INSTITUT FR KRAFTFAHRWESEN AACHEN

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Henning Wallentowitz

Vehicle Laboratory 2

Braking Test

Conductor: Dipl.-Ing. Christian Bachmann

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Fundamentals

1 2 2.1

Fundamentals ............................................................................................................. 3 Antilock-Brake-System (ABS) und Anti-Slip-Control (ASC) ......................................... 9 Conventional ABS.................................................................................................... 9 How does ABS work?........................................................................................... 9 Control procedure ................................................................................................ 9 ASC ....................................................................................................................... 11 Further development of the Braking System ............................................................. 13 3.1 3.2 3.2 ABS Plus ............................................................................................................... 13 Brake Assistant...................................................................................................... 14 Electrically operated brake .................................................................................... 16 Measuring Equipment ............................................................................................... 19 4.1 4.2 4.3 Adapter.............................................................. Fehler! Textmarke nicht definiert. F / U - Transformer ............................................ Fehler! Textmarke nicht definiert. Measurement Recording System....................... Fehler! Textmarke nicht definiert. Description of the test ............................................................................................... 20 5.1 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 Test vehicle ........................................................................................................... 20 Driving Tests ......................................................................................................... 20 Braking During Cornering with and without ABS ................................................ 20 Recording the Wheel Speed Signals during an ABS Braking Maneuver ............ 20

2.1.1 2.1.2 2.2 3

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Fundamentals

Fundamentals

The maximum possible braking efficiency z of a vehicle equals by definition to the coefficient of friction f between tire and track:
FS = r G

z=

Eq. 1-1

where FS is the transferable horizontal force and G the normal tire force. Horizontal forces such as acceleration forces, braking forces and lateral forces can only be transferred by the tire while slip occurs. Therefore between the tire and the road a relative movement sets in when a tractive force is applied, which results in a loss of propulsion. The driven wheel turns more frequently due to the slip than it is to be calculated from the driven distance. In the direct gear for a passenger car it usually is 101 to 102 revolutions, which means the slip is 1 or 2%. During the braking, the wheel correspondingly turns more slowly. The braking slip sB is defined as follows: sB = v - vW 100% , v Eq. 1-2

with v as vehicle velocity and vW as peripheral velocity of the wheel. The larger the force which has to be transferred, the greater the slip becomes. The quantity of the slip also is dependent on external conditions such as unevenness and humidity of the track. According to Fig. 1-1, the force transmission is optimal at about 20% slip. In this area the maximum grip between tire and road exists.

1.00 friction coefficient

0.75

0.50

concrete old, dry asphalt old, dry concrete new,wet packed snow surface ice

0.25

C ika

V1/4.4-2

0 rolling free
Fig. 1-1: Friction coefficient

25

50 brake slip

75 SB

% 100 blocked

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Fundamentals

While braking too hard there is the danger of the slip becoming too large, which results in a decrease of the friction coefficient and therefore of the force transmission (compare Fig. 11). At a 100% slip - which means a blocked wheel - the friction coefficient merely is the coefficient of sliding friction S , which is about 15 20% smaller than the maximum. The friction coefficients f and sliding coefficients S that can be reached are dependent on many influences. The most important are tire design, inflation, temperature and treaddepth as well as the material and the condition of the road. With increasing velocity, the contour of the tire print of a radial tire changes while the size of the contact surface stays almost constant. Only when approaching the maximum design velocity an increase of the contact surface can be detected. This at first leads to slowly increasing and then to more quickly decreasing friction coefficients. Maximum friction coefficients are reached with racing tires. These can partly build up a positive engagement with the road surface and make possible friction coefficients larger than one. Minimum friction coefficients ( f =0) are reached by worn-out tires (tread-depth < 1mm) in aquaplaning (min 80 km/h, 3mm water depth). The maximum deceleration due to force transmission of a vehicle at 4-wheel-braking is calculated to:
a = f g Eq. 1-3

