An investigation of the moderating effects of organizational commitment on the relationships between workfamily conflict and job satisfaction among

hospitality employees in India

Karthik Namasivayama~*, Xinyuan Zhao
aSchOOl of Hospitality Management, The Pennsylvania State University, 201 Mateer BuildIng. University Park, PA 16802, USA bSchool of Hospitality and Tourism Management, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640. PR china Received 21 March 2006; accepted 25 September 2006

Abstract The present study examined the relationships among workfamily conflict (WFC), organizational commitment (OC) and job satisfaction (JS) in a hotel setting. Responding to calls in the literature to explore organizational constructs in i,~tei~national settings, data were collected from the employees of a large independently owned and operated hotel in India. Hierarchical Jinear regression analyses demonstrated that one of two sub dimensions of WFC, namely, family related roles interfering with work related roles (FIW) was negatively associated with iS. Both direct and moderating relationships of three sub dimensions of OC were investigated and it was found that the affective component of OC has stronger direct effects on iS than normative OC; continuance commitment had no effect. The study also revealed that employees affective commitment moderates the effects of FIW on JS. The article concludes with implications for hospitality managers and future research directions. ~() 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Workfamily conflict; Organizational commitment; Job satisfaction; International

It is a commonly held belief, especially among hospitality industry professionals, that work and family are two independent life domains, labels this belief the myth of separate worlds. The separate world myth has since been modified through extensive research which has demonstrated that the two worlds are not independent and that the relationship between work and family is highly interdependent and dynamic ( ). Factors in the work world affect family life and vice versa (for example, ). Studies have also identified various antecedents and outcomes of such intersections between work and family roles (for example,

*corresponding author. Tel: + 18148639774; fax: + 18148634257. E-mail addresses:

0261-5177/s -see front matter ~ 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:

Workfamily conflict (WFC) results when engaging in one role (for example, as a parent) interferes with engaging in another role (for example, as an employee) ( ). Research in WFC has typically examined the conflicts due to an interaction between the two roles. As such research has investigated various factors (for example marital status, child-care responsibilities, and work stress) in each sphere contributing to WFC ( ). However, argue that although WFC depends to a great degree on interactions with supervisors and others in the immediate environment of an individual (whether at work or at borne), existing research fails to consider this larger context and its effects on WFC. Further, researchers (

) point out that a shortcoming of existing research is that much of it has been done in the US and other western countries; very little work has been carried out in other regions of the world. The US hospitality industry is well-established globally. Many key hotel industry players are expanding rapidly in the Asian markets, especially India and China (. ). Over 20 percent of the 16 million rooms world-wide are now controlled by a dozen leading chains ( ). The AH&LA conference report also pointed to the need to consider the issue of human resources and its integration into the global expansion. As such it is important for US as well as international hospitality leaders to understand employment conditions in countries in which expansion is taking place if they are to obtain strategic advantages. While pragmatically important, understanding WFC in these countries will also help develop a more informed theory of WFC in a global context and provide researchers with a clearer understanding of the differences and similarities across nations. Accordingly, the need for increased consideration of two issues, namely an international focus and attention to the employees immediate work and organizational context, motivated this paper. Previous research has examined the relationships between WFC and various outcome variables in Jordan ( ), Northern Cyprus ( ), Turkey (. ), and among Hispanic employees in the US ( ). However, little work has been done in WFC in developing countries as well as the Indian context ( ). While there is some research exploring the nature of work ~family relations in high-technology firms, financial services, manufacturing, and telecommunication organizations in India ( ), there is no study to our knowledge exploring WFC in the context of the hospitality industry in India. There is therefore a need to understand WFC in the Indian context not only because of globalization imperatives but also because of the nature of the hospitality industry. Authors have characterized the hospitality industry as a very stressful work environment offering low wages yet demanding long work hours contributing to employees perceptions of WFC (: ). Moreover, hospitality employees are expected to engage in a high degree of face-to-face interactions with consumers which leads to stress and potential WFC ( ). suggest that ~hoels and food service outlets are among the most stres.sfui work environments for both managers and employees. Very important organizational outcomes of WFC such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, intention to turnover, absenteeism, job performance, career satisfaction, and career success have been identified by researchers ( ). It is therefore important to understand the relationships between WFC and organizational outcomes in the context of the Indian hospitality indusny. As noted earlier, prior work has examined WFC in the hospitality context in several countries contributing to our understanding of the nature if WFC in diverse settings. In terms of the relationships among the variables, examined the relationship of WFC to employees service recovery performance, job satisfaction and intentions to leave; examined if WFC influenced family satisfaction, life satisfaction, and turnover intentions; examined if WFC has both direct and indirect effects via job performance, job satisfaction, and affective organizational commitment on turnover intentions; tested the direct effects of WFC on job satisfaction and organizational commitment. The present study extends this body of work and examines the relationship between WFC and employees job satisfaction; specifically, it is suggested that employees commitment to their organization will moderate the effects of WFC on their job satisfaction. In sum, the relationship of WFC to job satisfaction (JS) and organizational commitment (OC) is explored in the Indian hospitality industry context in this paper. Data for the study were collected from a single hotel company in a southern Indian city. provides the theoretical and conceptual model.
2. Workfamily conflict Researchers have demonstrated that WFC is a two-dimensional construct consisting of conflict arising when work roles interfere with family roles (WIF) and family related roles interfere with work related roles (FIW) ( ). Consistent with this conceptualization, research has demonstrated that WIF and FIW have different antecedents and consequences ( ). Antecedents of WIF include long hours, lack of supervision, and other work role stressors and characteristics. Antecedents of FIW are more likely to be family role stressors such as elder care, or single parenting (

