April 1997 Ref : 02004Ren9766

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Chemical guidelines for water/steam cycle of fossil fired units

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Thermal Generation Study Committee

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The Union of the Electricity Industry - EURELECTRIC , formed as a result of a merger in 1 December 1999 of the twin Electricity Industry Associations, UNIPEDE and EURELECTRIC2, is the sole sector association representing the common interests of the European Electricity Industry and its worldwide affiliates and associates. Its mission is to contribute to the development and competitiveness of the Electricity Industry and to promote the role of electricity in the advancement of society. As a centre of strategic expertise, the Union of the Electricity Industry - EURELECTRIC will identify and represent the common interests of its members and assist them in formulating common solutions to be implemented and in coordinating and carrying out the necessary actions. To that end it will also act in liaison with other international associations and organisations, respecting the specific missions and responsibilities of these organisations. The Union of the Electricity Industry - EURELECTRIC is also the association of the Electricity Industry within the European Union representing it in public affairs, in particular in relation to the institutions of the EU and other international organisations, in order to promote the interests of its members at a political level and to create awareness of its policies. The reports published by EURELECTRIC are the result of the work of its structure of expertise: they represent one of the most direct methods of circulating knowledge and information throughout the sector, on subjects of common interest. They are intended for wide circulation both within the electricity supply industry and outside it. Please do not hesitate to ask for the latest available printed EURELECTRIC publications catalogue (with summaries of EURELECTRIC reports) from:

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Chemical guidelines for water/steam cycle of fossil fired units

............................................................................................ Thermal Generation Study Committee ............................................................................................

Paper prepared by:

Geoff Bignold (GB), Stefano Concari (IT), Karol Daucik (DK), Geoff Fitchett (GB), Richard Harries (GB), Giuliano Magnani (IT), Giovanni Quadri, (IT), Roger Roofthooft, (BE), Andre Zeijseink, (NLs)

Copyright Union of the Electricity Industry - EURELECTRIC, 2000 All rights reserved Printed at EURELECTRIC, Brussels (Belgium)

TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................................................................................................i GLOSSARY .........................................................................................................................ii 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................1
1.1 1.2 1.3 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Overview .......................................................................................................................... 1 Review of Current Practice of UNIPEDE Members........................................................... 1 Scope of the Guidelines..................................................................................................... 2 Objectives and Principles ................................................................................................. 3 Feed-water system ............................................................................................................ 3 Boiler ............................................................................................................................... 4 Turbine, superheater and reheater.................................................................................... 5

2. BASICS OF DEPOSITION AND CORROSION PROTECTION .................................3

3. RECOMMENDED CONCEPT OF CHEMICAL CONTROL .......................................5 4. RECOMMENDED CONTROL PARAMETERS ..........................................................6

4.1 4.2 4.3 Feed-water and steam....................................................................................................... 6 Boiler water...................................................................................................................... 7 Condensate....................................................................................................................... 8

5. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS .......................................................................................8 6. REFERENCES .............................................................................................................8 7. TABLES .......................................................................................................................9

TABLE I. Definitions and characteristic of Action Levels..................................................... 10 TABLE II. Key parameters for control of water/steam cycle .................................................. 11 TABLE III. Overview of Action Levels .................................................................................... 11

Appendix 1..........................................................................................................................21 Appendix 2..........................................................................................................................27 Appendix 3..........................................................................................................................32

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The chemical control of water/steam cycles in member countries of UNIPEDE is based on experience published in world literature, own operational experiences and guidelines issued by different national and international bodies. The Therchim Committee has made an inquiry into the general practice for chemical control of water/steam cycles of fossil-fired power units in UNIPEDE members. The inquiry was addressed to member countries being represented in the committee. The answers were evaluated and on the basis of this evaluation it was decided to formulate UNIPEDE Chemical guidelines for water/steam cycles of fossil units. A group of experts from several countries has been constituted to develop generic guidelines. The guidelines are based on the data assembled from the inquiry. As the practice in single countries is adapted to the local conditions (type of the installation, operation mode etc.), it was necessary to make the guidelines applicable to the broadest possible range of units used by utilities in UNIPEDE countries. Furthermore, the guidelines have in view the present and the near future developments of the design, operation and control of power plants. In particular, two directions have been considered during development of the guidelines. The introduction of units operating at higher and higher pressure and temperature and introduction of combined cycle units operating at several pressure stages, where the low pressure stage is operating at unusually low pressure. Thus, the pressure range is extended in both directions. Chemical control of water steam cycle based on the concept of action levels was originally been introduced by nuclear power utilities. The concept was introduced for the first time for fossil fired plants by EPRI. Several countries around the world, among them some of the UNIPEDE members, adopted the concept because of its detailed guidance of operators during chemical disturbances of the cycle. However, the definitions of action levels have to be adjusted when transforming the concept from the application on nuclear power plants to the application on fossil plants. The safety considerations on nuclear plants demand very rigid application of the action level concept, while on fossil plants it is more or less a question of an economic assessment. The length of time a fossil fired plant should be allowed to operate at a certain action level is a question of cost-benefit evaluation. The concept of action levels is introduced in the UNIPEDE Guidelines, but some important adjustments are made to the concept used by nuclear utilities, as well as to the concept introduced by EPRI for fossil fired plants. Three action levels and a target for normal operation are defined. Definitions of action levels are slightly different from the EPRI definitions. A characterisation of each action level is given with an indication of the risk connected to operation at these conditions. Furthermore, guidance is given for actions whenever an action level is reached during operation. The same action levels are recommended for start-up procedure. In this case the unit is in action level 3 region before start-up. Guidance is given for procedure steps during start-up according to a successive purification of the cycle and adjustment of parameters. The UNIPEDE guidelines distinguish between 2 types of chemical parameters - key parameters and diagnostic parameters. Key parameters are basically purity parameters which should be continuously monitored, if possible, whereas diagnostic parameters are measured according to operational needs. The most important difference between parameters is reflected at action level 3, where key parameters call for a forced shut-down of the unit. The diagnostic parameters call for less radical actions such as load reduction. Almost all the parameters are specified in diagrams, where the interdependency of parameters is defined. In some cases it is the interdependency of two chemical parameters (such as pH and oxygen concentration in feedwater), in others it is dependency of a chemical parameter on full load operating pressure (such as acid conductivity). In these cases, other parameters, such as heat flux, would be more correct to use, though extremely inconvenient. There is a certain functionality between the correct parameters and pressure, thus the most convenient parameter is chosen. For a successfull implementation of the guidelines, a close cooperation between station chemist and operators, as well as support from the management, is essential.