This adhesion limit can only be reached if the force transmission between tire and track on both axles is utilized optimally:

a Gf g a Fbr = f G r = G r g Fbf = f G f =

Eq. 1-4

Independent of the distribution, the sum of the braking forces generated on the front and rear axle between tires and road is proportional to the vehicles deceleration: Fbf + Fbr = f (G f + G r ) = f G = z G = a m = FB Eq. 1-5

The weight force G of the whole vehicle, that in constant speed driving on an even road is distributed on the static axle loads Gf and Gr during the braking consists of the dynamic axle loads Gf and Gr. These differ from the static values due to the inertia force F=m*a that acts in the vehicles centre of gravity. The rear axle is relieved (Gr<Gr), the front axle is loaded (Gf>Gf).

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Fundamentals

Therefore is
G = Gf + Gr = G' f + G' r = Gf + G + Gr G Eq. 1-6

The relations for Gf and Gr result from a torque balance for the front and rear axle respectively (Fig. 1-2 and Fig. 1-3).

S G h
ika 90-214.ds4

lv Gv
Fig. 1-2: Vehicle data in standstill

lh l Gh

FB

S G

h
ika 90-215.ds4

F Bv G'v
Fig. 1-3:

lv l

lh

F Bh G'h

Vehicle data during decelerated ride

Determination of Gf:

MRA = 0 = z G h + G lr G' f l
lr + z h G' f = G = Gf + G l

Eq. 1-7

Eq. 1-8

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Fundamentals

Therefore the braking force on the front axle results to: Fbf = f G' f = f (Gf + G) The share of the axle-load shift during braking is calculated to G = G z h l Eq. 1-10 Eq. 1-9

that means, the lower the centre of gravity and the longer the wheelbase the smaller is this unwanted shift. The quantity of the braking forces FBf and FBr is dependent on the vehicle and its load condition as well as the possible friction coefficient f . If both wheels on one axle are blocking, i.e. sliding on the track surface (slip = 100%) not only a decrease of the possible braking force ( S < f )) is the result, but as well the complete loss of the side force Fs, which makes steering impossible, Fig. 1-4.

FB

side force FS braking force FB

FS

0
Fig. 1-4: Braking force and side force

braking slip s

If the rear axle is blocked, then there are relatively large braking forces FBf on the rolling wheels of the front axle (see Fig. 1-5). These forces act in front of the braking force FB applied to the center of gravity, thus the state is unstable. With a blocking rear an increased moment is already building up if the vehicle minimally turns out of the driving direction. Latreal forces, e.g. from track unevenness or side wind can
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Fundamentals

take out of direction a vehicle that until then was driving straight on. An increasing moment is generated, which tries to turn the vehicle transversal to the past driving direction (swerving hazard).

FBvr FBvl FBvr FBvl

FB

FB

FBhr FBhl FBhr FBhl

Fig. 1-5: Blocked rear wheels

If the front axle is blocked, then the vehicle is guided by the still rolling rear wheels (Fig. 1-6). The braking force FBr acts behind the centre of gravity. Although this state is stable, due to the lacking lateral forces no steering corrections can be made on the front axle.

FBvl

FBvr

FB

FBhl

FBhr

Fig. 1-6:

Blocked front wheels

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Fundamentals

If the braking torques on one axle differ, e.g. because of different friction coefficients on the left and the right side of the track (one-side blocking of the wheels), other relations do result. In Fig. 1-7 (left) on the left front wheel there is a greater braking force than on the right. The difference of force FBf=FBfl-FBfr results with the lever arm of half the track width in a yaw moment MB= FBf*0,5*uf around the vertical vehicle axis. In addition, dependent on the steering offset, a momentum around the steering axis appears. A negativ steering offset results in a momentum that makes the wheels steer in the opposite direction. This initiates a countersteer against the yaw motion due to the asymmetric braking forces. Because of the different braking potential of front and rear axle due to force transmission properties (distribution FA/RA approx. 2/3 to 1/3) different braking torques on the rear axle do not have a great effect. In this case there is a nearly stable state with the different braking forces FBrl and FBrr acting behind the cars centre of gravity, Fig. 1-7 (right).

r0

FBvl
uv

FBvr

FBvl

FBvr

FB

FB

FBhl

FBhr

FBhl

FBhr

Fig. 1-7:

Effect of unequal braking forces on front and rear axle respectively

Result: Unequal braking forces on the front wheel contacts points cause a turning of the vehicle around the vertical axis. Unequal braking forces on the rear axle have little effect on the driving stability.