). Among the consequences, WIF has been related to life satisfaction ( ), family satisfaction ( ), alcohol abuse, depression, and poor physical health ( ). note that FIW is also related to lower levels of job satisfaction, higher levels of absenteeism, tardiness at work, and intentions to quit. However, research has not always found consistently positive relationship patterns between WFC and its antecedents and outcomes and ambivalent results have been reported. In terms of outcomes, report that while their meta-analyses revealed the weighted average correlation between WFC and organizational commitment was moderately strong, the individual study results were highly inconsistent. They found stronger effect sizes in studies that employed employee samples from the same occupation or organization than those that had diverse samples. Similarly, research has found ambivalent results for the relation between non-work related outcomes such as life satisfaction and WFC ( ). reports, contrary to hypotheses in many studies, the present analysis suggests that overall men and women have similar levels of WIF and FIW. Despite the ambivalent research results, it is commonly accepted that WFC has an important role to play in organizational success directly through increasing productivity of the employee and indirectly by reducing costs due to stress related productivity losses. As a result more research is required ( ). It must be noted that it is important to alleviate stressors originating in the family to reduce conflicts and increase productivity at work. It is equally important for orgamzations to account for work place sources of stress that may affect the individual at home. Following research in mainstream management research, hospitality researchers in WFC model the effects of both WIF and FIW on various outcomes (e.g. ). Implicit in the research is the idea that each domain has a reflexive action on the other~ that there is interdependence between the two domains. The reciprocal effects argue for attention to both dimensions of WFC; both dimensions are therefore simultaneously considered in this study so that more information about the directional nature of WFC may be gleaned.

2.1. Direct efftcts of WFC on job satisfaction Job satisfaction is defined as an emotional state resulting from appraising ones job ( ). Job satisfaction is considered a more fragile and changeable employee attitude while organizational commitment is considered rather more stable ( ). A number of outcomes of job satisfaction have been investigated including turnover intentions, absenteeism, and motivation (for example ). A number of antecedents to JS have been proposed and investigated. For example, identify individual level demographic and dispositional variables, role perceptions, supervisory behaviors, and job characteristics as influences on employee job satisfaction. Research has shown that supportive aspects of the work environment have a positive influence on job satisfaction ( ). On the other hand, work stress, conceptualized as work-role conifict, work-role overload, and work-role ambiguity, is negatively related to job satisfaction and positively to WFC ( ). Work stress has been treated as an antecedent to WFC in much research (for example, ). Based on a meta-analytic review, report a consistent negative relationship between both dimensions of WFC and job satisfaction suggesting that reducing employees inter-role conflict can lead to positive work outcomes. state that work--family conflict is related to a number of negative job attitudes and consequences including lower overall job satisfaction. Similarly, report an inverse relationship between both dimensions of WFC and job satisfaction. More recent research has explored the effects of each component of WFC and gender on job satisfaction (, ). The research showed that WIF was related to job satisfaction cross-sectionally for both men and women. However, when the relationships were explored in a longitudinal model, with year 1 WFC predicting job satisfaction in year 2, the research found that WIF predicted womens job satisfaction but not mens. No relationship existed between FIW and either genders perception of job satisfaction in year 2. While this research found that WIF predicted womens job satisfaction but not mens, there was no

evidence of a relationship between FIW and job satisfaction suggesting that one dimension of WFC may have a stronger relationship with JS than the other. Other research has also provided mixed findings: while found that FIW was positively related to job satisfaction~ on the other hand, reported that FIW had a negative relationship to job satisfaction. It is suggested that individuals value their families highly (explained more fully later) but also their jobs because of labor market conditions. The extent to which individuals hold their roles, both family and work, in high regard and perceive them as valuable will influence their levels of job satisfaction. If the job allows them to attain their values they will rate their satisfaction with the job higher ( ). Therefore, similar to it is expected that FIW will influence individuals job satisfaction. In sum, research has found a significant and negative relationship between WFC and job satisfaction. Accordingly,
,

Hi. Both facets of WFC (WIF and FIW) will be negatively related to job satisfaction.