GLOSSARY
Acid conductivity
AVT Conductivity measured after exchange of cations to H+ passing an acid regenerated cation exchanger. Thus, alkalinity is neutralised and all salts are converted to acids. All Volatile Treatment. Conditioning concept, where ammonia is used with or without addition of hydrazine as oxygen scavenger. Condensate polishing plant. Combined Water Treatment (in this document called Oxygenated Treatment, OT). Conditioning concept, where ammonia and oxygen are added. Very high purity of water is required for succesful application of this concept. Electric Power Research Institute, USA. Operation time at reference conditions causing the same wear or damage as real operation time at actual conditions. Oxygenated Treatment (also called CWT). Conditioning concept, where ammonia and oxygen are added. Very high purity of water is required for succesful application of this concept. Index expressing rate of lifetime consumption relative to lifetime consumption at reference conditions Sum of chlorides and sulphates expressed as mg chlorides / kg water. UNIPEDE committee of chemical experts. Technische Vereinigung der Grosskesselbetrieber, German founded international organisation of boiler owners.

CPP CWT

EPRI Equivalent Lifetime

OT

Quality Index

Strong Mineral Acids Therchim VGB

ii

1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Overview

The integrity of water/steam circuits of thermo-electric power plants is critically dependent on chemistry issues to ensure the avoidance of excessive corrosion damage and deposition. The consequences of inappropriate chemistries can be severe irreversible plant damage requiring extensive repairs and remedial actions. Accordingly there has been widespread development, generally on a country by country and in some cases on a company by company basis, of guidelines for the chemistry of fossil fired plants. Discussion of this subject on a seminar (at the Israel meeting of THERCHIM, Group of Experts meeting in 1995) showed a convergence of national guidelines comparing to the earlier inquiry [1] in 1970. Because of differences in national standards at that time, joint UNIPEDE guidelines could not be prepared. The current agreement between countries motivated formation of a Working Group for the preparation of the UNIPEDE guidelines for the chemical control of steam water circuits. This includes the establishment of guidance for the optimisation of plant integrity and availability when operating for periods outside the normal specification range. The approach adopted has been to encompass all of the national and company reference guidelines for the chemical control of large generating plant available from the utilities represented in UNIPEDE. These guidelines have been developed and defined taking account of both operational experience and the recommendations of the plant suppliers. The concept of action levels for important chemical control parameters has been adopted, and a procedure for further development of the use of these in terms of plant lifetime assessment is suggested. In some of the national and company guidelines action levels are already identified for some parameters for the out of specification operation of the water, steam circuit. These set out, in broad terms, the time limits for operation out of specification. In general the action level approach is not supported by the plant suppliers who tend to specify normal operating parameters only. In Europe the VGB recommendations[2], which apply to industrial plants in addition to power systems carry international authority. The concept of action levels has also been adopted by the Electrical Power Research Institute (EPRI) in the USA[3]; these are probably the most widely adopted guidelines world wide. The UNIPEDE guidelines will only address fossil fuelled power plants. The action level approach adopted covers chemical control parameters from normal acceptable operation, through minor perturbations, to more serious deviations and ultimately plant shut down. Control parameters are chosen as those which are directly influenceable by operator intervention.

1.2

Review of Current Practice of UNIPEDE Members

Guidelines from several countries/utilities have been collected together and compared. Only the most significant chemical parameters for feed-water, boiler water, and steam have been considered, and although a few UNIPEDE members already use the action level approach, the normal operating values in individual guidelines have been found to be quite similar (see Appendix 1). It has therefore proved feasible to propose action levels which are broadly applicable across UNIPEDE members. Data from the inquiry relate to high pressure plants, including both once through and drum type boilers. The following operational regimes are covered: All volatile treatment, AVT, - reducing regimes in which pH is controlled with ammonia and an oxygen scavenger (usually hydrazine) may be added. Combined water treatment, CWT, or oxygenated treatment, OT, - ammonia under slightly oxidising conditions usually achieved by oxygen dosing with very restrictive limits on acid conductivity. (In these guidelines the acronym OT will be used.)

Non-volatile alkali - sodium hydroxide or sodium phosphate boiler water treatment applied under reducing conditions. (This regime is limited to drum boiler circuits only and ammonia is still used to adjust pH in feed-water and steam).

All the plants operate with high purity water and steam conditions and almost all national and company guidelines define the target parameter values to be aimed for (either below or within which to operate) and the maximum values (or the maximum range) not to be exceeded. The individual guidelines are based largely on the experience gained in the last twenty years as a result of many earlier plant failures resulting from inadequate control of water and steam purity.

1.3

Scope of the Guidelines

These guidelines are intended for the operation of fossil fired generating plants. They do not cover low rated industrial equipment, that operate with softened water. They include multi-pressure combined cycle plants, where each stage is considered as an individual boiler with respect to limits, but the control strategy have to take account the interdependency of stages. Existing guidance, reflecting good practice, takes into account avoidance of corrosion and deposition within power plant components. In specifying action levels an attempt is made to relate deviation from good practice to possible plant damage. In implementing the guidelines, it must be borne in mind that : Plant chemistry provides the manager with information for decision making. Commitment of management, to make economic and safety decisions based on risk assessment, backed by high quality technical guidance, is essential. Action levels must be credible to those running the plant, and making operational decisions, not just those with specialist chemistry knowledge. Operators are normally opposed to shutting-down plant as a consequence of loss of chemical control. Sufficient information must be available on which to base a request for intervention.

The guidelines recommend conditions for both continuous operation and for plant start-up. A target range and three levels of action are defined in simple terms below, and in more detail in table 1. Target range, no action required; this range covers the practicable values which plant managers will normally achieve without excessive cost. Action level 1, minor disturbance requiring investigation, diagnosis and optimization. Action level 2, serious disturbance in chemical control requiring diagnosis and action to eliminate the cause. Action level 3, very serious disturbance requiring substantial operator intervention, such as load reduction, or plant shut-down. The limits are the same for start-up and continuous operation. For start-up however, the action levels should be used for optimising the start-up procedure.

2.

