise starts to spread out from air, it is called air-borne. If the sound starts from vibration between structures, it is caused structure-borne. The structure-borne noise occurs when building elements are in direct contact with the noise source. In air at 20 C at sea level, the sound wave travels at approximately 340 m/s. Sound waves are characterized by their frequencies, amplitudes and phases. The wavelength, is given as:

c f

[2-1]

where; c is the speed of sound. The quality of a sound is determined by its frequency. For people with good hearing, the audible range of frequencies is normally between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. In most practical noise control problems, however, it is possible to consider a rather narrower range of frequency, say 50 Hz to 10,000 Hz. Sound with frequency less than 20 Hz is called infrasound and sound over 20,000 Hz is called ultrasound. For a single frequency, the root mean square pressure (Prms) defined as Pmax/2 is used in sound pressure measurement. However, most sound are not pure sinusoidal waves. They vary both in frequency and amplitude over time. To quantify their magnitude over the measured time T, the r.m.s. sound pressure is given by:

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Prms

1 T 2 = P (t)dt T 0

1/ 2

[2-2]

Since noise generally consists of a large number of frequencies combined in random phases, the phase characteristics are generally not important and can be ignored.

2-6

SOUND POWER AND INTENSITY

The rate at which energy is transmitted by sound wave is called the sound power, W (Watt). The maximum sound intensity, I (Watt/m2) is defined as the average sound power per unit area normal to the propagation of a sound. Power, W, radiated by any acoustic source can be written as:

W = I dA
A

[2-3]

where; A (m2) I area. For a point source, the noise is non-directional, and can be assumed as a spherical sound source. For a spherical sound source, the sound intensities at all points on the imaginary sphere surface are equal. The acoustic intensity at a distance r (m) from the acoustic centre of a spherical sound source is:

I=

W 4r 2

[2-4]

Similarly, for a line source, the source can be assumed to be cylindrical. The maximum sound intensities at all points on an imaginary cylindrical surface sound source, is given by as:

I=

W 4rl

[2-5]

Where; l is the length of cylinder and r is the distance from acoustic centreline of cylindrical source to an imaginary cylindrical surface. In an environment in which there are no reflecting surface, the r.m.s sound pressure, Prms, at any point in any type of freely travelling (plane, cylindrical, spherical, etc) wave is related to I by:

I=

W c

[2-6]

where; is density of the medium, kg/m3 (air = 1.185 kg/m3 at 20 C at STP.)

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2-7

THE DECIBEL

The human ear is able to perceive an enormous range of sound pressures. The ratio of the weakest sound pressure (20 Pa) to the greatest sound pressure without pain is 1013 or more for normal people. Therefore, sound pressure of linear scale is an inconvenient way to represent these quantities is to use logarithmic scale. An appropriate reference quantity is required. The sound pressure level, Lp is defined as

L P = log 10
or,

P 2 rms P 2 ref P 2 rms P 2 ref

(unit: Bel)

[2-7]

L P = 10 log 10

(unit: dB)

[2-8]

The factor 10 is introduced in equation [2-8] to avoid a scale that is too compressed. The Pref is usually taken as 20 Pa. The sound power level, Lw is defined as

L W = 10 log 10

W Wref

(unit: dB)

[2-9]

where; Wref = 10-12 Watt and sound intensity level, LI is given as

L I = 10 log 10
where; Iref = 10-12 Watt/m2. 2-7.1 ADDITION OF SOUND LEVEL

I I ref

(unit: dB)

[2-10]

The total sound pressure may be a combination of few sounds. As sound level is expressed in logarithm scale, they cannot be added directly. The total sound is given as

L t = 10 log 10 10
i =1

0.1L pi

[2-11]

Sometimes it may be necessary to subtract one noise from another; e.g. when background sound level need to be subtracted from a total measurement level to obtained the sound level of a particular source. The sound level of the source is given as

L s = 10 log 10 10 0.1L t 10 0.1L B

[2-12]

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where; LB is the background sound level. For quick estimation, table 2-2 or figure 2-2 can be used for addition of sound level. Table 2-2 Addition of two sources

If the level differ by 0 or 1 dB 2 or 3 dB 4 to 9 dB 10 dB or over

Add the following to the higher level

3 dB 2 dB 1 dB 0 dB

Figure 2-2 Chart for adding noise levels

Increment of the higher noise level

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Different between 2 sources of noise

2-7.2 TIME-VARYING SOUND LEVEL The equivalent Continuous Sound Level (Leq) was introduced to enable assessment of hearing risk to persons employed in a situation of varying sound levels and duration:

1 T L eq = 10 0.1L(t) dt T 0
16

[2-13]

where; T is the time period over which Leq is determined. If the sampling is discrete, then

1 n L eq = 10 log 10 0.1L i (t) t i T i =1

[2-14]

where; Li and ti are sound level and duration of the ith sample, respectively. The Leq is a single value rating which has the same energy content as the varying sound level. For environmental noise measurement, L10, L50 and L90 are often employed to indicate sound levels exceeding 10, 50 and 90 % of the time. 2-7.3 A, B AND C WEIGHT Since noise measurements usually involve people, human reaction to sound is far more important than sound itself as a physical phenomenon. As an example, sound pressure level cannot be used as an indication of loudness because the frequency of sound has quite a bit to do with how loud is the sound. For this reason, it is important for us to know the frequency of the noise we are measuring. This contributes to the weighting networks. Weighting networks are electronic filtering circuit built into the meter to attenuate certain frequencies. They permit the sound level meter to respond more to some frequencies than to, something prejudicial like that of the human ear. 3 major weighting characteristics have been established, namely, A, B and C networks. The main different between these 3 networks are a very low frequencies are filtered quite severely by the A network, moderately by the B network, and hardly at all by the C network. Therefore, if the measured sound level of a noise is much higher on C weighting than on A weighting, much of the noise is probably of low frequency. Figure 2-3 shows the response characteristics of the 3 basic networks, as prescribed by the American National Standard Institute (ANSI). When the weighting network is used, the sound level meter electronically subtracts or adds the number of the decibels shown on each frequency from or to the actual sound pressure level at that reading. Readings taken when the network is in use are said to be sound level rather than sound pressure level. Readings taken are designated in decibels in one of the following forms, dBA or dB(A), dBB or dB(B), dBC or dB(C), and so on.

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Figure 2-3 Response characteristics for the three basic weighting networks

10 Relative Frequency (dB) 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 -80 10 100 1000 5000 10000 20000 Frequency (Hz)
(Source: American National Standards Institute)

A B C

Example 2.1: Calculating Sound Pressure Level (SPL) The sound pressure inside a diesel lorry is 2 Pa. What is the corresponding SPL in dB? Solution:

2 L p = 10 log 10 6 2 10 = 20 log10 10 5 = 20 5 = 100dB

Example 2.2: Calculation on Sound Power and Intensity If a sound source has a pressure of 2000 Pa, compute a) the SPL in dB b) the sound intensity in Watt/m2 c) the sound power in Watt (given = 1.185 kg/m3, c = 340 m/s) Solution: a)

2000 10 6 L p = 10 log 10 20 10 6 4,000 ,000 = 10 log 10 400 4 = 10 log 10 10

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= 40 dB. b)

I=

(2000 10 -6 ) 2 P2 Watt = = 9.90 10 -9 1.185 340 c m2

c)

W = 4r 2 l = 4 10 2 9.90 10 9 = 12.5 10 6 Watt

Example 2.3: Conversion of Sound Pressure to SPL What is the increase in dB that is corresponds to a 5 times increase in sound pressure? Solution:

L p1
Lp2
If,

P = 10 log 10 1 P ref
P = 10 log 10 2 P ref
P2 = 5P1

Then,

Lp2

P = 10 log 10 25 1 P ref

Lp2

P = 10 log 10 25 + 10 log 10 1 P ref

LP2 LP1 = 14 dB. Example 2.4: Conversion of Sound Pressure to SPL What is increase in dB corresponds to a tripling a sound pressure? Solution: LP2

3P = 10log 10 1 P ref
2

P1 = 10 log (3) + 10log 10 P ref

= 9.5 + LP1 LP2 LP1 = 9.5 dB.

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Example 2.5: Addition of Sound Level Four sounds from different sources are to be combined to obtain a total sound pressure level (SPL). The four SPLs are 90 dB, 88 dB, 88 dB and 85 dB. What is the total SPL. Solution: By using Table 2.2: 90 92 94 dBA Example 2.6: Addition of Sound Level If two sound sources have equal pressure of 2000 Pa, determine the total SPL in dB. Solution: Pt2 = (2000 x 10-6) + (2000 x 10-6) = 4 000 000 x 10-12 + 4 000 000 x 10-12 = 8 000 000 x 10-12 LP2 88 88 90 85

2000 10 6 = 10log 10 20 10 6
= 43 dB.

Example 2.7: Addition of Sound Level Determine the SPL from combining the following five levels; 58, 62, 58, 65 and 68. Solution: By using Table 2.2: 58 61 68 71 dBA 58 62 67 65 68

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Example 2.8: Calculation of Leq Consider the case where a noise level of 90 dBA exists for 10 minutes and it followed by a reduced noise level of 70 dBA for 30 minutes. What is the equivalent continuous equal energy level for the 40 minutes period? Assume 5 minute sampling interval. Solution:

1 10 10 0.1( 90 ) + 30 10 0.1( 70 ) L Aeq = 10 log 10 60 min

= 84.11 dBA Example 2.9: Calculation of Leq An employee in a timber mill uses a saw to cut timber into different length. While the saw is idle, it produces a level of 90 dBA at his work position. When it cuts into timber, it produces a level of 95 dBA. An exposure of 8 hours per day is assumed. If the saw runs continuously and actually only cuts for 10 % of the time when it is switched on, compute his LAeq. Solution:

1 7 .2 10 0.1( 90 ) + 0 .8 10 0.1( 96 ) L Aeq = 10 log 10 8 hr

= 91.1 dBA

2-8

LOUDNESS

Loudness is a persons perception of the strength of sound. It carries both the sound pressure level and frequency. This follows from the variation in sensitivity of the ear with frequency. For this reason, measurement of SPL in dB is not a very accurate measure of loudness. The ear is not equally sensitive to all frequencies. Sound entering the ear is continuously frequency-analyzed along the cochlear partition, acting as a number of narrow band filters. The ear is most sensitive from 1000 Hz to 5000 Hz. The units used to label the equalloudness are called phons. Since the ear is most sensitive to frequencies in the range 1 to 5 Hz, sound at these frequencies would be rate much louder than one at the same SPL at other frequencies. To compensate for the frequency-dependent sensitivity of the ear, sound level meters are designed to make allowance for this behaviour of the ear by incorporating electronic weighting networks. The A weighting network is the most important network. The unit is dBA. However, the dBA is a single figure rating. It does not provide information on the frequency content of a noise source.

21

2-9

NOISE MEASUREMENT

2-9.1 SOUND LEVEL METER Sound level meters are used to measure the sound pressure level. Noise meters are classified as follows: Table 2-3 Classification of Noise Meter

Type 0 1 2 3

Use For laboratory reference situations. Precision grade, used for accurate field measurements. Industrial grade, for non-critical survey work. Survey grade and low cost sound level indicators.

Accuracy (dB) N/A 0.7 1.5 2.5

(Source: American National Standards Institute)

Construction tolerances for various functions of the instrument system are specified in International Electrotechnical Committee (IEC) publications IEC 60651 and IEC 60804 and also in similar national standards such as BS 5969 and BS6698. It is recommended that type I instruments be used for industrial measurements and for environmental measurements involving legislation. A new IEC 61672 will replace the above standards. One major change is the abolishment of Type 3 noise meter. Figure 2-4 Sound Level Meter

22

Sound in practice is seldom steady in level. Fluctuations in level are common and sometimes the variations can be quite large. To accommodate this phenomenon the sound level meter is provided with 2 types of responses: i) ii) fast has a time constant of 100 ms, to approximately the response of the ear. slow has a time constant of 1 s, useful for determining mean levels when the measured sound fluctuates continuously and violently.

2-9.2 DOSIMETER Dosimeters are portable instruments that can be attached to workers and go with them throughout their normal working tasks. It is most suitable for workers that move between many different environments during the working day. The dosimeter gives the fraction of allowable noise exposure received by the employees at the end of the work using the following dosage/time equation.

D=

C C1 C 2 C 3 + + + .... n Tn T1 T2 T3

[2-15]

where; Cn is the total time exposure at noise level n, and Tn is the total time permitted by the regulation at that particular noise level. If D is greater than 1, the exposure has exceeded the permissible limit. Figure 2-5 Dosimeter

23

2.10 NOISE REGULATION IN MALAYSIA

The Environmental Quality Act 1974 allows the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment after consultation with the Environmental Quality Council to define objectionable noise and to prescribe standards for tolerable noise. In this respect, regulations with numerical limits of maximum permissible noise are currently not available. Whilst regulations with prescribes noise limits are not legally defined the Department of Environmental had issued guidelines on permissible noise limits in its course of enforcement of the Environmental Quality Act. The noise limits that are often used are tabulated in Table 2.3. The guidelines for Siting and Zoning of Industries also give daytime and night time noise limits based on maximum sound levels according to the category of the industries. In the Guidelines on Application for Permission to Install Generator Set issued by Department of Environmental there exists also a permissible level for the genset noise at the property boundaries to comply with a noise limit of 55 dBA. This requirement must be strictly adhered to at noise sensitive areas such as hospitals and schools. Table 2-4 Existing Guidelines for Maximum Permissible Sound Level (LAeq) for Boundary Noise

Receiving Land Use Categories Residential, Institutional (School, Hospital) Areas Commercial & Urban Areas Industrial Zones

Day Time 7:00 am 10:00 pm 55 dBA 60 dBA 65 dBA

Night Time 10:00 pm 7:00 am 50 dBA 55 dBA 60 dBA

(Source: Environment Quality Act, 1974)

The Environmental Quality (Amendment) Act 1985 makes it mandatory for an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) to be carried out on various activities scheduled by the Ministry of Environmental and Natural Resources. Approval of such EIA and the projects usually include maximum permissible noise limits at the affected areas that must be complied with during construction phase of the projects and upon operations of the projects (i.e. plants, highways, etc). Noise limits similar to that tabulated in Table 2.4 were often used in the past. Due recognition to the existing noise condition has over the recent years resulted in maximum permissible noise limits to be based instead on the existing ambient noise limits, and/or limits based on a defined exceedance above the existing background noise level (L90). There are provisions in the Environmental Quality Act for the control of sound propagated to the environment, affecting the community. The Department of Environmental is currently preparing guidelines for environmental noise control. These guidelines could then be enforced under the Environmental Quality Act and would be used in Environmental Impact Assessments, by the local authorities, and for planning proposes. These guidelines stipulate maximum permissible noise by receiving land use, maximum permissible noise levels from

24

constructions and related activities, road and rail traffic noise. Noise measurement and assessment procedures are to be also included.

25

CHAPTER 3 SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTES

CO4: Ability to describe basic concept of solid and hazardous waste and solve basic calculations on this area. CO 1: Ability to describe the related legislation on Environmental Quality Act 1974.

26

SOLID WASTE
3-1 OBJECTIVES

The followings are the objectives of this chapter:Ability to describe basic concept of solid and hazardous management. Ability to solve basic calculations on solid waste.

3-2

HISTORICAL ASPECTS & NATIONAL PROBLEMS

Waste has been around from time immemorial. For example, there were sites in ancient Rome which were pits where carcasses, animals and humans, were dumped. Cities from the Bronze Age such as Troy were actually raised in levels as garbage became unbearable. Clay layers were spread over the garbage, just as in modern tips. Scavenging was one of the first forms of recycling and "rag and bone men" such as Steptoe and Son were just recyclers. The idea of scavenging was so bad to society that in 1969 the City of London outlawed the practice which is now an important part of the waste management industry. Historically, links between wastes and health have been another important catalyst for change. A study in the mid 19th century demonstrated a link between sewage disposal in the Thames River and the incidence of cholera epidemics. This was 30 years before the cholera bacteria were even identified. Some of the earliest waste disposal schemes were established in order to escape the health problems associated with the industrial revolution including the development of garbage collection, street cleaning, and sewage collection schemes. Another early waste treatment which moved from Europe to USA was to stew garbage and dead animals in large vats. This produced grease and 'residuum' which was a black gooey material. The grease was used for the manufacture of candles, soap, lubricants etc, and the 'residuum' was used as plant fertiliser. The other wastes from this process were runoff into streams. This process was stopped in Europe in the 1920's but continued in the USA until the 1950's. Incinerators were developed in the 1870s in England, and with the industrial development incinerator technology improved. Waste management in Malaysia displays an array of problems, including low collection coverage on average due to the inaccessibility by vehicles of some areas, irregular collection services, inadequate equipment used for waste collection, crude open dumping and burning without air and water pollution control, inadequate legal provisions and resources constraints. These problems are caused by various factors which have an impact on the development of effective waste management systems in Malaysia. Institutional constraints are among these problems. Even though several agencies like the State Department of the Environment and municipal councils are involved in waste management, they often have no clear functions in relation to waste management and there is no single agency designated to coordinate their projects and activities. The lack of coordination among the relevant agencies often results in duplication of efforts in waste management, wasting of resources, and un-sustainability of overall waste management programmes.

27

3-3

WASTE MANAGEMENT

The management of waste materials is a problem worldwide. In the developing countries, waste management is becoming an acute problem as urbanization and economic development increase leading to larger quantities of waste materials requiring management in these countries. In Asia, the management of waste materials requires immediate attention especially in countries such as China, South Korea and Malaysia which have been categorized as emerging industrialized countries. In 1995, the urban areas of Asia produced about 760,000 tons of municipal solid waste (MSW) or approximately 2.7 million m3 per day. In 2025, this figure is estimated to increase up to 1.8 million tons of waste per day, or 5.2 million m3 per day (WB, 1999). Table 3.1 shows the urban municipal solid waste generation in 1995 and the estimated amount in 2025 by countries and by GNP (Gross National Product) categories. Countries with low incomes have the lowest waste generation rates, averaging 0.64 kg per capita per day, while for the middle income countries this rate is averaging 0.73kg per capita per day in 1995. High income countries such as Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore and Japan, tend to have higher waste generation in comparison to other countries. In Hong Kong, the generation rate is among the highest due to intense construction and demolition within the municipality (WB, 1999). The amounts of waste in Japan and Singapore are lower but that is also due to the fact that the data do not include all municipal waste generated within these countries. Local governments in Asia are spending about US$ 25 billion per year on urban solid waste management of which more than 90 % in high income countries is spent on the collection of waste. In middle income countries this rate is between 50 and 80 % and in low income countries it is 30 to 60 % (WB, 1999). The characteristics of MSW vary from one country to another and the solid wastes of rural towns in Asia are significantly different from those of large cities, having more organics but few plastics from packaging or food wastes (UNEP, 2002). There are also varying legal definitions of waste leading to differences in what is considered to be waste. In general, waste is defined as any material which is unwanted by the holder and intentionally thrown away for disposal. This does not exclude that certain wastes may eventually become resources valuable to others once they are removed from waste stream (WB, 1999). Malaysia, with a population of 24 million, is facing an increase of the generation and accumulation of waste. This development is causing social, economic and environmental problems at a significant level. Individuals, industries, municipals, state and federal governments are concerned because improper waste management leads to health problems for local communities. Moreover, poor visual appearance has negative impacts on official visits and tourism. These problems are particularly serious in areas where intensive urbanization and population concentration lead to an increase of solid wastes and to a decrease of available land suitable for disposal.

28

Table 3-1 1995 and 2005 Urban Municipal Solid Waste Generation in Asia

(1 World

Bank, 1997b 2 United Nations, 1995 * estimated GNP

(Source: World Bank. What a Waste: Solid Waste Management in Asia. May 1999.)

Malaysia, like most of the developing countries, is facing an increase in the generation of waste and of accompanying problems with the disposal of this waste. Overall, the local communities generate 16,000 tons of domestic waste per day and the amounts per capita vary from 0.45 to 1.44 kg per day depending on the economic status of the areas concerned (GAIA, 2003 ). On average, waste generation is about 1 kg per capita per day (GAIA, 2003). Waste is grouped into three different categories in respect of disposal solid waste, medical waste and hazardous waste. According to a study by E. Grant Anderson five states (Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, Pahang, Terengganu and Kelantan) produce 70 % of the total amount of waste in the country, the composition of waste is shown in Figure 3.1. One can observe that 64 % of the waste is domestic waste. The share of industrial waste stands at 15 %, followed by commercial, construction and institution wastes.

29

Figure 3.1: Waste Composition (Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, Pahang, Terengganu and Kelantan)

Industrial 25% C ommercial 8% C onstruction & Institution Waste 3%

Domestic 64%

Domestic

Industrial

Commercial

Construction & Institution Waste

(Source: Roundtable on Urban Solid Waste Management. Privatization Management on Solid Waste in Developing Countries, the Malaysia Experience. 27-28 September 1998)

The idea of waste management in part grew out of the oil crisis of the 1970's when many Middle Eastern oil suppliers raised prices and threatened to cut off oil supplies. Incinerators were redesigned to allow more efficient energy production. At the same time there was an increasing awareness of environmental problems with a consequent upsurge in environmentally friendly practices including waste minimisation, waste recycling, and control of hazardous waste discharges. One view of waste management is shown in the Figure 3-2. The problem with this diagram is that it does not include waste minimisation or risk assessment procedures. These impinge on all the processes shown. This diagram also provides a framework for much of the material we will cover in Waste Technology.

30

Figure 3-2 The Waste Management Process

Waste Generation Storage Collection Transfer and Transport Disposal

(Source: Tchobanoglous, 1993)

Processing and Recovery

3-3.1 WASTE MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY In much literature on wastes you will find reference to a 'Waste Management Hierarchy'. This refers to an arrangement or ranking of waste management actions which can usually be carried out in the community. At its simplest level you are probably familiar with "Reduce Reuse Recycle" This is a ranking of actions - we should reduce the amount of wastes produced as the first option. The next option is to reuse what wastes are produced, e.g. refillable bottles. The third option is to recycle material, e.g. collection of aluminium cans for reprocessing and reuse. This is depicted in Figure 3-3. Figure 3-3 Waste Management Hierarchy

Waste Minimisation Recycling Material/Energy/ Recovery Landfill Disposal Landfill Gas Recovery
Waste management hierarchies are not quite this simple. For example Figure 3-4 shows a waste management strategy (or hierarchy) in which there has been a change from lower technology (landfill disposal) to higher technology (recycling etc). This has also led to an increase in waste minimisation.

31

Figure 3-4 Waste management strategy (or hierarchy)

WASTE MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY (2)

WASTE MINIMISATION
WASTE PREVENTION Product substitution Non product of material SOURCE REDUCTION Product formulation Process Modification Equipment redesign RECYCLING Material sorting Material separation Material refining New product development TREATMENT Thermal destruction Chemical destruction
(Sources: Tchobanoglous, 1993)

Present Emphasis Higher Technology

Past Emphasis

There are other similar strategies. For example the EPA in USA has a hierarchy of options: i. Source reduction ii. Recycling (reuse and recycling wastes) iii. Treatment - destroying, detoxifying or neutralising wastes iv. Disposal - discharging wastes. Another possible hierarchy is the 6 R's; Rethink, Refuse, Reuse, Replace, Recycle, and Remove. Other schemes utilise the 3 R's; Reduce, Reuse, Recycle. It can be seen that there is some overlap in these ideas - some common features, but they are very sketchy plans. When trying to plan waste management we are dealing with people, and planning any human activity is a complex process. That is why we need to have relevant legislation.