2.2. Direct effects of organizational commitment on job satisfaction Organizational commitment (OC) is a widely researched topic in a number of contexts including commitment to unions ( ), careers ( and professions ( ). The relationships between JS and organizational commitment have been extensively explored. There is considerable debate about whether JS leads to organizational commitment or vice versa ( ). While the vast majority of the literature suggests that JS leads to OC, there is compelling evidence to the alternative (for example, ). In similar vein, notes that organizational commitment impacts job related attitudes including job satisfaction. Organizational commitment is said to provide people with stability and feelings of belonging ( ) serving as a valuable moderator of the effects of stressful work conditions. Leong et a!. note that it is important to consider organizational commitments interrelated components-attitudinal and calculative-to explain its moderating effect on outcome variables. conducted a meta-analytic review of extant research in organizational commitment. Based on the review they note that both organizational commitment and job satisfaction are attitudinal variables and may reflect an individuals global attitude towards the organization. They therefore treat job satisfaction as a correlate of organizational commitment rather than as a precursor or consequent because it is difficult to specify the causal precedence of different affective responses (1990, p. 175). Since there is ambivalence about the causal direction, Mathieu and Zajac suggest developing theoretically based studies to examine the relationships between organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Further, research has identified role states (role ambiguity, role conflict and role overload) as antecedents of organizational commitment ( ). When individuals experience conflict in their work and family roles due to work related issues, individuals who value their family roles highly may blame their work for the conflict ( ) and reduce their affective commitment for the organization. It has also been suggested that internal motivation (e.g. feelings of accomplishment and self-fulfillment) should be more highly related to attitudinal commitment ( p. 182). When work roles interfere with family roles feelings of self-fulfillment may be adversely affected leading individuals to reduce their commitment to organizations. Following conceptualizations presented in and empirical work adopting the organizational commitment leads to satisfaction model (e.g. ) it is suggested here that a reduction in commitment can lead to reduced levels of job satisfaction. That is, when an individual feels a reduced sense of commitment to the organization that also implies lower levels of satisfaction. Based on extant research,

developed a three-dimensional model of OC. They identified normative, affective, and continuance commitment as dimensions of organizational commitment rather than as different types of commitment and suggest that an individual may perceive each of the three dimension~, simultaneously. 2.2.1. Affective commitment Affective commitment is defined as the extant of an individuals emotional attachment to an organization and is characterized by acceptance of organizational values and by willingness to remain with the organization ( ). Individuals with strong affective commitment will tend to behave in ways that are in the organizations best interests ( ). Researcl~ has identified a number of antecedents tc affective commitment including personal-, structural-. ana jobrelatedcharacteristics, and work experiences ( ). further suggest that employees tend to have stronger affective attachment when their experiences within an organization are consistent with their expectations. As noted above, when individuals value systems and sense of accomplishment and self-fulfillment are consonant with their expectations they are more likely to feel a sense of commitment to their organization ( Adopting a social identity theory framework, found that affective commitment individuals immediate work group predicts psychologic~ well-being. Following who report very high correlation (0.63) between psychological wellbeing and job satisfaction we make the connection between affective commitment and job satisfaction. In sum, it c~therefore be expected that individuals who are more high1i~ committed affectively to their organizations will express greater job satisfaction. Hence: H2. Affective commitment to the organization will be positively related to individuals job satisfaction. 2.2.2. Continuance commitment Continuance commitment results from individuai5 calculus of potential losses to their investments time and effort if they were to leave the organization. Individuals who have a lot of investment in their organizations are less likely to leave. Continuance commitment also depends on individuals recognition of the availability of alternatives if they were to leave the organization ( ). describe continuance commitment as a function of two factors: the magnitude and/or number of investments (or sidebets) individuals make and a lack of alternatives. That is, individuals who invest a great deal of time and effort in learning a certain organization-specific skill are betting that they can win. In this case, employees can only win if they stay on in the organization. argue that employee turnover intentions depend not only on the organizational characteristics but also the occupational and local labor markets. Local unemployment rates, geographic limits, the presence or absence of a good job and a good organization all serve to influence individuals continuance commitment. Thus, local labor markets play an important role in an individuals continuance commitment to an organization. The present study was conducted in Chennai, a major southern Indian city with a population of about 7 million. The reported a growth in employment in the hotels, transport, and communications sector of 4.65% in 19992000 compared to the peiiod 19931994 for the state of Tamilnadu (Chennai is the capital of the state). However, despite the growth in employment in the sector, overall unemployment figures for the sector increased by about 120% from 0.9 million job seekers in 1999 to 1.2 million job seekers in 2000 statewide. It is appropriate to conclude from these data that job mobility in the Chennai labor market is limited.
L

reveal that while pay, gender, marital status, hotel size, or hotel quality had little effect on employee turnover intentions, organizational commitment did have a significant impact. In the study, affective and normative components of organizational commitment, but not continuance commitment, explained employees turnover intentions. suggest that continuance commitment implies psychological costs for employees; when employees perceive a lack of alternatives, they may feel trapped with negative consequences for their attitudes towards the organization and work. It is possible that individuals who have already taken into account, and rationalized, their lack of mobility may express higher levels of continuance commitment but not necessarily satisfaction. Accordingly,

H3. Continuance commitment will be negatively related to satisfaction.

2.2.3. Normative commitment Normative commitment to an organization results from perceived duty towards the organization and develops as a result of socialization experiences that stress loyalty to the organization ( ; ). describe normative commitment as the result of both pre-entry (familial and cultural) and post-entry (organizational) socialization processes. Preentry socialization processes suggest the operation of both cultural and family attitudes towards work, or prevalent work ethic. Work ethic and its impacts on organizational commitment and JS have received extensive research attention ( ). Individuals work ethic or values are strongly related to attitudes towards work. Desire for upward career mobility, attitude towards rewards, and the degree of job involvement are all related to an individuals work ethic ( ). Eastern and western cultures differ in substantial ways ( ). A primary difference between the East and the West has been in the influence of religious beliefs on the work ethic. While Western cultures emphasize personal duty and responsibilities towards oneself, Eastern cultures emphasize commitment to family and the group ( ). Ralston et al. suggest that while Eastern cultures are driven primarily by Confucianism, Buddhism, or Taoism, Western cultures are mainly influenced by Protestant or JudeoChristian values. The tenet that work and financial success are a means not only to personal success but also to the achievement of religious goals underpins the Protestant work ethic ( ). notes that Islam has influenced Arab value systems, including their work ethic. Similarly in India, Hinduism is the predominant religious system and it therefore influences individuals work ethics to a great extent. Both the Islamic and Hindu work ethics place emphasis on hard work, thrift, sense of duty, respect for family, and avoidance of unethical means of wealth accumulation ( ). As a pluralistic society, individuals in India are influenced equally by Judeo-Christian and Islamic influences. Similar to it can be argued that individuals who strongly support a positive work ethic are likely to be more committed to the organization. Additionally, individuals feel constrained to reciprocate with commitment as a result of receiving rewards from the organization. However, as pointed out, only rewards that are beyond individuals expectation levels will influence their reciprocation. Individuals may derive a sense of psychological well-being or satisfaction when they have met the normative expectatioI~s of significant others (e.g. parents, co-workers). Deriving from the above,
,