BASICS OF DEPOSITION AND CORROSION PROTECTION

2.1

Objectives and Principles

Corrosion is a process of unwanted and uncontrolled attack on the materials of construction. Deposition occurs as a byproduct of this and also from the process of supersaturation of impurities in the water/steam cycle; it may be equally harmful. The objectives of chemical control of the water/steam circuit are to minimise corrosion damage and deposition on the internal surfaces of water/steam circuit as far as is economically prudent: The basic principles involved in minimising corrosion and deposition are: Minimisation of the ingress of impurities into the water/steam circuit. Control of redox potential to stabilise oxide films and to minimise transport of metal oxides (usually pracised by control of oxygen). Control of the pH to counter corrosion effects, to stabilise oxide films and to minimise transport of metal oxides.

Other major influences on the corrosion/deposition process include plant operating history, heat flux and the impact of phase transitions.

Control of the corrosion and deposition processes are considered for the following areas of plant: Feed-water and condensate system Boiler Turbine and steam circuits

2.2

Feed-water system

The basic approach to feed-water conditioning is maintenance of sufficient water purity to limit corrosion of feed train material and to minimise the transport of corrosion products and corrosive contaminants to the boiler. For once through boilers the only conditioning applied will generally be to the feed-water. In this cases the quality of the steam, is directly determined by the quality of the feed-water. For drum boiler circuits, although further control measures may be applied in the evaporator, it remains good practice for modern power units to have the same target with respect to feed-water and steam. Corrosion rarely threatens the integrity of the feed system as such. Erosion-corrosion of mild steel components, where water velocities and turbulence are high and oxygen levels are low, can cause damage and will also lead to enhanced iron levels which are fed forward to the boiler. Corrosion of copper alloys can be stimulated by the combined effect of dissolved oxygen and ammonia; this can cause copper to be transported from the feed system into the bolier and turbine. Traditionally the chemical systems for conditioning feed-water fall into two groups: The reducing (ammonia or an amine with hydrazine) all volatile treatment, (AVT), where the protection steel is based on low solubility of iron oxides at elevated pH The oxidising (oxygen with a low concentration of ammonia) treatment (OT), with very low anion concentrations (low acid conductivity), where the protection of steel is based on low solubility of iron oxides at elevated oxidation-reduction potential.

Although individual national and company guidelines generally specify limited concentration ranges, overall experience indicates that these two protection mechanisms act simultaneously and there are no distinguished border lines between these types of conditioning. On the contrary, there is seen to be a continuum of suitable operation conditions in a broad range with high pH and low oxygen concentration at one end, and low pH and high oxygen concentration at the other. Achievable purity of feed-water determines the degree of freedom available to operators within this range (high oxygen concentrations are incompatible with chloride and sulphate contamination). Choice of the optimal chemical conditions within this broad range will be influenced by the boiler type, operational conditions, design and materials of construction. The presence of the following materials is particularly important: Carbon steels are particularly compatible with mildly oxidising conditions in the absence of contamination anions (chloride, sulphate, etc.) Copper and copper alloys may suffer oxide transport problems in oxidising regimes in some plants and are vulnerable to attack by high levels of ammonia. Other materials, such as titanium, high chromium steel and chromium nickel steel are relatively indifferent to the conditioning regime.

2.3

Boiler

Two general classes of boilers are in use: Once through boilers in which water is evaporated to a high steam content. These are not tolerant of nonvolatile dosing chemicals and generally operate without further dosing downward the feedwater chemical dosing. Drum boilers in which steam separation takes place in an unheated vessel. Boiling occurs in tubes through which water from the drum is recirculated, preventing dryout at the boiling surfaces. Such boilers may be tolerant of addition of low levels of non-volatile alkalis to prevent any risk of acidic corrosion.

The major objectives of boiler water treatment are to minimise deposition and corrosion of the boiler and to ensure that steam is of the appropriate quality. During initial operation or post chemical cleaning, the boiler steel reacts with the water and steam to produce a protective film of iron oxides. The rate of reaction decreases with time as the thickness of the protective oxide film increases. Boiler integrity can be prejudiced by a number of corrosion mechanisms or by overheating due to excessive thickness of oxide layers. Nonvolatile impurities can concentrate in boilers and can increase the risk of corrosion. A number of factors influence this. The build up of porous oxides by deposition onto heat transfer surfaces is particularly detrimental. Other important factors include details of design, construction and operating regime. The optimum boiler water condition is mildly alkaline. Deviation either to acidic or to highly alkaline conditions carries a risk of damage. Acid forming species (particularly chlorides, but also sulphates and organic anions) if present and able to concentrate at boiler tube surfaces can result in very rapid rates of general corrosion. This type of corrosion is often accompanied by hydrogen damage in mild steels which can lead to large sudden tube failures. Acids can be generated from neutral salts particularly under oxidising conditions, and so it is particularly important to minimise ingress of chlorides and sulphates when using oxidising treatments and during oxygen transients at start-up for reducing treatments.

If strong alkalis concentrate at surfaces, corrosion at unacceptable rates can also occur. Hydrogen damage is not normally caused by this type of attack, but some alloys are vulnerable to stress corrosion cracking and grooving in very high pH environments.

The required benign boiler water which is mildly alkaline at operating temperatures and pressures is achieved using either an AVT or solid alkali treatment. The choice of regime may be limited by heat flux considerations, since this has a strong effect on concentration of involatile materials at boiling surfaces. Furthermore all substances that are added to control boiler water corrosion will inevitably impact upon steam quality. Ideally the aim is to have a zero concentration of impurities, but this is impractical and realistic targets for both acceptable operation and limited out of specification operation are needed.

2.4

Turbine, superheater and reheater

No direct conditioning of steam is normally applied, and hence the chemical quality of steam derives from the measures applied to control feed and boiler water. Thus, one of the objectives of feed-water and boiler water conditioning is to avoid deposition and corrosion in the steam pipework and turbine. Steam purity must be high and actual quality is determined by: The concentration and solubility of salts in steam. The solubility is a function of pressure, temperature and of other chemical components

Carry over of droplets of boiler water Injection of contaminated feed-water into steam for attemporation.