3-4

WASTE GENERATION & COMPOSITION

Solid wastes come from a variety of sources. The term municipal solid waste (MSW) is often found in the literature. It generally implies all the wastes generated in a community with the exception of industrial process wastes and agricultural solid wastes. Wastes can also be co-

32

mingled or putrescible. Waste composition is used to describe the individual components that make up a solid waste stream and their relative distribution, usually based on percentage by weight. This is usually determined by a waste composition study. Waste composition is likely to change because of changes in lifestyle, increased recycling, education programmes, and changes in collection systems. Wastes are classified based on their composition. The National Waste Database Classification scheme should be used to ensure a standard approach. 3-4.1 WASTE GENERATIONS Solid wastes come from a variety of sources including: i) Residential ii) Commercial iii) Institutional iv) Construction and demolition v) Municipal services vi) Treatment plant sites vii) Industrial viii) Agricultural Solid waste, also known as refuse, is an overall term of:Garbage is the animal and vegetable wastes resulting from handling, preparing, and cooking food. It does not include food processing wastes from canneries, slaughterhouses etc. Garbage originates mostly from domestic kitchens, stores, markets, restaurants etc Rubbish consists of combustible and non-combustible solid wastes from homes, stores and institutions but does not include garbage. The term trash is often used in the same way but is probably more a subset of rubbish. The combustibles consist of paper, rags, wood, tree branches etc. Non-combustibles include material which cannot be burned at 700 1100 C - the inorganic portion such as tin cans, glass, ashes soil etc. Residential and commercial solid wastes, excluding special and hazardous wastes, consist of organic and inorganic solid wastes from residential areas and commercial establishments. Typically the organic wastes include food waste (also known as garbage), paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, wood, yard wastes etc. The inorganic fraction includes glass, metals - ferrous and non ferrous (e.g. aluminium), and dirt. If the waste components are mixed, then it's referred to as commingled MSW. Wastes that decompose fairly quickly, e.g. foods are referred to as putrescible wastes.

33

Table 3-2 Sources of Solid Wastes within a Community

Source Residential

Typical facilities, activities or locations

Types of solid wastes

Homes, flats, apartment blocks food wastes, paper, cardboard, etc plastics, textiles, yard wastes, wood, glass, metals, special wastes (e.g. bulky items such as white goods, batteries, oil tyres), household hazardous wastes Shops, restaurants, markets, office buildings, hotels, motels, print shops, service stations, auto repair shops etc Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, metals, food wastes, glass, special wastes (as above), hazardous wastes

Commercial

Institutional

Schools, hospitals, universities, As above in commercial prisons, government centres etc New construction sites, road repairs, building demolition Wood, steel, concrete, dirt etc

Construction and demolition

Municipal services Street cleaning, landscaping, (excluding parks and beaches, creek bed treatment works) cleaning, litter bins Treatment plant sites Municipal solid waste (MSW) Industrial Water, wastewater, industrial treatment processes etc All of the above Construction, fabrication, light and heavy manufacturing, refineries, chemical plants, power stations, demolition etc

Special wastes, rubbish, litter, sweepings, debris, general wastes

Effluent plus residual sludge

All of the above Industrial process wastes, scrap materials etc. Non-industrial wastes including food wastes, rubbish, ashes, demolition and construction wastes, special wastes, hazardous wastes Spoiled food wastes, agricultural wastes, rubbish, hazardous wastes

Agricultural

Crops, orchards, dairies, feedlots, piggeries, farms etc

(Source: Tchobanoglous, 1993)

34

3-4.2 WASTE COMPOSITION As we now know several different types of waste, it is important to know how much of each type of waste there is. If we know how much waste is generated, we can then design management strategies to handle (reduce, reuse, recycle etc) those wastes. This sounds very good in principal, but the problem is we do not have very good figures on amounts of wastes being generated. The actual composition of the wastes generated is another problem of definition. Figure 3-5 shows the composition of the Malaysia domestic waste stream. Figure 3-5 Composition of Malaysia Domestic Waste Stream

Others 8% Plastic s 10%

Metal 4%

Green Waste 36%

Glass 11% Paper 31%

Green Waste
(Source: Agamuthu, 1997)

Paper

Glass

Plastics

Others

Metal

35

Table 3-3 Typical Waste Compositions (in percentages) (Various Sources)

WASTE CATEGORY Organic Waste Paper Plastic/rubber Wood Metal Glass/ceramic Textile Others
(Sources: Hassan, 1998)

Petaling Jaya 36.5 27.0 18.4 7.0 3.9 3.2 3.1 0.9

Seberang Perai 30.1 30.8 12.0 12.4 3.2 1.5 1.9 8.1

Kuala Lumpur 48.4 30.0 9.8 4.6 7.2

Seremban

Muar

35.0 10.0 2.5 5.0 25.0

63.7 11.7 7.0 6.4 11.2

There are also variations depending on the source of the wastes - residential versus commercial wastes. For example, the recent waste audit in Muar showed that food wastes made up 63.7 % in samples versus 30-48 % in urban waste in Malaysia. There are also variations over time as waste management has changed. Another important aspect of waste composition is the composition of recyclable material in MSW. Most of you are familiar with recyclable materials such as plastics, glass, metals etc. Substantial recycling is taking place in Malaysia which marks the future changes in waste composition.

3-5

WASTE CLASSIFICATION

As we have just discussed, in coming to grips with waste management it is important to have some idea of the composition of wastes. This requires some sort of classification system. Classification is usually into hazardous and non hazardous classes, but could be extended to include recyclable versus non recyclable. A more comprehensive list is provided by the US EPA as shown in Table 3-4.

36

Table 3-4 Extract from US EPA on International Classification System of Recyclable Materials

COMPONENT PLASTICS

CODE #1 PET(E) #2 PE-HD #3 PVC #4 PE-LD #5 PP # 6 PS #7(other) plastic

DESCRIPTION Polyethylene Terephthalate High-Density Polyethylene Polyvinyl Chloride Low-Density Polyethylene Polypropylene Polystyrene All other plastics Lead-Acid Battery Alkaline Battery Nickel-cadmium Battery Nickel metal hydride Battery Lithium Battery Silver-oxide battery Zinc-carbon battery Cardboard Other paper, mixed paper (magazines, mail) Steel Aluminium Wood Cork (bottle toppers, place mats, & Construction Material) Textiles Glass

BATTERIES

#8 Lead #9 Alkaline #10 NiCD #11 NiMH #12 Li #13 SO(Z) #14 CZ

PAPER

#20 C PAP #21 PAP

METALS

# 40 FE #41 ALU

BIO-MATTER

#50 FOR #51 FOR #60-#69 #70-79

(Source: USEPA, 1996)

37

Example 3-1: Calculation on MSW Material Balance A cannery receives on a given day 12 tonnes of raw produce, 5 tonnes of cans, 0.5 tonne of cartons and 0.3 tonne of miscellaneous materials. Of the 12 tonnes of raw produce,10 tonnes become products,1.2 tonnes end up as product waste, which is fed to cattle, and the remainder is discharged with the wastewater from plant. 4 tonnes of the cans are stored internally for future use, and the remainder is used to package the product. About 3 % of the cans used are damaged. Stored separately, the damaged cans are recycled. The cartons are used for packaging the canned product, expect for 3 % that are damaged and subsequently separated for recycling. Of the miscellaneous materials, 25 % is stored internally for future use; 50 % becomes waste paper, of which 35 % is separated for recycling with the remainder being discharged as mixed waste; and 25 % becomes a mixture of solid waste materials. Assume the materials separated for recycling and disposals are collected daily. Prepare a material balance for the cannery on this day and a material flow diagram accounting for all of the materials. Also determine the amount of waste per tonnes of product. Solution: Step 1: On the given day, the cannery receives the following:12.0 tonnes of raw produce 5.0 tonnes of cans 0.5 tonne of cartons 0.3 tonne of miscellaneous materials. Step 2: As a result of internal activity:10 tonnes of products are produced, 1.2 tonnes of produce waste is generated, and the remainder of products is discharged with the waste water. 4 tonnes of cans are stored and the remainder is used, of which 3 % are damaged 0.5 tonne of cartons are used of which 3 % are damaged 25 % of miscellaneous material is stored; 50 % become paper waste, of which 35 % is separated and recycled, with the remaining disposed of as mixed solid waste; the remaining 25 % of the miscellaneous materials are disposed of as mixed waste.

Step 3: Determine the required quantities Waste generated from raw produce i) Solid waste fed to cattle = 1.2 tonnes (1089 kg) ii) Waste produce discharge with wastewater = (12 10 - 1.2) tonnes = 0.8 tonne (726 kg)

38

Cans i) Damaged and recycled = (0.03) (5 - 4) tonne = 0.03 tonne (27 kg) ii) Used for production of product = (1 - 0.03) tonnes - 0.97 tonne (880 kg) Cartons i) Damaged and recycled = (0.03) (0.5) tonne = 0.015 tonne (14 kg) ii) Cartons used in product = (0.5 - 0.015) tonne = 0.485 tonne (440 kg) Miscellaneous materials i) Amount stored =(0.25) (0.3 tonne) = 0.075 tonne (68 kg) ii) Paper separated and recycled = (0.50) (0.35)(0.3 tonne) = 0.053 tonne (48 kg) iii) Mixed waste= [(0.3-0.075)-0.053] tonne = 0.172 tonne ( 156kg) Total Weight of product = (10 + 0.97 + 0.485) tonnes = 11.455 tonnes (10,392 kg) Total Material stored = ( 4 + 0.0075) tonnes = 4.075 tonnes ( 3696 kg)

Step 4: Prepare a material balance and flow diagram for the cannery for the day Amount of material stored = inflow-outflow waste generation The material balance quantities i) ii) tonnes iii) Material stored = (4.0 +0.075) tonnes = 4.075 tonnes Material Input = (12.0 + 5.0 + 0.5 + 0.3) ton =17.8 tonnes Material Output= (10.0 + 0.97 + 0.485 + 1.2 + 0.03 + 0.015 + 0.053) = 12.753 tonnes iv) v) Waste Generation = (0.8 + 0.172) tonnes The final material balance is:4.075 = 17.8 12.753 -0.972 (verified) Material balance flow diagram

39

12T raw Produce

11.455T Product
1.2T Waste Fed to Cattle 4.075T Stored Internally

0.3Miscellaneous

5T Cans 0.5T Cartons

0.03T Can Recycled

0.015T Carton Recycled 0.053T paper Recycled

0.8 T waste produces discharge with wastewater

Step 5:

0.172T mixed waste

Determine the amount of waste per tonne of product: i) ii) Recyclable material = (1.2 + 0.03 + 0.015 + 0.053) tonne/11.4.55 tonnes = 0.11 tonne recycle material/tonnes product Mixed waste = (0.8 + 0.172) tonne/11.455 tonnes = 0.085 tonne mixed waste/tonnes product

3-5.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES There are many physical, chemical and biological properties of wastes. These are important for the management of waste disposal and for the recovery of a range of materials, including energy. It is important to note this information is distinctly important to determine the method of MSW disposal such as composting, landfills, recycling etc. The important physical properties of MSW include density (sometimes referred to as specific weight), moisture content, particle size and distribution, field capacity, and porosity. 3-5.1 (a) Density

This is the weight per unit volume and is expressed as kg/m3. Density varies because of the large variety of waste constituents, the degree of compaction, the state of decomposition, and in landfills because of the amount of daily cover and the total depth of waste. Inert wastes such as construction and demolition materials may have higher densities, and density can change as in landfills where the formation of landfill gas and decomposition may bring about significant mass loss. Density is important because it is needed to assess the total mass and volume of waste which must be managed. For example, the average density of loose refuse in the USA is 115 kg/m3, but loose refuse is frequently compacted on collection so the density changes to 235 to 300 kg/m3. The density of MSW is often referred to as loose, as found in containers, un-compacted, compacted etc. so it is important to specify what sort of waste is being referred to. Density varies not only because of the type of treatment it gets (collection vs. compaction etc) but also because of geographic location, season, and length of time in storage. Material stored

40

for a long time will tend to consolidate thus occupying less volume. Some typical density values are presented in the Table 3-5. Table 3-5 Typical Properties of Un-compacted Wastes

COMPONENT Food wastes Paper Plastics Garden trimmings Glass Ferrous metals

MASS (kg) 4.3 19.6 0.82 6.5 3.4 1.95

DENSITY(kg/m3) 288 81.7 64 104 194 320

VOLUME (m3) 0.0149 0.240 0.013 0.063 0.018 0.00609

(Sources: Agumuthu, 1997)

3-5.1 (b)

Moisture Content

The most commonly used method of expressing moisture content is as a percentage of the wet weight of material. Moisture content is important in regards to density (as above), compaction, the role moisture plays in decomposition processes, the flushing of inorganic components, and the use of MSW in incinerators. Pre-treatment of waste to ensure uniform moisture content can be carried out prior to landfill disposal. The wet weight moisture content can be determined using the following equation:

wd M = 100 w
where; M = moisture content (%) w = initial weight of sample (kg) d = weight of sample after drying at 105 C (kg) Some typical moisture contents are shown in Table 3-6.

[3-1]

41

Table 3-6 Typical Moisture Contents of Wastes

Type of Waste RESIDENTIAL Food wastes (mixed) Paper Plastics Yard Wastes Glass COMMERCIAL Food wastes Rubbish (mixed) CONSTRUCTION & DEMOLITION Mixed demolition combustibles Mixed construction combustibles INDUSTRIAL Chemical sludge (wet) Sawdust Wood (mixed) AGRICULTURAL Mixed Agricultural waste Manure (wet)

Moisture Content Range (%)

Moisture Content Typical (%)

50 - 80 4 - 10 1-4 30 - 80 1-4 50 - 80 10 - 25 4 - 15 4 - 15 75 - 99 10 - 40 30 - 60 40 - 80 75 - 96

70 6 2 60 2 70 15 8 8 80 20 35 50 94

(Source: Tchobanoglous et al., 1993)

3-5.1 (c)

Particle Size and Distribution

The size and distribution of the components of wastes are important for the recovery of materials, especially when mechanical means are used, such as trommel screens and magnetic separators. For example, ferrous items which are of a large size may be too heavy to be separated by a magnetic belt or drum system. The size of waste components can be determined using one the following equations:

SC = l
l + w SC = 2

[3-2] [3-3]

42

l + w+h SC = 3
where; Sc = size of component (mm) l = length (mm) w = width (mm) h = height (mm) 3-5.1 (d) Field Capacity

[3-4]

The field capacity of MSW is the total amount of moisture which can be retained in a waste sample subject to gravitational pull. It is a critical measure because water in excess of field capacity will form leachate, and leachate can be a major problem in landfills. Field capacity varies with the degree of applied pressure and the state of decomposition of the wastes, but typical values for un-compacted commingled wastes from residential and commercial sources are in the range of 50 60 %. 3-5.1 (e) Permeability of Compacted Wastes

The hydraulic conductivity of compacted wastes is an important physical property because it governs the movement of liquids and gases in a landfill. Permeability depends on the other properties of the solid material including pore size distribution, surface area and porosity. 3-5.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WASTE Knowledge of the chemical composition of waste is important to help evaluate alternative processing and recovery options. This is especially important where wastes are burned for energy recovery, in which case the four most important properties are proximate analysis, fusing point of ash, elemental analysis, and energy content. Elemental analysis is also important in determining nutrient availability. 3-5.2 (a) Proximate Analysis

Proximate analysis includes four tests - loss of moisture when heated to 105 C for 1 hour; volatile combustible matter (loss on ignition); fixed carbon; and ash (weight of residue after combustion). Some typical values are shown in Table 3-6. 3-5.2 (b) Fusing Point of Ash

This is the temperature at which the ash resulting from the burning of waste will form a solid (clinker) by fusion. Typical fusing temperatures are from 11001200 C.

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Table 3-7 Typical Proximate Analysis Values (% by weight)

TYPE OF WASTE Mixed food Mixed paper Mixed plastics Yard wastes Glass Residential MSW

MOISTURE 70.0 10.2 0.2 60.0 2.0 21.0

VOLATILES 21.4 75.9 95.8 30.0 52.0

CARBON 3.6 8.4 2.0 9.5 7.0

ASH 5.0 5.4 2.0 0.5 96-99 20.0

(Source: Tchobanoglous et al., 1993)

3-5.2 (c)

Elemental Analysis

This is also known as ultimate analysis and involves the determination of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and ash. Because of concern about halogens these are also often determined as well. The results of this analysis are used to characterise the composition of the organic matter in wastes. This is important for C/N ratios for biological decomposition. Typical values are shown in Table 3-8. Table 3-8 Typical data in Elemental Analysis (% by weight)

TYPE Mixed food Mixed paper Mixed plastic Yard waste Refuse Derived Fuel

C 73.0 43.3 60.0 46.0 44.7

H 11.5 5.8 7.2 6.0 6.2

O 14.8 44.3 22.8 38.0 38.4

N 0.4 0.3 3.4 0.7

S 0.1 0.2 0.3 <0.1

ASH 0.2 6.0 10.0 6.3 9.9

(Source: Tchobanoglous et al., 1993)

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3-5.2 (d)

Energy Content

The energy content of the components of waste can be determined using a boiler system, laboratory bomb calorimeter, or by calculation using elemental composition. The SI unit of measurement is kJ/kg. The energy content will be looked at later when discussing on incineration. 3-5.2 (e) Essential Nutrients

If the organic content of MSW is to be used for biological conversion either for compost, methane or ethanol production, then the essential nutrient content is required. Of most importance are the major nutrients in their various forms - nitrogen (as nitrates, ammonium N) phosphorus and potassium. Example 3-2: i) ii) Calculate the moisture content & density of the commingled MSW, using the data given in Table 3-9. Determine the chemical formula of the MSW in the absence of moisture. Using the data given in Table 3-10.

Table 3-9 Municipal Solid Waste Composition by Types of Materials

Component

Percent by mass (%) 20 40 12 8 10 6 4

Moisture Content (%) 70 6 5 2 60 20 3

Density (kg/m3) 290 85 50 65 105 240 90

Food wastes Paper Cardboard Plastics Garden trimming Wood Tin cans

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Table 3-10 Typical Data on Chemical Content of Municipal Solid Waste

Component C Food wastes Paper Cardboard Plastics Textiles Rubber Leather Garden trimming Wood Misc., Organics Dirt. ashes, brick, etc 48.0 43.5 44.0 60.0 55.0 78.0 60.0 47.8 49.5 48.5 26.3

Percent by mass (dry basis) H 6.4 6.0 5.9 7.2 6.6 10.0 8.0 6.0 6.0 6.5 3.0 O 37.6 44.0 44.6 22.8 31.2 11.6 38.0 42.7 37.5 2.0 N 2.6 0.3 0.3 4.6 2.0 10.0 3.4 0.2 2.2 0.5 S 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.15 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.2 Ash 5.0 6.0 5.0 10.0 2.5 10.0 10.0 4.5 1.5 5.0 68.0

C= 12.01, H=1.01,O=16.00, N=14.01, S=32.06 kg/mol

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Solution: Step 1: Calculate the moisture content and density of municipal solid waste (MSW)

Component

% by Mass 20 40 12 8 10 6 4 100 a=100kg

Moisture Content 70 6 5 2 60 20 3

Dry Mass

Density (kg/m3) 290 85 50 65 105 240 90

Volume (v) 0.06896 0.47050 0.24000 0.12300 0.09523 0.02500 0.04444

Food Waste Paper Cardboard Plastics Garden Trimming Wood Tin Can Total

6 37.6 11.4 7.84 4 4.8 3.88

b=75.52kg

v=1.06709m3

i) ii)

Moisture Content = a - b x 100 = 100 - 75.52 x 100 = 24.48 % Of MSW a 100 Density = Total Mass Total Volume = 100 kg = 93.71 kg/m3

1.06709 m3

47

Derive the empirical formula for the municipal solid waste with and without sulphur content.

Component

Wet Mass(kg) 20

Dry Mass(kg) 6

Ash

Food Waste Paper

6.0 x 0.48 = 2.88 37.6 x 0.435 = 16.356 11.4 x 0.44 = 5.016 7.84 x 0.60 = 4.704 4.0 x 0.478 = 1.912 4.8 x 0.495 = 2.376 33.24400

6.0 x 0.064= 0.384 37.6 x 0.06= 2.256 11.4 x 0.059= 0.6726 7.84 x 0.072= 0.56448 4.0 x 0.06= 0.240 4.8 x 0.06= 0.288 4.40508

6.0 x 0.376= 2.256 37.6 x 0.44= 16.544 11.4 x 0.446= 5.0844 7.84 x 0.228= 1.7875 4.0 x 0.38= 1.520 4.8 x 0.427= 2.0496 29.24152

6.0 x 0.026= 0.156 37.6 x 0.003= 0.1128 11.4 x 0.003= 0.0342 None 4.0 x 0.034= 0.136 4.8 x 0.002= 0.0096 0.44860

6.0 x 0.004= 0.024 37.6 x 0.002= 0.0752 11.4 x 0.002= 0.0228 None 4.0 x 0.003= 0.012 4.8 x 0.001= 0.1388 0.13880

6.0 x 0.05= 0.3 37.6 x 0.06= 2.256 11.4 x 0.05= 0.57 7.84 x 0.1= 0.784 4.0 x 0.0045= 0.18 4.8 x 0.015= 0.072 4.162000

40

37.6

12 Cardboard 8 Plastics 10

11.4

7.84

Garden Trimming Wood

4.8

Tin Can * Total

*Recycled 100 %

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Mass, Kg

H2 O (Conversion)

Total Mass, (kg) None 33.24400

Mwt ( kg/kg-mol)

Moisture Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulphur Ash

24.48000 33.24400 4.40508 29.24152 0.44860 0.13880 4.16200

None

None 12.01 1.01 16.00 14.01 32.06

None 2.7680 7.0545 3.1876 0.0320 0.0043

2.72 21.76

7.12508 51.00152 0.44860 0.13880 4.16200

Covert the moisture content to hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) (24.480/100kg MSW) Moisture content Hydrogen in water Oxygen in Water = 24.480 kg = 24.480kg MSW x [ 2/18] = 2.72 kg H = 24.480kg MSW x [ 16/18] = 21.76 kg O

Determination of Chemical formula: With sulphur C 644 H1641 O741 N7 S Without sulphur C87 H220 O100 N 3-5.3 BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF WASTE The organic fraction of MSW (excluding rubber and leather) can be classified as: (i) Water-soluble constituents - sugars, starches, amino acids and various organic acids. (ii) Hemicellulose - a product of 5 and 6 carbon sugars. (iii) Cellulose - a product of 6 carbon sugar glucose. (iv) Fats, oils and waxes - esters of alcohols and long-chain fatty acids. (v) Lignin - present in some paper products. (vi) Lignocellulose - combination of lignin and cellulose. (vii) Proteins - amino acid chains. The most important biological characteristic of the organic fraction of MSW is that almost all the organic components can be converted biologically to gases and relatively inert organic and inorganic solids. The production of odours and the generation of flies are also related to the putrescible nature of the organic materials. These will be discussed when talking about landfill processes.