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Antilock-Brake-System (ABS) und Anti-Slip-Control (ASC)

2 2.1

Antilock-Brake-System (ABS) und Anti-Slip-Control (ASC) Conventional ABS

The complete loss of lateral force due to blocking tires means loss of steerability and driving stability as mentioned above can be prevented by an antilock brake system (ABS). At velocities above the minimum velocity of about 5 km/h an ABS prevents the wheels from blocking during the braking. The test vehicles ABS consists of four speed sensors (Fig. 2-1/1), a hydraulic unit (Fig. 2-1/2) and an electronic controlling system (Fig. 2-1/3).
1 1

Fig. 2-1: ABS of the test vehicle

2.1.1

How does ABS work?

The wheel speed is detected by inductive wheel speed sensors. During the braking deceleration, acceleration and slip of the wheels are determined from the change of wheel speed by the electronic control unit. From this the controlling variable is generated. The front wheels are controlled individually, the rear wheels are controlled together after the select low method (the rear wheel with the smaller friction coefficient determines the common brake pressure for both rear wheels).

2.1.2

Control procedure

While braking a vehicle, the braking pressure is increased, the brake slip grows and in the maximum point of the brake force slip characteristic reaches the border between stable and unstable states. From this point a further increase of the braking pressure does not increase the braking force any more. Depending on the slip characteristic a more or less steep decrease of the brake force coefficient takes place. The resulting surplus momentum in a non-ABS braking very quickly causes a blocking of the wheel, which is announced by a steep decrease of the wheel speed (Fig. 2-2/1).
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Antilock-Brake-System (ABS) und Anti-Slip-Control (ASC)

10

Vvehicle velocity V V reference V Rad sB1

wheel acc. wheel dec.

+A +a 0 -a

valve streaming

2 1 0

Phase

12 3

5 6

brake pressure P B
/Bosch/

PB time t

C ika

V1/4.4-21

Fig. 2-2:

ABS control procedures

In the electronic control-unit of an antilock brake system, the actual condition is determined from the incoming wheel-speed impulses of all four wheels and the velocity. A computer compares the actual values to the nominal values. The ABS-controller starts the controlling procedure and signals to the hydraulic unit not to increase the hydraulic pressure for the respective wheel. The pressure is held at the value reached until then (phase 2 in Fig. 2-2/3). If the wheel speed is still decreasing, the pressure in the braking cylinder is lowered until the wheel starts accelerating again and the wheel deceleration limit a is exceeded. The brake pressure is then held constant until the acceleration has exceeded the upper limit +A (phase 4). A phase with increasing pressure follows (phase 5) which changes to a constant phase as soon as the +A limit is crossed with a negative gradient (phase 6). When the limit +a is reached the pressure is raised in steps until the lower limit a is reached again (phase 7). Without a constant phase a new control cycle follows. In an electronic ABS these control cycles are repeated with a frequency of up to 12 Hz.

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Antilock-Brake-System (ABS) und Anti-Slip-Control (ASC)

11

2.2

ASC

Since the wheels should not block while braking, they also should not spin while starting or accelerating to ensure the driving stability. ASC is a extension of ABS and uses its components. Fig. 2-3 shows a vehicle that is equipped with both.