Both acidic and alkaline contaminants are important : Sodium hydroxide, hydrogen sulphates and chlorides at certain concentrations present a stress corrosion cracking risk to steels, particularly with austenitic structures. Salts deposited in steam pipework on-load can result in the development of concentrated solutions off-load following condensation of residual steam. This effect is particularly significant for reheaters and some types of feedheaters. Decomposition products of organic impurities (organic and carbonate anions) may be implicated in turbine damage. The early condensation zone of the turbine is particularly sensitive to low volatility contaminants. These impurities can concentrate on surfaces and in the very first droplets of condensate to form an aggressive environment. Silica is the most soluble of the common boiler water contaminants in high pressure steam and can become supersaturated during expansion in the turbine. This results in deposition on the blades causing loss of turbine efficiency, and in severe cases, loss of output. 3. RECOMMENDED CONCEPT OF CHEMICAL CONTROL

The chemical control is based on specifications of target and 3 action levels for out of target concentrations of chemical species. The most significant parameters are defined as key parameters and stringent control of them is required. If possible continuous monitoring must be applied. Other chemical measurements will frequently provide valuable diagnostic data. Laboratory support is required for periodical extended analysis and check of monitors.

The action levels are defined which allow the operator to use the same set of limits for continuous operation and for start-up. The detailed definitions of action levels are specified separately for these situations in table 1. Action levels are time related and the combination of concentration and time are set to minimise damage to feed water systems, boiler and turbine components from corrosion and deposition processes. The limits for action levels are defined as a function of pressure. This is a simplified approach; there are other parameters which affect the "true" limits (e.g. heat flux). Nevertheless, pressure has been chosen as the most convenient parameter for operators. Boilers with extraordinary high heat flux (some designs of oil fired boilers) may require more stringent limits particularly in regard of boiler water quality. Operation in action level 1 regularly requires extended analysis for diagnostic and optimisation purpose. Operation in action level 2 requires qualified interpretation of laboratory and monitor data to enable the operators to take appropriate corrective steps. Operation in action level 3 with respect to the key parameters requires immediate action to shut-down the unit. In cases when less critical parameters (i.e. results of diagnostic measurements) exceed action level 3, load reduction will generally be required until the fault is rectified.

It is the aim of the guidelines to avoid the shut-down requirement as long as there is any realistic chance to eliminate the source of trouble. This should be managed by such actions as load reduction to reduce heat flux (i.e. reducing the risk of damage whilst remedial actions are being undertaken) before action level 3 limits are exceeded. Load reductions may also be essential when feed-water contamination is encountered in order to allow the flow of this water to attemporator sprays to be terminated without risk of overheating. When a drum boiler on AVT dosing is exposed to high levels of impurities, it can be temporarily conditioned with solid alkali (giving it higher tolerance of impurities) and thus delaying or avoiding action level 3. Some designs of once-through boilers, with water filled level holding vessel having drain facilities, approach the conditions of drum boiler (though without moisture separators) during low load operation. The key parameters for action level 3 decisions are set out in table II. 4. RECOMMENDED CONTROL PARAMETERS Chemical parameters are specified for the following sampling points: Condensate at the condensate pump discharge Feed-water at the economizer inlet Boiler water (preferably at a downcomer sampling point) Steam (saturated and/or superheated)

Table III summarises the specifications of chemical control parameters. Most of these are detailed in the diagrams in chapter 7, with parameters characterising the purity of the system expressed as function of operating pressure. 4.1 Feed-water and steam

Purity specifications for feed-water at the economizer inlet and for steam are the same, as no distinction is drawn between units with drums and those with once-through boilers. Operation with condenser leakage on a drum boiler unit without a condensate polishing plant (CPP) is considered as operation at particular action level. The specification of pH and oxygen concentration in feed-water is given as a broad range for information in figure 1 and 2 (for systems with and without copper alloys). This specification does not suggest random operation within this range, but identifies the limit at which action level 3 becomes applicable.

To find a suitable target operational feed-water pH and oxygen range for a particular unit it is necessary to optimize conditions for this unit according to its design, materials of construction, operation mode and achievable purity of the water/steam cycle. Particularly when copper alloys are used in the water/steam circuit, the optimisation must take into account the enhancement of copper oxide solubility in the presence of higher levels of oxygen and ammonia. Having determined the optimum operational pH, the target operating range is defined as within 0.2 of this value, action level 1 is defined as within 0.4 and action level 2 is defined as within 1. Limits for oxygen are station specific and are thus individually estimated. Generally the purer feed-water is, the more relaxed specifications on oxygen can be accepted. Boiler water pH of drum boilers operating on AVT treatment is determined by the pH of feed-water. A careful control of low limits in feed-water pH is therefore essential (specified in table III). Control of pH of feed-water (and hence of steam) may be based on direct conductivity measurements as a convenient reliable alternative for many plants. Figure 3 specifies the action levels for acid conductivity of steam and feed-water. Figure 4 shows action level limits for sodium in steam. For once through boilers this limits apply to superheated steam as well as to feed-water. For drum boilers this applies to saturated steam. 4.2 Boiler water

For boiler water, the action levels for units with drum boilers vary depending upon whether the applied treatment is AVT or non-volatile alkali. Because of the enhanced ability of sodium hydroxide and phosphate dosed systems to maintain alkaline conditions at the boiler tube surface, greater concentrations of impurities than under AVT conditioning are tolerable in the bulk water and this is reflected in a higher acceptable acid conductivity. Action levels and target ranges for boiler water pH are given in figure 5 . The figure expresses the dependence of the high and low pH limits on the pressure of the boiler and on the acid conductivity of boiler water. The optimal pH of boiler water increases with increase of acid conductivity, but falls with increasing pressure. The ratio of acid conductivity to boiler pressure can be used to derive specific pH limits for any individual boiler. Some examples of this procedure are shown in Appendix 2. The broad range of normal operation is for general guidance only. The normal range of operation for a given unit is dependent upon the chosen chemical conditioning regime and on factors specific to that unit. Boiler water pH for AVT dosed plant is determined by feed-water treatment. The control of feed-water pH is thus essential not only for condensate and feed-water circuit, but also for the boiler. Because of the high volatility of ammonia, the pH of boiler water is considerably lower than the pH of feed-water. Particularly at low pressure a very high ammonia concentration is necessary to reach sufficient high pH in boiler water. Therefore, AVT treatment of boilers below 8MPa, particularly those with copper alloy components in the condenser and/or feedwater circuit, is not recommended. The control of boiler water pH in units conditioned with sodium hydroxide is usually based on the measurement of conductivity and acid conductivity. These two parameters give the operator a safe and reliable method to controlling boiler water purity by blow down and pH by either dosing additional NaOH or blowing down the excess. Boiler water pH in units alkalized with a phosphate is controlled by direct measurement of pH and phosphate. On units where phosphate hide-out occurs, a measurement of sodium is also necessary to assure adequate controll. Guideline concentrations for the most important impurities in boiler water are given in figures 6, 7 and 8. The anionic impurities are controlled via acid conductivity measurements of boiler water, when AVT or sodium hydroxide is used for pH control. When phosphate treatment is chosen for pH control, this measurement would be disturbed by phosphate contribution to the acid conductivity. Limits for concentration of strong mineral

acids (fig. 9) are then used to ensure purity of boiler water. The practical definition of strong mineral acid concentration is the sum of chloride and sulphate concentrations.