H4. Normative commitment will be positively related to job satisfaction. 2.3. Moderating effects of organizational commitment on the relationship between WFC and jab satisfaction The relationships between facets of WFC and job satisfaction and between components of organizational Individuals who have a lot of investment in their organizations are less likely to leave. Continuance commitment also depends on individuals recognition of the availability of alternatives if they were to leave the organization ( ). describe continuance commitment as a function of two factors: the magnitude and/or number of investments (or sidebets) individuals make and a lack of alternatives. That is, individuals who invest a great deal of time and effort in learning a certain organization-specific skill are betting that they can ~win. In this case, employees can only win if they stay on in the organization. argue that employee turnover intentions depend not only on the organizational characteristics but also the occupational and local labor markets. Local unemployment rates, geographic limits, the presence or absence of a good job and a good organization all serve to influence individuals continuance commitment. Thus, local labor markets play an important role in an individuals continuance commitment to an organization. The present study was conducted in Chennai, a major southern Indian city with a population of about 7 million. The

reported a growth in employment in the hotels, transport, and communications sector of 4.65% in 19992000 compared to the period 19931994 for the state of Tamilnadu (Chennai is the capital of the state). However, despite the growth in employment in the sector, overall unemployment figures for the sector increased by about 120% from 0.9 million job seekers in 1999 to 1.2 million job seekers in 2000 statewide. It is appropriate to conclude from these data that job mobility in the Chennai labor market is limited. reveal that while pay, gender, marital status, hotel size, or hotel quality had little effect on employee turnover intentions, organizational commitment did have a significant impact. In the study, affective and normative components of organizational commitment, but not continuance commitment, explained employees turnover intentions. suggest that continuance commitment implies psychological costs for employees; when employees perceive a lack of alternatives, they may feel trapped with negative consequences for their attitudes towards the organization and work. It is possible that individuals who have already taken into account, and rationalized, their lack of mobility may express higher levels of continuance commitment but not necessarily satisfaction. Accordingly, H3. Continuance commitment will be negatively related to satisfaction.

2.2.3. Normative commitment Normative commitment to an organization results from perceived duty towards the organization and develops as a result of socialization experiences that stress loyalty to the organization ( ; ). describe normative commitment as the result of both pre-entry (familial and cultural) and post-entry (organizational) socialization processes. Preentry socialization processes suggest the operation of both cultural and family attitudes towards work, or prevalent work ethic. Work ethic and its impacts on organizational commitment and JS have received extensive research attention ( ). Individuals work ethic or values are strongly related to attitudes towards work. Desire for upward career mobility, attitude towards rewards, and the degree of job involvement are all related to an individuals work ethic ( ). Eastern and western cultures differ in substantial ways ( ). A primary difference between the East and the West has been in the influence of religious beliefs on the work ethic. While Western cultures emphasize personal duty and responsibilities towards oneself, Eastern cultures emphasize commitment to family and the group ( ). Ralston et al. suggest that while Eastern cultures are driven primarily by Confucianism, Buddhism, or Taoism, Western cultures are mainly influenced by Protestant or JudeoChristian values. The tenet that work and financial success are a means not only to personal success but also to the achievement of religious goals underpins the Protestant work ethic ( ). noXes that Islam has influenced Arab value systems, including their work ethic. Similarly in India, Hinduism is the predominant religious system and it therefore influences individuals work ethics to a great extent. Both the Islamic and Hindu work ethics place emphasis on hard work, thrift, sense of duty, respect for family, and avoidance of unethical means of wealth accumulation ( ). As a pluralistic society, individuals in India are influenced equally by Judeo-Christian and Islamic influences. Similar to it can be argued that individuals who strongly support a positive work ethic are likely to be more committed to the organization. Additionally, individuals feel constrained to reciprocate with commitment as a result of receiving rewards from the organization. However, as pointed out, only rewards that are beyond individuals expectation levels will influence their reciprocation. Individuals may derive a sense of psychological well-being or satisfaction when they have met the normative expectatior~s of significant others (e.g. parents, co-workers). Deriving from the above,
,

H4. Normative commitment Will be positively related to job satisfaction. 2.3. Moderating effects of organizational commitment on the relationship between WFC and job satisfaction