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3-6

TRANSFORMATIONS OF WASTE

Transformations of waste can occur through the intervention of people or by natural phenomena. Solid wastes can be transformed by physical, chemical and biological means (Table 3-10). 3-6.1 PHYSICAL TRANSFORMATION These include component separation, mechanical volume reduction, and mechanical size reduction. Component separation is used to describe the separation processes (manual and/or mechanical) in commingled waste. It can include such things as magnetic separation. The usual materials recovered include separation of recyclables, the removal of hazardous wastes, and the recovery of energy products. Volume reduction refers to the processes whereby waste volumes are reduced, usually by force or pressure. Collection vehicles frequently have compaction mechanisms - or compaction can take place at a transfer station. The baling of plastics, paper, and aluminium is another means of volume reduction, as is the compaction that takes place in landfills. Pressure can be used, e.g. with paper and cardboard, to form fireplace logs. Size reduction is used to reduce the size of wastes. It usually involves some form of shredding, grinding or milling. 3-6.2 CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATION This usually involves a change of phase, e.g. solid to liquid, solid to gas etc. The main processes are combustion, pyrolysis, and gasification. Combustion is the chemical reaction with oxygen of organic materials accompanied by the emission of light and heat. The process can be represented as: Organic Matter + Excess air N2 + CO2 + H2O + O2 + Ash + Heat

Pyrolysis involves combustion in an oxygen free atmosphere, while gasification involves partial combustion to form a gas. These processes will be examined in more detail later in the course.

50

Table 3-11 Transformation Processes in Solid Waste Management

PROCESS Physical Separation

METHOD

PRINCIPAL CONVERSION PRODUCTS

manual and/or mechanical Force or pressure

individual components found in commingled MSW original waste reduced in volume

Volume reduction Size reduction

Shredding, grinding, or altered in form and reduced in size milling

Chemical Combustion Pyrolysis Gasification Biological Aerobic compost Aerobic biological conversion compost Thermal oxidation Destructive distillation CO2, SO2, oxidation products, ash a variety of gases, tar and/or oil

Starved air combustion gases and inert

Anaerobic digestion Anaerobic biological conversion Anaerobic composting (in landfills) Anaerobic biological conversion

methane, CO2, trace gases, humus

methane, CO2, digested waste

(Source: Tchobanoglous et al., 1993)

3-6.3 BIOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION The biological transformation of the organic fraction bother reduces the volume and weight of material but also produces compost. When carried out anaerobically methane is produced - a typical component of landfill gas. This will be examined in more detail later. Typically waste transformations are used: i) Improve the efficiency of solid waste management systems ii) Recover reusable and recyclable materials iii) Recover conversion products and energy

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3-7

WASTE COLLECTION AND PROCESSING

For any integrated waste management system the method and type of collection system to be used is extremely important, not just for efficiency but for financial reasons. The different types of systems mentioned, not only for waste collection but also for the collection of recyclable materials is varied and governed by many factors some of which have nothing to do with waste management. 3-7.1 WASTE COLLECTION Waste collection used to be regarded as just a part of the larger collection and disposal system. It meant choosing the most appropriate trucks, designing collection routes, and then administering the collection. With present day emphasis on recycling and composting the need to segregate materials has become most important. It can mean different vehicles collecting different material and taking it to different locations. As a result, the collection of wastes has become more complex and more expensive. To meet current needs there is a call for the development of an 'integrated collection strategy' which incorporates the following: i) The system should provide locally appropriate levels of service, designed to meet political, health and regulatory requirements. ii) The system should accomplish its requirements at the lowest possible cost. iii) The system should develop local appropriate partnerships between the public and private sectors. iv) The system should be flexible to meet changing demands. v) The system should support achievement of waste reduction/diversion targets. 3-7.1 (a) Frequency of Collection

Frequency weekly collection or twice weekly collections must be determined. Collection frequency may have to be altered because of weather conditions which can pose health and odour problems. Increasing collection frequency has considerable cost implications and could lead to doubling of labour costs. 3.7.1 (b) Setout Locations

This refers to the actual location of the bin to be collected. Bins are placed near the curb side thus allowing the use of one-person vehicles with extending arms to collect the bins. In some locations, e.g. older Sydney suburbs, there is not off-street parking, so the cars are parked on the roadside, limiting access and hence not allowing the use of automatic arms. This means extra crews are required with extra labour costs. In some locations the crew actually come into the house yard (often around the back) to collect the bin. This obviously slows collection times and increases costs. The use of centralised systems, such as apartment blocks, will accelerate collection times by reducing travelling distances and times. 3-7.1 (c) Container Type

The types of containers used are usually plastic or metals cans (55 L), wheelie bins (120 240 L), bags (plastic and/or paper), and special containers such as recycling boxes. Each type has advantages and disadvantages and must also be related to the set out location. For instance, large wheelie bins will be impractical in narrow urban areas with on-street parking. Bags are susceptible to breakage, and to animal attack, but they are very

52

convenient for collection as they can be picked up and thrown readily. In New Zealand there is another advantage with bags in that in some districts a special sticker is required to be placed on the bag for costing purposes. Stickers can be easily seen by collection crews. The use of paper bags can provide advantages in composting in that they are easily shredded. The disadvantages of wheelie bin are one of size - most people put out more rubbish to fill the bin. They also require mechanical lifting arms for health and safety reasons, and cost more initially. Interestingly, most wheelie bins are made out of recycled plastic. 3-7.1 (d) Collection Vehicles

The slides shown in this lecture give an idea as to the different types of vehicles. The set out location, size of area to be served, method of collection and costs of vehicles and operators are the major concerns. 3-7.2 COLLECTION TECHNOLOGIES AND STRATEGIES Most communities have found that the only way to ensure high participation rates for recycling programmes is to provide each participant the most convenient method of participating. In most instances, curb side pickup is the most convenient, and the trend in recycling is towards some form of curb side pickup. Drop-off and buy-back centre are not as convenient. Typically, a programme using such centre will have lower participation rates. Most communities and hauling companies face a dilemma in deciding how best to collect recycled materials, especially those with fleets of refuse vehicles. The prospect of replacing a fleet of refuse trucks with an equally expensive fleet of vehicles designed for recycling is normally not economically feasible, at least at first. As a result, most recycling programmes try to use existing refuse equipment to collect recycled materials. Many innovative ideas have been used to convert refuse trucks to all-purpose refuse collection and recycling vehicles. For example, the city of Madison, Wisconsin, designed a newspaper rack welded to the frame of refuse trucks for the purpose of collecting bundled newspaper. This low cost adaptation was first designed by city engineers in 1971 and is still in use today. The split-bin system in use in Byron Bay is a high-cost method, necessitation new bins and new collection vehicles. In the UK in Luton, a system using cuphooks attached to bins was tried (unsuccessfully). Some companies which haul waste from commercial accounts generating high volumes of office paper or cardboard make no attempt to separate the material. Instead, they substitute back- end sorting and processing for separation before collection, separating recyclables out of the waste stream at a processing centre in what is known as "dump and pick" operation. Some of these operations have proved successful, although contamination of recycled materials from mixing with other waste can be a problem. Other communities use refuse trucks in concert with pickup trucks. The pickup follows the large vehicle and collects recycled materials on the same day as normal refuse pick-up. By requiring the use of clear plastic bags for recycled materials - and perhaps supplying them the mixing of recycled materials with other refuse can be minimised. In still other communities, recyclables are collected on a different day. As long as public education is continuous, and the pick-up schedule is highly reliable, the public seems willing to follow whatever schedule is established for collecting recyclables.

53

3-7.2 (a)

Curb side Collection

The main options available for curb side collection of recyclables include: (i) Source Separation/ Multibin Truck - this relies on the public separating the materials into the correct containers prior to pickup. The vehicle use for collection will generally have as many compartments as are required for the different types, usually 3 or 4. Commingled Recyclables/Multibin Truck - this is similar the recycle box ('blue box' or 'black box' systems) in which all recyclable materials are put into the one container. These are sorted by the crew at collection and obviously this involves more labour costs. This system can be varied, e.g. a collection system limited to say three types of material. Commingled Recyclables/Central Processing - this system involves the separate collection of recyclables and then taking them for sorting at a materials recovery facility. Sometimes this can also involve a preliminary sorting, e.g. paper and plastics in one container, glass and metal in another. Co-Collection System - in this system recyclables and wastes are collected in the same truck - sometimes in the same compartment - sometimes different compartments. A disadvantage is the problem of contamination, especially in a single compartment system. A further disadvantage is that compaction cannot be carried out as well with a loss in efficiency. Post-Collection Separation - with this method, solid wastes and recyclable are collected without any separation, taken to a materials recovery facility and then sorted. This is obviously a labour intensive operation, though some materials, e.g. ferrous metals can be separated by magnets. Specialised Collections

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

3-7.2 (b)

As more communities establish aggressive recycling programmes, vehicles specially designed to transport source-separated materials are becoming common. Already, many communities and waste-service companies use compartmentalised trucks or trailers on collection routes. There are a variety of vehicle designs on the market, all of which provide efficient and easy loading and unloading of both recovered materials and solid waste. Some communities using special recycling vehicles have enhanced participation rates and collecting efficiency by supplying recycling boxes to homeowners. In Kitchener, Ontario, public participation rates of up to 80 % have been achieved with the use of highly visible "blue boxes." The blue boxes, distributed free to residents, are believed to create high participation because their absence is noticed by neighbours on collection day. Similar programmes exist in cities such as Santa Rosa, California, and St. Louis Park, Minnesota, where residents have received stacking plastic containers for paper, glass, and cans from the city or contractor. Mobile buy-back operations are also increasing in number, especially for service of rural areas - which may not produce enough volume to support a private recycling operation. In these operations, a compartmentalised vehicle will visit a community on a periodic and well-

54

publicised schedule to purchase recycled materials. Mobile buy-back units often pay for some materials and accept for free other materials.

3-8

MATERIAL RECOVERY FACILITY (MRF) AND PROCESSING

Collected material is usually brought to a processing centre. Here it is separated, processed, and stored until enough material has been collected to create a full load for transport to a market. Material usually must be processed to meet the specifications of buyers. The centre must be designed to efficiently move the material from the tipping floor or drop-off point through the system to the storage area. Many technologies are available for efficient processing, materials handling, and storage. The choice of equipment and systems must take into account: i) types of materials reclaimed; ii) volumes the centre will handle; and iii) specifications of buyers One approach is simple, requiring only a designated space. Glass, which is impervious to weather, can be stored outside; this would require the construction of revetments or concrete storage containers, which is relatively cheap. Collected glass can be dumped into the revetment compartment or removed by a small tractor. A barrier is often placed at the front of the revetment to ensure that injuries to employees or others do not occur from accidental spillage. Some materials, such as newsprint, cannot be stored outside in the weather indefinitely; to achieve a competitive price for newsprint, one must prevent decomposition. Storage indoors of newspaper and other items can create problems for a poorly designed centre, as there can be a constant struggle between space needed for processing and operations and space requirements for materials storage. What's more, storage problems can result when either the volume of recycled materials expected is significantly underestimated or the demand for materials already on hand is significantly overestimated. The amount of processing which will be necessary at the recycling centre will depend to a large degree on how the material is collected. So-called "dump and pick" operations require significant manual labour for extraction of recycled materials from the bulk of the refuse. While some of these operations have workers hand-sort material, hand-sorting can be dangerous for workers, exposing them to hazardous materials and sharp objects contained in the waste. Some operations utilise sophisticated sorting technology, including trommels, air classifiers, and conveyers to mechanically separate the waste. Where waste volumes collected are large, mechanical separation systems may be economic. Even with these systems, some hand-separation is usually needed to ensure recovered materials are free of contamination. Material that enters the recycling centre already separated is much easier to handle. Processing is generally performed for one of two reasons: to place the material in the most economical form for transport, or to meet buyer specifications. Equipment is normally needed only to move material from one processing station to another or from processing to storage.

55

3-8.1 BALERS AND SHREDDERS A standard feature of most recycling centre is a baler. It can be used to place recovered materials (newsprint, cardboard, plastic, and aluminium) in large agglomerations which can be easily moved and are stackable. Since paper, cardboard, and plastic bottles can comprise a high percentage of a municipal waste stream, most recycling operations will need a baler to process this material. Baler types should be carefully investigated. Operations providing bulk newsprint to paper recycling markets may choose a baler which makes bales of approximately 1,000 pounds each. On the other hand, a centre selling shredded newsprint for animal bedding to local farmers will need a hay baler, which makes small 70 pound bales. For maximum flexibility, perhaps both types of balers should be utilised, if sufficient space is available. The question of what type of baler will be best for an operation is just one example of the need to do some homework before getting started. Other processing equipment may be needed to satisfy buyer specifications and provide sufficient compaction to allow for cost-effective transport. A centre may use shredders, shears, grinders, and crushers. Each piece performs a different function but all have the objective of reducing waste volume. For example, there are a variety of shredders available, which will shred paper, cans and even automobiles. Glass crushers reduce bottles into a mixture called cullet, which is the form most attractive to glass recycling markets. Solid waste is an abrasive and caustic material, which makes proper maintenance of waste processing equipment very important. Moreover, operating this equipment can be dangerous; special training and safety precautions may be required. Power needs can also be high. Consequently, processing's potential benefits must be carefully weighed against its cost and operational considerations. 3-8.2 OTHER EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS Other equipment that may be useful in a recycling centre includes: i) Weighing Devices: a scale is a good idea for most operations. Recycling centres may not require drive-on scales, if volumes received are small or the need to move and process material quickly is not great. Note that a recycling centre operated in conjunction with a landfill or transfer station might be able to use the disposal facility's scale. Magnets & Conveyors: Where manual sorting is used, a conveyer system, often coupled with a magnet to collect ferrous, provides a good way to move material from the tipping floor to other processing stations. Storage Boxes: After processing, material is often stored in large cardboard boxes, known as "gaylords," or in other similar containers. Forklifts, etc.: - Freight moving equipment, including hand trucks, dollies, and fork lift trucks may be needed to move material.

ii)

iii) iv)

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3-8.3 ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS Equipment should be chosen with care: 55 gallon drums full of crushed glass and large bales of newsprint are heavy, and could cause injury or damage if the equipment expected to carry the material is not strong enough. Purchase of backup transport equipment should also be seriously considered. The inability to move material from processing to storage caused by a lack of backups could create a serious disruption in the recycling operation. In designing a recycling centre, sufficient aisle room is a must. Designers must allow for easy and efficient movement of transport devices. A convenient loading dock, readily accessible to large trucks, is important; it should provide protection from inclement weather. Material storage areas must be located close to the loading dock. Employee facilities and an office for record keeping and centre operations should also be carefully planned. Local building codes likely will mandate these and other features of the recycling centre.

3-9

LANDFILL ENGINEERING AND CONTROL

Dealing with the vast quantities of wastes that our industrial society produces has become a major challenge for business and government. Improper past disposal practices have caused environmental degradation, need for costly remedial actions, and public opposition to the siting of new facilities. In some areas of the country, waste is being hauled hundreds of kilometres as communities search for disposal options. For example in California, the Napa Valley wastes are transferred by rail across three states to the landfill disposal site, a distance of 1200 km. Until recently, managing waste was primarily a local matter. Now, both the federal and state governments are beginning to impose stricter regulations on design and operation of facilities that manage or dispose waste. Protecting the public from the potential environmental and health impacts of poor waste management practices has become a national mandate. Improved technology for collecting, processing, and disposing waste is being demanded by the public. Unless the future proves that our society can manage waste better than in the past, public opposition will continue to grow, costs will continue to rise, and the call for tighter and tighter restrictions will grow louder. At the heart of the debate is the landfill. Because old landfills were developed more to provide cheap disposal alternatives than to protect the environment, many have leaked. But newer landfills are designed to contain waste products and to protect the environment over the long term. Although other methods of managing waste, including recycling, composting, and incineration, are being instituted by communities around the country, access to a landfill remains a necessity for everyone. With the emphasis on waste minimisation and full cost recovery of waste management, along with more rigorous environmental requirements many communities around the country will face for the first time the need to construct state-of-the-art landfills. This course will describe the basic principles involved in developing and operating a state-of-the-art landfill.

57

To help introduce the discussion, this lecture will examine how an engineered landfill fits into an integrated waste management approach, and describes the overall landfill process. 3-9.1 LANDFILLING PRINCIPLES A sanitary landfill is an engineered facility that requires detailed planning and specifications, careful construction, and efficient operation. In a landfill, solid wastes are disposed of by spreading in thin layers, compacting to smallest practical volume, and covering each day, or periodically, with soil or suitable substitute material in a way that minimises environmental problems. A landfill's design life extends many years beyond the time when it is closed. Waste stabilisation begins shortly after it is placed in the landfill, but will not be completed until years after closure. For example, the North Eastern New Territories (NENT) Landfill in Hong Kong has a life expectancy of 16 years with a further 30 years being spent on after-care. Care must be exercised to ensure that an environmental problem does not develop during operation or after closure. Careful design, construction, and operation can minimise the potential for problems arising at a landfill. Recently, many questions have been raised about the long-term impacts associated with land filling. Site selection and approval has proven very difficult due to neighbour and political concerns. Questions regarding the eventual disposition of the landfill materials had resulted in renewed interest in decomposition processes and biodegradability. These special topics will be addressed later. 3-9.1 (a) Methods of land filling

The three common configurations of sanitary landfills are the trench method, the area method, and the canyon or depression method. In the trench method the excavation into which the landfill is placed is excavated specifically for the purpose of land filling. The soil is temporarily stockpiled. The waste is placed on the ground surface or, more commonly, a landfill liner, spread in layers, and driven over with compaction equipment. Successive layers are built up until a depth of 3 to 4 m is achieved (see Figure 3-6). Figure 3-6 The Trench Method of Landfill

58

An intermediate cover material is recommended on the top and exposed sides of the compacted solid waste. The cover material my be soil or a synthetic material and is usually placed at the end of each day's operation, or more frequently. Possible exceptions to this procedure are when limited equipment availability at small sites results in less frequent covering, or when a large site operator continuously fills the area, in which case cover may not be required. A completely covered compacted solid waste unit is called a cell. A cell's width depends on the number of vehicles unloading solid waste at a given time. The width of the working face can be increased to accommodate vehicles unloading side by side. However, if the working face is too wide, nuisance conditions may develop. A good practice is to keep the working face as small as possible. A series of adjoining cells, all the same height, makes up a lift. The completed fill consists of several vertical lifts which may extend 20 to 50 m above the original ground surface. The final cover for the landfill will be about 1 m of soil or a combination of soil and synthetic materials. The function of the final cover is to limit the entry of water into the landfill. This results in reduced leachate generation, that is, the release of contaminated liquids from the base of the waste in the landfill. Limiting the entry of water, however, greatly slows decomposition; thereby extending the time period before the waste is finally stabilised and environmental monitoring of the site can cease. The area method is shown in Figure 3-7. This is used when the terrain or soil conditions are such that cells or trenches cannot be dug. Site preparation can include the use of liners and leachate control systems. Figure 3-7 The Area Method of Landfill

The canyon method is similar to the trench method except natural depressions or canyons are used rather than digging trenches. This can include filling old quarry sites, and is shown in Figure 3-8, and is the method used in the Hong Kong NENT.

59

Figure 3-8 The Canyon Method of Landfill

A landfill's basic design parameter is capacity. It depends upon the area covered, the depth of the waste, and the ratio of waste to soil or synthetic cover. The air space within the landfill is the volume available into which solid waste and cover may be placed. The tonnage of solid waste which can be land filled in a given air space will increase as the quantity of soil cover is reduced by better construction practices or the substitution of synthetic materials and the compaction of the solid waste is increased. Waste-to-soil ratios of 4:1 are common. Solid waste delivered to the landfill will have a density of 260 to 350 kg/m3. If suitable compaction equipment is employed, this waste can be compacted to a density of 470 to 830 kg/m3 as in place waste. Probably the biggest advantage of sanitary landfills, when compared to open dumps, is the protection of public health and the environment. The major objections to sanitary landfills are initial costs for design and construction, public opposition when siting, and increasingly, the concern for recovery of material instead of disposal. Example 3.3: A community of 50,000 people uses a 12 hectare landfill site that can be filled to an average depth of 20 m. If MSW is generated at a rate of 2.5 kg per person per day, its compacted unit mass in the landfill is 800 kg/m3 and the MSW to soil cover ratio is 5:1 what is the useful life of the site? Solution: Community = 50 000 people Area of landfill = 12ha = 12 x 10 000 m2 Depth of landfill = 20 m MSW generation rate = 2.5 kg/capita/day Unit mass of MSW = 800 kg/m3

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MSW : soil cover = 5:1 MSW generated per day = 50 000 x 2.5 = 125 000 kg/day Volume of MSW generated per day = 125 000 kg / 800 kg/m3 = 156.25 m3/day Volume of landfill that can only filled with MSW: = (5/6) x 20 x 120 000 = 2 x 106 m3 Useful life of the site = (2 x 106 m3) / (156.25 m3/day) = 12 800 day 35.1 years 3-9.1 (b) Gas Production

The amount of the gas production depends on the extent and rate of decomposition. The ultimate gas yield has an estimated gas composition by volume of 51 % methane and 49 % carbon dioxide. Due to less than ideal conditions in a landfill, the observed gas yields are about 100 cubic metres per tonnes of waste. In methanogenic phase, the major gases present in landfill gas are methane and carbon dioxide; these gases typically make up 50-60 % (v/v) and 30-40 % (v/v) landfill gas respectively. Other 'bulk' components of landfill gas (those gases measured at percentage levels) include hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. The relative proportion of these gases, together with key trace components often falls within a range that is characteristic of gases from different sources, and can help to identify the source of migrating gas. Table 3-12 shows some typical values of landfill gas composition as well as some recorded maximum levels.

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Table 3-12 Typical landfill gas composition

Component Methane Carbon dioxide Oxygen Nitrogen Hydrogen Carbon monoxide

Typical Value (% volume) 63.8 33.6 0.16 2.4 0.05 0.001

Observed Maximum (% volume) 88.0 89.3 20.9 87.0 21.1 0.09

(Source: Heiss-Ziegler and Leachner, 1999)

Both methane and hydrogen are flammable in the presence of oxygen and are therefore potentially explosive if ignition occurs within a confined environment. Methane is flammable in air within the range 5-15 % by volume while hydrogen is flammable within the range 4.175 %. However, except in the early stages of waste stabilisation when the concentration can reach levels of approximately 20 % (v/v), hydrogen is seldom present within landfill gas at levels within the explosive range. The exact values for the upper explosive limit (U.E.L) and lower explosive limit (L.E.L) for methane may vary according to the concentration of other bulk components such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen, but for most purposes, the flammable range 5-15 % (v/v) is recognised and is the basis upon which methane gas control levels have been set. Methane is non-toxic, but through displacement of oxygen within the root-zone, may cause death of surface vegetation. Where landfill gas migration has occurred, the migration pathway can often be followed by visual observation of the surface vegetation, including trees, which show withering at leaf margins, defoliation, and branch dieback. In extreme cases, surface heating of the soils can also be detected. Whether these surface-heating effects are a result of heat transference from the warm gas or a consequence of biological methane oxidation is not clear. In the latter case, the methane oxidising bacteria utilise the methane for bacterial growth, releasing carbon dioxide as an end product and some consideration has been given to the use of such bacteria in landfill gas control systems. Carbon dioxide is an asphyxiate by virtue of oxygen displacement, and can cause deaths due to paralysis of the respiratory centres. The threshold limit value for CO2 is 0.5 % and concentrations above 5 % result in laboured breathing, headaches and visual disturbances. Oxygen and nitrogen are usually present in landfill gas due to mixing with atmospheric air. Nitrogen is essentially inert and will have little affect except to modify the explosive range for methane, and although oxygen deprivation will result at the levels normally found in landfill gas (Table 3-9) it is difficult to envisage a situation where anyone would find themselves in an environment of 'pure' landfill gas.

