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RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION ON BIOFUELS BETWEEN EUROPE AND LATIN AMERICA

Dominik Rutz1, Rainer Janssen1 Jorge Rogat , Kristian Borch , Martin Mittelbach3, Sigurd Schober3, John Vos4, Alexandre Thebaud4, Mercedes Ballesteros5, Paloma Manzanares5, Carlos St James6, Suani T. Coelho7, Patricia Guardabassi7, Germn Aroca8, Lorena Soler8, Enrique Riegelhaupt9, Omar Masera9, Manuela Prehn Junquera9, Gustavo Nadal10, Gonzalo Bravo10
2 2 1 WIP Renewable Energies Sylvensteinstr. 2, D - 81369 Munich, Germany Tel. +49 89 720 12739, Fax +49 89 720 12791 E-Mail: dominik.rutz@wip-munich.de, rainer.janssen@wip-munich.de Internet: www.wip-munich.de, www.top-biofuel.org

Technical University of Denmark, 3University of Graz (Austria), 4BTG Biomass Technology Group (The Netherlands), 5CIEMAT Centro de Investigaciones Energticas, Medioambientales y Technolgicas (Spain), 6 Argentine Renewable Energies Chamber, 7CENBIO Brazilian Reference Center on Biomass (Brazil), 8 P. Universidad Catolica de Valparaiso (Chile), 9Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, 10 Fundacin Bariloche (Argentina)

ABSTRACT: The transport sector today mainly depends on liquid fuels and biofuels provide opportunities to substitute a significant share of fossil fuels. Thus, the European Union (EU) has implemented several policies, such as the Renewable Energy Directive (RED), to support the use of biofuels, relying on both, domestically produced and imported biofuels. Due to the high potential for biofuel production in Latin America (LA), Europe seeks to enhance cooperation with LA. This requires suitable legal and policy framework conditions in both continents which support joint Research and Technology Development (RTD) projects on biofuels. In the framework of the BioTop project supported by the EC in FP7, EU-LA cooperation is supported, and common research needs identified. The present paper shows the interim results of the BioTop project. As main result, proposals for common future EU-LA cooperation projects on biofuels are presented, focussing on improved conversion technologies, sustainability, standardisation, and trade of biofuels. This includes recommendations on strategic priorities in the future research agendas of EU and LA. Furthermore, the paper provides an overview of biofuel markets and policies in Latin America, as well as an update on the ongoing biofuel sustainability discussion from different perspectives in Europe and LA, depending on cultural aspects, history and economy of the producing countries, objectives of importing countries, and on environmental and social targets. Keywords: liquid biofuels, sustainable use of biomass, Latin America, International Cooperation of the European Commission is to identify scientific and technological cooperation opportunities with Latin American stakeholders. Therefore, the European Commission supports the BioTop project (Figure 1) Biofuels Assessment on Technical Opportunities and Research Needs for Latin America (Contract No. FP7213320) in the Seventh Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development (FP7) [2, 3]. BioTop is coordinated by WIP Renewable Energies and runs from March 2008 to August 2010.

INTRODUCTION

The transport sector today mainly depends on liquid fuels. Biofuels provide opportunities to substitute a significant share of the fossil fuels being used and thus, to enhance security of supply and to mitigate GHG emissions. Therefore, the European Union has implemented several policies to support the use of biofuels, such as the 10% renewable energy target in transport by 2020 which is included in the European Renewable Energy Directive (RED) on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources [1]. In order to achieve this target, the EU will rely on both, domestically produced and imported biofuels, as available agricultural land for biofuel production in the EU is limited. 2 THE BioTop PROJECT

Due to the high potential of biofuels in Latin America and the increased demand for biofuels in Europe, the aim

Figure 1: BioTop logo

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The overall objective of BioTop is to create and support RTD cooperation activities in the biofuels sector between Latin America and the European Union. The specific objective is twofold: firstly to foster the collaboration between European and Latin American stakeholders in the production of biofuels by identifying priority RTD needs and opportunities; and secondly, to increase awareness among European and Latin American stakeholders about technical opportunities and the large potential of biofuel production in LA. Other objectives of BioTop are to: provide a broad overview of the existing biofuel sectors in all Latin American countries, identify priorities, needs and opportunities in the field of RTD for sustainable biofuel production and biomass conversion technologies, inform European and Latin American actors in the biofuel sector about specific, mutually interesting areas for increased collaboration and partnerships, harmonize the agenda between Latin America and the EU on sustainable biofuel production, facilitate and advance mutual knowledge and technology transfer between biofuel stakeholders in LA and the EU, and make recommendations on RTD and policies for improved biofuel conversion technologies. In order to achieve these objectives, BioTop highlights RTD activities which improve feedstock cultivation and conversion technologies in the short-term, accelerate commercial production of second generation biofuels (mainly from lignocellulosic biomass) and support the implementation of full scale integrated biorefineries using new energy crops in the medium to long term. The identification of RTD needs and opportunities in the framework of the BioTop project also considers sustainability, standardisation and trade aspects as well as relevant legal and institutional frameworks. Thereby, BioTop contributes to the Strategic Research Agenda (SRA) of the European Biofuels Technology Platform [4]. The BioTop consortium comprises five partner organizations from Europe and five from Latin America: WIP Renewable Energies, Technical University of Denmark, University of Graz, BTG Biomass Technology Group, and the Centro de Investigaciones Energticas, Medioambientales y Technolgicas as well as the Centro Nacional de Referencia em Biomassa, Argentine Biofuels Chamber, P. Universidad Catolica de Valparaiso, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Fundacin Bariloche. 3 BIOFUEL POLICIES AND MARKETS IN LATIN AMERICA