4.3

Condensate

Because condenser leakage is the major source of impurities in circuits, monitoring of the condensate is particularly important as an early indicator of the need for action. As station circuits vary, consideration for each plant on an individual basis is necessary to ensure that contaminated condensate is not fed to vulnerable components (such as attemporator sprays, etc.). Units with once through boiler are always equipped with a condensate polishing plant (CPP) to take care of this problem. The CPP should be designed, maintained and operated on a standard which is able to cope with condenser leakages. Drum boiler units often do not have a CPP and in case of condenser leakage precautions must be taken to avoid damage. The specific action level responses (action level determined by feed-water specifications) appropriate to contamination of condensate are as follows: Action level 1 - reduce flow to attemporators sufficiently to maintain sodium in steam within target. This may imply either feeding attemporators from an uncontaminated alternative source, or minor load reduction in order to avoid overheating. Action level 2 - terminate flow to attemporators. Adjust load and provide alternative uncontaminated water source as appropriate. Prepare to increase boiler blow-down or condensate polisher regeneration frequency (where fitted). Plan to address condenser leakage at first convenient opportunity. Action level 3 - reduce load and address condenser leakage as soon as practicable.

5.

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

The action level concept is seen as positive progress towards the development of optimal control routines. Operation outside the target region will cause damage and its impact will depend on both the size and the duration of the excursion. EPRI has addressed this relationship, giving time limits for operation at each action level during one year. This is a rather rigid approach, and does not take into consideration the actual operating conditions and lifetime prognosis for the installation. A system of chemistry evaluation on the basis of economic/scientific evaluation of all possibilities for damage is not possible. A somewhat more pragmatic system based on quality indices is suggested in Appendix 3 of these guidelines. This system is based on a simple mathematical presentation of general long time operational experience. However, it must be considered as a rough preliminary guide and may benefit from future development.

6. [1]

REFERENCES Report on the chemical standards of the water-steam cycle in Power Stations as in use by the memberCountries of the UNIPEDE. KEMA, Arnhem, november 1970. Made for UNIPEDE SUBCOMMITTEE for the study of electric Power Station Chemistry. VGB-R 450 L - Richtlinien fr Kesselspeisewasser, Kesselwasser und Dampf von Dampferzeugern ber 68 bar zulssigem Betriebsdruck, 1988 Interim Consensus Guidelines on Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry, EPRI CS-4629, June 1986

[2] [3]

7.

TABLES

TABLE I. Action level Target

Definitions and characteristic of Action Levels Characterisation Risk Action during operation (specific actions on condensate in chapter 4.3) The maintenance of chemical control through the monitoring of key parameters should be continued. Action during start-up

Normal stable operation, where everything is under control

Target should be reached within 24 hours. If not, improvements in system control are required.

Periodic or minor disturbances in chemical control.

Long term damage and reduction in remaining life of power cycle components.

Monitoring of the circuit chemistry should be extended to diagnostic components to identify the source of the problem. Strategic considerations should be made to avoid similar occurrences in the future.

Action level 1 for key parameters should be achieved in 2 to 8 hours for warm and cold starts respectively.

Serious loss of chemical control.

Serious damage to components due to deposition and corrosion. Significant reduction in the component life

Immediate action should be taken to find and eliminate the cause within hours and/or actions should be taken to minimise the damage (e.g. decrease load).

Fire the boiler. Check the steam quality. At least action level 2 for all parameters should be reached before turbine is brought into service.

Chemistry out of control.

Component failure.

The unit should be shut down within 1 hour using the normal shut down procedure if one of the key parameters deteriorate to action level 3. If one of the diagnostic parameters deteriorates to this action level, reduce load to prevent immediate damage and to gain time to restore chemical control.

Purge the boiler until all the key parameters are below action level 3.

10

TABLE II. Key parameters for control of water/steam cycle Circuit Drum Boiler Sampling point Boiler WaterConditioning AVT Key parameter Conductivity after cation exchange

Drum Boiler

Boiler Water

NaOH

Conductivity after cation exchange Specific conductivity or pH Strong mineral acids and pH

Drum Boiler

Boiler Water

Phosphat

Drum Boiler

Feed-water

AVT

pH

Once through boiler

Feed-water

All

Conductivity after cation exchange

All

Steam

All

Conductivity after cation exchange and sodium

TABLE III.

Overview of Action Levels Economizer Inlet Steam 1 2 3 Boiler Water

Sample

Action level lower limit

pH Oxygen (g/kg) Acid Conductivity (S/cm) Strong Mineral Acid (g/kg) Silica (g/kg) Sodium (g/kg) Iron (g/kg)

pHopt0.2

pHopt0.4 Fig. 1, 2

pHopt1

Fig. 5

Fig. 3

Fig. 6, 7

Fig. 9

10

20

50

Fig. 8

Fig. 4

20

100

11

Figure 1 pH and Oxygen in Feed-water Copperfree circuit

200

O2 (g/ l)

100

0 8 9

pH

10

12

Figure 2 pH and Oxygen in Feed-water Copper a lloys present

200

O2 (g/l)
100 0 8 9

pH

10

13

Figure 3 Feed-water and Steam Action Levels for Acid Conductivity

10

0,1

0,01 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Pressure (MPa)

14

Figure 4 Feed-water and Steam Action Levels for Sodium

1000

100

10

0,1 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Pressure (MPa)

15

Fig. 5 Boiler Water - Solid Alkaliser Action Levels for pH

1000

100

10

0,1

0,01 7,00

7,50

8,00

8,50

9,00

9,50

10,00

10,50

11,00

11,50

pH

16

Figure 6 Boiler Water treated with NaOH Action Levels for Acid Conductivity

1000

100

10

1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Pressure (MPa)

17

Figure 7 Boiler Water - AVT Action Levels for Acid Conductivity

100

10

0,1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Pressure (MPa)

18

Figure 8 Boiled Water Action Levels for silica

100

10

0,1

0,01 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Pressure (MPa)