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As the flammability of methane is dependent upon the presence of air it is important to control oxygen levels. This is especially true at landfill sites where gas abstraction and collection are undertaken and where at oxygen levels above 13 % v/v the risk of explosions would be considerably higher. In many cases the level of oxygen within a gas collection system is used to monitor abstraction rates, and to control the rate of pumping. Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) is normally present at low levels within landfill gas but can reach concentrations as high as 35 % (v/v), and is normally associated with the degradation of high sulphate wastes such as plasterboard and other gypsum-containing materials. In addition to the hazards associated with the major 'bulk' gases the minor trace components may also exert a deleterious impact upon the environment and upon human health. Many of the trace compounds in landfill gas are recognised toxicants when present in air at concentrations which exceed recognised toxicity threshold limit values (TLV's) or the Occupational Exposure Standards (OESs) set by the Health and Safety Executive. Anyone coming into contact with landfill gas is therefore potentially at risk from the toxic nature of the minor components. 3-9.1 (c) Gas Migration

The migration of landfill gas will affect the environment in a number of ways, the most significant of which are likely to be the contribution to atmospheric methane emissions and the explosion hazard caused by accumulation of migrating gas within enclosed spaces. For gas migration to occur there must either be a concentration gradient to allow diffusion in the gaseous phase (diffusive flow), a pressure gradient (viscous flow) or a combination of both. Gas diffusion is the process by which matter is transported from one part of a system to another as a result of random molecular movement, and the rate of gas diffusion is inversely proportional to the square root of its density. Thus a 'light' gas such as methane will migrate 1.65 times faster than carbon dioxide, which is heavier. The method of filling is the most important factor affecting within site gas migration. Thin layer techniques utilising good compaction and dally cover will tend to encourage lateral gas migration, especially where the cover materials are of low permeability. Conversely, the construction of wells within the site will tend to favour vertical gas migration within and around these structures. During landfill development, any gas produced will vent via the pathway of least resistance. Therefore prior to final capping and assuming that only permeable intermediate cover has been used, most gas produced will vent to atmosphere. However, after final capping, gas venting to the atmosphere will be limited according to the effectiveness of the cap. As a result, gas pressure will develop within the landfill creating a driving force for gas migration. Under these conditions, the possibility of the lateral migration of gas increases and the rate and extent of migration will depend upon a number of factors including environmental, climatic and geophysical conditions. Environmental factors are essentially restricted to conditions within the waste and will affect the rate and extent of waste degradation and hence affect the rate and extent of landfill gas pressure build up. Geophysical conditions will affect the gas migration pathways; faulted and fractured strata and strata of varying gas permeability will affect the direction and rate of gas movement and can be modified by hydro-geological factors such as water table levels.

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In varied lithology gas will tend to migrate preferentially through beds of rock whose grain size, shape and packing are such as to make them most permeable. Gas may travel large distances through such strata and once at the 'surface' may enter surface structures resulting in a potentially explosive situation. At sites lacking gas control measures, landfill gas has migrated 300 to 400 metres beyond the site and indicates that there is no safe distance from a landfill site. The gas may migrate through permeable strata, caves and cavities, fissures, mineshafts, sewers, drains, tunnels, and other features that create a path of least resistance to gas movement. Climatic conditions including atmospheric pressure and rainfall can also affect landfill gas migration; as atmospheric pressure falls, the surface pressures opposing gas migration decrease thus facilitating gas movement. The pressure differential between the landfill gas and atmospheric pressure is therefore important, and an inverse relationship a between atmospheric pressure and gas migration (measured as methane concentration at off-site monitoring points) can be demonstrated at a number of landfill sites. Rainfall can affect gas migration through its effects on surface sealing, by causing surface materials to swell and close surface cracks, thus reducing vertical migration pathways with a resultant increase in lateral gas migration. Water infiltration can also increase water table levels outside the landfill and leachate levels within the site, thus reducing the gas volume and increasing gas pressure. Example 3-4: Estimate the theoretical total volume of gas of STP that will be generated in a sanitary landfill by anaerobic digestion of 2000kg of MSW, given that the waste can be represented by the chemical formula C70 H108 O45 N. Solution: C70 H108 O45 N + 21.25H 2O 36.875CH4 + 33.125 CO2 + NH3 C70 H108 O45 N = 12(70) + 1(108) + 16(45) + 14(1) = 1682 kg/kg-mol H2O = 21.25(2+ 16) = 382.5 kg/kg-mol CH4 = 36.875 (12+4) = 590 kg/kg-mol

CO2= 33.125 (12+32) = 1457.5 kg/kg-mol CH4 that will be generated = (590/1682) x 2000 = 701.55 kg CO2 that will be generated= (1457.5/ 1682) x 2000 = 1733.06 kg Volume of CH4 = 701.55 kg x [1/ 0.7176] m3/kg = 6618.4 m3 CH4 Volume of CO2 = 1733.06 kg x [1/ 1.9783] m3/kg = 8766.11 m3 CO2

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3-9.1 (d)

Leachate Production

Leachate which reaches the base of the landfill may seep into the ground. If leakage does occur, an underlying groundwater aquifer may be contaminated. The extent of contamination will depend upon the permeability of the soil formation. Leakage into a porous formation may result in a large area being contaminated. In the past, many landfills were not lined. Due to groundwater protection concerns, liners are being installed at the base of most new landfills to control and collect the leachate. Some inorganic materials will still be solubilised into the leachate by decomposition occurring during the second stage, so the fall in conductivity will not be as drastic as the fall in COD. After the readily degradable organic material has been broken down, methane production will decrease and more aerobic conditions may be established by incoming oxygenated water. Actual landfills may vary considerably in the rates at which decomposition occurs. For example, the aerobic pH may last a few weeks or months with significant methane generation occurring within one to two years. Additionally, a single landfill may have different parts in different stages of decomposition, with the gas and leachate composition reflecting the three stages. Second stage decomposition takes several years or perhaps decades to complete. Landfill leachate is comprised of the soluble components of waste and the soluble intermediates and products of waste degradation which enter water as it percolates through the waste body. The typical analysis of landfill leachate is shown in Table 3-13.

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Table 3-13 Typical Analysis of landfill leachate (all mg/L except pH)

Component pH COD BOD TOC Volatile acids NH3-N NO3-N Ortho-P Cl Na Mg K Ca Mn Fe Cu Zn Pb

Fresh Wastes (Acetogenic) 6.2 23800 11900 8000 5688 790 3 0.73 1315 9601 7252 780 1820 27 540 0.12 21.5 0.40

Aged Wastes (Methanogenic) 7.5 1160 260 465 5 370 1 1.4 2080 300 185 590 250 2.1 23 0.03 0.4 0.14

(Source: Heiss-Ziegler and Leachner, 1999) The amount of leachate generated is dependent upon a number of factors such as water availability, landfill surface conditions, refuse state and conditions in surrounding strata.

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3-10 PUBLIC HEALTH & ENVIRONMENT

Present resource recovery systems all require landfills for disposal of residues. With regard to public health and environmental protection, a properly designed and operated landfill will offer advantages in the following areas: aesthetics, especially litter; decomposition gases and leachate; birds; fires and odours pests; rats; and injury from scavenging. (i) Aesthetics: Making the site pleasing to look at, while largely cosmetic, is not frivolous. Aesthetics include screening of daily operations from roads or nearby residents by, planting, or other landscaping. They include an attractive entrance with good roads and easy-to-read signs. At the site, aesthetics means litter control, principally by the use of a fence to stop blowing paper and plastic, along with manual or mechanical pickup of the litter. In addition, the site operator may require all trucks delivering waste to be covered with tarps. The NSW Guidelines state "Vehicles leaving (it does not mention entering) a landfill site must not distribute litter and site materials in surrounding streets. Odours, dust, vermin, weeds and litter must be effectively controlled on-site" (EPA, 1996). Gas and leachate: Even more important to the protection of public health and the environment than the steps described above is the control of gas generated by the decomposition of solid wastes; and of leachate formed as water migrates through the solid wastes, picking up a variety of biological and chemical contaminants. Methods are available to control both gas and leachate, and will be discussed in detail in later. Birds: These can be a nuisance or even cause problems with planes if the landfill is near an airport. In the USA, Federal Aviation Administration requirements prohibit the operation of a landfill within 10,000 feet of an airport and, under some circumstances, up to 5 miles. Several methods, including use of noise makers, and nets or wires suspended over the site, have been tried to discourage birds at landfills near airports. The new EPA Guidelines for NSW make no recommendations about siting distances from airports. Fires and Odours: Odours are best controlled by daily cover, as well as by adequate compaction. Daily cover also forms cells which are thought to reduce the ability of fires to spread throughout the landfill. In 1982, a UK survey identified 62 landfillassociated incidents including fires, explosions and gas migration/accumulation (Campbell, 1991). Although the majority of these occurrence were associated with gas migration without serious incident. Drainage problems within the landfill maybe complicated by the presence of daily cover. The downward movement of water may be impeded by the intermediate soil layers and result in leachate seeping out of the side of the landfill. It is recommended that daily cover be removed near the outer edges of the fill before subsequent lifts are added so that downward movement of water is facilitated. Pests: Flies and mosquitoes are best controlled by daily cover of the solid wastes along with the elimination of any open standing water. Rats: These can be a problem at open dumps, but the use of cover, insuring that all food wastes are buried, eliminates rat problems at a sanitary landfill. Scavenging: While recycling may be desirable, the scavenging of material from a landfill is usually prohibited. Scavenging is the uncontrolled picking through waste to

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v) (vi) (vii)

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recover useful items, as contrasted to salvaging, which is the controlled separation of recoverable items. Scavengers have been injured, sometimes fatally, while picking through the waste, and scavenging should not be allowed.

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HAZARDOUS WASTE
3-11 OBJECTIVES
The followings are the objectives of this chapter:Ability to describe basic concept of hazardous waste. Ability to describe the legislation requirements on hazardous waste in the Environmental Quality Act 1974.

3-12 DEFINITION
Waste is defined as unwanted material that needs to be discarded permanently. To be more specific, waste is defined as a moveable object which has no direct use- unwanted material discarded permanently. This definition also refers to solid waste. Hazardous waste is a waste which include solids, sludge, liquids and containerized gases, except radioactive and infectious wastes, due to their chemical activity (reactivity) or toxicity, explosive, corrosive, or other characteristics, cause danger to health or environment, either it is stand alone or in contact with other wastes. Hazardous wastes can be grouped into 2 categories; which are hazardous substance (material which have some commercial value because they are usable) and hazardous wastes (material which had been used, spilled or no longer needed). US EPA under subtitle C declared that waste is considered as hazardous if: i) Waste is declared hazardous by its generators ii) Material exhibit following characteristics; ignitable, corrosive, reactive or toxic. For the classification of any material as a hazardous waste, the material itself must be considered as waste and meet one of the following criteria: i) Show any characteristics of hazardous waste. ii) Named and listed as hazardous waste by EPA. iii) A mixture containing a listed hazardous waste and a non-hazardous solid waste. iv) A mixture containing a listed or characteristics hazardous waste and special nuclear material. v) A waste residue generated from treatment, storage or disposal of a listed hazardous waste (known as derived-from waste)

3-13 TOXIC WASTE

Toxic waste is a waste material, often in the chemical form that can cause death or injury to living creatures when it is improperly managed. It is usually produced during industrial, chemical and biological processes. The household, office and commercial wastes also contain small quantities of toxic waste like batteries, old pesticides and containers. Since, it is can be in the variety of forms, it requires specific treatment. The followings are the general characteristics of toxic waste:

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i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) viii) ix)

Poisonous Radioactive Flammable Explosive Corrosive Carcinogenic Mutagenic Tetratogenic Bioaccumulative

Toxic waste also includes substances that are harmful to life and environment. Examples of toxic wastes: i) polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) non-flammable insulting material used by big electrical network. ii) Dioxins produced by burning chlorine-containing substances. iii) Heavy metals widely used in cadmium and nickel plating industries. Also can be found in batteries and leaded gasoline. iv) Radioactive waste by product from nuclear power generation. Also found in medical applications such as in cancer therapy.

3-14 HISTORY
The term hazardous waste was had been used since early 1970s. The US government was the first to initiate legislation to regulate hazardous waste. Before that, the term hazardous waste was usually referred to special industrial waste or chemical waste. Beginning early 1980s, hazardous waste became leading environmental issue to the society. Along with the public concern on the toxic reaction, hazardous waste had dominated environmental issues. In Malaysia, the enforcement on the hazardous waste management only started in 1989, with the introduction of the hazardous waste related act, i.e., the Environmental Quality Act 1974.

3-15 HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATION

Hazardous waste originate from a range of industrial, commercial, households, agricultural and institutional activities and from both manufacturing and non-manufacturing facilities and processes. After generated, the generator can manage the waste either on-site or offsite for treatment, disposal or recycling. On-site referred to waste management at a site where it is generated and off-site for which waste is managed at the different sites.

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3-16 CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

The characteristics of waste are dependent on their measurable properties. They pose enough threat to deserve regulation as hazardous waste. The US EPA had listed 4 characteristics of hazardous waste as follows: i) Ignitability ii) Corrosibility iii) Reactivity iv) Toxicity. 3-16.1 IGNITABILITY

Materials or wastes that are easily combustible or flammable and may cause fires during transport, storage or disposal. Examples of such wastes include solvents, paint wastes and gasoline. Wastes as follows are considered as ignitable: i) A liquid, except aqueous solution, containing less than 24 % alcohol and flash point less than 60 oC. ii) Non liquid that capable of having spontaneous combustion at normal condition. iii) An ignitable compressed gas. iv) An oxidizer. 3-16.2 CORROSIVITY

Waste that reacts dangerously with other waste, dissolves or corrodes metal or other material or has a very high/low pH comes under this category. The followings are some examples of corrosive wastes: i) An aqueous material which has pH lower or equal to 2 or pH 12.5 and above. ii) Liquid that corrodes steel at a fast rate. 3-16.3 REACTIVITY

Waste which is unstable and has rapid chemical reaction with water or other material, i.e. cyanide plating wastes comes under this category. Here, waste is unstable and reacts violently without detonating, reacts violently with water that causes fire splash, forms explosive mixture with water, generates toxic gases when mix with water, contains cyanide or sulphide and pH lower or equal to 2 or pH of 12.5 and above. 3-16.4 TOXICITY

Waste which is harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed or leached toxic chemical into soil or groundwater when it is disposed off. To identify the wastes which are listed under toxicity characteristics, US EPA had regulated a standard method called Toxicity Characteristics Leaching Procedure.

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3-17 HAZARDOUS WASTE LEGISLATION

The Department of Environmental (DoE) is empowered under the Environmental Quality Act 1974 to control and prevent pollution and to protect and enhance the quality of the environment. A set of regulations dealing with hazardous waste management which regulate the storage, transport, treatment and disposal of hazardous wastes was enforced on May 1989 is as follows: i) Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 1989. ii) Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment and Disposal Facilities) Regulations 1989. iii) Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment and Disposal Facilities) Order 1989. In the regulations, it is specified that before the disposal, the scheduled waste should be rendered innocuous and waste generated should be reduced. There are 107 categories of schedules wastes, which group into 2 parts: i) Part 1 Schedule Wastes from non specific sources, i.e. mineral oil from machines, spend oil, oil tanker sludge, cleaning solvent, etc. ii) Part 2 Schedule Waste from specific sources, i.e. mineral oil from refinery, oil sludge from workshop, paint waste from paint factory, etc. In November 1998, a hazardous waste treatment plant for processing chemical waste was opened in Bukit Nanas. This plant model was based on Danish hazardous waste processing plant, Kommunekemi, Nyborg. This is the first plant for processing hazardous waste in Malaysia. The owners of Kualiti Alam hold the contract for treatment of all hazardous waste in Peninsular Malaysia for 15 years. When the plant was being designed, Malaysia drew up legislation on hazardous waste as an addition to the above legislation. It is known as Environmental Quality (scheduled Wastes) Regulation 2005. The plant receives all types of hazardous waste except hospital and radioactive waste. Organic waste is burnt in the incineration plant. Acidic and basic inorganic fluids are exposed to chemical treatment that neutralizes them and removes poisons such as chromium and cyanide. The residues from this treatment and solid inorganic waste are bound tightly with lime and cement before being deposited on a double membrane equipped landfill with room for waste residues for up to 20 years. Between 1995-2005, an average of 532,000 tonnes of scheduled waste was generated per annum, mainly from metal finishing, electronics, textile, chemical and chemical-related industries, agricultural and domestic activities, and clinical waste from hospitals. Companies generating wastes are now required to inform the authorities about hazardous waste and whether there is a need for associated collection, storage and processing. In addition, the companies have to pay for this service on the basis of the polluter pays principle.

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CHAPTER 4 AIR POLLUTION

CO3: Ability to describe basic concept of air pollution and solve basic calculations in this area.

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4-1

OBJECTIVES

The followings are the objectives of this chapter:Ability Ability Ability Ability Ability Ability plume to define air pollution. to convert from ppm to g/m3 and vice versa. to describe classification of pollutant and particulate. to describe the effect of pollutant to health, plants and materials. to explain ozone depletion and acid rain. to explain and calculate the stability of atmosphere including the types.

4-2

DEFINITION

There are thousands of definitions for air pollution but the keywords used to describe the meaning are almost the same. The terms presence, particles, effects are some of the keywords used to describe what is air pollution. Generally, air pollution occurs when there are impurities in the atmosphere that can cause bad effects or harm to the human health, animals, vegetations and materials. Below are some definitions taken from a number of sources:

Air pollution is the presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more air contaminants (i.e., dust, fumes, gas, mist, odor, smoke, or vapor) in sufficient quantities, of such characteristics, and of such duration as to be or to threaten to be injurious to human, plant, or animal life or to property, or which reasonably interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of life or property (Peavy et al, 1985).

Air pollution is the presence of undesirable material in air, in quantities large enough to produce harmful effects
(Nevers, 2000).

Air

pollution occurs when air impurities in the form of gaseous or particles are emitted into the atmosphere
(Department of Environment, Malaysia).

Air pollution is the modification of the natural characteristics of the HatmosphereH by a HchemicalH, Hparticulate matterH, or Hbiological agentH (H iki di H)

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4-3

HISTORICAL REVIEW

Air pollution has been on the increase since the Industrial Revolution. Rapid industrialisation, development and greater dependence on fossil fuels have contributed to the increment of harmful pollutants, making life more unpleasant and unhealthy. Air pollution disaster had been reported as early as 1873 in London but for the moment three major episodes will be discussed. The episodes are fog disaster in Meuse Valley (1930), Donora Death Fog (1948) and Big Smoke in London (1952). In each of these cases, a persistent (3 -6 days) inversion combined with significant industrial or, in London, domestic pollutant emissions resulted in high ground-level concentrations that caused acute illness. 60 deaths were reported in Meuse Valley disaster, 20 in Donora, and about 4000 in London. In each case, the death is caused by existing respiratory cardiovascular disease. For London disaster, pneumonia was the primary cause of death. Table 4-1 describes briefly the characterization of these episodes. Table 4-1 Major air pollution episodes

Meuse Valley, 1930 (Dec. 1) Population Weather Topography Most probably source of pollutants Nature of the illness No data Anticyclone, inversion and fog River valley Industry (including steel and zinc) Chemical irritation of exposed membranous surfaces 63 Began after second day of episodes Sulphur oxides with particulates

Donora, 1948 (Oct. 26 -31) 12 300 Anticyclone, inversion and fog River valley Industry (including steel and zinc) Chemical irritation of exposed membranous surfaces 17 Began after second day of episodes Sulphur oxides with particulates

London, 1952 (Dec. 5-9) 8 000 000 Anticyclone, inversion and fog River plain Household coal burning Chemical irritation of exposed membranous surfaces 4 000 Began on the first day of episodes Sulphur oxides with particulates

No. of deaths Time of deaths Suspected proximate cause of irritation

(Source: Davis and Cornwell, 2008.)

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4-4

AIR POLLUTION IN MALAYSIA

The overall air quality for Malaysia in 2004 deteriorated slightly compared with that in previous year. Several unhealthy air quality days were recorded at various locations in Wilayah Persekutuan, Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, Penang, Perak, Negeri Sembilan, and Melaka. The unhealthy days recorded in the Klang Valley (Wilayah Persekutuan, Kuala Lumpur, and Selangor) and Negeri Sembilan were mainly caused by high concentrations of ground-level ozone O3. The unhealthy air quality recorded in other parts of the country was mainly due to high levels of PM10. In 2004, Malaysia experienced short periods of slight-tomoderate air pollution in the months of June, August, and September. This was mainly due to south westerly winds that caused the deterioration of air quality in the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The fires in Kalimantan also contributed to the slight haze in the southern part of Sarawak. Apart from these haze episodes, there were no other serious incidences of air pollution in 2004. Particulate Matter (PM) and ground-level O3 remained the prevailing pollutants in the country. The air quality status for Malaysia is determined according to the Air Pollutant Index (API). The air quality status, based on APIs, in major Malaysian cities for 2004 are shown in Figures 4-1 through 4-3. As can be seen in these figures, most cities in Malaysia have mostly Good and Moderate APIs throughout the year. Table 4-2 API Status Indicator

(Source: DoE, 2005.)

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Figure 4-1 Figure 4-3

Figure 4-2

(Source: DoE, 2005.) (Source: DoE, 2005.)

Figure 4-3

(Source: DoE, 2005.)