Latin America has a high potential for renewable energy exploitation which could significantly contribute to meet global energy needs. For biofuel production, LA has a combination of many advantages such as good soil, suitable climate, available land, and low labour costs. Brazil is one of the few countries that have historically shown an increasing supply and use of biofuels as Brazils production and

utilization of bioethanol from sugar cane has become a viable transport fuel since 30 years. Argentina and Brazil are experiencing the emerging utilization of soy beans for biodiesel production. Furthermore, there are many other countries in the region that offer a significant potential for the production of transport biofuels, but have just recently begun to explore their potential. According to studies conducted by the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), countries like Cuba, Guatemala, Guyana and Nicaragua, have considerable potential for bioethanol production [4]. In the last years a wave of investments and government plans has emerged in LA to boost biofuel production in the short and medium term [5, 6, 7]. Today, established biofuel markets exist in Brazil, Colombia, and Argentina, whereas in all other Latin American countries the biofuel market is still very limited [5, 8]. Bioethanol production in LA is concentrated in Brazil, Colombia and Paraguay. The ethanol industry of Central America is at an early stage, while in Mexico, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia ethanol production is just beginning with the construction of several plants. Currently, there is no ethanol production for biofuels in Uruguay and Venezuela although promotion programmes are in progress. Ethanol production in LA is based on sugar cane. In general, sugar mills facilitate the integrated production of both sugar and ethanol, and the relative amounts of sugar and ethanol are adjusted depending on market demand and prices of the products. For instance, in Brazil, approximately 55% of sugar cane is converted into ethanol and about 45% into sugar. The average ethanol yield is about 90 l per ton of sugar cane, and about 7,500 l per ha of sugar cane plantation [5]. Anhydrous ethanol blended as oxygenating agent in gasoline has been the main application in most countries worldwide. In Brazil, up to 25% of ethanol is blended in regular and premium gasoline (E25, gasohol). In other countries, E5 and E7 is used or proposed. In addition, hydrated ethanol (E100) for dedicated ethanol and flexfuel vehicles (FFV) is broadly used in Brazil. Most fuel stations in Brazil offer both gasohol and hydrated ethanol [5]. Biodiesel markets are just emerging in Latin America. Colombia and Argentina have developed sizable exports markets, while Brazil consumes all its production in the domestic market. Biodiesel is mainly produced from soy bean oil in Argentina and Brazil, and from palm oil in Colombia. Also Guatemala has a small biodiesel market. Other countries such as Ecuador, Honduras, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay have taken several initiatives to promote biodiesel industry based on soy bean and palm oil. In most cases, biodiesel is produced by mature technology based on a transesterification process in plants that are linked to oil extraction industries [5]. Low blends of biodiesel (up to 2%, B2) as additives in fossil diesel are considered a first step in market introduction. The main effect of these biodiesel admixtures is to improve lubrication properties and to slightly reduce the sulphur content in fossil diesel. Biodiesel in higher blends such as B5 or B10 are proposed in several LA biofuels programs. The main reason for its application is to reduce fossil diesel use and imports, and to improve emission profiles. Higher levels of substitution have not yet been achieved in LA.

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Currently, pure biodiesel (B100) is implemented in dedicated fleets in LA. However, market penetration of B100 is still very small and it is mainly used for demonstration purposes and by self producers as independent fuel supply [5]. In the framework of the BioTop project, an Interactive Biofuel Map for Latin America was developed in order to inform interested stakeholders about biofuel markets, technologies, and policies (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Interactive BioTop Biofuel Map for Latin America (www.top-biofuel.org) 4 SUSTAINABILITY OF BIOFUELS IN LATIN AMERICA

In the framework of the globalisation of agricultural commodity markets, biofuels became a global issue. Originally, the concept of biofuel production was based on a decentralised approach with local use of biofuels. This is currently increasingly shifting towards a more centralised approach for biofuel production. Feedstock and biofuels are produced in areas with high productivity, like LA, and shipped to consumers in Europe, North America, or Asia. This is possible since shipping costs of biofuels is relatively low in comparison to the overall biofuel production costs [3]. In June 2009 the RED was approved and enforced [1]. The RED sets a European target of 20% renewable energies in the EU until 2020 and 10% renewable energies in the transport sector (including biofuels and other renewable energies in transport). In order to achieve the national targets and the renewable energy obligations, the RED allows Member States to grant financial support for the consumption of biofuels1. However, in order to count towards to the national targets and obligations, and to be eligible for financial incentives, the RED demands dedicated sustainability requirements, irrespective of whether the raw materials are cultivated inside or outside the territory of the Community (Article 17, paragraphs 2-6)2 on the following issues: minimum greenhouse gas emission saving from the use of biofuels, and avoidance of biofuels production from raw material obtained from land with high biodiversity value, high carbon stock, and For simplicity reasons the paper defines biofuels as biofuels and bioliqids as stated in the RED. 2 Extract of the RED in simplified version. For citation, please see the original RED.
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peatland. Generally, the RED is a driver for both, imported and domestically produced biofuels within Europe. Due to the ambitious targets of the RED, Europe may depend upon imported biofuels from other continents like LA, since only limited land is available in Europe [3]. Due to its higher feedstock productivity, biofuels can be produced in LA at much lower costs than in Europe, as the example of bioethanol in Brazil shows. Therefore, many LA policy makers and experts see biofuels as an important economic driver, either if domestically used or exported. Thus, many LA countries have plans to export biofuels to Europe, Asia, and North America in the shortto long-term. Several initiatives, mainly in Brazil, prove that there is considerable interest in guaranteeing sustainability of biofuel production in LA. However, since LA has no common policy as it is for the European continent, different perspectives on biofuels sustainability also exist within LA. Biofuels are discussed controversially within LA depending on the government. The main biofuel promoters are Brazil, Argentina and Colombia, whereas, Bolivia, Venezuela, and Cuba are much more sceptical about biofuels [3]. Although many LA stakeholders are supporting biofuel sustainability, some of them see the planned European sustainability certification in the framework of the RED as trade barrier. Some developing countries, including Argentina, Brazil, and Colombia, have even warned the EU that any restrictions on biofuel imports designed to improve sustainability could lead to a complaint to the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Therefore, it is necessary to closely involve LA biofuel stakeholders in the development and set-up of European sustainability certification schemes in order to comply with WTO rules and to avoid negative social impacts, especially on smallholders. In the framework of the International Latin American European BioTop Cooperation Workshop on Sustainability in Biofuel Production in Brazil on 25/26 September 2008, research needs in the field of biofuel sustainability issues were identified [3, 9]. Furthermore, existing sustainability assessment tools in Latin America were assessed. National (environmental and social) legislation was identified and compared with the requirements of the Roundtable for Sustainable Biofuels (RSB)3 [10] and RED [1]. The main results and most important aspects from the Latin American perspective include the following issues [11]: Although some countries have already specific legislation on biofuels production, the existing national legislation on environmental and social aspects is in most cases suitable to regulate the sustainable production of biofuels, as long as enforcement is improved. There is a lack of legislation in all Latin American countries on GHG emissions of biofuels production. The GHG calculation should be based on local studies. Common strategies on how to consider emissions from indirect land use change (ILUC) have to be developed. It is important to develop a unique methodology for certification. The parameters adopted should be
3