1 Hydro unit with control unit 2 Wheel speed sensors 3 Control unit of the engine managment for communication Fig. 2-3: Vehicle with ABS and ASC

If the driving torque demanded by the driver is higher than the physical maximal transmissible torque, at least one of the driven wheels is spinning. This is detected by a comparison with a non driven wheel. The ASC-Brake controller which is integrated in the ABS control unit increases the brake moment at this wheel. If both driven wheels are spinning, the ASC-engine controller intervenes and reduces the engine torque until only one wheel is braked. The Anti-Slip-Control brakes the car so it can drive. It increases the traction and the cornering force of the vehicle. With the Anti-Slip-Control there are the following types of controlling:

Driving Torque Controlling Braking Torque Controlling Braking Torque Controlling combined with Driving Torque Controlling .

With the Driving Torque Control the driving forces of the engine are controlled by an electronic control system dependant on the available adherence between wheel and track. If
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Antilock-Brake-System (ABS) und Anti-Slip-Control (ASC)

12

the driver speeds up too fast, the slip control detects the danger of spinning of the wheels and throttles the engine driving torque automatically (influence on the throttle valve, injection rate and ignition point by the BUS of the digital engine management), so the driving forces are decreased corresponding to the adherence level. The active safety is improved considerably, since the driving stability at accelerated cornering and at changing track friction coefficient is increased by that. With the Brake Torque Control the wheel which is about to spin is braked individually by the wheel brake. The ASC offers important advantages with the Braking torque Controlling:

Break away safety even in extreme driving situations, while passing and on single sided slippery track Best possible traction and effective adherence usage by automatical locking differential, thereby increase of the drive on one sided slipperiness

While the ABS exercises its stabilizing influence with the straightline driving and cornering only when the driver brakes, the ASC intervenes automatically by braking single wheels (if necessary together with a reduction of the engine torque).

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Further development of the Braking System

13

Further development of the Braking System

The development of the system vehicle brake is not finished yet. In the following already existing brake systemes are introduced. Afterwards the description of the electical brake should give an insight into future development tendencies.

3.1

ABS Plus

A further development of the ABS is the ABS plus. Its job is to support the driver in dynamical extreme situations by specific brake pressure modulation at one or more wheels. It uses the same hardware components as the arleady described ABS. A significant element is the extended signal analysis. It can detect dynamic driving situations, analyze them and influence the ABS pressure modulation by applicable actions. The pressure modulation is adjusted for each wheel seperatly by increased or reduced ABS control thresholds. The intensity is dependant on the results of the driving situation analysis. The selective interventions are similar to the ones of the ESP. The ESP acts under all driving conditions, whereas the ABS plus is a brake slip control system only working in the deceleration case. It requires the operation of the brake pedal. The ABS plus already acts with the partly braked vehicle in the most different situations. This happens after the detection of cornering in the limits by the asymmetrical pressure increase at the front wheels. The rear axle is stabilized by control of the electronical brake-power distribution or by select-low pressure reduction dependant on the design of the brake system. As Fig. 3-1 shows, the yaw moment is reduced by the asymmetrical forces FB,x1 at the inside and FB,x2 at the outside wheel. The driver has the possibility to control his vehicle safely.
ABS plus performs an early decrease of brake pressure at inside wheel dependant on the tire slip. Brake pressure increase at outside wheel applied by ABS plus.

Tire slip angle Outside wheel Brake force difference at front axle with ABS plus Inside front wheel conventional ABS

ABS plus increases the cornering stability forces of the rear wheels.

Critical yaw moment is compensated by ABS plus.

outside front wheel

Fig. 3-1:

ABS Plus: activation during full braking

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Further development of the Braking System

14

The complete process of a braking with ABS plus is shown in Fig. 3-1 as well. While cornering in the controlled state ABS plus reduces the pressure dependant on the tire slip at the inside wheel with the lower normal force. At the outside wheel a higher pressure is applied by changing the ABS threshold to lower sensitivity. At the same time the lateral forces at the rear axle are increased by pressure reduction.