4-4.1 SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION Air pollution occurs because of natural processes and human activity which is known as anthropogenic. Natural pollutants such as dust storms, forest fires and volcanoes may pose serious air quality problems when they are generated in significant quantities near human settlements. However, natural air pollution has not been a major societal concern. Anthropogenic (man-made) air pollution such as mobile sources has been and continues to be a serious problem. Its seriousness lies in the levels of pollutant produced in environments that harms human health and welfare. There are three main contributors to air pollution load in Malaysia reported for 2004. They are stationary sources, mobile sources and open burning sources. Stationary sources

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comprise emission from industrial sectors including power generation stations. Table 4-3 indicates the distribution of industrial air pollution sources by states for 2004. From the table, Selangor contributes the highest number of stationary sources that is 25.6 %, followed by Johor (19.3 %) and Sarawak (14.4 %) whereas Perlis has the lowest number of sources forming only 0.23 % of the total stationary sources. Figure 4-4 shows the recent estimates of emissions in Malaysia. The transport sector accounted for the majority of nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions accounting for about 35 % of the total PM emissions in the country. The power sector and industries accounted for the majority of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and PM emissions; the power sector accounted for about 60% of the total SO2 emissions and almost 50 % of the total PM emissions, while the industries accounted for about 20 % of the total SO2 and PM emissions. Mobile sources such as passenger cars, taxis, buses, motorcycles, vans and lorries are the main contributors to air pollution. Figure 4-5 shows the distribution of air pollution emission load from mobile sources for 2004. From the figures, 46.1 % of air pollution load in Malaysia was contributed by vans and lorries, 20 % by passenger cars, 16.2 % by motorcycles and the remaining 17.7 % from buses (15.6 %) and taxis (2.1 %). Table 4-3 Distribution of industrial air pollution sources in Malaysia by states, 2004 States Selangor Johor Sarawak Perak Sabah Kuala Lumpur Melaka Pahang Negeri Sembilan Kelantan Kedah Terengganu Pulau Pinang Perlis Number of Sources 3330 2509 1873 1335 898 881 557 363 325 320 245 208 136 30 Percentage (%) 25.60 19.29 14.40 10.26 6.90 6.77 4.28 2.79 2.50 2.46 1.88 1.60 1.05 0.23

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Figure 4-4

(Source: DoE, 2005)

Figure 4-5 Distribution of air pollution emission load (in percentage) from mobile sources, 2004

2.08 15.62 Van & Lorries Passenger Cars Motorcycles 46.06 16.22 Buses Taxis

20.04

(Source: DoE, 2004)

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4-4.2 LEGISLATION AND STANDARDS The Environmental Quality Act (EQA) is the basic framework for environmental management in Malaysia. It was enacted in 1974. The Act was officially endorsed by the Government of Malaysia in its Third Malaysia Plan (19811985). The main environmental regulatory agency in Malaysia at the federal level is the Department of Environment or DoE, which is currently part of the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment. Environmental management is conducted at the federal level by the DoE and headed by the Director-General of Environmental Quality, who is appointed by the Minister from among members of the public service. Within each state, the state governments have corresponding authorities and officials in charge of environmental matters. 4-4.2 (a) Ambient Air Quality Standards

In 1989, the DoE formulated a set of air quality guidelines called the Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines (RMG) (Table 4-4). Based on RMG, DoE subsequently developed the Malaysian Air Quality Index (MAQI) in 1993. Table 4-4 Malaysia, WHO 2005 and NAAQS Ambient Air Quality Guidelines POLLUTANT AVERAGING TIME AIR QUALITY GUIDELINES ppm (g/m3) 0.10 0.06 30 9 0.17 0.04 0.13 0.04 200 120 35 000 10 000 320 90 350 105 150 50 260 90 1.5 200 40 20 50 20 1.5 WHO (2005) (g/m3) 100 NAAQSa (g/m3) 157 40 000 10 000

Ozone Carbon Monoxide Nitrogen Dioxide

1 Hour 8 Hour 1 Hour 8 Hour 1 Hour 24 Hour 1 year 1 Hour 24 Hour 24 Hour 1 Year 24 Hour 1 Year 3 Month

100 365 150 1.5

Sulphur Dioxide Particulate Matter (PM10) Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) Lead
a

NAAQS stands for National Ambient Air Quality Standards.

(Source: DoE, 2005 & Davis and Cornwell, 2008)

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4-5

CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANT

Air pollutants can be classified according to their origin, chemical composition and state of matter. 4-5.1 ORIGIN Origin pollutants can be divided into two (2), namely primary pollutants and secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants e.g. sulphur dioxides (SOx), nitrogen dioxides (NOx) and hydrocarbons (HC) are those emitted directly into the atmosphere and are found in the form they were emitted. Secondary pollutant e.g. ozone (O3) and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) are those formed in the atmosphere by photochemical reaction or by hydrolysis or oxidation. 4-5.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION Pollutants, either primary or secondary can further be classified according to their chemical composition as organic or inorganic. Organic compound contains carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and sulphur (S). For examples, hydrocarbons are organic compounds containing only hydrogen and carbon while ketones and aldehydes contain oxygen, carbon and hydrogen. Inorganic compound includes carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbonates, sulphur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone (O3), hydrogen fluoride (HF) and hydrogen chloride (HCl). 4-5.3 STATE OF MATTER Pollutants can be further classified as particulate or gaseous. Particulate pollutants consist of finely divided solids and liquids including dust, fumes, smoke, fly ash, mist and spray. The particulates pollutants will settle out under proper condition. Gaseous pollutant is the formless fluids that completely occupy the space, into which they are released, behave more like air and do not settle out. Gaseous pollutants include vapours of substances that are liquid or solid at normal temperatures and pressures. For examples, CO, SOx, NOx, HC and oxidants are classified as gaseous pollutants.

4-6

PARTICULATES

As noted above, pollutants can be categorized as particulate matter which may be solid or liquid and gaseous matter. Particles can be classified from their mode of formation as dust, smoke, fumes, fly ash, mist, or spray. The sizes range from 1000 m 0.01 m. The particles sizes from 100 m 0.01 m are the major interest in air pollution studies because within these sizes the particulates can easily settle in lower respiratory tract (LRT). Figure 4-6 shows the characteristics of particles and particle dispersoids. Below are the classifications of particles according to their formation:

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Dust

small, solid particles created by the breakup of larger masses through processes such as crushing, grinding or blasting, may come directly from the processing or handling of materials such as coal, cement or grains. The size range from 1.0 m to 1 000 m. fine, solid particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of organic particles such as coal, wood or tobacco consists mainly of carbon and other combustible materials. The size range from 0.5 m to 1 m. fine, solid particles (often metallic oxides such as zinc and lead oxides) formed by the condensation of vapors of solid materials. Fumes are from sublimation, distillation, calcination or molten metal processes. The size range from 0.03 m to 0.3 m. finely divided solid particle, noncombustible particles contained in flue gases arising from combustion of coal and it is released when the organic portion of coal is burned. The size range from 1.0 m to 1000 m. liquid particles or droplet formed by condensation of vapor, dispersion of a liquid (e.g. in foaming & splashing) or enactment of chemical reaction (e.g. formation of H2SO4). The sizes of mist <10 m. liquid particles formed by atomization of parent liquids (e.g. pesticides & herbicides). The size range from 10 m to 1000 m.

Smoke

Fumes

Fly ash

Mist

Spray

4-6.1 DETECTION, MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS There are two (2) types of particulates that are settleable particulates and suspended particulates. Settleable particulates are washed out with rain or settles down as dry depositions and they are usually measured by dustfall bucket. Suspended particulates are usually measured by high volume sampler or portable mini volume sampler. 4-6.1 (a) Settleable Particulates

A dustfall bucket is a first generation method used to determine how much particulate material settles on earth. It is a basic and inexpensive device consists of an open bucket containing water to trap and holds the particles. It is exposed at suitable location such as building roof for 30 days. After 30 days of collection, the water is evaporated and the particulates are weighed. The results usually reported in (g/m2/month). 4-6.1 (b) Suspended Particulates

A high volume sampler draws a large volume of air through a glass-fibre or membrane filter. The inlets are designed to remove the larger particles before the sample reaches the filter. The filter is weighed before and after sampling, and the airflow rate, which gradually decreases as particulates accumulate on the filter, is accurately metered and recorded. For the ease of monitoring in site, portable mini volume sampler is designed so that it can be placed easily at the desired monitoring site. Figure 4-7 and 4-8 shows the high volume sampler and portable mini volume sampler respectively.

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Figure 4-6 Characteristics of particles and particle dispersoids

(Source: Davis, 2008)

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Figure 4-7 High Volume Sampler

Figure 4-7 Mini Volume Portable Sampler

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4-7

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

There are three (3) basic units used in reporting air pollution data that are micrograms per cubic meter (g/m3), parts per million (ppm) and the micron () or preferably known as micrometer (m). Micrograms per cubic meter and parts per million are a unit of measurement for concentration and they are used to indicate the concentration of gaseous pollutant. However, the concentration of particulate can be reported in g/m3. The m is used to report the particle size. Formerly concentration of gaseous pollutants were usually reported in parts per million (ppm), parts per hundred million (pphm), or parts per billion (ppb) by volume. Thus, designations in g/m3 may be followed by equivalent concentration on a ppm basis - e.g. 80 g/m3 (0.03 ppm) of sulphur dioxide. For gases, ppm can be converted to g/m3 by using the following formula:

ppm 10 6 GMW 10 3 L / m 3 10 6 g / g g / m = L / mol

3

[4-1]

where GMW is gram molecular weight of the gas. L/mol term is influenced by the temperature (T) and pressure (P) of the gas. According to Avogadros Law, 1 mole of any gas occupies the same volume as 1 mole of any gas at the same T and P. Therefore, at 273 K (0OC) and 1 atm pressure (760 mmHg /101.3 kPa), standard conditions for many chemical reactions, the volume is 22.4 L/mol. To convert to L/mol at other conditions, the following formula can be used:

V1 P1 V2 P2 = T1 T2

[4-2]

where V1, P1 and T1 is relate to the standard condition V2, P2 and T2 is relate to the actual condition that is being considered. Example 4-1: Determining the volume, temperature and pressure relationship. Calculate the volume occupied by 4 mol of gas at 21.1 C and 760 mmHg. Solution: To solve this type of problem, equation [4-2] will be used where n = 4 mol, V1 = 22.4 mol/L, P1 = 760 mmHg, T1 = 273K, P2 = 760 mmHg and T2 = 21.1 + 273 K = 294.1 K. Therefore, the volume (V2) can be obtained by

V2 =

nV1 P1T2 = (4 mol) x (22.4 L/mol) x (760 mmHg) x (294.1 K) = 96.5 T1 P2

(273 K) x (760 mmHg)

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Example 4-2: Converting from parts per million (ppm) to mass per volume (g/m3) The NO2 content of a sample of stack gas measured at 950 ppm. Determine the NO2 concentration in g/m3 and mg/m3. Solution: To solve this problem, first of all, volume of NO2 need to be find. For that purpose, equation [4-2] will be used.
O

C at 2 atm pressure was 9

V2 =

V1 P1T2 = (22.4 L/mol) x (1 atm) x (950 + 273 K) = 50.17 L/mol T1 P2

(273 K) x (2 atm)

Next, use equation [4-1] to convert from ppm to g/m3. g/m3 = 9 ppm x 10-6 x 46 g/mol x103 L/m3 x 106 g/g = 8 252 g/m3 50.17 L/mol Convert from g/m3 to mg/m3 = 8.252 mg/m3

4-8

EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION

4-8.1 EFFECT ON HEALTH 4.8.1 (a) Respiratory System (RS)

The respiratory system (RS) is the primary indicator of air pollution effect on human body. The major organs of RS are the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. The nose, pharynx, larynx and trachea are called upper respiratory tract (URT). The lower respiratory tract (LRT) consists of bronchi and lung which is composed of alveoli. The alveoli are approximately 300 m.

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Figure 4-8 Upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract

4-8.1 (b)

Chronic Respiratory Disease

Several long-term diseases of RS may be caused by air pollution. These are: (i) (ii) (iii) Bronchial asthma form of airway resistance that results from allergy. An asthma attack is the result of the narrowing of bronchioles. Chronic bronchitis defined to be present in a person when access mucus in the bronchioles results in caugh in 3 months a year for 2 consecutive years. Pulmonary emphysema charecterized by a breakdown of the alveoli. The small grape-like cluster become a large nonresilient ballon-like structure and the amount of surface area for gas exchange is reduced drastically. Cancer of the bronchus (lung cancer) charecterized by abnormal, disorderly new cell growth originating in the bronchial mucus membrane. The growth closes off the bronchioles and usually cause fatal.

(iv)

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4-8.1 (c)

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless and odorless gas that can kill human within a few minutes at a concentration of 5000 ppm. CO + Hb (Hemoglobin) COHb (Carboxyhemoglobin)

Hb has greater affinity fo CO than oxygen (O2). The formation of carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) effectively deprives the body of O2. COHb levels of 5-10 % will cause visual perception, manual dexterity and ability to learn are impaired. A concentration of 20 ppm of CO for 8 hour will result in COHb level of 2.8 %. At COHb levels of 2.5 to 3%, people with heart disease are not able to perform certain exercises. The average concentration of CO inhaled in cigarette smoke is 200 -400 ppm. 4-8.1 (d) Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs)

Generally, exposure to hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) or air toxics at the workplace is much more than in the ambient air. Asbestos, arsenic, benzene, coke oven emissions and radionuclides are carcinogen or cancer causing. Berylium causes lung disease and also affects the liver, spleen, kidneys and lymph glands. Mercury attacks the brain, kidneys and bowels. 4-8.1 (e) Lead (Pb)

Lead (Pb) is a cumulative poison. It is inhaled and ingested in food and water. Early symptom of Pb poisoining is a mild anemia (deficiency of red blood cells). Chronic exposure to Pb may result in brain damage charecterized by seizures, mental incompetence, highly active aggressive behavior, weakness of extensor muscles on hands and feet or eventual paralysis. Atmosperic Pb occur as particle. The size range 0.16 0.43 m. 4-8.1 (f) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) gas is reddish brown in concentrated form. At a lower concentration, it gives brownish yellow tint. Exposure to NO2 concentration above 5 ppm for 15 minutes will cause cough and irritation of respiratory tract. At 5 ppm NO2 has a pungent sweetish odor. The average NO2 concentration in tobacco smoke is approximately 5 ppm. At a concentration of 0.10 ppm, NO2 will cause slight increase in respiratory illness and decrease in pulmonary function. 4-8.1 (g) Photochemical Oxidants

Photochemical oxidants include peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), acrolein, peroxybenzoyl nitrates (PBzN), aldehydes and NOx, the major oxidant is O3 (used as indicator of the total amount of oxidant present). Concentration above 0.1 ppm results in eye irritation. At a concentration of 0.3 ppm, cough and discomfort increase. 4-8.1 (h) Particulate Matter (PM10)

Particulate matter (PM10) are particles with an aerodynamic diameter less than 10 m. High levels of PM10 increased risk of respiratory, cardiovascular, cancer-related death,

88

pneumonia, lung function loss, hospital admission and asthma. Some investigations have pointed out that particles less than 2.5 m are the major contributor to accelerated death rates in polluted cities. 4-8.2 EFFECT ON VEGETATION A leaf is a primary indicator of the effect of air pollution on a plant. Figure 4-9 shows a cross section through the mature leaf consisting of 3 primary tissue systems: the epidermis, the mesophyll and the vascular bundle (veins). The opening in the underside of the leaf is called stoma (plural of stoma is stomata). The mesophyll includes the palisade parenchyma and spongy parenchyma containing chloroplast that is the food center. The guard cells regulate the passage of gases and water vapour in and out of the leaf. Ozone (O3) injured the palisade cell.The chloroplast condenses and the cell walls collapse resulting in the formation of red-brown spots and white spots (fleck). O3 injury occurs during midday on sunny days. The guard cells are more likely to be open and thus allow the pollutants to enter to the leaf. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) can inhibit the growth of the plant at a low concentration and produce necrosis at higher concentration (surface spotting due to loss of protoplasm or known as plasmolysis). The reduction in surface area (leaf) results in less growth and small fruit. This may result in the reduction of farmers income. Fluoride deposition on plants will damage them. Grazing animals may accumulate an excess of flouride that mottles their teeth and causes them to fall out. 4-8.3 EFFECT ON MATERIAL Particulate matter (PM) can damage materials by soiling clothings and textiles, corroding metals, eroding building surfaces and discoloring and destroying painted surfaces. For example, at a concentration of PM between 130 and 180 m/m3 and in the presence of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and moisture, corrosion of steel and zinc panels is 3 to 4 times greater in areas in comparison to background particulate level of 60 m/m3.

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Figure 4-9 Across section through the mature leaf

4-9

OZONE DEPLETION

Ozone forms a layer in the stratosphere (20 to 40 km and up) that absorbs dangerous solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation from entering the earth atmosphere. A small amount of UV gives you the summer tan skin but too much of the UV will cause skin cancer. Oxygen also absorbs the UV but only over a narrow band centred at a wavelength 0f 0.2 m. The photochemistry of these reactions is shown in figure 4-10. The M refers to any third body (usually N2). Ozone in upper atmosphere is when oxygen reacts with the light energy (hv):

O2 + hv O2 + O

O+O O3

Light energy also destroys ozone:

O3 + hv

O2 + O

This is the mechanism by which ozone prevents ultraviolet radiation from reaching earths surface.

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The ozone-destroying chemicals come mainly from chlorofluorocarbons (CF2Cl2 and CFCl3often abbreviated as CFC) used in a range of products from refrigerators to soft foams and cleaning solvents and from halons, used for fire fighting. When the CFCs are introduced into the upper atmosphere, ozone is destroyed. Figure 4-11 shows ozone destruction by chlorofluorocarbons. First, the CFCs react with light energy to release chlorine atom. One form of CFC reacts as follows:

CCl3F + hv

CCl2F + Cl

The atomic chlorine acts as a catalyst speeding the destruction of ozone:

Cl + O3 ClO + O

ClO + O2 Cl + O2

The frightening aspects of this series of reactions are that the chlorine atom removes ozone from the system, and that it is continually recycled to convert more ozone to oxygen. Accelerating ozone-layer depletion will have serious impacts on most of living things on earth. For 10 % depletion of the ozone layer, we can expect 20 % increase in UV radiation arriving at the ground in life-damaging wavelengths. This radiation can cause the change in genetic structure, alters the immune systems, damages crops, disrupts the marine food web, enhances greenhouse effect by affecting the carbon dioxide absorbing capacity of plankton in oceans and increases the incidence of skin cancer. Figure 4-12 shows how the increased UV-B radiation and change in climate caused by depleted ozone will affect life on earth.

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Figure 4-12 Flowchart on how the increased UV-B radiation and change in climate caused by depleted ozone will affect life on earth
Ozone depletion effects Climate change Increased UV-B radiation reaching earths surface

Accumulation of trophospheric ozone and acid aerosols, causing worsening air pollution and acid rain

Photochemical formation of tropospheric ozone

Damage to materials; paint, plastic, rubber

Damage to biological links in human food chain

Direct human health effects Environmental effects: Crop and forest damage

Terrestrial: reduced crop yields, stunted plant growth Eye damage: Increases incidence of cataracts and blindness Aquatic: less ocean plankton, lower fish harvest

Suppression of immunity: Increase in infectious diseases, less effective vaccination Human health effects: respiratory illness ad heart problems

Rise in incidence of skin cancer

(Source: Khan, 2004)

In October 1988, a working group of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that deplete the Ozone Layer established four (4) review panels to implement Article 6 of the protocol. They covered the scientific, environmental, technical and economic aspects of ozone layer depletion. The main conclusions reached by the panels were published and distributed in 1990 by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), which acts a secretariat to the protocol.

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THE MONTREAL PROTOCOL ASSESSMENTS Beginning in 1991, and at least every 4 years thereafter, the Parties shall access the control measures provided for in Article 2 on the basis of available scientific, environmental, technical and economic information. At least one year assessment, the Parties shall convene appropriate panels of experts qualified in the fields mentioned and determine the composition and terms of reference of any such panels. Within one year of being convened, the panel shall reports their conclusions, through the Secretariat, to the Parties Article 6, Montreal Protocol
(Source: Khan, 2004)

In the spring of 1989, eighty countries met at Helsinki, Finland to access the new information. The delegates gave their assent to a five point Helsinki Declaration: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. All join the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the follow up Montreal Protocol. Phase out production and consumption of ozone-depleting CFCs no later than 2000. Phase out production and consumption as soon as feasible of halons and such chemicals as carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform that also contribute to ozone depletion. Commit themselves to accelerated development of environmentally acceptable alternative chemicals and technologies. Make relevant scientific information, research results, and training available to developing countries.

The implementation of the Montreal Protocol appears to be working. The use of CFCs had been reduced to 1/10 of the 1990 levels. Total tropospheric chlorine from the long and short-lived chlorocarbons was about 5 % lower in 2000 compared to at its peak in 19921994.

4-10 ACID RAIN

Rain falling through a perfectly unpolluted atmosphere will arrive at the earth with a pH of about 5.6. This is because of the carbon dioxide in atmosphere reacts with the rain water by these reactions:

CO2 + H2O

H2CO3

H+ + HCO3-

This small amount of acidity is sufficient to dissolve and make them available to plant and animal life; yet not acidic enough to inflict any damage. Atmospheric substances from volcanic eruptions, forest fires and other similar natural phenomena also contribute to the natural sources of acidity in rain but not acidic enough to destroy plants and animals.

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Figure 4-13 Acid rain phenomenon

Acid rain is defined as any type of precipitation with a pH below 5.6. Acid rain has been associated with sulphur oxides (SOx); principally sulphur dioxides (SO2) and to a lesser extent, sulphur trioxide (SO3) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) principally nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) combining with oxygen to form sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. These gases react with water to form sulphuric and nitric acids which are soluble and fall with the rain. Acid rain major sources are from human sources, such as industrial and power generating plants, transportation vehicles and farming industries (ammonia for fertilizer). The gases can be carried hundred of miles in the atmosphere before they are converted to acids and deposited. Industrial acid rain is a major problem in China, Eastern Europe, Russia and areas down winded from them. These areas also burn coal containing sulphur to generate heat and electricity. In the gas phase sulphur dioxide is oxidized by reaction with hydroxyl radical via a trimolecular reaction:

SO 2 + OH + M HOSO 2 + M
which is followed by

HOSO 2 +O 2 HO2 + SO 3

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In the presence of water, sulphur trioxide is converted rapidly to sulphuric acid:

SO 3 + H 2 O + M H 2 SO 4 + M
Nitric acid is formed by the reaction of OH with nitrogen dioxide:

NO 2 + OH + M HNO3 + M
Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water, then hydrolysis in a series of equilibrium reactions:

SO 2 ( g ) + H 2 O SO 2 H 2 O
SO 2 H 2 O H + + HSO 3 2 HSO 3 H + + SO 3 -

The potential effects of acid rain are related to the acidity on aquatic life, damage to crops and forests, and damage to building materials. Lower pH values may affect fish directly by interfering with their reproductive cycles or by releasing otherwise insoluble aluminium (Al), which is toxic. At pH lower than 5, most fish eggs will not hatch and lower pH can kill adult fish. As lakes become more acidic biodiversity is reduced. Acid rain also leaches calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) from the soil thus lower the molar ratio of Ca to Al which in turn, favours the uptake of Al by fine roots that ultimately leads to their deterioration. Acid rain can also damage certain building materials and historical monuments due to chemical reactions between sulphuric acid and calcium compounds in the stones (limestone, sand stone, marble and granite) to create gypsum that flakes off. The toxic released due to acid rain forms the greatest threat to human. Mobilized copper has been proven in the outbreaks of diarrhoea among young children and water supplies that had been contaminated with aluminium cause Alzheimers disease. In 1980,the US Congress authorized a 10 year study to assess the causes and effects of acidic deposition. This study was titled the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP). In September, NAPAP released an interim report that indicated that acidic precipitation appeared to have no measurable and consistent effects on crops, tree seedlings, or human health, and that a small percentage of lakes across the US were experiencing pH value lower than 5. In 1992, NAPAP reported to Congress that there remained no evidence of widespread decline of forest tree species causes by acidic deposition.