www.rsb.org

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transparent and based on reliable and traceable data. It is also important to develop a feasible methodology for monitoring and checking compliance. It is necessary that criteria and indicators are reflected in the national legislation on biofuels, as well as on environment, agriculture, social aspects, and other sustainability aspects. The costs related to the adoption of certification schemes should not jeopardize biofuels producers. Most important is the fact that this should not pose a high economic burden on small producers. This issue is also raised by the UNCTAD report (2006) The Emerging Biofuels Market: Regulatory, Trade and Development Implications [12]. It would be necessary to develop separate criteria for large-scale and smallscale feedstock and biofuels producers, in order to guarantee socially acceptable biofuels production. It is also important to establish, in a first stage, minimum requirements that could allow developing countries in Latin America, Africa and Asia, to start producing biofuels and afterwards to accomplish to more sophisticated rules. It will be very difficult for many Latin American countries in which biofuels production or renewable energy use are still not well consolidated, to fulfil in due time all of the sustainability criteria that are indicated in the RED. Mechanisms should be designed to help these countries comply with the international standards as fast as possible. 5 STANDARDISATION OF BIOFUELS

Improvement of production chains and introduction of uniform quality requirements and control measures are important to the successful introduction of biofuels into the market, both from the economic and from the public acceptance point of view. To avoid problems and concerns of the suitability of biofuels for smooth engine operation, corresponding quality requirements and control instruments have to be implemented. Thus, a dedicated task of BioTop was to assess biofuel standardisation in EU and LA [13, 14]. Since many stakeholders are involved in the biofuel standards research arena, the coordination of their activities is needed. There is a need to regularly inform biofuel producers about news and developments in terms of biofuel legislation and standardisation issues. Coordinating platforms can stimulate information exchange on biofuel standard development and organise awareness training or regular stakeholder meetings. An example of a coordinating platform is the Bio-Diesel Quality Management Working Group in Germany (AGQM)4. Many standards for bioethanol and biodiesel have been published around the world. The European, American and Brazilian standards (EN 15376, ASTM D4806 and ANP 36/2005 for ethanol, and EN 14214, ASTM D6751 and ANP 01/2008 for biodiesel) would appear the most dominant. Argentina and Chile recently published national standards for bioethanol and biodiesel (Resolution N 1295/2008 and Decree 11/2008 for bioethanol, and IRAM 6515-1 and Decree N 11/2008 for biodiesel). Mexico has not published any standards
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for biofuels, but as Mexican producers focus on export to the US, it is expected that they have to comply with the ASTM D6751 standard. Although standards for bioethanol in the EU, US and LA have several differences, there are only a few parameter limits that can be difficult in common use of bioethanol. Particularly the water content is a parameter that may be difficult to align. However, the differences offer no real obstacles to trade, since the stricter level of maximum water content in the EN standard only requires additional dehydration. The comparison of standards for biodiesel in EU, US and LA shows that there are considerable differences between the standards. A considerable number of parameters are considered as difficult to align. Recent years have shown several efforts on the harmonization of different standards for bioethanol and biodiesel (e.g. by Europe, Brazil and the USA, or at ISO level). However, established initiatives (Tripartite Taskforce) have effectively been discontinued, while newly developed initiatives (ISO Sub-Committee) have been just set-up. National standards on biomethane and pure plant oils (PPO) have been published in Sweden and Germany, respectively. There are currently no initiatives to develop standards for these fuels in Latin America. A growing interest is observed to work on the standardisation of biomethane and PPO at the European level. However, concrete initiatives are in an infant stage. Standardization activities of BtL fuels are ongoing in Europe, within the context of a CEN Workshop Agreement. There are no standardization initiatives ongoing in Latin America or on a global (ISO) level, although ASTM is developing a standard for synthetic diesel fuel oils. Standardisation of biofuels is a very complex, timeconsuming and mostly long lasting process especially when a multitude of countries are involved. Standardisation is furthermore a continuous process in order to respond to market needs as well as to improve existing methods and limits. The long-standing experience of European standardisation bodies can serve as an excellent starting point and supporting platform for setting up biofuel standards in Latin American countries. 6 TRADE OF BIOFUELS WITH LATIN AMERICA