3.2

ESP (electronic stability program)

As ABS plus is only activated while the driver pushes the brake pedal, the ESP system is passively observing the driving situation of the vehicle. If a critical situation is detected the ESP acts independently to stabilize the car.

Fig. 3-2:

Vehicles with and without ESP

3.3

Brake Assistant

In addition to the ABS, the brake assistant, that has been developed to production readiness by Mercedes-Benz, increases the active safety of vehicles during braking. Large-scale researches concerning the braking behaviour of normal drivers in critical driving situations showed that most drivers brake with too little force and after the beginning of the braking procedure do not press the pedal steadily. Additionally it became clear that due to
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Further development of the Braking System

15

the panic reaction the velocity of the brake pedal was significantly higher with nearly all drivers. This knowledge was the basis of the idea to develop a brake assistant, since with the pedal velocity a reliable and simple detection of the situation is possible. In Fig. 3-3 the components of the Brake Assist of Lucas Varity are shown.
Vacuum Vacuum chamber

Working chamber Energy supply for automatic braking

Komponenten Components integriert integrated

Pressure sensor Functions brakes brakes Travel sensor Travel sensor Brake assistant Release Pre-loading of ABSswitch Steuergert, Magnet- und pump for ESP Control unit, solenoid and Lseschalter release switch Hillhold Downhill-braking Brake pressure Proportonal preparation for Adaptive controlled Cruise Control (ACC) solenoid valve Membrane travel sensor Membranwegsensor

Detection of pedal velocity

Vehicle CAN Bus Radar Control Unit Aluminum pans

Fig. 3-3:

Brake Assist (BAS) by Lucas Varity

To be seen is the cross-section of a brake booster. It consists of two chambers which are divided by a movable membrane. When the brake is not in use in both chambers is negative pressure. When the brake pedal is operated, a mechanic control valve in the brake booster opens, causing air to flow into the working chamber which changes the pressure relations. The difference in pressure between both chambers causes an amplification of the braking force and is proportional to the pedal force. If the driver operates the pedal moderately the pressure difference is only small, the amplification force and therefore the braking effect is relatively low. The maximum amplification force is reached when full atmospheric pressure prevails in the rear chamber. The significant quantity for the detection of the drivers intention is, as mentioned, the velocity with which the driver actuates the braking pedal. Since braking pedal and membrane are mechanically connected, the membrane travel is detected by a travel sensor and differentiated over time. With the obtained membrane velocity a decision is made in the control unit whether there is an emergency braking or merely a normal braking.

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Further development of the Braking System

16

When the microcomputer has detected an emergency situation it activates the brake booster control valve, so that the working chamber is immediately filled with air and full braking pressure is built up. By this the braking pressure on all four wheels is increased significantly compared to an insufficient braking, which results in shorter brake distances. A blocking of the wheels during this automatic emergency stop is impossible because the antilock system still controls the braking force precisely up to the blocking limit. If the driver reduces the brake pedal force to approximately 20N, the brake assistance is switched off by the release switch.

3.2

Electrically operated brake

Since the seventies a continuous increase of electronic measures for the stabilization of vehicles is to be seen. Apart from the antilock system automatic traction control systems, electronic brake force distribution, engine drag control, and vehicle-dynamics controller belong to these. These systems can have unwanted effects on the brake pedal, such as the pulsing of the pedal during the ABS-braking. These irritating reactions of the brake pedal influence the driving safety and the braking comfort. A possible solution is the decoupling of the drivers wish to brake and the actuation of the brake in an electrically operated brake. This also allows a layout of the pedal force/travel characteristic in an ergonomic point of view, independent of different disturbance quantities such as load, road downgrade or heatcompressibility of the brake-pads. Further advantages of the electric brake are:

Crash-safe pedals Less space needed Environment-friendly (no brake fluid) Easy maintenance (brake-pad change only) Highly dynamic system (responding behaviour)
Fig. 3-2 shows the main components of the electromechanically operated brake prototype developed at ITT Automotive simplified in a cross-section.