4-11 METEOROLOGY
Pure air is a mixture of gases, containing; 78.0% nitrogen 20.1% oxygen 0.9% argon 0.03% carbon dioxide 0.002% neon 0.0005%helium

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but pure air is not found in nature and is of interest only as reference. Earth atmophere can be divided into four major layers (refer Figure 4-14) : i) Troposphere where most of our weather occurs, ranges from 5 km at the poles to about 18 km equator. The temperature decreases with altitude. Over 80% of air is within this well-mixed layer. Stratosphere a layer of air where the temperature profile is inverted and in which little mixing take place. Pollutant that migrate into this layer can stay for many years. This layer has a high ozone concentration. Mesosphere and Thermosphere contain only about 0.1 % of the air.

ii)

iii)

Air pollution problem occurs in the troposhere. Pollutants in the troposphere whether produced naturally or emitted from human activities are moved by air currents that we call wind. Wind not only moves the pollutants horizontally, but causes the pollutants to disperse, reducing the concentration of the pollutants a distance away from the source. Figure 4-14 Layers of atmosphere

A L T 80 I T 60 U D E 40 (km) 20 0
100 200 300 400

100

Thermosphere

Mesosphere

Stratosphere

Troposphere
Temperature (K)

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4-11.1

STABILITY

Stability is the tendency of the atmosphere to resist and enhance vertical motion. Lapse rate is the change of air temperature with height. It is used as indicator as the stability condition of the atmosphere. There are 3 stability categories that are: (a) (b) (c) Neutral atmosphere Unstable atmosphere Stable atmosphere

The rate of temperature change with height is described as lapse rate. Environmental lapse rate, e , is defined as the negative of the actual change in temperature with altitude. The lapse rate for a neutral atmosphere is defined by the rate of temperature increase or decrease experienced by the parcel of air that expands or contracts adiabatically (without addition or loss of heat) as it raised through the atmosphere. The rate of temperature decrease (dT/dZ) is called dry adiabatic lapse rate and it is designated by d . dT/dZ is approximately -1.00 C/100 m or -10 C/1 km. Atmospheric stability for dry (no liquid water present) air can be determined by comparing environmental lapse rate, e , to the dry adiabatic lapse rate, d . Mathematically, atmospheric stability can be determined as:

e < d for dry stable e = d for dry neutral e > d for dry unstable
The stability of air in the atmosphere depends on the temperature of rising air relative to the temperature of the stationary surrounding air that it passes through, which varies from place to place and with changing atmospheric conditions. Air stability determines whether clouds form when air is uplifted, and the type of cloud. When a packet of air near the Earths surface is heated, it rises, being lighter than the surrounding air. Whether or not this air packet continues to rise will depend upon how the temperature in the surrounding air changes with altitude. The rising packet of air will lose heat because it expands as atmospheric pressure falls, and its temperature drops. If the temperature of the surrounding air does not fall as quickly with increasing altitude, the air packet will quickly become colder than the surrounding air, lose its buoyancy, and sink back to its original position. In this case the atmosphere is said to be stable. If the temperature of the surrounding air falls more quickly with increasing altitude, the packet of air will continue to rise. The atmosphere in this circumstance is said to be unstable. There are two types of stable atmosphere: i) Isothermal No changes of temperature with elevation.

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ii)

Inversion The temperature increases with elevation. It is the most severe form of stable atmosphere but when it occurs it is often asociated with restricted air volumes that cause air pollution.

The relationship between environmental lapse rates and stability can be seen in Figure 4-15. Line I shows the slight decrease temperature with height. In this case, there is little or no heating or cooling of the ground and adjacent air. Air cools as it expands its pressure decreases. The temperature change is close to adiabatic lapse rate so this situation is known as neutral stability. The lapse rate characterized by line II indicates a temperature decrease greater than adiabatic lapse rate. The condition is described as superadiabatic or unstable. Atmospheric condition is very unstable with strong vertical air motion. During this time, the dispersion of pollutant is very good. Line III represent an isothermal lapse rate i.e. temperature does not change with elevation. This situation is characterized as stable atmosphere. If a parcel of warm polluted air were released in this type of atmosphere, it will rise slowly and cool to the temperature of its surrounding. Dispersion of pollutant is limited in this atmospheric stability. Line IV indicates lapse rate condition in which the temperature increases with elevation. Under this condition, the atmosphere is very stable. Because of warmer temperature above the ground, the polluted air will quickly become equilibrium with the temperature of its surroundings. The dispersion of pollutants is very poor because of stagnant condition i.e. the air motion is suppressed. Figure 4-15 Temperature profiles illustrating variations in lapse rate conditions

Adiabatic lapse rate H e i g h t

III I II Inversion Increasing stability IV

Increasing instability Temperature

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Example 4.3: Determination of atmosphere stability Given the following temperature and elevation data, determine the stability of the atmosphere.

Elevation, m 2 318 Solution:

Temperature, OC -3.05 -6.21

Begin by determining lapse rate:

T T2 T1 = Z Z 2 Z1
= -6.21 (-3.05) = -0.01 OC/m 318 2 = -0.01 OC x 100 m = 1.00 OC Then, compare with d (-1.00
O

C/100 m) and find that they are equal. Thus the

atmospheric stability is neutral. 4-11.2 PLUME TYPES

The plume (smoke trail) from a tall stack located on flat terrain has been found to exhibit a charecteristic shape that is dependent on the stability of the atmosphere. The combination of vertical air movement and horizontal air flow influences the behavior of plumes from point sources (stacks). The looping plume of Figure 4-16 occurs in highly unstable conditions and results from turbulence air. Unstable conditions are generally favorable for pollutant dispersion. High ground-level concentrations can occur if the plume loops downward to the surface. Figure 4-16 Looping plume

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The coning plume (Figure 4-21) is characteristic of neutral conditions or slightly stable conditions. It is likely to occur on cloudy days or on sunny days between the breakup of a radiation inversion and the development of unstable daytime conditions. Figure 4-17 Coning plume

The fanning plume (Figure 4-18) occurs in stable conditions. The inversion lapse rate discourages vertical motion without prohibiting horizontal motion, and the plume may extend downwind from the source for a long distance. Fanning plumes often occur in the early morning during a radiation inversion. Figure 4-17 Fanning plume

A major problem for pollutant dispersion is an inversion layer, which acts as a barrier to vertical mixing. When the condition is unstable above the inversion layer (Figure 4-18), the release of plume above the inversion results in an effective dispersion. The probability of ground contact is small unless inversion layer is shallow. This condition is known as lofting.

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Figure 4-18 Lofting plume

If the plume is released just under an inversion layer, a serious air pollution situation could develop. As the ground warms in the morning, air below an inversion layer becomes unstable. When the instability reaches the level of the plume below the inversion layer, the pollutants can be rapidly transported down toward the ground (Figure 4-19). This is known as fumigation. Ground-level pollutant concentrations can be very high when fumigation occurs. Sufficiently tall stacks can prevent fumigation in most cases. The relation between stability and plume can be summarized as in Table 4-5. Figure 4-19 Fumigation plume

Table 4-5 Plume Designation

Stability Highy unstable ( e > d ) Neutral or near neutral ( e d ) Strongly stable ( e negative) Stable, but inversion above plume source Stable, inversion aloft,but inversion layer above plume source

Plume Designation Looping Coning Fanning Lofting Fumigation

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CHAPTER 5 WATER POLLUTION

CO2: Ability to describe basic concept of water pollution and solve basic calculations on this area. CO1: Ability to describe the related legislation in the Environmental Quality Act 1974.

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5-1

OBJECTIVES

The followings are the objectives of this chapter:Ability to define and identify water pollution sources and their effects. Ability to explain the water quality parameters including physical, chemical and biological and able to calculate the amount of pollutants in water. Able to define current legislation of water quality and pollution control which are applied in Malaysia under the Environmental Quality Act 1974. Able to describe the principle of water and waste water treatment in industrial and domestic sewage.

5-2

INTRODUCTION

Water is a resource that has many uses, including for recreational, transportation, hydroelectric power, agricultural, domestic, industrial, and commercial uses. Water also supports all forms of life and affects our health, lifestyle, and economic well being. Although more than three quarters of the earth's surface is made up of water, only 2.8 % of the earths water is available for human consumption. The other 97.2 % is in the oceans. However, this water is too salty to be used for most purposes, and the salt content is very costly to remove. Most of the earths fresh water is frozen in polar ice caps, icebergs, and glaciers. Although water flows from our faucets throughout the day, we often take the amount of fresh water available on earth for granted. As the world's population increases, water consumption increases too. Preventing water pollution and conserving water are important to assure a continuing abundance of water that is safe for our use and the use of our future generations. Water pollution can be defined as any physical, biological, or chemical change in water quality that adversely affects living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses. When it is unfit for its intended use, water is considered polluted. This can include the pollution of rivers, lakes, oceans, and ground water pollution. Although natural phenomena such as volcano eruptions, storms, earthquakes etc. could also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of water, these are not deemed to be pollution. Water pollution has many causes and characteristics. It is a serious problem in the global context. It has been suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of death and disease and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. In most developing countries, only a tiny fraction of human wastes is treated before being dumped into rivers, lakes, or oceans. As a consequence, water pollution levels are often appalling. In India, for example, two-thirds of all surface waters are considered dangerous to human health. The less-developed countries of South America, Africa, and Asia have even worse water quality than do the poorer countries of Europe. Low technological capabilities and little money for pollution control are made even worse by growing populations, rapid urbanization, and the shift of heavy industry from developed countries where pollution laws are stricter than those in the less developed countries where regulations are more lenient. In Malaysia, 42 of 50 major rivers are reported to be "ecological disasters. Residues from palm oil and rubber manufacturing concerns, along with heavy erosion from logging of

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tropical rain forests, have destroyed all higher forms of life in most of these rivers. In the Philippines, domestic sewage makes up 6070 % of the total volume of Manila's Pasig River. Thousands of people use the river not only for bathing and washing clothes, but also as their source of drinking and cooking water. China treats only 2 % of its sewage. Of 78 monitored rivers in China, 54 of them are reported to be seriously polluted. Of the 44 major cities in China, 41 of them used "contaminated" water supplies. Only few used undeveloped treatment before it is delivered to the public.

5.3

SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION

Water pollution is normally caused by human activities. Different human sources add to the pollution of water. There are two types of sources, point and non point sources. Sources of water pollution are shown in Figure 51. 5-3.1 POINT SOURCES POLLUTION Point sources of pollution occur when harmful substances are discharged directly into a body of water. Factories, power plants, wastewater treatment facilities, underground mines and oil wells, for example, are classified as point sources because they release pollution from specific locations, such as drain pipes, ditches, or sewer outfalls. These pollutants are considered to be point source pollution because they enter a body of water at an identifiable, single-point location. Point source pollutions are easy to monitor and regulate. Their unwanted contents can be diverted and treated before discharge. 5-3.2 NON POINT SOURCES POLLUTION Non point sources are characterized by multiple discharge point. The pollution cannot be traced to a single point of discharge, difficult to monitor and control. Discharges from vehicle emissions, construction site, urban runoff, forestry are examples of non point source pollution. They are considered to be non point source because pollution does not occur all the time in one location. The pollution is difficult to measure, and many of non point sources pollutions occur during rain storms. Reduction of non point source pollution generally requires change in land use practices. The land use activities and types of major non point source pollutants are summarised below in Table 5-1 and Figure 5-2. The most common non point source pollutants are sediments and nutrients. These are washed into water bodies. The pollutants are from agricultural land, small and mediumsized animal feeding operations, construction sites, and other areas of disturbance. Other common non point source pollutants include pesticides, pathogens (bacteria and viruses), salts, oil, grease, toxic chemicals, and heavy metals. Fertilizer and pesticide residues can run off or can be washed into streams and rivers or seep into soil, contaminating underlying groundwater. However, there are several methods that can be applied for controlling surface water pollution from non point sources; i. ii. Reduction of fertilizer runoff by not using excessive amount and the non-usage of steeply sloped land. Application of pesticides only when needed.

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Reducing the usage of fertilizers and pesticides on golf courses and public parks. Planting of permanent vegetation as buffer zone between farmland and river or lakes. v. Restoration of logged forest to control soil erosion. vi. Use of sedimentation basins or silt traps at construction sites. vii. Road cleaning practices. viii. Efficient solid waste management. ix. Installation of waste traps at drainage system and rivers. Figure 5 - 1 Sources of water pollution

iii. iv.

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Table 5 1 Land use activities and types of major non point source pollution Land Use Activities Pollutants Responsible Agency

Urban storm runoff automobile maintenance, lawn and garden care, painting and etc. Construction land clearing and grading and etc. Surface mining - dirt, gravel, mineral excavation and etc. Agriculture - tillage, cultivation, pest control, fertilization, animal waste management and etc. Forestry timber harvesting, road construction and etc.

Oil, grease, antifreeze, nitrate, phosphate, pesticides, paints Sediment

Local authorities

Local authorities

Sediment, heavy metals, acid drainage, nitrate, phosphate Excess fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, and siltation from open areas, bacteria Siltation from open areas due to timber harvesting and road construction

Local authorities

Department of Agriculture

Department of Forestry

Figure 5 - 2 Non point sources of water pollution

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5-4

THE EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

The effects of pollution in the water are numerous. There are many different types of water pollution and all have a different adverse effect on the environment. In rivers, oceans and seas, the water pollution such as heavy metals and industrial waste that often contains many toxic compounds can be lethal, killing the fish and plant life. This in turn can kill birds and other animals that eat this contaminated food supply. Some toxins affect the reproductive rate of success of marine life and can therefore disrupt the community structure of an aquatic environment. The effects of water pollution have also been considered the leading cause of human deaths worldwide. More than 5 million people die each year from diseases caused by unsafe drinking water, lack of sanitation, and insufficient water for hygiene. In fact, over 2 million deaths occur each year from water-related diarrhoea alone. Almost every type of contamination found in water has a detrimental effect on humans. Blood diseases, heart disease and nervous system disorders are commonly linked to the effects of water pollution. Many of the toxins found in polluted water are carcinogenic, which means they can cause cancer. Some substances may even affect generations to come by changing the bodys chromosomal makeup. Less severe effects of water pollution can include diarrhoea, skin lesions, and vomiting. Organic matter and nutrients causes an increase in aerobic algae and deplete oxygen from the water column. This is called eutrophication and it causes the suffocation of fish and other aquatic organisms.

5-5

WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

Water quality is a neutral term that relates to the composition of water as affected by natural processes and human activities. The quality of water is also related to its specific use, and usually measured in terms of the concentration of its constituents. Water quality measurements include chemical, physical and biological parameters. The followings are brief descriptions of some commonly used parameters. 5-5.1 PHYSICAL PARAMETERS Physical parameters define those characteristics of water that respond to the sense of sight, touch, taste, or smell. The six most commonly considered physical characteristics are suspended solid, temperature, taste and odour, colour and turbidity. 5-5.1 (a) Suspended Solid

Suspended solid refers to a solid that is suspended in a liquid. It is highly dependent on the flow of water and usually increases during and immediately after rain falls. Solids suspended in water consist of organic and inorganic particles. Inorganic solids such as silt, clay and other soil constituents and organic material such as plant fibres and biological solids (algal cells, plankton, bacteria) are common constituents of surface waters. The inorganic portion is usually considerably higher than the organic. Both contribute to the turbidity, or cloudiness of the water. These materials are often natural contaminants resulting from the erosion action of water flowing over surfaces. Because of the filtering capacity of the soil, suspended material is seldom a constituent of groundwater.

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The suspended solids determination is important in the analysis of polluted waters. It is aesthetically displeasing and provides adsorption sites for chemical and biological agents. Suspended particulate matter presents in water also reduces the ability of some organism to find food, reduce photosynthesis, disrupts food webs, carries pesticides and others harmful substances. Suspended solids also interfere with effective drinking water treatment. High sediment loads interfere with coagulation, filtration, and disinfection. More chlorine is required to effectively disinfect turbid water. They also cause problems for industrial users. Most suspended solids can be removed from water by filtration. Thus, the suspended fraction of solids in a water sample can be approximated by filtering the water, drying the residue and filter to a constant weight at 104C (C), and determining the mass of the residue retained on the filter. The results of this suspended solids test are also expressed as dry mass per volume (milligrams per litre). Solids which pass through the filter in the filtrate are referred to as dissolved solids. The amount of dissolved solids is also expressed in milligrams per litre (mg/L). A dissolved solid is the difference between the total solids and suspended solids content of water sample. 5-5.1 (b) Temperature

The temperature of water is a very important parameter because of its effect on chemical reactions and reaction rates, aquatic life, and the suitability of the water for beneficial uses. Unfortunately the interpretation of water temperature results is not so simple because temperature influences many different properties of water. Several things influence the rise and fall of water temperature in a stream, the most important being, the season, time of day and the weather. A wide range of temperatures can occur along the length of a stream especially during summer months due to factors such as water depth, water colour, amount shading vegetation and flows. Temperature is measured by using a thermometer, and is recorded in either degrees Celsius (C) or Kelvin (K), which is 0 C corresponding to the temperature at which water freezes and 100 C corresponds to the boiling point of water at sea level. In this scale a temperature difference of 1 degree is the same as a 1 K temperature difference, so the scale is essentially the same as the Kelvin scale, but offset by the temperature at which water freezes (273.15 K). Thus the following equation can be used to convert from degrees Celsius to Kelvins. [C]

1K + 273.15 K O 1 C

[5-1]

Water heating often causes environmental damage over time. Many problems associated with water temperature are caused or worsened by human land uses and activities. Warm runoff from pavement surfaces such as roadways, footpaths, car parks, concrete yards and rooftops, can substantially affect the temperature of the receiving water. Some industries use water as a coolant during processing. This water is sometimes discharged into a river or lake. When this water is discharged into a river, it is much warmer than the existing water in the river, and as a result, the temperature of the river becomes higher. Water temperature affects the ability of water to hold oxygen, the rate of photosynthesis by aquatic plants and the metabolic rates of aquatic organisms. Increases in water temperature will increase the energy consumption by stream life. Increased activity results in greater oxygen use by fish, aquatic insects and bacteria and will decrease Dissolved Oxygen (DO) level in water. Water temperatures enable these plants to grow more vigorously and may lead to algal blooms that can lead to a number of undesirable effects.

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5-5.1 (c)

Taste and Odour

Taste and odour of water are important aesthetic parameters rather than health related parameters. There are many potential causes of tastes and odours in water such as minerals, metals, and salts from the soil, end products from biological reactions and constituents of wastewater. Inorganic substances are more likely to produce tastes unaccompanied by odour. Alkaline material imparts a bitter taste to water, while metallic salts may give a salty or bitter taste. While organic material is likely to produce both taste and odour. Biological decomposition of organics may result in taste and odour producing liquids and gases in water. Water can also smell like rotten eggs due to high levels of hydrogen sulphide. Also, certain species of algae secrete an oily substance that may result in both taste and odour. Consumers find taste and odour aesthetically displeasing for obvious reasons. Because of water are thought of as tasteless and odourless, the consumer associate taste and odour with contamination and may prefer to use tasteless, odourless water that might actually pose more of health threat. Odours produced by organic substances may be carcinogenic. 5-5.1 (d) Colour

Pure water is colourless, but water in nature is often coloured by foreign substances. The presence of colour indicates the presence of dissolved and particulate material in water. Either of these components can be deeply coloured, for instance dissolved organic molecules called tannins can result in dark brown colours, or algae floating in the water (e.g. particles) can impart a green colour. But in a lot of cases water is a clear to neutral colour due to a lack of pigments in it (e.g. the sea). Iron oxides cause reddish water, and manganese oxides cause brown or blackish water. And also, industrial wastes from textile and dyeing operations, pulp and paper production, food processing and chemical production may add substantial colouration to water in receiving streams. Coloured water is not aesthetically acceptable to the general public. Highly coloured water is unsuitable for laundering, dyeing, papermaking, textile and other food processing. Thus, the colour of water affects its marketability for both domestic and industrial use. Colour-comparison tubes containing a series of standards are usually used for direct comparison of water samples. Results are expressed in true colour unit (TCU) where one unit is equivalent to the colour produced by 1 mg/L of platinum in the form of chorplatinate ions. 5-5.1 (e) Turbidity

Turbidity refers to how clear the water is. Turbidity is a characteristic of water that describes the amount of suspended solids in the water. The more total suspended solids in the water, the murkier it seems and the higher is the turbidity. Turbidity is also considered as a good measure of the quality of water. Most turbidity in surface waters results from the erosion of colloidal material such as clay, silt, rock fragments and metal oxide from the soil. Urban runoff, waste discharge from industrial and household, vegetable fibres and micro organisms may also contribute to the high turbidity in waters. Algal blooms can contribute to turbidity. Algal production is enhanced when nutrients are released from bottom sediments during seasonal turnovers and changes in water current. Turbidity is a measure of how much of the light travelling through water is scattered by suspended particles. The scattering of light increases with increasing suspended solid and plankton content. Turbidity in slow moving, deep waters can be measured using a device called a Secchi disk. A Secchi disk is a black and white, 20 cm diameter disk. The disk is lowered into the water until it just disappears from sight. The depth at which the disk disappears is called the Secchi depth, and is recorded in meters. A Secchi disk does not

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work in shallow, fast-moving streams. In these waters, a turbidimeter (sometimes called a nephelometer) is used. A turbidimeter measures the scattering of light, and provides a relative measure of turbidity in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). Figure 5-3 shows a Secchi disk device and turbidity standards of 5, 50, and 500 NTU. The main impact of turbidity is merely aesthetic and nobody likes the look of dirty water. It is also essential to eliminate the turbidity of water in order to effectively disinfect it for drinking purposes. These add some extra cost to the treatment of surface water supplies. Furthermore highly turbid water can prevent light from reaching plants at the bottom or phytoplankton in the water column, and can therefore reduce the amount of primary productivity in an aquatic system. Overall, excess turbidity leads to fewer photosynthetic organisms available to serve as food sources for many invertebrates. As a result, overall invertebrate numbers may also decline, which may then lead to a decline in fish population. Turbid waters may indicate the presence of contaminants, such as paint, in solution or adsorbed into sediment particles. These contaminants may result in directly (acutely) toxic effects on aquatic life or build up over time and result in longer term (chronic) toxicity as well. Figure 5 - 3 Secchi disk and the standards of turbidity for 5, 50 and 500 NTU

5 NTU

50 NTU

500 NTU

5-5.2 CHEMICAL PARAMETERS The chemical characteristics of water are numerous. Every substance that dissolves in water can be called a chemical water quality characteristic. Chemical parameters are total dissolved solid, alkalinity, hardness, metals, organic compounds, and nutrients. 5-5.2 (a) Total Dissolved Solid

Total dissolved solid (TDS) is defined as solids left in water after the water is filtered and dried. The TDS in water consist of inorganic and organic compounds. Inorganic compounds such minerals, metals and gases may be dissolved in water. Materials from the decay products of vegetation, from organic chemicals and organic gases are common organic dissolved constituents of water. Many dissolved substances are undesirable in water. High concentrations of TDS in water may cause taste, colour and odour problems. Some chemicals may be toxic, and some of the dissolved organic constituents have been shown to be carcinogenic. However, not all dissolved substances are undesirable in water. For example, essentially pure, distilled water has a flat taste. And also, water in small amount of TDS will become corrosive to attain equilibrium and water tendency to dissolve pipes and plumbing. A direct measurement of TDS can be made by evaporating of dryness a sample of water sample which has been filtered to remove the suspended solids. The remaining

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residue that is weighed represents the total dissolved solids in the water. The TDS is expressed as milligrams per litre on dry mass basis. The electrical conductivity (EC) or specific conductance of water is related to TDS. It is a measure of the ability of the water to conduct an electrical current. It is reported in microsiemens per centimetre. Because the electrical current is transported by the ions in solution, the conductivity increases as TDS increases. The relationship is nearly linear, depending on TDS concentration and must be determined for individual cases. The relationship is expressed by the equation below; TDS Where, TDS EC k = = = Total dissolved solids, mg/L Electrical conductivity, ohm/cm Constant (value of k varies from 0.5 to 0.9 depending on TDS and water temperature) Alkalinity = k. EC [5 - 2]

5-5.2 (b)

Alkalinity is a measure of the quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize acid or a measure of water strength to neutralize acid. Alkalinity does not refer to pH, but instead refers to the ability of water to resist change in pH. Constituents of alkalinity in natural water systems include bicarbonate (HCO3-), carbonate (CO32-) and hydroxide (OH-) ions, silicates, phosphates, ammonium, and sulphides. These compounds result from the dissolution of mineral substances in the soil and atmosphere. Phosphates may also originate from detergents in wastewater discharges and from fertilizers and insecticides from agricultural land. Hydrogen sulphide and ammonia may be products of microbial decomposition of organic material. However, the main constituents of alkalinity are bicarbonate (HCO3-), carbonate (CO32-) and hydroxide (OH-) ions. These substances can originate from carbon dioxide, a constituent of the atmosphere and a product of microbial decomposition of organic material. Alkalinity is measured by titration. An acid of known strength of titrant is added to a volume of a treated sample of water. The volume of acid required to bring the sample to a specific pH level reflects the alkalinity of the sample. The pH end point is indicated by a colour change. Alkalinity is expressed in units of milligrams per litre (mg/L) of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Waters with low alkalinity are very susceptible to changes in pH. Waters with high alkalinity are able to resist major shifts in pH. Alkalinity not only helps regulate the pH of a water body, but also the metal content. Bicarbonate and carbonate ions in water can remove toxic metals (such as lead, arsenic, and cadmium) by precipitating the metals out of solution. In large quantities, alkalinity imparts a bitter taste to water. Reaction between alkaline constituent and cation (positive ion) produces precipitation in pipe. Example 5 - 1: Determining total alkalinity A 100 mL sample of water has an initial pH of 9. Thirty millilitres of 0.01 N H2SO4 is required to titrate the sample to pH 4.5. What is the total alkalinity of the water in milligrams per litre as CaCO3?