http://www.agqm-biodiesel.de/

An assessment of the trade of biofuels between EU and LA showed that there is significant trade between EU and LA in both bioethanol and biodiesel [15]. Bioethanol represents the largest share of imported biofuels into the EU. Nevertheless, in relative terms the internationally traded volumes are relatively small since the majority of the global bioethanol production is used locally. It is estimated that about 10% of fuel ethanol consumption is traded internationally. Brazil is by far the largest exporter, and the USA and the EU are the largest importers. Until recently no significant imports of biodiesel into the EU took place, which is most likely due to the fact that most biodiesel has been produced in the EU (mostly Germany and France). Since 2008, however, biodiesel imports to the EU increased rapidly, with Argentina alone reportedly exporting around 1 million ton in 2009.

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Coverage of biofuels in existing preferential trade agreements between the EU and LA is relatively limited, possibly due to the lack of a specific WTO regime to deal with biofuels. There is no WTO jurisprudence specifically addressing biofuels. Any analysis of the application of WTO rules to individual biofuel subsidies is a complex task, and requires a detailed examination of the measure, its implementation and the market impacts. Various recent legal studies assessed the compliance of EU biofuel support in general, and (the sustainability criteria in) the RED in particular, with the WTO Agreements. The main problem the EU faces with respect to the WTO is related to the environmental sustainability criteria for biofuels. According to SWINBANK [16], it will be very difficult to argue that biofuels with a carbon emission saving of 34 percent are different (i.e. not like products) from those with a 35 percent saving, for example, in particular when biofuels that are treated less favourable by the RED are in practice solely or predominantly from certain WTO members. Generally, barriers to trade can be defined both in a narrow and a broader sense. The narrow definition includes government imposed restrictions on the free international exchange of goods or services. In the broader definition, any issue that either directly or indirectly hinders the growth of international trade of biofuels for transport use is considered. Important barriers to the international trade between LA and EU include: (a) the lack of global classification and clear bioenergy trade statistics, (b) tariff barriers and national/regional protectionist policies, (c) technical standards and (d) sustainability criteria and certification systems for biofuels. Market actors consider in particular the tariff barriers to be detrimental, which for bioethanol are 69% and 39% ad valorem for undenatured and denatured ethanol, respectively. Compared with these import duties the additional costs to the industry to overcome the hurdles resulting from different technical standards are small. The REDs sustainability criteria, when entering into full force, could have a significant impact on the origin of imports of biodiesel or feedstocks after 2010. The countries affected may shift their export to destinations with less-restrictive standards rather than going though the onerous process of case-by-case certification. Assessing the national barriers in five LA countries (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia and Mexico) [15], very few if any barriers included in the narrow definition were found. The assessment was therefore widened to look at any issue hindering the growth of international trade of biofuels from/to the country concerned. Many of the discussed barriers are related to government measures (organisation of biofuel sector regulation, politically-set fuel prices), availability (of suitable climate conditions, land, biofuel feedstock, production capacity, transport infrastructure, etc.), environmental considerations (zoning restrictions, use of glyphosate in soybean production, application of the by-products vinasse and glycerine) and socio-economic considerations (rural income, employment, livelihood etc.). Another factor is the exclusion of externalities in the price of fossil fuels, which at current oil prices render most biofuels more expensive to produce than fossil fuels. To summarise, import duties (in particular on bioethanol) are currently considered the largest trade

barrier to trade in biofuels for transport use between LA and EU. In the near future, the RED sustainability criteria may become an additional barrier. 7 RESEARCH NEEDS FOR DEDICATED COUNTRIES IN LA

A main objective of BioTop is to identify research needs for transport biofuel conversion technologies in LA [17]. Therefore, dedicated reports on the state-of-the-art of bioethanol, biodiesel, pure plant oil, biomethane, and BtL, production as well as on biorefineries in Latin America were elaborated. The following chapters summarise the characteristics and the research needs for the Latin American countries which have bi-lateral Science and Technology (S&T) agreements with the European Union (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico). This input shall facilitate the introduction of biofuel research topics into the strategic research agendas. 7.1 Argentina

The main focus of the biofuel industry in Argentina is on biodiesel production from soybean oil. It is estimated that this will be also the focus for the future. Therefore, main current and future research activities on biofuels will be concentrated on biodiesel. Research activities also include alternative feedstocks to soy, such as animal fats and Jatropha. Current and future research activities in Argentina will emphasize on improvements and adoptions of the biodiesel conversion process. Thereby, by-product utilization and upgrading, as well as biodiesel purification via dry-washing steps to minimize water consumption, will be main research areas. An important research area in Argentina is the investigation of opportunities to use ethanol instead of methanol for the production of fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE). Current and future research also includes standardization and quality issues of biodiesel and blends. The calculation of GHG emissions from (soy) biodiesel chains in Argentina will be an important future research area in order to meet the sustainability criteria of the European RED. Although the main interest is on biodiesel, also research on other technologies, such as biogas, BtL, and biorefineries needs to be increased. 7.2 Brazil

Brazil is the second largest bioethanol producer worldwide, thus very much RTD is concentrated on bioethanol from sugarcane. Main biofuel activities in Brazil will still remain on 1st generation ethanol from sugar cane. 2nd generation ethanol production, e.g. from bagasse, is of increasing interest. First pilot plants are already operating. The utilisation of vinasse for biofuel/bioenergy production (biogas, co-generation) is already investigated by several research institutions, but still needs to be supported by further research.