19

Figure 9 Boiler Water treated with phosphate Action Levels for Mineral Acids

10

0,1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

P ressure (MPa)

20

Appendix 1
Comparison of significant parameters for control of water/steam cycle in UNIPEDE countries

21

A 1 - TABLE I. Comparison of Significant Parameters for Feed Water of Drum and Once Through Boilers (AVT) Country Acid Conduc- N tivity 1 2 (S/cm) 3 pH N 1 2 3 N 1 2 3 N 1 2 3
<0,2

BE

DE
0,1 >0,2

DK
<0,1 >0,15

ES
<0,2

FI
<0,2

FR
0,1 >0,2

GB
<0,1

IE
<0,09 >0,12 >0,18 >0,30

IL
0,1 >0,2

IT
<0,15 >0,2

NL
<0,2

PL
0,1 <0,2

PT
<0,2 >0,2 >0,35 >0,65 >2

SE
<0,2

9,2-9,5

9 - 10

9,2-9,4

9-10

9,0-9,2

9,1-9,3 9 -9,4

8,8-9,2

9,2-9,6 <9,2 <8,7 <8,0

8,8-9,4

9,1-9,2 9,0-9,3

9,0-9,2

9,1-9,3

9,0-9,3

8,5-9,2

O2 (g/kg)

<10

< 100

< 10

<7 <10

<10

<5 <10

<5

<7 >7 >15 >50

2-5

<5

<5

<20

<7 >7 >10 >20

<10

N2 H4 (g/kg)

>20

>20

10-200

15-80

30-50

20 100

22

A1 - TABLE II. Comparison of Significant Parameters for Feed Water at OT of Once Through Boilers Country Acid Conductivity (S/cm) pH N 1 2 3 N 1 2 3 N 1 2 3 N 1 2 3 BE DE
0,1 >0,2

DK
<0,1 >0,15

ES
<0,2

FI

FR

GB
<0,1

IE

IL
<0,1 >0,2

IT

NL
<0,2

PL
0,1 >0,2

PT

SE

8-9

8,3-9,0

8-9

9,0-9,2

8,3-8,5* 8,0-8,8*

8 - 8,5

7-8

O2 (g/kg)

30-150

30-150

30-150

10-20

80-120 60-150

50-100

>50

N2 H4 (g/kg)

* 8,6-8,8 resp. 8,5-9 for units with copper alloys

23

A 1 - TABLE III. Comparison of Significant Parameters for Boiler Water of Drum Boilers on Solid Alkalizer (16 MPa) Country
Alkal. agent (mg/kg)

BE

DE
Ph-NaOH <3 < 50

DK
NaOH 1-4 < 15 <100

ES
Ph

FI
Ph 2-6 150*

FR

GB
NaOH 1,5.NaCl <15*

IE
NaOH 0,5-1,5 < 3 < 10 < 20 > 20 9,3-9,8 8,5-10,5 8,0-11 <8 V >11 < 200 < 400 < 800 > 800 < 100 < 500 <1000 >1000

IL
Ph 3-5 15-23 *

IT

NL
NaOH

PL
Ph 1-6 < 60*

PT

SE
Ph 2-6 <132 *

FI
Ph 2-6 <150 *

Acid Conduc- N tivity 1 2 (S/cm) 3 pH N 1 2 3 N 1 2 3 N 1 2 3

9,3-9,7

9,5

9,5-10,5

8,8-9,4

9,2-9,8

9-9,5*

8,5-9,6

9,5-10,5

SiO2 (g/kg) Cl(g/kg) * Calculated

< 200

< 250

350

< 200

20-100 < 400

<400

<350

20-200 < 1000

<2000 **

** < 500 g//L for Oil Fired Boilers

24

A 1 - TABLE IV. Comparison of Significant Parameters for Boiler Water of Drum Boilers on AVT (16 MPa) Country Acid Conduc- N tivity 1 2 (S/cm) 3 pH N 1 2 3 N 1 2 3 N 1 2 3
7-9

BE

DE
<3 (5)

DK

ES
<3

FI
<2

FR

GB
3

IE

IL

IT
0,3-1 3

NL
<5

PL
1 >5

PT

SE

> 8,5

8,9-9,1

8,5

9-9,2 <8,8

8,5-9,5

9,0-9,3 8,8-9,6 8-10,6 7,5-10,6 7,5-12 <200 <250 <300 >300

SiO2 (g/kg) Cl(g/kg)

< 200

< 200 > 200

20-50 >200

25

A 1 - TABLE V. Comparison of Significant Parameters for Steam Country Acid Conduc- N tivity 1 2 (S/cm) 3 SiO2 (g/kg) Na+ (g/kg) Cl(g/kg) Cu (g/kg) N 1 2 3 N 1 2 3 N 1 2 3 <2 1 <3 BE <0,2 DE 0,1 0,2 DK <0,1 0,15 > 0,5 <15 5 < 20 < 20 <10 ES <0,2 FI < 0,2 > 0,5 <20 <20 <20 FR 0,1 <0,2 GB IE <0,1 0,15 0,20 0,30 <5 <10 <20 >20 <2 <5 <10 >10 <1 <4 <8 >8 IL 0,1 <0,2 IT <0,15 >0,20 NL <0,2 PL <0,25 PT <0,2 >0,2 >0,3 >0,5 SE <0,2

<10

<20

<20

<20

<20

<5

2 < 10

<3

<10

<2 (<5)

<5

<3

<1

<10

<10

<3

<3

<3

<1

<3

26

Appendix 2
Examples of Action Level Limits for pH of boiler water at different pressures

27

A2 Figure 1 0.5 MPa - Boiler Water treated with solid a lka liser Action Levels for pH
1000

100

Acid Condutivity (S/cm)

10

0,1 7,00

7,50

8,00

8,50

9,00

9,50

10,00

10,50

11,00

11,50

pH

28

A2 Figure 2 2 MPa - Boiler Water treated with solid alkaliser Action Levels for pH

1000

100

10

0,1 7,00

7,50

8,00

8,50

9,00

9,50

10,00

10,50

11,00

11,50

pH

29

A2 Figure 3 8 MPa - Boiler Water treated with solid a lka liser Action Levels for pH
1000

100

Acid Conductivity (S/cm)

10

0,1 7,00

7,50

8,00

8,50

9,00

9,50

10,00

10,50

11,00

11,50

pH

30

A2 Figure 4 16 MPa - Boiler Water treated with solid alkaliser Action Levels for pH