The relationships between facets of WFC and job satisfaction and between components of organizational organization ( ; ). describe normative commitment as the result of both pre-entry (familial and cultural) and post-entry (organizational) socialization processes. Preentry socialization processes suggest the operation of both cultural and family attitudes towards work, or prevalent work ethic. Work ethic and its impacts on organizational commitment and JS have received extensive research attention ( ). Individuals work ethic or values are strongly related to attitudes towards work. Desire for upward career mobility, attitude towards rewards, and the degree of job involvement are all related to an individuals work ethic ( ). Eastern and western cultures differ in substantial ways ( ). A primary difference between the East and the West has been in the influence of religious beliefs on the work ethic. While Western cultures emphasize personal duty and responsibilities towards oneself, Eastern cultures emphasize commitment to family and the group ( ). Ralston et a!. suggest that while Eastern cultures are driven primarily by Confucianism, Buddhism, or Taoism, Western cultures are mainly influenced by Protestant or JudeoChristian values. The tenet that work and financial success are a means not only to personal success but also to the achievement of religious goals underpins the Protestant work ethic ( ). no.tes that Islam has influenced Arab value systems, including their work ethic. Similarly in India, Hinduism is the predominant religious system and it therefore influences individuals work ethics to a great extent. Both the Islamic and Hindu work ethics place emphasis on hard work, thrift, sense of duty, respect for family, and avoidance of unethical means of wealth accumulation ( ). As a pluralistic society, individuals in India are influenced equally by Judeo-Christian and Islamic influences. Similar to it can be argued that individuals who strongly support a positive work ethic are likely to be more committed to the organization. Additionally, individuals feel constrained to reciprocate with commitment as a result of receiving rewards from the organization. However, as pointed out, only rewards that are beyond individuals expectation levels will influence their reciprocation. Individuals may derive a sense of psychological well-being or satisfaction when they have met the normative expectatior~s of significant others (e.g. parents, co-workers). Deriving from the above,
,

H4. Normative commitment Will be positively related to job satisfaction.

2.3. Moderating effects of organizational commitment on the relationship between WFC and job satisfaction The relationships between facets of WFC and job satisfaction and between components of organizational commitment and job satisfaction have been discussed until this point. While many studies exist tracing the relationships between WFC and job satisfaction (e.g. ),few studies have considered the moderating role of organizational commitment on the relationship. One of the main purposes of this study is to examine if organizational commitment moderates the relationships between WFC and job satisfaction. Some research has considered the effects of an interaction among the facets of organizational commitment on outcome variables. For example found an interaction among components of organizational commitment and sacrifice for the organization. Considerable debate exists about the inter-relationship between the two and whether organizational commitment or job satisfaction is the causal factor. Some research has shown that organizational commitment is causally antecedent to [job satisfaction] ( ); however, other research has shown that job satisfaction leads to organizational commitment (e.g. ). treat job satisfaction as a correlate of organizational commitment because both satisfaction and organizational commitment are attitudinal variables and causal precedence of one or the other depends on situational issues. As noted earlier, job satisfaction is considered a more unstable and volatile attitude compared to organizational commitment which is relatively more stable and durable. If this is the case, then it is reasonable to suggest that job

satisfaction is influenced by organizational commitment. It is proposed for this present study that various organizational factors (e.g. WFC) influence individuals commitment levels that in turn affect job satisfaction. Individuals who express greater commitment to an organization are not likely to reduce their levels of job satisfaction even in stressful conditions. For example, it is possible that irrespective of difficulties they may face due to WFC, they will remain committed to the organization and hence WFC may have no direct effect on their job satisfaction. Thus, there exists a strong impetus to explore the moderating effects of organizational commitment in the relationship between WFC and JS. Extant literature dealing with these relationships is scarce; however, existing research permits hypothesis generation. Self-justification theory was initially proposed by to explain individuals propensity to escalate their commitments to a chosen course of action. The principle of selfjustification has been used to explain the interaction among the components of OC. suggested that when individuals feel trapped in an organization (due to their inability to leave) they may distort their perceptions of their own level of affective commitment to justify their continuance at the organization. Similar to found that continuance commitment interacted with affective commitment such that high sunk costs tempered relationships between affective commitment and the relevant outcome variables. Individuals develop work attitudes such as organizational commitment and job satisfaction using information about the extent that the job interferes with other valued roles ( ). The authors suggest that individuals who value family roles highly are more likely to use information about W~IF to form attitudes. However, it is also possible that individuals who perceive FIW may surmise that it is their work roles that prevent them from attending to their family roles causing resentment towards job-related demands and thereby experiencing lower job satisfaction (~ ). An individuals levels of commitment, especially affective or normative, will moderate the effect of FIW and WIF on job satisfaction such that job satisfaction is either attenuated or amplified. Similar to it is suggested that individuals who perceive WFC may employ their organizational commitment perceptions to justify continuance at the workplace in the face of such WFCs. Alternatively, when individuals perceive their organizations to be lower in WFC compared to peerorganizations, they are likely to develop stronger attitudinal bonds with their organization. As noted, the study was conducted in a city that had a high level of unemployment and it is likely that individual resolve their inability to leave an organization by expressing higher levels of affective commitment. Taken together, the discussions presented above suggest:
,