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Apart from bioethanol production, also biodiesel production from soy and palm has increased recently. Research also includes alternative feedstocks, such as animal fat, castor oil, and Jatropha. An important research area in Brazil is the investigation of opportunities to use ethanol instead of methanol for the production of fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE). Current research also includes opportunities to blend diesel with bioethanol. Large efforts are made on biofuel standardisation as well as on sustainability and certification (e.g. sugarcane mapping). The implementation of different biofuel production chains into biorefinery concepts is investigated. The interest in gasification, pyrolysis and BtL processes is increasing. 7.3 Chile

in the context of biofuel production have to be mentioned and taken into account, leading to a more efficient overall production. This includes, for instance, sustainability aspects, economic issues, feedstock potential, trade, standardisation, and other issues. Furthermore local conditions and requirements have to be considered in order to guarantee on the one hand highest efficiency but on the other hand also highest added value for the involved stakeholders (or regions). These issues are included in other chapters 3, 4, and 5 and/or in the BioTop reports available on the BioTop website. 8.1 Cooperation activities within BioTop

The biofuels roadmap of Chile is focusing on research of 2nd generation ethanol production mainly from woody biomass. Special emphasis of biodiesel production is put on maritime feedstocks and Jatropha. Several biorefinery concepts, mainly including biogas production and biomethane upgrading, are currently being implemented. Research on cultivation and use of microalgae is already carried out and should be further promoted. Further research activities include waste material conversion and processing into biofuels. 7.4 Mexico

The Mexican biofuel policy has recently emerged through several actions. Thus the Mexican biofuels market is still young. Also research on biofuels emerges. Mexico, Colombia, and 7 countries of Central America (Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama) have launched the biofuel Mesoamerican programme to enhance research and technology transfers within the countries of the region. An important research area in Mexico is on biodiesel from algae and Jatropha. The interest in 2nd generation ethanol production from bagasse or other lignocellulosic feedstocks is increasing. 8 RTD COOPERATION ON IMPROVED CONVERSATION TECHNOLOGIES BETWEEN EUROPE AND LATIN AMERICA

Apart from the identification of research needs and cooperation opportunities, the BioTop project itself also contributed to enhanced cooperation among the scientists of the consortium. These activities included a RTD exchange programme and technical tours to innovative biofuel production and research facilities. The RTD exchange programme was organised between the University of Graz (Austria), Centro de Investigaciones Energticas, Medioambientales y Technolgicas (Spain), P. Universidad Catolica de Valparaiso (Chile), and Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico. Two seminars with European researchers for students in Chile and Mexico were organised. Furthermore, several Latin American students hat the opportunity to make exchange visits to Europe. Four technical tours for RTD stakeholders and project partners were organized in order to present the most innovative biomass conversion technologies and to facilitate RTD cooperation. Two technical tours were implemented in Latin America and two in Europe: (1) BtL demonstration plant of CHOREN Industries in Freiberg, Germany; (2) Diferoil biodiesel plant in Santa Fe province, Argentina; (3) waste water treatment biogas plant La Farfana (Aguas Andinas) (Figure 3) and biogas plant for effluents of yeast production, both in Santiago de Chile, Chile; and (4) 2nd generation bioethanol plant of ABENGOA and CIEMAT biomass research centre in Spain (Figure 4).

RTD cooperation in the area of biofuel conversion technologies is necessary to increase European and Latin American collaboration, e.g. on biofuels trade, security of energy supply and GHG mitigation. Thus, a core activity of BioTop includes the assessment of cooperation opportunities of improved biofuel conversion technologies in order to support common research agendas of the EU and LA. The assessment showed that the evaluation of research priorities on technological aspects shall always include non-technical aspects. In fact, several other issues

Figure 3: La Farfana waste water treatment plant in Santiago de Chile

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Figure 4: Participants of the BioTop technical tour to the 2nd generation bioethanol plant of ABENGOA

Bioenergy10 FP6: COMPETE - Competence Platform on Energy Crop and Agroforestry Systems for Arid and Semi-arid Ecosystems- Africa. This network also involves partners from Mexico and Brazil.11 FP6: BEST - Bioethanol for Sustainable Transport. This demonstration project (integrated project) includes the demonstration site Sao Paulo in Brazil.12 FP7: SWEETFUEL - Sweet sorghum: an alternative energy crop. This research project includes partners from Brazil and Mexico.13 FP7: Global-Bio-Pact - Global Assessment of Biomass and Bioproduct Impacts on Socio-economics and Sustainability. This project includes partners from Argentina, Brazil, and Costa Rica.14 FP7: A recent FP7 call included the Topic ENERGY.2009.3.2.3: Second Generation Biofuels (coordinated call with Brazil). The results of the evaluation were not yet published.