100

10

0,1 7,00

7,50

8,00

8,50

9,00

9,50

10,00

10,50

11,00

pH

31

Appendix 3
Assessment of water/steam chemistry by quality indices
The quality index I for any control parameter p is in general terms defined as a ratio of lifetime consumption (TP) of a component effected by the control parameter at the actual operating value and the lifetime consumption (T L1p) of this component operating at the reference conditions, which means at the limit between target and action level 1 (L 1p). Ip = dTP / dTL1p The index expresses the relative rate of lifetime consumption and will then be 1 at the operation at the limit for Action level 1, which is considered as conditions with reference lifetime consumption: At P = L1p Ip = I0 = dTL1p/dTL1p = 1

The lifetime consumption at actual conditions T then calculated from the formula:

of a particular component during any operation period t is

TP

I
0

* dt

Operating at action level 1 (P > L L1p and P < L L2p) the index will have value above 1 and operating below the action level 1 limit (target area), the index will have value less then 1. Thus the lifetime consumption will be faster or slower comparing to the operation at reference conditions. It is extremely difficult to establish a scientifically or statistically based model for the lifetime consumption deviations from reference conditions. A pragmatic way was chosen , based on the following concept: The lifetime consumption should be evaluated separately for each main component of water/steam circuit using parameters significant for the componen t in question. The rate of lifetime consumption (Index I) is an exponential function of the relevent parameter The exponential function is normalized for action level limits defining: at P = L1p I= 1 at P = L2p I = 10 at P = L3p I = 100 at P = 3*L3p I = 1000 The justification of these values is based on some experience from units operating with good chemical practice and also from units where less attention is paid to chemistry, however, the data basis is limited. The index is mathematically related to action levels by the following equations:
P L1 L2 L1

I P = 10 I P = 10

for L1 < P L2

P L2 + 1 L3 L2

for L2 < P < L3

32

I P = 10
where IP P L1 L2 L3

P L3 + 2 2* L3

for P > L3

is the index for parameter p is the monitored value of parameter p is the threshold for action level 1 is the threshold for action level 2 is the threshold for action level 3

The index can be used for relative evaluation of the chemical performance with respect to the lifetime consumption of components for which the parameter p is the key parameter. It has to be emphasized, that it is an evaluation relative to reference conditions and if more than one key parameter is relevant for the component in question, a combination of indices described on page 33 should be used. As examples of key parameters for some components are: 1. Acid conductivity of feed-water for the evaporator of once through boiler with respect to the operation time between acid cleanings. 2. Acid conductivity and pH of boiler water for the evaporator of a drum boiler on caustic treatment with respect to the operation time between acid cleanings. 3. Acid conductivity of boiler water and pH of feed-water for the evaporator of a drum boiler on AVT with respect to the operation time between acid cleanings. 4. Acid conductivity of steam for the turbine blades. 5. Conductivity of the effluent from condensate polishing plant (CPP) as a key parameter for performance of CPP. In this case there is no direct connection to lifetime of any particular component.

Some examples are illustrated in more details . For a typical cold start-up a good practice is to reach L1 (coming from L3) for acid conductivity in feed-water within 24 hours. The calculation shows, that the mean value of the index I is about 30. This indicates, that the chemical load on the evaporator during this day of start-up is similar to the load of 30 (720 h) days of operation at L1. For a unit, which is not performing very well, the purification period during the start-up can easily take 2 days, which makes the life consumption for the whole period 2*30=60 days (1440 h). Similarly it can be calculated, that a hot start-up of a good unit taking 16 hours will be equivalent to roughly 200 h lifetime consumption, while unattended unit will use 400 h equivalent operation at reference condition. These values are used in examples below. Table A 3.1 shows some examples of units with different operation mode (1. base load, 2. cycling load, 3. peak load) and different quality of chemical control (A. Ideal purity, B.Good practice, C. Unattended control). In the following the layout and calculation procedure are explaned: At the top of the table the limits L 1, L2, L3 are given. Column 1 defines the unit operation mode and the purity standard according to the code specified above. As reference a unit operating 7000 hours/year at L 1 , having 1 cold and 5 warm starts-up/year is taken. Columns 2 and 3 specify the number of cold (n 1) and warm (n 2) starts-up/year. Columns 4 - 6 specify operating hours at different levels of acid conductivity (key parameter). For simplicity there are 3 groups only: 0,07 S/cm characterise excellent chemical conditions; 0,1 S/cm characterize reference conditions and 0,15 characterise operation in action level 1. In the first row values of indeks I matching these three acid conductivities are calculated. Column 7 shows the average value of Index for the whole year. Here the contribution from start-ups is not included. The calculation for row 1B is as follows:

33

I=

I *t t
i i

0,501 * 3000 + 1 * 4000 = 0,786 3000 + 4000

c

Column 8 show the calculated equivalent lifetime consumption T calculation for row 1B is as follows:

including contributions from start-ups. The

Tc = I * ti + n 1 * 720 + n 2 * 200 = 0,786 * 7000 + 1 * 720 + 0 * 200 = 6222

The registered lifetime consumption is of course 7000 h, but chemically the evaporator has received more load due to start-ups, but decreased load because of the excellent purity in part of the operation time. In calculation of examples with purity standard C, a higher life time consumption is used for start-ups (1440, 400). Columns 9 and 10 show a prognosis for acid cleanings if the same operating conditions would be maintained all the time. This calculation is based on experience with units operating close to the conditions of the reference unit. These units used to be acid cleaned after 100 000 operating hours. Tables A 3.II - A 3.V show similar exercises for drum boilers on NaOH and AVT respectively. Two key parameters are used for separate calculation in each case, and in the table A 3.VI a combined evaluation of indices calculated from these two key parameters is shown. As the best combination of indices was found to be their sum -1. Mathematically: I12 = I1 + I2 - 1 More generaly:

I 1i =

I
i =1

i+ 1

On the basis of these combined indices the expected acid cleaning frequency is calculated.

It must be emphasised that the method is designed for evaluation of operational lifetime consumption. The impact of the off-load damage on lifetime must be evaluated separately. It may be possible to use the same concept, but a careful consideration should then be given to reference condition, key parameters and action levels.