H5a. Affective organizational commitment moderates the effect of FJW and WIF on employee job satisfaction. H5b. Continuance organizational commitment moderates the effect of FIW and WIF on employee job satisfaction. H5c. Normative organizational commitment moderates the effect of FIW and WIF on employee job satisfaction. 3. Methods Data for the current study were collected from the employees of a large independently owned and operated hotel in south India. Surveys were hand delivered to the training manager who distributed them to employees of the hotel. The employees were encouraged by the management to participate. All employees of the hotel were surveyed. Confidentiality was ensured by having the employees return the surveys anonymously to the training office. One hundred and twenty surveys were distributed; 93 usable surveys were returned yielding a response rate of 77 percent. The support of the institution in completing the surveys no doubt contributed to the high return rate. Respondents were 88 percent male, on average 33 years old, and 56 percent were married. About 62 percent had at least a high school diploma and 38 percent had some college or had completed undergraduate studies. About 46 percent of the sample had at least one child; of these 40 percent had one child, 50 percent had two children and about 10 percent had three children (see ). A couple of reasons prompted collecting data from a single hotel property: one, suggests that lack of homo geneity in study samples can make the interpretation of results problematic. A homogenous sample allows for a more ready interpretation of the results without noise resulting from different organizational human resource policies. Two, research in the social sciences in the hospitality industry is nascent in India. A topic such as WFC that has implications for labor management relations is particularly sensitive and management is less ready to provide research access.

3.1. Measures

Measures for the study were developed from published scales. 3.1.1. Job satisfaction Job satisfaction was measured using a four-item measure asking the participant to respond to on a seven-point response scale. The scale was adapted from the Michigan Organizational Assessment Questionnaire ( ). The authors reported internal consistency reliability for the scale as 0.77. The items used in the present study include Overall, how satisfied are you with your job?, (responses to this item were measured on a 7-point scale as 7 (very satisfied) to I (not at all satisfied), All in all I am satisfied with my job, In general, I dont like my job, and In general, I like working here (responses to these items were measured
Table I Characteristics of the respondents (n = 93) Frequency Gender Male Female Total Education Some school High school graduate College graduate Post graduate Total Marital status Single Married Total Number of children None 2 3 Total

Percentage

11 82 93

11.8 88.2

100.0
11.8 28.0 37.6 22.6 100.0

11 26 35 21 93

40 53 93

43.0 56.9 100.0

49 18 22 4 93

52.6 19.3 23.7 4.4 100.0

as 7 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree). In this study, the alpha coefficient of the adapted scale was 0.83. 3.1.2. Workfamily conflict Workfamily conflict was measured using the scales reported in : each dimension of WFC was measured with five items. For example, WIF was measured by the demands of my work interfere with my home and family life, and things I want to do at home do not get done because of the demands my job puts on me. FIW was measured using items, for exarpple, the demands of my family or spouse/partner interfere with work-related activities, and I sometimes have to miss work so that family responsibilities are met. Responses to these items were measured as 7 (strongly agree) to 1(strongly disagree). reported internal consistency reliabilities of 0.94 for the WIF and 0.82 for FIW scales. In the present study, the scale reliability for the WIF scale was 0.85 and for FIW 0.83. 3.1.3. Organizational commitment The facets of organizational commitment were measured by adapting items from conducted a study in South Korea using the Meyer et al. scales and reported coefficient aiphas of 0.86 (for affective commitment), 0.58 (for continuance commitment), and 0.78 (for normative commitment) in study I and 0.87, 0.64, and 0.76, respectively, in study 2. In the present study, internal Consistency reliabilities of affective commitment was 0.77, normative commitment 0.77, and continuance commitment 0.68.

3.1.4. Control variables Following previous research, age was measured as a continuous variable (mean 35.5; SD 9.55, minimum 22, maximum 59) and its effects controlled for ( ). Gender was measured as a dichotomous variable; number of dependents in numbers was measured and treated as a continuous variable; martial status was coded as Isingle, 2married and 3separated. Finally, education was measured as four categories with 1some school, 2high school completion, 3college graduate and 4post graduate education. These variables were treated as controls and entered in the regression equations. 4. Results provides the means, standard deviations, Pearsons correlations and coefficient alphas (alphas are on the diagonal). The correlations are appropriate. The three organizational commitment facets are significantly correlated among themselves but not with WFC. Satisfaction is negatively related to WFC facets but positively to the commitment facets. The correlations provide adequate evidence of discriminant and convergent validities of the scales used in collecting data.
Table 3 Results of the hierarchical regression analysis Model I Modcl 2 Age 0.429* 0.184 Gender 0.075 0.017 Dependents 0.067 0.105 Marital status 0.003 0.048 Education _0.344* 0.129 WIF 0.024 0.046 FIW _0.327* 0.189 Continuance 0.175 Normative 0.173 Affective 0.466*** Affcctivc*FIW ModeIF 3.181** 7.061*** Adjusted R2 0.214 0.520 R2change 0.293*** Model 3 0.139 0.002 0.093 0.101 0.102 0.099 _1.388* 0.132 0.128 0.048 1.183* 7.192*** 0.549 0.032*

Note: *p<O.05; **p<O.Ol; ~~~p<o.Ool. All coefficients reported are standardized betas.