8.2

Current and future cooperation activities

RTD cooperation requires financial and coordination support. Experiences from current and past research programs contribute to the success of future research activities. The Framework Programme of the European Union is the main instrument for research funding. The Seventh Framework Programme for research and technological development (FP7)5 is the current instrument for funding research over the period 2007 to 2013. FP7 bundles all research-related EU initiatives together under a common roof playing a crucial role in reaching the goals of growth, competitiveness and employment; along with a new Competitiveness and Innovation Framework Programme (CIP), Education and Training programmes, and Structural and Cohesion Funds for regional convergence and competitiveness. It is also a key pillar for the European Research Area (ERA). In relation to improved biofuel conversion technologies and co-operation with Latin America, FP7 supports several initiatives and projects, such as: The S2LAT.EU platform6 Science Square for S&T Cooperation between Latin America and Europe (EULARINET and EULANEST) DIBANET - Development of Integrated Biomass Approaches NETwork7 CANEBIOFUEL - Conversion of sugar cane biomass into ethanol8 BABETHANOL - New feedstock and innovative transformation process for a more sustainable development and production of lignocellulosic ethanol9 Also other biofuel projects which are supported by the Framework Programme of the European Union involve partners from Latin America. Selected projects are: FP5: LAMNET - Latin America Thematic Network on

Furthermore, several European countries have bilateral S&T agreements with Latin American countries and some of them are dedicated to biofuels (e.g. Germany and Brazil, The Netherlands and Brazil). Also on European level, the European Community has concluded bi-lateral S&T agreements with a number of individual countries. These agreements constitute a framework and a privileged forum to identify common interests, priorities, policy dialogue, and the necessary tools for S&T collaboration. The principal objective of the CYTED Programme15 (Latin-American Science & Technology Development Programme) is to contribute to harmonised and sustainable development in the Latin America region through co-operation in science, technology and innovation. One objective of CYTED is to enable interregional co-operation in Science and Technology between the European Union and Latin America. 8.3 Proposal for selected future research activities

With regard to improved biofuel conversion technologies, the BioTop consortium proposes to include the following research activities in the research agenda of the European Union (e.g. Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development) and in the agenda of Latin American research programs (e.g. CYTED) [17]. Support RTD for conversion of waste feedstocks The use of current residues and by-products as feedstocks (e.g. black liquor, sawdust, raw glycerine, vinasse, lignin) shall be a core research activity. These residues represent a huge disposal problem and pollution hazard in whole LA, thus their use as feedstock would have the double advantage of reducing waste streams and creating added value. RTD should aim at transforming these specific materials into valuable outputs, not only
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http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/ 6 http://www.s2lat.eu/ 7 http://www.dibanet.org 8 http://www.canebiofuel.org 9 http://babethanol.com/

http://www.bioenergy-lamnet.org http://www.compete-bioafrica.net 12 http://www.best-europe.org 13 http://www.sweetfuel-project.eu 14 http://globalbiopact.eu 15 http://www.cyted.org

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energy. Research is being carried out in Argentina, Colombia and Brazil on vinasse and glycerine treatment, e.g. anaerobic digestion of vinasse. Research needs to involve laboratory research and its application at demo and pilot scale for cost reduction. Research on ethanol production by biochemical conversion technology of lignocellulosic materials Despite of the great progress achieved during the last years in the conversion process of lignocellulose to ethanol based on pre-treatment, enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation, a number of technological breakthroughs are still necessary to reach a mature and cost-effective commercial technology. Further research is needed to improve the efficiency of pre-treatment, reduce the cost of enzymes used for hydrolysis and develop robust microbial cells for both glucose and pentose fermentation. Special attention shall be paid to the integration of all process residues (e.g. lignin) and wastewaters into the energetic chain in order to optimize water and energy balances. EU-LA collaboration in this field shall focus on transfer of knowledge amongst European researchers and laboratories and LA institutions involved in technology development. Research on adaptation of existing technology to promising feedstocks identified for LA local conditions shall be addressed in EU-LA cooperation programmes. EU-LA partnership shall provide important benefits in closing some of the gaps identified in this technology. For example, considering the need of lowering the costs of cellulase and hemicellulase, and the need of increasing their performance in carbohydrate hydrolysis, the isolation of novel microorganisms (yeasts, filamentous fungi and bacteria) which are displaying particularly potent extracellular enzymatic activities, can be addressed in collaborative research with LA institutions. Thereby, the advantage of the large amount of biodiversity-rich environments of LA countries can be used. Research on new lignocellulosic feedstocks for ethanol production Apart from sugarcane bagasse and straw, identified as the best examples of tailored feedstocks for 2nd generation ethanol production in Latin America, a larger amount of available feedstocks will increase the potential output of bioethanol in the region. Other promising substrates well adapted to the local conditions of LA countries, e.g. residual biomass from tropical crops, forage sorghum and woody biomass, offer attractive possibilities as alternative feedstocks for ethanol production, the choice of which will depend on the specific climatic and edaphic conditions of each country. However, efforts to evaluate and develop these new materials are still in a relatively early stage of development, reflecting tremendous opportunities for progress. Research is therefore necessary to identify and assess the suitability of using currently available crop residues or even growing new-dedicated energy crops for ethanol production, always considering sustainability criteria. EU-LA cooperation projects can be established to assess the feasibility of using these new feedstocks for ethanol production by testing them in existing European pilot/demonstration facilities based on best-developed biochemical conversion technology.