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Solution: Because each milligram of 0.01 N H2SO4 will neutralize 1 mg of alkalinity, there is 30 mg of alkalinity in the 100 mL sample. Therefore, the concentration of alkalinity expressed as milligrams per litre will be;

30 mg 1000 mL = 300 mg / L 100 mL L

5-5.2 (c) Hardness

Hardness is a measure of multivalent cations (ions with a charge greater than +1) in water. Hardness generally represents the concentration of calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions, because these are the most common multivalent cations. Other ions, such as iron (Fe2+) and manganese (Mn2+), may also contribute to the hardness of water, but are generally present in much lower concentrations. Waters with high hardness values are referred to as "hard," while those with low hardness values are "soft". Classifications of hardness in waters are shown in Table 5-2. Hardness is classified as carbonate hardness and noncarbonated hardness, depending upon the anion with which it associates. The hardness that is equivalent to the alkalinity is termed carbonate hardness, with any remaining hardness being called noncarbonated hardness. Table 5-3 shows the comparison between carbonate hardness and noncarbonated hardness. Some factors are affecting hardness, these include geology, mining, industrial discharge and sewage outflow. Drainage from operating and abandoned mine sites can contribute calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, and other ions if minerals containing these constituents are present and are exposed to air and water. This can increase the hardness of a stream. Some industrial processes may also produce significant amounts of calcium and manganese that are later discharged into streams. Hardness affects the amount of soap that is needed to produce foam or lather. Hard water requires more soap, because the calcium and magnesium ions form complexes with soap, preventing the soap from sudsing. Hard water can also leave a film on hair, fabrics, and glassware. Hardness of the water is very important in industrial uses, because it forms scale in heat exchange equipment, boilers, and pipe lines. Some hardness is needed in plumbing systems to prevent corrosion of pipes. Hardness mitigates metals toxicity, because Ca2+ and Mg2+ help keep fish from absorbing metals such as lead, arsenic, and cadmium into their bloodstream through their gills. The greater the hardness, the harder it is for toxic metals to be absorbed through the gills. Hardness is generally measured by titration. A buffer and a colour indicator are added to a volume of water. The titrant is then added to the water, and it reacts with the Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the water. The volume of acid required to change the colour of the sample reflects the Ca2+ and Mg2+ concentration of the sample. The more acid needed, the more Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the sample. Hardness is generally expressed in units of milligrams per litre (mg/l) or parts per million (ppm) of CaCO3.

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Table 5 2 Hardness classification of water

Hardness (ppm as CaCO3) 0 - 40 40 - 100 100 300 300 500 >500

(Source: Qasim, 2006)

Classification Soft water Moderately hard water Moderately hard water Hard water Extremely water

Table 5 - 3 Comparison between carbonate hardness and noncarbonated hardness Carbonate Hardness 1. Temporary in character e.g. Ca(HCO3)2, Mg(HCO3)2 2. Sensitive to heat and precipitated through boiling 1. 2. Noncarbonated Hardness Permanent in character e.g. CaCI2, CaSO4, MgCI2, MgSO4 Eliminated through chemical softness method and/or ion exchange

Example 5-2: Determining total hardness Calculate total hardness and total alkalinity as CaCO3 given the following chemical analysis.

Cations Ca2+ = 35 mg/L 10 mg/L 7 mg/L

Anions HCO3CO32OHCINO3= = = = = 68 mg/L 15 mg/L 2 mg/L 31 mg/L 10 mg/L

Mg2+ = Na+ =

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Solution: Only the divalent cations, Ca2+ and Mg2+ cause hardness; Ca2+ Mg2+ = = Concentration of Ca2+ x Equivalent weight, CaCO3 Equivalent weight, Ca2+ Concentration of Mg2+ x Equivalent weight, CaCO3 Equivalent weight, Mg2+

Equivalent weight, CaCO3 = 100 g/mol / 2 eq/mol = 50 g/eq Cation Ca2+ Mg

2+

Concentration (mg/L) 35 10

Equivalent weight (g/eq.) 40/2 = 20 24.3/2 = 12.15

Hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) (35 /20) 50 = 87.5 (10/12.15) 50 = 41.2

Total Hardness

= 87.5 + 41.2 = 128.7 mg/L as CaCO3

Total Hardness

35 10 50 + 50 = 87.5 + 41.2 20 12 . 15

= 128.7 mg/L as CaCO3 Example 53: Determining total hardness, carbonate hardness and noncarbonated hardness Water has a following analysis:

Cation Na+ K
+

mg/L 20 30 5 10 2

Anion CIHCO3 CO32SO4

2-

mg/L 40 67 0 5 10

Ca2+ Mg
2+

Sr2+

NO3-

What is the total hardness, carbonate hardness and noncarbonated hardness?

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Solution: i. Only the multivalent cations, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Sr2+ cause hardness; Equivalent weight, CaCO3 = 100 g/mol / 2 eq/mol = 50 g/eq Cation Ca2+ Mg
2+

Concentration (mg/L) 5 10 2 =

Equivalent weight (g/eq.) 40/2 = 20 24.3/2 = 12.15 87.6/2 = 43.81

Hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) (5/20) 50 = 12.5 (10/12.15) 50 = 41.2 (2/43.81) 50 = 2.3

Sr2+

Total Hardness = Total Hardness = ii.

12.5 + 41.2 + 2.3

56 mg/L as CaCO3 =

5 10 2 50 + 50 + 50 20 12 . 15 43 . 81

56 mg/L as CaCO3

Only HCO3 and CO32 are constituents of carbonate hardness; Anion HCO3 CO3
2

Concentration (mg/L) 67 0

Equivalent weight (g/eq.) 61/1 = 61 60/2 = 30

Hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) (67/61) 50 = 55 0

Carbonate Hardness = Carbonate Hardness =

Alkalinity = Alkalinity =

55 mg/L as CaCO3

67 50 = 55 mg/L as CaCO3 61
1 mg/L as CaCO3

iii. Noncarbonate Hardness 5-5.2 (d) Metals

= 56 - 55 =

All metals are soluble to some level in water. Metals are classified into toxic and non toxic group. Metals those that are harmful in relatively small amounts are commonly known as toxic group and others metals fall into the non-toxic group. Sources of metals in natural

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waters include dissolution from natural deposits and discharges of domestic, industrial and agricultural wastewater. i. Non-toxic Metals

Non toxic metals commonly found in water include calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, fluoride, aluminium, copper, and etc. Excessive amount of non toxic metals in water cause bitter taste, colour, odour and turbidity problems in water and deteriorate health. Calcium Calcium is derived mostly from rocks. The greatest concentrations come from limestone, dolomite, gypsum, and gypsiferrous shale. Calcium is the second major constituent, after bicarbonate present in most natural waters. It is required as nutrient for plants and is a required mineral for humans and other animals. Suggested daily intake is 800 mg for humans. The deficiency of calcium may cause osteoporosis and toxicity may include kidney stones. Concentration of calcium in natural waters may range between 10 and 100 mg/L. Waters with a calcium level between 40 and 100 mg/L are generally consider hard to very hard. Calcium is a primary constituent of water hardness. Sodium The major source of sodium in natural waters is from abundant in the earths crust. Sodium salts are very soluble and remain in solution. Typical sodium concentrations in natural waters range between 5 and 50 mg/L. Excessive concentrations cause bitter taste in water and may be toxic to fish and other aquatic animals. Sodium is also corrosive to metal surface and is required in limited amounts for most plant growth. Iron and Manganese Iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) are frequently found together and present no health hazards at low concentrations in natural waters. Since both Fe and Mn are present in insoluble forms in significant amounts in nearly all soils. Explanation of how appreciable amounts can gain entrance to water with the soil, must consider conversion of iron and manganese to soluble forms. Concentration of 0.3 mg/L of Fe and 0.05 mg/L for Mn caused colour problems. Some bacteria utilize Fe and Mn compounds for energy source and resulting slime growth may produce taste and odour problems. The rates of oxidation are slow, and thus reduced forms can persist for some time in aerated waters. This is especially true when the pH is below 6 with iron oxidation and below 9 with manganese oxidation. Both Fe and Mn interfere with laundering operation, impart objectionable stains to plumbing fixtures, and cause difficulties in distribution systems by supporting growths of iron bacteria. Fluoride Fluoride associated in nature with a few types of rocks and it is only slightly soluble in water. Fluoride is toxic to human and other animals in large quantities, while small concentrations can be beneficial. Normally, fluoride concentration is less than 0.5 mg/L in natural waters. Moreover, both surface waters and groundwater may experience fluoride contamination from certain insecticides, from chemical wastes and from airborne particles and gases from aluminium smelting plants. A fluoride concentration of about 1 mg/L in drinking water helps to prevent dental cavities and tooth decay. High intakes of fluoride however can have an adverse effect on health. Fluoride concentration in excess of 2 mg/L

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causes discolouring or mottling of teeth, called dental fluorosis. Concentration in excess of 5 mg/L can result in skeletal or bone fluorosis. ii. Toxic Metals

Toxic metals are harmful to humans and other organisms in small quantities. Toxic metals that may be dissolved in water include arsenic, barium, cadmium, lead, mercury and silver. Cumulative toxins such as arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury are particularly hazardous. These metals concentrated by food chain, thereby posing the greatest danger to organic near the top of the chain. Sources of toxic metals exist in waters come from human activities such as mining, industrial and agricultural. High concentration of toxic metals in waters may expose humans to dangerous diseases like cancer, miscarriage and deformation of newborn babies. For example, it is recommended that concentration of lead in domestic water supply should not exceed 0.05 mg/L. As for mercury, a level of 0.05 mg/L is recommended as a safe concentration for freshwater aquatic organisms and for domestic water supply the mercury level should be less than 0.02 mg/L. 5-5.2 (e) Organic Compounds

All organic compounds contain carbon in combination with one or more elements. Organics in waters may originate from natural sources such as fibres, vegetable oils, fats and sugar or result from human activities. Organic compounds usually combustible; lower melting; less soluble in water and can serve as a source of food for microorganisms. Organics may be classified as biodegradable (protein, carbohydrates, and fats) and non-biodegradable (lignin, alkyl benzene sulphonate). i. Biodegradable organics

Biodegradable materials consist of organics that can serve as a source of food for microorganisms. This is because biodegradable organics compounds are easily oxidized by microorganisms. Biodegradable organics compounds consist of starch, fat protein, alcohol, human and animal waste. They may be the end product of the initial microbial decomposition of plant or may result from domestic or industrial wastewater discharges. Some of these materials can cause colour, taste and odour problems, resulting from microbial action on these substances. Microbial utilization of dissolved organics can be accompanied by oxidation or by reduction. The amount of oxygen consumed during microbial utilization of organics is called the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). BOD is the most important parameter in water pollution control. It is used as a measure of organic pollution as a basis for estimating the oxygen needed for biological processes, and as an indicator of process performance. BOD is not an accurate quantitative test, although it could be considered as an indication of the quality of a water source. In the standard test, a 300 mL BOD bottle is used and the sample is incubated for a 5-day period at 20C. Light must be excluded from the incubator to prevent algal growth that may produce oxygen in the bottle. The BOD of a diluted sample is calculated by; When dilution water is seeded, BOD (mg/L) = [(D1 D2) (B1 B2) x f] / P [5 - 3]

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When dilution water is not seeded, BOD (mg/L) = [(D1 D2)] / P where; D1 D2 B1 B2 f = = = = = DO of diluted sample immediately after preparation, mg/L DO of diluted sample after 5-day incubation, mg/L DO of seed control before incubation, mg/L DO of seed control after incubation, mg/L fraction of seeded dilution water volume in sample to volume of seeded dilution water in seed control (volume of seed in sample/volume of seed control) fraction of wastewater sample volume to total combined volume (volume of sample/volume of mixture) [5 - 4]

For a valid BOD test, the final DO should not be less than 1 mg/L. BOD test is invalid if D2 value nears zero. The sample must be suitably diluted with specially prepared dilution water so that adequate nutrients and oxygen will be available during incubation period. By using dilution factor, the actual value can be obtained. Normally, several dilutions are prepared to cover the complete range of possible values. Suggested dilutions for various BOD samples are shown in Table 5-4. Example 5 - 4: BOD5 determination 10 mL of sample is pipeted directly into a 300 mL incubation bottle. The initial DO of the diluted sample is 9.0 mg/L and its final DO is 2.0 mg/L. The temperature of incubation is 20 C. If the sample is incubated for 5 days, what is the BOD5 of the sample? Solution: When dilution water is not seeded, BOD5, mg/L = where, D1 D2 P = = = =

D1 D 2 P

Initial DO = 9.0 mg/L Final DO after 5-day incubation = 2.0 mg/L volume of sample / volume of mixture 10 / 300 = 0.033

BOD5 =

9.0 2.0 0.033

= 212 mg/L

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ii.

Non-biodegradable organics

Some organic materials are resistant to biological degradation and take much longer to biodegrade. The rate of biodegradation may be so slow that the material is practically considered refractory. Non-biodegradable organic compounds usually consist of tannin, lignin, acids, cellulose and phenols. Many of the organics associated with petroleum and with its refining and processing also contain benzene and are essentially non-biodegradable. Some organics are non-biodegradable because they are toxic to organisms. These include organic pesticides, industrial chemicals and hydrocarbon compounds that have combined with chlorine. Many of the pesticides are cumulative toxins and may cause severe problems at the top of food chain. Measurement of non-biodegradable organics is usually by the chemical oxygen demand (COD) test and also can be estimated from total organic carbon (TOC) analysis. Table 5-4 Suggested dilutions for various BOD sample sources Typical Amount of Resulting Source Sample Clear creek water Clear creek water Clear creek water Weak sewage, polluted creek water Weak sewage, polluted creek water Weak sewage, polluted creek water Weak sewage, polluted creek water Weak sewage, polluted creek water Strong sewage, industrial waste Strong sewage, industrial waste Strong sewage, industrial waste Strong sewage, industrial waste Strong sewage, industrial waste Strong sewage, industrial waste Strong sewage, industrial waste Strong sewage, industrial waste
(Source: Dunnivant, 2004)

BOD5 range 0 to 5 4 to 10 8 to 20 10 to 25 13 to 33 20 to 50 25 to 62.5 40 to 100 50 to 125 67 to 167 150 to 250 200 to 500 400 to 1000 667 to 1667 2000 to 5000 4000 to 10000

mg/L sample to add (mL) 300 150 75 60 45 30 24 15 12 9 6 3 1.5 0.9 0.3 0.15

Concentration 100% 50 25 20 15 10 8 5 4 3 2 1 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.05

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5-5.2 (f)

Nutrients

Nutrients are elements essential to the growth of plants and animals. Certain mineral compounds can have an adverse impact on water quality because of their ability to promote plant and algae growth. An excessive growth of aquatic plants can clog waterways and over-stimulation of algae and microbes leads to an ecological process called eutrophication. wide variety of minerals and trace elements be classified as nutrient, but the ones needed in the highest amount are C, N and P. Carbon is easily available from a number of sources including atmospheric CO2, alkalinity and decay products of organics matter. N and P are generally the limiting nutrient in the growth of aquatic species. i. Nitrogen (N)

Nitrogen is the main component of the earths atmosphere. It exists in many forms in the environment and takes part in a number of biochemical reactions. However, in aquatic systems the forms of nitrogen of most significance are organic nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen. Nitrogen is a constituent of proteins, chlorophyll and many other biological compounds. Upon the death of plants or animals, complex organic matter is broken down to simple forms by bacterial decomposition. Protein, for instance are converted to amino acids and further reduced to ammonia (NH3). If oxygen is present, the ammonia is then broken down by other bacteria (Nitrosomonas) to form nitrite (NO2), which is then broken down by another type of bacteria (Nitrobacter) to form nitrate (NO3). This conversion of ammonia to nitrate and nitrite is called "nitrification." Nitrates can then be used by plants to grow. 2NH3 + 3O2
Nitrosomonas

2NO2- + 2H+ + 2H2O

[5-5]

2NO2- + O2

Nitrobacter

2NO3-

[5-6]

Completing the nitrogen cycle, nitrates are reduced to gaseous nitrogen by the process of "denitrification." This process is performed by organisms such as fungi and the bacteria Pseudomonas. These organisms break down nitrates to obtain oxygen. Excessive nitrates in surface water encourage eutrophication. For example, the rapid growth of algae may thus degrade the water quality. Excessive concentrations of nitrate or nitrite can be harmful to humans and wildlife. Nitrate is of most concern for humans. Nitrate is broken down in our intestines to become nitrite. Nitrite reacts with haemoglobin in human blood to produce methemoglobin, which limits the ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen. This condition is called methemoglobinemia or "blue baby" syndrome, because the nose and tips of ears can appear blue from lack of oxygen. It is especially serious for infants, because they lack the enzyme necessary to correct this condition. ii. Phosphorus

The important forms of phosphorus found the environment are orthophosphates and organic phosphates. Like nitrogen, phosphorus is also an essential nutrient that contributes to growth of algae and thus eutrophication. Serious water quality problems have resulted from uncontrolled algae and aquatic plant blooms in lakes and reservoirs that contained phosphorus in excess of 0.05 mg/L. It can also interfere with chemical coagulation.

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Phosphorus does not pose any major health threat. It can enter water courses from sewage, agricultural runoff and industrial discharge. 5-5.3 BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS The biological characteristics of a water body refer to a variety of living organisms that can be found in water. Many organisms cause bad taste and odour, corrosion and slime production. Water pollution may derive from several sources, including chemical pollutants from industry, runoff of chemicals used in agriculture, or debris from geological process, but the greatest source of pollution is organic waste. Although chemical pollutants may become diluted, they can also radically alter the ecosystem to allow the overproduction of certain forms of algae and bacteria that pollute the water. Once in the water, the growth of microorganisms can be exacerbated by environmental factors such as the temperature and chemical composition of the water. For example, runoff of fertilizers from sub-urban properties can infuse watercourses with nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus. All these are desirable nutrients for bacterial growth. 5-5.3 (a) Pathogens

The most important biological organisms in water are pathogen. These organisms are capable of infecting and transmitting diseases to humans. Pathogens are not native to aquatic system and usually require an animal host for growth and reproduction. Pathogens that play important role in environmental engineering are bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungus and algae. All these organisms live together as one community. Some pathogens are often found in water, frequently as a result of faecal matter from sewage discharges, leaking septic tanks, and runoff from animal feedlots into bodies of water. i. Bacteria

Bacteria usually present individually, in pairs or in chains with different kind of shape such as rod, spiral and sphere. The organisms will double themselves within 15-30 minutes in suitable conditions. Bacteria are single cell microorganisms, usually colourless and are the lower form of life capable of synthesizing protoplasm from surrounding environment. There are some diseases caused by bacteria and these include cholera, typhoid fever and jaundice fever. Cholera is an acute, diarrhoeal illness caused by infection of the intestine with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. A person may get cholera by drinking water or eating food contaminated with the cholera bacterium. The disease can spread rapidly in areas with inadequate treatment of sewage and drinking water. The cholera bacterium may also live in the environment in brackish rivers and coastal waters. Cholera often associated with algal blooms influenced by transmission of water. Typhoid fever is acute, generalized infections caused by Salmonella typhi. The main sources of infection are contaminated water or milk and, especially in urban communities, by food handlers who are carriers. Their germs are passed in the faeces and urine of infected people. People become infected after eating food or drinking beverages that have been handled by a person who is infected or by drinking water that has been contaminated by sewage containing the bacteria. Once the bacteria enter the persons body they multiply and spread from the intestines into the bloodstream. The symptoms of typhoid appear 10 to 14 days after infection; they can be mild or severe and include high fever, rose-colored spots on the abdomen and chest, diarrhoea or constipation, and enlargement of the spleen and liver.

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ii.