Hierarchical linear regression analyses, including two-way interaction terms, were conducted using centered predictor variables to reduce multicollinearity among the interaction terms ( ). presents the results of the hierarchical linear regression analyses. Data for job satisfaction were transformed and normalized using a natural-log transformation. Variables were entered in three blocks: first, the main effects of WFC were tested, next main effects of organizational commitment were examined, and finally, the interaction terms were entered. Age was entered as a control in each block. Nonsignificant interaction terms were removed from the regression equation and the analysis rerun. 4.1. Direct effects The results show that after controlling for the effects of age, gender, dependents, marital status, and education WIF has negative association with job satisfaction but the effect is not statistically significant. However, as predicted FIW does have a negative and significant relationship with job satisfaction (,3 = O.327,p <0.05). This indicates that individuals who perceive that their family roles interfering with their work roles express lower job satisfaction. Consistent with the principle of self-justification, individuals may explain their inability to meet family role obligations without it also affecting their work roles by attributing their inability to do so to the job. That is, they are probably thinking if only this job were not so demanding I will be able to meet my family obligations and also my work roles. Hypothesis 1 received partial support. H2 and H4 stated that individuals affective and normative commitment respectively will be positively related to job satisfaction. The data support H2 (/3 = 0.4&i,p<0.OOI). However, H4 was not supported: normative commitment had a positive but statistically insignificant relationship with job satisfaction (/3 = 0.173, n.s.). The data suggest that affective commitment is more strongly related to job satisfaction than normative commitment. H3 predicted that continuance commitment will be negatively related to job satisfaction. This hypothesis was not supported by the data.

4.2. Moderation effects Finally, H5a,b and c proposed that the three components of commitment will moderate the effects of FIW and WIF on job satisfaction. The tests revealed that only one of the six potential moderation terms was significant. The interaction term for affective commitment and FIW had a significant and positive relationship with job satisfaction (/3 = l.l83,p <0.05). Hypothesis H5a, but not 5b or Sc, was supported. also shows that the adjusted R2 was 0.549; the R2 change and the overall model were statistically significant. 5. Discussion and research directions Research has provided evidence that WFC relates negatively to job satisfaction (e.g. Evidence of this relationship implies that reducing conflicts due to work and family role intersections will enhance employee attitudes, such as job satisfaction, towards work. Other research investigated the relationships between organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Two streams of research emerged: one provided evidence of an organizational commitment to job satisfaction link ( ) while the other concluded the opposite (e.g. ). Limited research has evaluated the relationships between WFC, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction together, especially in the hospitality industry (for exceptions, see ). The interrelationships among the variables were modeled as follows: WFC relates negatively to job satisfaction but to the extent individuals are committed to their organizations the effect of WFC on job satisfaction is likely to be attenuated. Two overarching points are considered in explaining the results of this study: one, the culturally driven importance of family roles over work roles ( ), and two, that attitudinal rather than calculative commitment is more strongly related to job satisfaction (another attitudinal variable) (
).

In terms of relationships between job satisfaction and WFC, reported stronger correla tions between job satisfaction and WIF than FIW. Differently, the results of this study indicate that FIW was more strongly related to job satisfaction than WIF. Similarly, report that FIW was more strongly related to turnover intentions than WIF in a sample of Jordanian hotel employees. These results together argue for more attention to situational and cultural influences in WFC. Cultural orientation towards family, the idea of value attainment and what is more valuablework or familyto an individual, and the operation of a self-justification principle may account for the attribution of FIW to job related factors. In developing a cross-cultural model of the relationships between WFCs and organizationally important attitudes, it is important to account for particular cultural influences and consequent attributions individuals make for their level of job satisfaction (cf. ). Future research may want to test this notion more closely. It is possible that the family plays a bigger role in individuals lives in certain nations or cultural groups than in others; individuals in collectivist societies and less developed nations are more family oriented than are individuals in individualist and developed nations
( ).

The relationships between antecedents, consequents and organizational commitment have been traced and summarized in a number of reviews (e.g. ). In the present study, stress (equivalently, WFC) is considered an antecedent of organizational commitment and job satisfaction the consequent. As noted, there is ambivalent evidence regarding the precise causal relationships between organizational commitment and job satisfaction. This project follows the lead of and and models organiza tional commitment as a moderator of the relationship between WFC and job satisfaction. Further, the notion that job satisfaction is a relatively less stable job related attitude ( ) lends support to the conceptualization. reported that attitudinal commitment was more strongly related to job satisfaction. Similarly, the results of the present study show that attitudinal componentsnamely affective and normativewere more strongly related to job satisfaction than was continuance (or calculative) commitment. The results also indicate that only the affective component of organizational commitment moderates the effects of WFC on job satisfaction but only in the case of FIW (that is when family roles interfere with work roles). Following the arguments