Research and development on logistics, pre-treatment, enzymatic hydrolysis and conversion to ethanol from forest residues and other new feedstocks According to BioTop results [18], 2nd generation bioethanol production from agricultural and forest residues and not harvested biomass from native forests could reach an excess of 199% over current gasoline demand in LA. Dedicated forest plantations can also become a cheap and abundant source of lignocellulosic feedstock. By harvesting these sources, all LatinAmerican countries (except Ecuador) might have feedstocks for 2nd generation ethanol production in excess of all their current gasoline demand. Therefore, RTD work is needed to study sustainable technologies for: a) the logistics to manage collect and transport forest residues; b) the development of technologies for an efficient pre-treatment and saccharification with enzymes (cellulases); c) the implementation of an in depth analysis of sugars obtained from this materials and RTD in biotechnological and microbiological methodologies to transform these sugars to ethanol. Research on pre-treatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of bagasse and leaves from sugar cane for ethanol production Several countries in LA produce sugar cane with high yields. This sugar cane is processed to obtain sucrose, and the bagasse is mainly used to generate energy for the sugar mill. However, the integration of modern technologies to burn the bagasse in the sugar mills can result in a significant surplus of bagasse, which can be used to obtain sugars for ethanol production. Furthermore, sugar cane leaves and tops are burned in the field to facilitate sugar cane harvest. These leaves and tops could be collected and also transformed to ethanol. Several initiatives are developing research and demonstration projects in countries like Canada, USA and the EU, but very few of them are using bagasse and leaves from sugar cane to produce ethanol. Brazil has some efforts in this field, however this technology still needs more RTD. Therefore, there is a research need to develop logistics for the collection of leaves and tops to obtain large amounts of biomass residues. The physical, mechanical and enzymatic treatment of this material to improve hydrolysis yield and to attain syrups with high sugar concentration (at least 100 g/L) needs to be investigated. Research on transesterification processes for different innovative plant oils from Latin America Due to the increasing demand for vegetable oils and fats for biodiesel production which is related to controversial discussions on sustainability issues, the need for alternative feedstock becomes of highest interest. With respect to the broad biodiversity of LA countries resulting in multitude oil containing plant varieties the applicability of such feedstocks for biodiesel production should be investigated within a joint laboratory and demonstration project. In this context new feedstock sources not competing with food purposes have to be evaluated and identified with special focus on availability, origin, potential and quality. The research should include appropriate oil extraction techniques including chemical/physical analysis of the oils and coupled with the chemical conversion of such feedstocks into (classical) fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) as well as

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fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE). New innovative conversion technologies e.g. based on enzymes, have to be evaluated. Final products shall be produced in laband pilot scale and shall be analyzed according to quality and engine/exhaust behaviour. The feedstock assessment has to be additionally accompanied by comprehensive sustainability and LCA evaluation. Demonstration plant for the production of fatty acid ethyl esters Production of fatty acid ethyl esters is still not applied at large scale, but it is of high importance due to the beneficial effects using (bio)-ethanol instead of methanol. However, several technological challenges have to be solved in terms of conversion conditions, ethanol recovery and recycling, as well as product purification and characterization. To improve knowledge on fatty acid ethyl ester production, it is unambiguously necessary to install appropriate demonstration plants in LA but also in the EU to accomplish RTD. Such demonstration facilities can be part of an international collaborative project concentrating EU-LA experts in that field. The objective should be to develop an industrial scale process adjusted to local conditions and feedstocks to be implemented e.g. as part of a biorefinery concept into existing bioethanol production units in Brazil. The work should be accompanied by LCA assessment of the whole process. Research on waste material utilization for Biodiesel production Waste oils and fats as feedstocks for biodiesel production are of highest interest especially from the economic and sustainability viewpoint. Several successful European projects have demonstrated the potential and benefits if such materials are being collected and converted to biofuels. Depending on the country specific conditions, a joint demonstration/research project with different LA partners should cover the assessment of waste material potential, installation of appropriate collection systems, investigation of waste material characteristics, pretreatment and conversion strategies as well as installation of small scale production units. As examples for such demonstration projects the large amount of wastes from the fishery industry in Chile, waste animal fats in Argentina, and generally waste oils from food industry in several LA countries shall be considered. Research on the utilization of animal fats for transesterification Animal fats represent an excellent feedstock for biodiesel production in LA due to their large production in the Latin American meat industry. Besides utilization for food purposes a huge amount of such fats would be available also for biodiesel production. Due to their much better GHG reduction potential (if considered as waste product), animal fats are also of high interest from the sustainability perspective. Several European, Latin American and world-wide operating biodiesel plants are converting animal fats into high value biodiesel. The introduction of animal fat utilization in biodiesel production of many LA countries has a great potential and shall be performed via joint EU-LA co-operation projects. Such projects have to include the assessment of availability, quality and sustainability (LCA) of the

feedstock but also cooperative research on implementation strategies, customers acceptance, and market potential. Research on biogas/biomethane technologies and concepts in Latin America Although Latin America has several research initiatives on biogas and biomethane production (e.g. Brazil, Chile), the use of biogas is still a very small niche. A future research project shall investigate suitable biogas/biomethane technologies and concepts in Latin America. This project shall boost the share of renewable energy in LA on the one hand and on the other hand the technology transfer from Europe. The joint project shall investigate potential feedstocks, especially waste materials, regarding stable anaerobic digestion processes. This includes research on framework conditions influencing the microbiology. Different anaerobic digestion processes shall be compared and adapted to local situations. Strategies to use the biogas for different applications (transport, CHP) shall be investigated. Costefficient biogas upgrading processes to biomethane quality shall be identified and investigated. The research shall also include research and analysis of digestate and opportunities for its use as fertilizer. All research shall include desk and laboratory research including the analysis of feedstock, microorganism, and digestate samples. Research on the potential and technical solutions for bagasse use in the BtL Process Latin America, particularly Brazil, is endowed with huge amounts of bagasse (sugarcane residues) from the sugar and ethanol industry. Parts of the bagasse are used for cogeneration for process heat of the sugar refinery and distillation process and for internal electricity production. Some factories have already introduced highpressure boilers with improved efficiencies and some feed the electricity into the grid. However, large amounts of bagasse are still not used. An opportunity exists in the use of bagasse for the pyrolysis and/or gasification process. Only very limited research was made on the use of bagasse in these processes. Research needs to be done on stabile bagasse storage, and efficient logistical concepts. A main focus shall be on suitable methods and technologies to feed bagasse into the gasifier. Tests on the gasification/pyrolysis process have to be made and characteristics of the syngas/pyrolysis oil have to be investigated. Research on efficient biorefinery concepts in Latin America Investing in demonstration of completely new biorefinery concepts requires large public financing. Thus, a short-term approach to develop integrated biorefineries in LA would be to build upon existing commercial activities, infrastructure and processes. An example would be to combine different existing biofuel technologies with each other, such as for instance the combination of ethanol and biodiesel production, or bioethanol and biogas production. This shall also include innovative concepts to efficiently produce different energy forms (electricity, heat, transport fuel), either sold to the market or used internally in the value chain, as well as other products than energy (e.g. pulp and paper). Increased efficiency also involves improved logistics