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Further development of the Braking System

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caliper

central bearing

motor

Floating caliper

Application unit Brake supporting frame

resolver pad disc spindle

Fig. 3-4:

Electromechanically operated brake

Instead of the brake piston a spindle actuates the inner brake-pad. The spindle-nut is driven directly by the rotor of a brushless torque-motor. The bearing of the whole drive-unit for reasons of limited space is realized with one central ball-bearing that takes radial and axial forces. Operation and controlling of the motor are done with a position sensor. The design of the brake-by-wire system differs significantly from conventional hydraulic brake systems. Attention must be paid especially to the lack of mechanical connection between driver and brake. For this reason the fail-safe concept has a special significance. It must be made sure that at least one emergency function stays active in the event of a malfunction and that a powerful on-line diagnosis detects failures in any case, so that an emergency function can be activated and the driver can be warned. These demands have deciding effects on the design of the energy supply. The fail-safety is guaranteed by the introduction of a twin electric system 12/48V. In case of failure in one part of the system, limited function of the components in the malfunctioning circuit is available. The introduction of fully operated braking systems will probably not happen in near future, because the challenges concerning technical and economical questions are extraordinary. It is more likely to be assumed that in a first step combined solutions consisting of electric and hydraulic components will come to use, see Fig. 3-3.

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Further development of the Braking System

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electro-hydraulic brake force controller

electric rear wheel brakes hydraulic front wheel brakes

Fig. 3-5: Combined electric and hydraulic brake system

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Measuring Equipment

19

Measuring Equipment

For the tests the vehicle is fitted with measuring equipment. In detail, this is an adapter for intercepting the wheel speed signals, a frequency/voltage transformer and a computer system for the recording of the measured values. Fig. 4-1 shows a systematic view of the measuring chain. For the braking test, the wheel speeds are to be recorded. Instead of fitting additional wheel speed sensors to the wheels, the information of the internal wheel speed sensors is to be used. In order to do this, the the CAN-Bus is a convenient point to intercept the signals (e.g. wheel speeds, braking pressures). To display them on the measurement computer, a dSpace AutoBox and the software ControlDesk is used.

4.1

Signals

As speed signal ABS wheel speed sensors do not produce an analog voltage proportional to the driven speed but a frequency signal. The signals frequency is equivalent to the wheel speed. Fig. 4-2 shows the wheel speed signals for two different wheel speeds.

Fig. 4-2:

wheel speed signals

The wheel speed signals are transformed from a frequency to a digital information which is published on the CAN-Bus. Also the braking pressures from all brake callipers and the brake master cylinder are available on the bus.

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Description of the test

20

5 5.1

Description of the test Test vehicle

As test vehicle a Audi A6 4.2 quattro with a Bosch ABS/ESP. This system is the version ABS / ASC 5.7 with integrated traction control. The car has wheel speed sensors on all four wheels. The ABS controller is situated underneath the glove compartment, so the wheel speed signals can easily be connected with the recording system.

5.2

Driving Tests

The driving tests take place on the ika test track. A part of the large skid-pad is watered, which decreases the friction coefficient of the track surface. For this reason blocking of the wheels and ABS response respectively already set in moderate brake forces.

5.2.1

Braking During Cornering with and without ABS

At first the fundamental advantage of an ABS-braked vehicle is to be demonstrated. For this two braking manoeuvres are performed, one time the ABS is active, the other time the ABS is deactivated by disconnecting the control unit, so the vehicle only has its normal brake force. The effects on the braking procedure are to be watched and to be evaluated.

5.2.2

Recording the Wheel Speed Signals during an ABS Braking Maneuver

In the second part of the test the wheel speeds and the braking pressures during an ABSbraking are to be measured with the help of the measuring equipment. With the charts of the wheel speed signals and the pressures the function principle of the ABS can be seen and explained.

5.2.3

Showing ESP functionalities

Two final manoeuvres shall show the working principles of the ESP system. Therefore a tight non-braked cornering will be driven once with and once without activated ESP.

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