of self-justification, it is possible that individuals who feel stress because of their inability to attend to their family roles due to their work may attribute such inability to their work reducing their satisfaction. In this event, individuals who are highly committed to the organization may modify the level of such attribution and continue to remain satisfied. The study also investigated whether normative commitment and calculative commitment moderated the effects of FIW and WIF on job satisfaction. No significant relationships were evident for these components for either FIW or WIF. . noted that normative commitment has been subsumed into the attitudinal commitment. It is possible that the effects of normative commitment in this study have been captured by affective commitmenta component that is more purel\ attitudinal than normative commitment. Therefore, normative commitment had no separate effects in this stt~v. Continuance commitment is considered a form of calculative commitment since individuals assess their ah~rnatives in deciding whether they will continue their tenure an organization ( ). Indi~idu~I calculative commitment to an organization may be subsumed under affective commitment when labor markei conditions do not permit such calculations to be made That is, individuals may rationalize away their inabiliti switch jobs by increasing their affective commitment to their jobs. It is possible that due to this continuance commitment had no significant effect in this study. The results extend earlier work establishing the link between WFC and job satisfaction (e.g. ) by accounting for the role of organizational commitment as a moderator. Future studies may want to use structural equation modeling to more clearly understand the causal linkages among the variables. Researchers may want to develop specific models of the interrelationships among the commitment components and WFC in different contexts (e.g. cultural. organization types).
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The results of this research have implications for theory development especially in the context of international human resources management in hospitality industry. First, while existing research suggests that both WIF and FIW are important antecedents to job satisfaction, the results of this study show that cultural influences have to be taken into account. In this study, FIW was a more influential factor. Not only cultural but also labor market dynamics play an important role in individuals job related attitudes. Research has to account for industry and market characteristics in order to develop valid models of WFC and work attitudes. For this research, data were collected at a location which had a high level of job immobility. Therefore, the relationships described here are particularly valid for similar labor markets. Future research has to factor in the labor market dynamics as a control variable if a more robust model of WFC and its relationships with work attitudes is to be developed. Managers can use this research to design organizational policies. The data suggest that it is in the interest of organizational managers to make every effort to increase the level of affective commitment among their employees. As the data show, individuals who are high in affective commitment tend to be more satisfied with their jobs irrespective of the level of WFC, particularly when their family roles interfere with their work. note employees who felt comfortable in their roles and who felt competent in the job, expressed greater affective attachment to the organization. Competency at work is similar to self-efficacy whjch is defined as the belief that one can perform specific tasks and behaviors ( ).The authors note, Because self-efficacy is a key component in performance, designing training to build self-efficacy offers the potential to enhance current performance (p. 112). Managers may want to establish training programs that enhance the self-efficacy of their employees and thereby increase employees commitment levels. note, Enhanced job characteristics, particularly taken as an aggregate, offer promise as an antecedent to the development of OC [organizational commitment]. They suggest that distinct aspects of jobs, such as the opportunity to demonstrate skill variety, or the level of autonomy affect employees coninlitment to the organization. While hospitality researchers can investigate what particular aspects of a job enhances organizational commitment, industry managers should attempt to design jobs that will enhance employees organizational commitment. propose that employees behavior at work and their commitment to the organization is related to multiple foci both within and outside the organization. The authors recommend managers and researchers alike to take a multiple commitment approach over approaches that consider single and isolated commitments. Thus, employees commitments are driven not only by family but also the characteristics of the job, supervisor quality, and compensation among others. Therefore, managers should identify those antecedents of commitment that may be peculiar to their constituents but also pay attention to issues that recur as

causes of commitment: for example, stress, role conflicts, and WFC. Managers can directly deal with the conflicts that arise because of the family roles flexible work schedules, child and elder care support, medical and health carewill greatly reduce stresses that individuals face and increase their job satisfaction. For example, US Endoscopy provides free day care to its employees at a cost of between $8000 and $15 000 per child in day care while Cleveland State University offers flexible work start and end times, and job-sharing. Both organizations were recognized for their role in helping employees achieve a work-life balance ( ). Regional differences in what attributes actually contribute to worker stress no doubt exist. Surveying employees on the most stress-inducing factors will allow managers to develop organizational strategies to alleviate some of the stresses. Managers can thus adopt a two-pronged strategy to increase employee commitment and job satisfaction. 6. Limitations As with any study of this nature, a number of limitations have to be pointed out. First, the cross-sectional sampling procedures limit assumptions of causality. Longitudinal studies tracing the effects of WFC on job satisfaction and the role of organizational commitment may provide a more fine grained analysis of the interrelationships. Second, the study used selfreports to collect data and may thus be susceptible to comMon-method variance bias. However, it must be noted that similar to the organizational commitment measures are considered areas where perceptpercept inflation is neither dominant nor present. Job satisfaction is considered a measure in which there may be inflation due to common method bias. The use of standard and validated measures, such as those used in this study, reduces the possibility of such bias. Future research may consider using multiple methods to reduce such bias. Third, while using data from a single hotel firm in one location controls for location- and firm-specific factors, permitting an appropriate test of conceptual ideas, such specificity precludes generalization to other locations without further tests. Research across multiple hotel companies, locations, and countries may permit the development of a more general model of the relationships among the variables of interest. Finally, while a number of demographic variables normally considered in organizational and WFC research were included in this study, it is perhaps prudent to include personality and cultural orientation variables to control for the effects of individual differences. 7. Conclusions The rapidly globalizing hospitality industry faces cht~llenges with implementation of appropriate and productive HR practices worldwide. As other researchers have noted, it is inappropriate to transfer research findings based in certain cultures and societies to others without adequate investigation. The hospitality industry in Asia is growing at a rapid pace with the international hospitality majors playing an important role in the expansion. It is important therefore for worldwide industry managers to understand if and what differences there are in the typical Asian hospitality employee. This study contributes to this under-standing by exploring the relationship of work and family role conflicts, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction. This study has highlighted the role of affective commitment in moderating the effects on job satisfaction of conflicts arising from employees family roles. Cultural factors such as religion and economic factors such as local labor market conditions were explored as potential influences on commitment to the organization. This study is an important first step in understanding how Asian employees perceive and attribute role conflicts and how such attribution affects job satisfaction. Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of Mr. M.O. Koshi. The authors thank three anonymous reviewers for their comments which have substantially improved this paper.