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(develop strategies to deal with seasonal production complementing feedstocks, collection, conditioning and storage of potential residues feedstocks, on-site pretreatment of feedstocks). More flexible schemes for the production of diverse co-products based on several feedstocks need to be implemented. Research focusing on specialty and high value coproducts Focus should be put on the development of biorefineries for dedicated high value products (e.g. pharmaceuticals) as a strategy for dealing with volatility in oil prices. This applies in particular for those biorefinery concepts where biofuels production may be un-attractive due to several barriers. Generating new products may demand smaller investments than those required to generate sugar cane ethanol. The main challenge for widespread dissemination generally is the availability of technological know-how and its related equipment. Some of the main co-product niches from sugar cane are carbon dioxide, acids and amino acids, citric acid, lysine, yeast. This can be a strategy for providing competitiveness to diversify industrial activities in LA based on cheap feedstocks. Public/private financing support is needed for existing RTD units for the development of alternative non-fuel co-products. Development of biomass-based substitutes for regional strategic petrochemical products The substitution of petrochemical materials/products shall be investigated where bio-based materials have intrinsic advantages and specifically where problems of local availability of petrochemical materials/products (ethylene) occur, as it is the case for some regions in LA. High product cost barriers for the petrochemical substitution could be tackled by improved bio-based chemicals. Substitutes should be identified where additional/improved functions are present. This could involve an assessment of ethylene regional demand and supply projections, exports, imports, concentration of suppliers and potential bottlenecks. The key factor for the development of the chemical-alcohol market is the relative price of sugar cane and cellulose ethanol in relation to petrochemical ethanol, since the basic technologies for conversion are well known. Bio-ethylene may offer certain advantages over conventional ethylene in relation to fossil fuels use and associated emissions, and may expand alternatives for sugar cane products commercialization. Research shall focuses on alternatives for cost reduction for existing bio-based products and processes. Research and demonstration of algae cultivation, harvesting and processing for biofuels in Latin America Most of the countries in LA are located in regions with enough solar radiation to cultivate microalgae in different systems. However, few studies had been carried out to prove the real potential of different microalgae to obtain a range of biofuel (biodiesel, methane, bioethanol, and bio-petroleum) and bio-products. The demonstrated potential yield of microalgaes in the programs developed in USA, Israel and Japan three decades ago showed that huge amounts of biofuels can be obtained on land that is not used for food or feed production. Although such technologies have a large potential, they did not prove yet to be economically feasible. Hence, new developments

and technologies need to emerge and progress to demonstrate the economical feasibility of microalgae cultivation under phototrophic, heterotrophic or mixotrophic conditions. 7 CONCLUSION

In the framework of the EU funded project BioTop, a sound assessment on feedstock potential, biofuels markets and policies in LA, as well as on biofuel standards, trade, sustainability in LA and EU was performed. However, core focus of the project was on improved conversion technologies. For all these issues, dedicated research needs and cooperation opportunities were identified. Thereby, is shown that emphasis in the area of improved conversion technologies shall be put in the short-term on research on integrated biorefinery concepts and on 2nd generation bioethanol production. Furthermore, research on improved biodiesel conversion and biogas is needed. In the medium to long-term, also research on BtL has to be supported. Although significant improvements on the conversion processes are needed, non-technical issues shall always accompany research activities. Thereby, the main focus will be on concepts which are guaranteeing sustainable production of biofuels, as well as on the economics and efficiency of the conversion processes. It can be concluded that, if the renewable energy targets in the transport sector in the European Union shall be fulfilled, Latin America is a strategically important partner. This is due to its large feedstock potential and due to its good infrastructure and framework conditions for biofuels export, compared to other regions such as e.g. Africa. Therefore, closer cooperation between Latin America and Europe is needed and more efforts have to be put on the support of RTD. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank the European Commission for supporting the BioTop project. The BioTop project Biofuels Assessment on Technical Opportunities and Research Needs for Latin America (Project No. FP7-213320) is supported by the European Commission in the 7th Framework Programme. We also thank the BioTop Advisory Board members for their support in the BioTop project.: Ricardo Arjona (Abengoa Bioenergy, Spain), Gustavo Best (Mexico), Manlio Coviello (United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Chile), Jos Goldemberg (Universidade de So Paulo, Brasil), Michiel Groeneveld (University of Twente, The Netherlands), Jorge Hilbert (INTA - Instituto Nacional de Tecnologa Agropecuaria, Argentina), Matthias Rudloff (Choren Industries, Germany), and Antonio Valdes Delgado (Center for Management of Priority Programs and Projects, Cuba).

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