Viruses

Viruses are the smallest microorganisms with sizes range from 0.01 to 0.3 m. Viruses are obligate parasites that require a host for survival. Symptoms associated with waterborne viral infections usually involve disorder nervous system rather than of the gastrointestinal tract. There are some diseases caused by viruses like hepatitis, flu, jaundice, polio and aids. Most of the hepatitis cases result, for instance from persons eating shellfish contaminated by viruses from polluted water. iii. Protozoa

Protozoa are the simplest animal species. Protozoa are unicellular organisms more complex in their functional activity than bacteria or viruses. They are motile, aerobic heterotroph that consumes solid organic particles, bacteria and algae for food. Protozoa infections are usually characterized by gastrointestinal disorders. Many cases of giardiasis or diarrhoea result from persons that drank untreated surface water. This infection is caused by Giardia lambia, a protozoan that may be carried by wild animals living in or near natural water systems. iv. Fungi

Fungi are generally multi-cellular and plants that are unable to do photosynthesis. They are moulds and yeast. Most fungi obtain their food from dead organic matter. Fungi have the ability to grow under low moisture condition and can tolerate an environment with a relatively low pH. Thus along with bacteria, fungi is important in the biological treatment of some industrial waste and in the composting of solid organic waste. However, fungi and moulds present in waters can produce musty taste and odour, as well as colour and turbidity. v. Algae

Algae are simple organisms that are autotrophic and photosynthetic and contain chlorophyll. Many algae also contain different pigments and therefore may have various colours. Algae produce their own food from sunlight and nutrients. In the presence of sunlight, algae increase the DO level in the water. However, when there are too much of algae in the water, they affect taste and smell, and can reduce the intensity of light penetration. Table 5-5 shows the diseases associated with contaminated water. 5-5.3 (b) Pathogen Indicator

The experiment to determine the presence of all pathogens takes a long time and very expensive. It is only carried out when there is a reason to suspect that those particular organisms are present. The presence of pathogenic microorganisms is shown by indicator organisms. An indicator organism is one whose presence presumes that pollution has occurred and suggests the nature, type and level of pollution. An effective indicator organism for detecting faecal contamination of water should be applicable to all types of water. It always presents when pathogens are present, always absents when pathogens are absent. It is easily experimented and may give reliable results and for the safety of laboratory personnel, not be a pathogen itself. Most of the waterborne pathogens are introduced through faecal contamination of water. Thus, any organism native to the intestinal tract of humans and meeting the above criteria would be a good indicator organism. Typical indicators used and meeting these requirements are coliform groups.

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Coliform bacteria are described and grouped, based on their common origin or characteristics, as either total or faecal coliform. Figure 5-4 shows the total coliform group includes faecal coliform bacteria such as Escherichia coli (E.coli). Faecal coliform are present in large numbers in the faeces and intestinal tracts of humans and other warm-blooded animals, and can enter water bodies from human and animal waste. Most of the faecal coliform in faecal material (faeces) is comprised of E. coli, and the serotype E. coli 0157:H7 is known to cause serious human illness. If a large number of faecal coliform bacteria (over 200 colonies per 100 mL of water sample) are found in water, it is possible that pathogenic (disease or illness causing) organisms are also present in the water. Faecal coliform organisms are non-pathogenic; they are indicator organisms, which mean they may indicate the presence of other pathogenic bacteria. The presence of faecal coliform bacteria or E. coli indicates contamination of water with faecal waste that may contain other harmful or disease causing organisms, including bacteria, viruses, or parasites such as Giardia, the cause of beaver fever. Drinking water contaminated with these organisms can cause stomach and intestinal illness including diarrhoea and nausea, and even lead to death. These effects may be more severe and possibly life threatening for babies, children, the elderly or people with immune deficiencies or other illnesses. There are several ways coliform bacteria are grown and measured. Methods commonly used include the membrane filtration (MF) method and the most probable number (MPN) method. The MF method is more rapid than the MPN method, but the results are not as reliable for samples that contain many non-coliform bacteria, high turbidity, and or toxic substances such as metals or phenols. In this test, the water sample is filtered through a sterile membrane filter. Bacteria are retained on the filter that is then placed on selective media to promote growth of coliform bacteria while inhibiting growth of other species. The membrane and media are incubated at the appropriate temperature for 24 hours, allowing coliform bacteria to grow into visible colonies. Colonies produced by faecal coliform bacteria are blue, and are counted using a microscope or magnifying lens. The faecal coliform density is recorded as the number of organisms per 100 mL of waters. In the MPN method, a series of fermentation tubes that contain lauryl tryptose broth are inoculated with the water sample and incubated for 24 hours at 35 C. The fermentation tube contains an inverted tube to trap gases that are produced by the coliform bacteria. After 24 hours, the fermentation tube is examined for gas production. If there is no gas production, the samples are incubated for another 24 hours and re-examined. If gas production is observed by the end of 48 hours, the test is positive; coliform bacteria are present in the sample. The results are reported as most probable number (MPN) of coliform per 100 mL of waters.

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Table 55 Diseases associated with contaminated water Diseases Causative Agent Symptoms

Viruses Hepatitis Poliomyelitis Bacteria Cholera Typhoid fever Gastroenteritis

unknown Poliomyelitis Vibrio comma Salmonella typhosa Bacteria, virus, chemical, and toxin Giardia lambia

Fever, nausea, loss of appetite, jaundice Headaches, nausea, difficult in swallowing Vomiting, extremely high diarrhoea Continued fever, usually rose spots on body, abdominal discomfort Nausea, indigestion, vomiting, cramps and possible fever

Protozoa Giardiasis Cryptosporidiosis Worm Ascariasis Paragonimiasis (lung fluke)

Mild to severe diarrhoea, nausea, indigestion

Ascaris lumbricoides Paragonimus ringeri

Worm in stool, abdominal pain, skin rash, nausea, large appetite Chronic cough, clubbed fingers, dull pains, diarrhoea

(Source: Qasim et. al., 2006)

Figure 5 - 4 Total coliform groups

Total Coliform

Feacal Coliform E. coli

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5-6

REGULATION AND STANDARD FOR WATER POLLUTION

The principal legal instrument to control water pollution in Malaysia is the Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974 and its subsidiary legislations. However, the EQA is applicable to industrial discharges and sewage. Other related laws such as the National Land Code 1965, Forestry Act 1985, Land Conservation Act 1960, Local Government Act 1976 and Town and Country Planning Act 1976 among others have provisions to deal with pollution from other land-based activities. For pollution from non-point sources, the Local Authorities through the Local Government Act and by-laws could take legal action. 5-6.1 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT (EQA) 1974 The EQA 1974 which received the Royal Assent was enacted and came into force on 1 April 1974 for the abatement and control of pollution and enhancement of the environment and purposes connected therewith. Sections 25, 27 and 29 of the EQA deal directly with the control of discharges into inland waters and Malaysian territorial waters. Section 25 states that No person shall, unless licensed, emit, discharge or deposit any environmentally hazardous substances, pollutants or wastes into any inland waters in contravention of the acceptable conditions as specified under section 21. Section 27 prohibits the discharge of oil, whilst section 29 prohibits the discharge of wastes into Malaysian waters in contravention of acceptable conditions specified under section 21. Acceptable conditions are formulated in the form of Regulations. These Regulations under the EQA that control pollution affecting the rivers and seas are: (a) (b) (c) Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979; Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations 1977 and Amendments 1982; and Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Raw Natural Rubber) Regulations 1978 and Amendments 1981. Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979

5-6.1 (a)

The Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979 came into force on 1 January 1979. These Regulations specify the requirements for new sources of discharges requiring written permission of the Director General of Environment. It regulates the acceptable conditions of discharge into inland waters by specifying parameter limits of effluent. Two standards are specified, namely, Standard A and Standard B. Standard A is for discharges into any inland waters within catchment areas and Standard B for discharges into any other inland waters. Part V of the Regulations contains provisions for the granting of licence for contravention of acceptable conditions. However, the Director General may refuse to grant the application for a licence if he is satisfied that the granting of such licence is likely to worsen the condition of the inland waters or cause pollution in any other segment or element of the environment. The Director General may grant the licence if he is satisfied that:

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(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

There is no known practicable means of control to enable compliance with the acceptable conditions; or The estimated cost to be incurred for compliance will be prohibitive having regard to the nature and size of the industry, trade, or process being carried out in the premises discharging the effluent; or The design and construction of any treatment plant or other control equipment and their commissioning require a longer period than the period for compliance with the Regulations; or The imposition of the acceptable conditions as prescribed may result in circumstances which, in his opinion and having regard to all factors, are not reasonably practicable or are contrary to the intent and spirit of the Act; or A sewerage system is to be provided and the effluent is permitted to be admitted into the sewerage system.

The Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979 applies to all industrial effluents and sewage. However, some industries face difficulties in complying with some of the parameter limits as prescribed in the Third Schedule of the Regulations. These include the pulp and paper industry, distillery, textile and existing sewage treatment plants. In such cases, contravention licences have been granted. Furthermore some parameter limits that are deemed to be important for the protection of the rivers and seas such as ammonia, nitrates, phosphorus and colour are not specified. Some regulations need to be reviewed. For example, separate standards will be proposed for industrial effluents and sewage. Some parameters such as Chemical Oxygen Demand might be revised upwards for some industries based on the current internationally acceptable standards and new parameters being introduced. Different categories of discharge standards for sewage are being proposed for new plants and plants built before and after the publication of Guidelines for Developers: Sewage Treatment Vol. IV by the Department of Sewerage Services on 1 January 1999. The standards would also take into account the type of systems that were used as most of the old systems were not able to meet the standards stipulated in the Third Schedule of the Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979.

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THIRD SCHEDULE ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT 1974 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY (SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS) REGULATIONS 1979 (REGULATIONS 8(1), 8(2), 8(3) PARAMETER LIMITS OF EFFLUENTS OF STANDARDS A AND B

Parameter (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x) (xi) (xii) (xiii) (xiv) (xv) (xvi) (xvii) (xviii) (xix) (xx) (xxi) (xxii) (xxiii) Temperature pH value BOD at 20 C COD Suspended Solids Mercury Cadmium Chromium, Hexavalent Arsenic Cyanide Lead Chromium, Trivalent Copper Manganese Nickel Tin Zinc Boron Iron (Fe) Phenol Free Chlorine Sulphide Oil and Grease

Unit C mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l mg/ l

A 40 6.0 - 9.0 20 50 50 0.005 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.001 1.0 0.50

Standard

B 40 5.5 - 9.0 50 100 100 0.05 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.50 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 5.0 1.0 2.0 0.05 10.0

Not Detectable

(Source: Environmental Quality Act and Regulations, 1974)

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5-6.1 (b)

Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations 1977

In the early years of enforcing the EQA, palm oil mill and raw natural rubber effluents were the most polluting sources of our rivers. Through the cooperative efforts of the various agencies, the Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations 1977 were enforced on 4 November 1977. These Regulations provide a generation of standards to be complied within a specific time frame. To date most of the palm oil mills are in compliance with the BOD standards of 100 mg/l and even 20 mg/l for some mills. However, with the increasing number of mills being built, the assimilative capacity of some rivers might have been exceeded. In 2004, there were 383 mills licensed by the Department of Environment. It is estimated that these mills generate 20 million tonnes of palm oil mill effluent and 10 million tonnes of empty fruit bunches. More complaints are also being received of palm oil mills polluting rivers and affecting the livelihood of people depending on the rivers. Technologies for zero or near zero discharge have been proposed. These include composting of palm oil mill effluents and empty fruit bunches. The industry should seriously look into these new technologies as some State Governments are requiring oil palm mills to comply with more stringent discharge standards and even no discharge practices especially in sensitive river basins. 5-6.2 MARINE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA AND STANDARDS The Department of Environment initiated the marine water quality monitoring in 1978. In 2004, the contaminants of the marine water were total suspended solids, Escherichia coli and oil and grease. Based on the interim marine water quality standards, 77% of the samples exceeded the standards for total suspended solids, 50% for Escherichia coli and 49% for oil and grease. The interim marine water quality standards are adopted from those of other countries. Under the Ninth Malaysia Plan, the Department of Environment is to conduct a study to establish the Malaysian Marine Water Quality Criteria and Standards, taking into account the local conditions and nature of pollutants in our marine environment.

5-7

WATER QUALITY TRENDS IN MALAYSIA

The water pollution in Malaysia is originated from point sources and non-point sources. Point sources that have been identified include sewage treatment plants, manufacturing and agro-based industries and animal farms. Non-point sources are mainly diffused ones such as agricultural activities and surface runoffs. The river water quality in Malaysia has been monitored by the Department of Environment (DOE). The Water Quality Index (WQI) used to appraise the river water quality is based on 6 parameters, namely, Dissolved oxygen, Biochemical Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand, Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N), Suspended solids (SS) and pH. According to the Malaysia Environment Quality Report 2006, a total of 1, 064 water quality monitoring stations located within 146 river basins were monitored. The overall results in terms of river basin water quality showed 80 river basins (55%) were found clean, 59 river basins (40%) slightly polluted and 7 river basins (5%) were polluted. The river basin water quality trend for the period of 2000 2006 is shown in the Figure 5 -5. The quality of the environment in 2006 with respect to river water quality remained within normal variations compared to previous years. The major water pollution sources in Malaysia are BOD, NH3-N and SS. In 2006, 22 river basins were categorized as being polluted by BOD, 41 river basins by NH3-N and 42 river basins by SS. High BOD was contributed largely by untreated or partially treated sewage

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and discharges from agro-based and manufacturing industries. The main sources of NH3-N were domestic sewage and livestock farming, whilst the sources for SS were mostly earthworks and land clearing activities. Figure 5 - 5 Malaysia: River Basins Water Quality Trend, 2000 2006

80 70
Number of River Basin

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 Year Clean Slightly Polluted Polluted 2004 2005 2006

(Source: DoE, 2006)

5-8

PRINCIPLE OF WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT

The contaminants in water and wastewater are removed by physical, chemical and biological means. The specific methods are classified as physical unit operations, chemical unit processes and biological unit processes. Although several of these operations and processes are combined in most treatment systems, they are usually considered separately. By considering each group separately it is possible to examine the fundamental principles involved apart from their application in the treatment of water and wastewater. 5-8.1 WATER TREATMENT The most important objective of water treatment is to produce water that is biologically and chemically safe for human consumption. Quality requirements similar to those for domestic use will generally apply for most industrial users. Commonly water treatment methods used are either physical operation or chemical processes. Biological processes are not used because appreciable amounts of organic matter are not present in most natural waters and biological processes are not suitable in situations where contaminant concentrations are low. However, the choice of which treatment to use from the great variety of available processes depends on the characteristics of the water, the types of water quality problems likely to be

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present, and the costs of different treatments. The most widely applied water treatment technology may involve screening, aeration, coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection. 5-8.1 (a) Screening

The raw waters from reservoir or intake structure much be screened to prevent entry of any objects (leaves, debris and others sizable clogging material) that might damage pumps and treatment facilities. There are two types of screens, namely, coarse screen and fine screen. On leaving the screens, the raw water flow is slowed down entering the aeration tank. 5-8.1 (b) Aeration

The raw water enters into the aeration tank. Structures or equipment for aeration or air stripping may be classified into two types, waterfall aeration and diffusing type aeration. The waterfall type of aeration accomplishes gas transfer by forcing water to break into drops or thin film and increasing the area of water exposed o air. In aeration tank, unneeded dissolved gases such as CO2, H2S, NH3 and VOC will be removed from the raw water and thereby increased the DO level in water. 5-8.1 (c) Coagulation

As the aerated water leaves the first step of the process, the coagulant chemicals such as aluminium sulphate (alum), ferric sulphate, ferric chloride or polymers, are added to the water. These coagulant chemicals have a positive charge. The positive charge of the coagulant neutralizes the negative charge of dissolved and suspended particles in the water. Rapid and thorough mixing of the alum is necessary to begin the process of binding together the particles and reduce of the forces tending to keep apart. The coagulation process that causes these particles to become larger in size, body and weight, which in turn will allow them to become heavier so that they will sink and settle out of the water. These larger particles are called floc. The water now enters the next step of the process. 5-8.1 (d) Flocculation

After the addition and mixing of the chemicals the treated water is next subjected to a period of gentle agitation. This not only provides chemical reaction time but is also necessary to keep the precipitated coagulant in suspension until it has had sufficient time to collect into floc clusters a maximum quantity of fine suspended particles. When the particles of floc collide as a result of the gentle movement they cling together and eventually build up into much larger particles which settle more rapidly. This process is known as flocculation. Flocculation can be achieved by hydraulic methods or mechanical devices. Baffle type mixing basins are examples of hydraulic flocculation device. Baffles are provided in the basins which required velocity gradients for achieving floc formation. Coagulation and flocculation are very effective at removing fine suspended particles that attract and hold bacteria and viruses to their surface. They can remove up to 99.9% of the bacteria and 99% of the viruses from water supplies. Now we want to allow the floc to settle out of the water. This takes place in the next step of the treatment process. 5-8.1 (e) Sedimentation

The water flow is directed to enter the bottom of sedimentation basin. By the time the processed water reaches this step, the particles of floc have gained enough size and weight that they will settle out of the water and fall to the bottom of the basin. To improve the

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efficiency of the settling basin, tube settlers are placed horizontally in the sedimentation basin. These tubes force the water entering the bottom of the basin. Because the water flow has been changed to a more horizontal movement, and is travelling at a slower speed, gravity exerts its force on any floc particles that are still floating along in the water. These particles of floc are forced to settle on the lower surface of the tubes. As the floc gathers, soon the many small pieces of floc join together and then the floc particle slowly drifts down to the bottom of the sedimentation basin. The flow of water however, continues forward and finally overflows into a trough at the top of the sedimentation chamber. The water is now directed to the final stage of the treatment process. The following diagram Figure 5-6 illustrates the basic reactions and processes that occur during coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation. Figure 5-6 Process of coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation
Components producing turbidity

Coagulation

Flocculation

Sedimentation

5-8.1 (f)

Filtration

The next step in a water treatment system is filtration, which removes particulate matter from water by forcing the water to pass through porous media. The filtration system consists of filters with varying sizes of pores, and is often made up of sand, gravel and charcoal. There are two basic types of sand filtration; slow sand filtration and rapid sand filtration. Slow sand filtration is a biological process, because it uses bacteria to treat the water. The bacteria establish a community on the top layer of sand and clean the water as it passes through, by digesting the contaminants in the water. Rapid sand filtration is a physical process that removes suspended solids from the water. Rapid sand filtration is much more common than slow sand filtration, because rapid sand filters have fairly high flow rates and require relatively little space to operate. The filters are generally cleaned and backwash and put back into operation immediately. In water treatment plants, filtration removes a large number of contaminants, but still requires disinfection to produce drinking water that is safe. Although rapid sand filtration cannot effectively remove bacteria and viruses, it is an important step in the water treatment process.

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5-8.1 (g)

Disinfection

Water is disinfected to kill any pathogens that may be present in the water supply and provide protection against possible later contamination in the distribution system. Without disinfection, the risk from waterborne disease is increased. The two most common methods to kill microorganisms in the water supply are oxidation with chemicals such as chlorine or ozone or irradiation with ultra-violet (UV) radiation. Chlorine is used as a disinfecting agent to assure the bacterial safety of the drinking water and the normal dosage rate is 1.5 to 4.0 mg/l. The dosage rate is calculated to ensure that a chlorine residual of 0.1 to 0.4 mg/l. remains in the reticulated water. This is done to kill off any bacteria encountered in the distribution system. 5-8.1 (h) Fluoridation

Finally, fluoride is added into the treated water. Fluoride is added as an aid to public health. Low levels of fluoride (0.6 to 1.5 mg/L) are required for the proper development and prevention of dental cavities in children's teeth. The normal dosage rate is 1.0 mg/L. 5-8.1 (i) Water Distribution System

After disinfection and fluoridation processes, the last and final stage of water treatment schemes is the distribution of water to the customer. The distribution system is a network of pipe lines inside the municipal or service area limit and consists of transmission, balancing and service reservoir. All the processes involved in water treatment systems are summarized in Figure 57. Figure 57 Summary of processes involved in water treatment system

Water Treatment Plant

5-8.2 WASTEWATER TREATMENT The principle objective of wastewater treatment is to produce an effluent that can be discharged without causing serious environmental impacts. Processes and operations used

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in wastewater treatment are similar to those used in water treatment, except for biological methods. The principal use of biological treatment is for the removal of easily biodegradable organic compounds, although biological processes are also used or removal of nitrogen and phosphorus in some situation. The principle of wastewater treatment methods are includes preliminary, primary, secondary, tertiary treatment and sludge processing. 5-8.2 (a) Preliminary Treatment

Upon arrival via the sewer system, the wastewater is sent through a bar screen, which removes large solid objects such as sticks and rags. Leaving the bar screen, the wastewater flow is slowed down entering the grit tank. This allows sand, gravel, and other heavy material that was small enough not to be caught by the bar screen to settle to the bottom. All the collected debris from the grit tank and bar screen is disposed of at a sanitary landfill or recycled. 5-8.2 (b) Primary Treatment

Primary treatment is the second step in wastewater treatment. It allows for the physical separation of solids and greases from the wastewater. The screened wastewater flows into a primary settling tank where it is held for several hours. This allows solid particles to settle to the bottom of the tank and oils and greases to float to the top. 5-8.2 (c) Secondary Treatment

Secondary treatment is a biological treatment process that removes dissolved organic material from wastewater. The partially treated wastewater from the settling tank flows by gravity into an aeration tank. Here it is mixed with solids containing microorganisms that use oxygen to consume the remaining organic matter in the wastewater as their food supply. The aeration tank uses air bubbles to provide the mixing and the oxygen, both of which are needed for the microorganisms to multiply. From here the liquid mixture, composed of solids with microorganisms and water, is sent to the final clarifier. Here the solids settle to the bottom where some of the material is sent to the solids handling process, and some is re-circulated to replenish the population of microorganisms in the aeration tank to treat incoming wastewater. 5-8.2 (d) Final Treatment

Wastewater that remains is disinfected to kill harmful micro-organisms before being released into receiving waters. Although there are many methods available to kill these micro-organisms, chlorine and ultraviolet disinfection are the most widely used. Dechlorination occurs in the final wastewater treatment step. A solution of sodium sulphite is added to the chlorinated effluent to remove residual chlorine. Following disinfection and dechlorination, the treated wastewater (now called final effluent) can be returned to the receiving waters from which it came. The flow is conveyed to an outfall and discharged through a series of diffusers into a surface water body or stream. 5-8.2 (e) Sludge Processing

Primary solids from the primary settling tank and secondary solids from the clarifier are sent to the digester. During this process, micro-organisms use the organic material present in the solids as a food source and convert it to by-products such as methane gas and water. Digestion results in a 90% reduction in pathogens and the production of a wet soil-like material called biosolids that contain 95 - 97 % water. To remove some of this water and

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reduce the volume, mechanical equipment such as filter presses or centrifuges are used to squeeze water from the biosolids. The biosolids are then sent to landfills, incinerated, or beneficially used as a fertilizer or soil amendment. Water and wastewater treatment are summarized below in Table 56. Table 5 - 6 Water and wastewater Treatment Treatment Category Purpose Processes

Preliminary Treatment Process

Removal of coarse solids and other large materials often found in raw wastewater. Removal of settleable organic and inorganic solids (sedimentation) , and the removal of materials that will float (scum) by skimming Removal of biodegradable dissolved and colloidal organic matter using aerobic biological treatment processes Tertiary and/or advanced wastewater treatment is employed when specific wastewater constituents which cannot be removed by secondary treatment must be removed

Coarse screening, Grit removal Comminution (large objects) Sedimentation Skimming

Primary Treatment

Secondary Treatment Process

Trickling filters Bio-filters Oxidation ditches Rotating biological contactors (RBC) Phosphorus Removal Nitrogen Removal Suspended Solid Dissolve Solid Removal Organic & Metal Removal

Tertiary Treatment Process

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