34

Table A 3.I Examples of Lifetime Evaluation of Evaporator Protective Layer Once Trough boiler - Acid conductivity of Feedwater
L1 0,1 L2 0,2 L3 0,5 3*L3 1,5

No. of Start-ups
Cold I Ref. 1 5 Warm

Operation time
0,07 0,501187 0,1 1 7000

(h)
0,15 3,1622777

Average Used eq. Acid cleaning Index

I

at acid conductivity (S/cm)

lifetime
(h/year)

frequency
(years) (h)

8720

11,5

100000

1A 1B 1C

1 1 1

0 0 0

7000 3000 1000 4000 3000 4000

0,50 0,79 2,02

4228 6224 17590

23,7 16,1 5,7

165551 112476 45480

2A 2B 2C

1 1 1

5 5 5

4000 2000

1000 3000 2000 3000

0,60 0,80 2,30

4725 5722 14927

21,2 17,5 6,7

105826 87376 33497

3A 3B 3C

3 3 3

50 50 50

1000

2000 2000 1000 3000

0,83 1,72 3,16

14661 17322 33807

6,8 5,8 3,0

20462 17319 8874

35

Table A 3.II Examples of Lifetime Evaluation of Evaporator Protective Layer Drum boiler - Acid conductivity of Boiler water - NaOH treated
Limits S/cm L1 5 L2 15,8 L3 50 3*L3 150

No. of Starts-up
Cold I Ref. 1 5 Warm

Operation time
3 0,65285 5 1 7000

(h)
10 2,90378

Average Used eq. Acid cleaning Index

I

at acid conductivity (S/cm)

lifetime
(h/year)

frequency
(years) (h)

8720

11,5

100000

1A 1B 1C

1 1 1

0 0 0

7000 3000 1000 4000 3000 4000

0,65 0,85 1,91

5290 6679 16708

18,9 15,0 6,0

132326 104813 47881

2A 2B 2C

1 1 1

5 5 5

4000 2000

1000 3000 2000 3000

0,72 0,86 2,14

5331 6026 14151

18,8 16,6 7,1

93784 82978 35332

3A 3B 3C

3 3 3

50 50 50

1000

2000 2000 1000 3000

0,88 1,63 2,90

14813 17064 33031

6,8 5,9 3,0

20253 17581 9082

36

Table A 3.III Examples of Lifetime Evaluation of Evaporator Protective Layer Drum boiler - pH of Boiler water - NaOH treat.
Limits L1 9,4 10,4 L2 9,1 10,6 L3 8,6 10,8 3*L3 7 11,8

No. of Start-ups
Cold I Ref. 1A 1B 1C 2A 2B 2C 3A 3B 3C 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 5 0 0 0 5 5 5 50 50 50 Warm

Operation time pH
9,4 1 7000 6990 6500 6000 6990 6500 6000 6990 6500 6000 10 500 900 10 500 900 10 500 900 9,2 4,64159

(h)
8,8 39,8107

Average Used eq. Acid cleaning Indeks lifetime

I (h/year)

frequency
(years) (h)

1 1,005202 1,260113 100 2,022643 1,005202 1,260113 100 2,022643 1,005202 1,260113 100 2,022643

8720 0 7756 9541 14879 0 8756 10541 15879 19196 20981 26319

11,5 12,9 10,5 6,7 11,4 9,5 6,3 5,2 4,8 3,8

100000 90248 73369 47048 79941 66409 44085 36465 33364 26597

37

Table A 3.IV Examples of Lifetime Evaluation of Evaporator Protective Layer Drum boiler 16 MPa - Acid conductivity of Boiler water - AVT treat.
Limits S/cm L1 1 L2 2,29 L3 5,23 3*L3 150

No. of Start-ups
Cold I Ref. 1A 1B 1C 2A 2B 2C 3A 3B 3C 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 5 0 0 0 5 5 5 50 50 50 Warm

Operation time
0,8 0,69978 1 1 7000 7000 3000 1000 4000 2000 4000 3000 1000 3000 2000 1000 2000 2000

(h)
2 5,95928

Average Used eq. Acid cleaning Index

I

at acid conductivity (S/cm)

lifetime
(h/year)

frequency
(years) (h)

1 0,70 0,87 4000 3,44 0,76 0,88 3000 3,98 0,90 1000 3000 2,65 5,96

8720 5618 6819 28977 5519 6120 23318 14860 20119 42198

11,5 17,8 14,7 3,5 18,1 16,3 4,3 6,7 5,0 2,4

100000 124589 102649 27608 90594 81705 21443 20189 14911 7109

38

Table A 3.V Examples of Lifetime Evaluation of Evaporator Protective Layer Drum boiler 16 MPa - pH of feed-water - AVT treat.
Limits L1 9 L2 8 L3 7 3 * L3 6

No. of Start-ups
Cold I Ref. 1A 1B 1C 2A 2B 2C 3A 3B 3C 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 5 0 0 0 5 5 5 50 50 50 Warm

Operation time pH
9 1 7000 6990 6500 6000 6990 6500 6000 6990 6500 6000 10 500 900 10 500 900 10 500 900 8,5 3,16228

(h)
7,5 31,6228

Average Used eq. Acid cleaning Index

I

lifetime
(h/year)

frequency
(years) (h)

1 1,003 1,15 100 1,72 1,00 1,15 100 1,72 1,00 1,15 100 1,72

8720 7742 8801 13448 8742 9801 15448 17061 17209 30015

11,5 12,9 11,4 7,4 11,4 10,2 6,5 5,9 5,8 3,3

100000 90420 79535 52051 80077 71420 45312 41028 40677 23322

39

Table A 3.VI Evaluation of drum boiler lifetime consumption on basis of combined Index Treatment Purity Index I1 pH Index I2 NaOH Combined Used eq. Index I12 lifetime (h) Purity Index I1 pH Index I2 AVT Combined Used eq. Index I12 lifetime (h)

Ref.

7000

7000

1A 1B 1C

0,65 0,85 1,91

1,01 1,26 2,02

0,66 1,11 2,93

4606 7779 20518

0,70 0,87 3,44

1,00 1,15 1,72

0,70 1,03 4,16

4920 7180 29103

2A 2B 2C

0,72 0,86 2,14

1,01 1,26 2,02

0,73 1,12 3,16

5092 7849 22154

0,76 0,88 3,98

1,00 1,15 1,72

0,76 1,03 4,69

5340 7241 32837

3A 3B 3C

0,88 1,63 2,90

1,01 1,26 2,02

0,89 1,89 3,93

6226 13263 27485

0,90 2,65 5,96

1,00 1,15 1,72

0,90 2,81 6,67

6321 19653 46723

40

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