Tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Guyana Basin

Wenxiu Yang and Alejandro Escalona

AUTHORS Wenxiu Yang  International Research Institute of Stavanger, 8046 Stavanger, Norway; wenxiu.yang@uis.no Wenxiu Yang received her Ph.D. from the Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, in 2007. At present, she works as a postdoctoral researcher for the International Research Institute of Stavanger and the University of Stavanger in Norway. She is currently interpreting regional seismic and well data on the northwestern offshore of Cuba. Alejandro Escalona  Department of Petroleum Engineering, University of Stavanger, 4036 Stavanger, Norway; alejandro.escalona@uis.no Alejandro Escalona received his Ph.D. in geology from the University of Texas at Austin in 2003. At present, he is an associate professor at the University of Stavanger in Norway. His research is about basin evolution of continental margins, tectonics, regional to reservoir-scale analysis to define petroleum systems, and sequence/ seismic stratigraphy, using workstations to interpret both two-dimensional and three-dimensional seismic data integrated with well and core data, GIS Arc/Info database management, and visualization techniques.

ABSTRACT The Guyana Basin is located along the passive margin of northeastern South America. With no major oil discoveries, the region is considered by the U.S. Geological Survey the second least explored basin in the world. We integrated approximately 3000 km (1870 mi) of industry two-dimensional seismic data and 16 offshore wells in offshore Guyana to provide a regional framework and its hydrocarbon potential. Four main stratigraphic sequences from the Cretaceous to the Pliocene were recognized. Sequence 1 of the Cretaceous consists of shelfal sedimentation and submarine fan systems. The main Cretaceous depocenter is located in the southeastern part of the area, which coincides with a free-air gravity low, suggesting a basement depression inherited from Jurassic rifting. Sequence 2 of the Paleogene consists of shelfal clastic and carbonate deposits. Listric faults affect the shelf edge and slope, resulting in large turbidites down the slope. The west-southwest east-northeastoriented Waini arch developed along the northern shelf, and it may reflect a flexural long-distance effect of the Caribbean plate convergence with the northwestern South American plate. Sequence 3 of the early to middle Miocene consists of isolated carbonate platforms at the shelf edge surrounded by siliciclastics. On the sequence top, a regional unconformity was identified by large incised valleys. We suggest that this unconformity was caused by the peak of the Caribbean orogeny in the Trinidad area. Sequence 4 of the late Miocene to Pliocene shows the largest terrigenous progradational event in the shelf, which was built up by clear sigmoidal clinoforms. We suggest that the large progradation pattern change is caused by paleodrainage system changes in northern South America since the middle Miocene and by glacioeustasy.
Copyright 2011. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved. Manuscript received June 18, 2010; provisional acceptance August 3, 2010; revised manuscript received September 7, 2010; final acceptance January 3, 2011. DOI:10.1306/01031110106

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the sponsors of the Caribbean Basins, Tectonics and Hydrocarbons consortium for the main economic support, Christopher Kendall at the University of South Carolina for data donation that made this project possible, and Paul Mann for constructive discussions. We thank Landmark Graphics Corporation, Schlumberger, Zetaware, and Chesapeake Technology for software support. We thank the reviewers Mourad M. Bedir, Jan Golonka, and Joseph J. Lambiase for their helpful contributions. The AAPG Editor thanks the following reviewers for their work on this paper: Mourad M. Bedir, Jan Golonka, and Joseph J. Lambiase. EDITORS NOTE Color versions of Figures 116 may be seen in the online version of this article.

AAPG Bulletin, v. 95, no. 8 (August 2011), pp. 13391368

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INTRODUCTION AND GLOBAL SIGNIFICANCE The Guyana sedimentary basin is located along the passive margin of northeastern South America (Figure 1A). It includes the offshore of Guyana and Suriname and faces the Atlantic Ocean Basin to the northeast. According to Mann et al. (2003), continental passive margins fronting major oceanic basins form the dominant tectonic setting for hydrocarbon accumulations. In 2001, the U.S. Geological Survey estimated that the Guyana Basin, including the entire offshore areas of Guyana and Suriname, held recoverable reserve potential of approximately 15.2 billion bbl oil equivalent (Ahlbrandt et al., 2000; Campbell, 2005). Although this figure is now considered to be overly optimistic, it still suggests that significant potential exists. The basin is characterized by the presence of a world-class source rock of the Cenomanian to the Turonian (Campbell, 2005), which was found in wells drilled in deep water offshore close to the Guyana-Suriname border in the Demerara Rise by the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) (Meyers et al., 2006). In addition, many oil and gas seeps have been found along the present-day coastline, indicating a working petroleum system. According to previous workers (Workman, 2000; A. Belfor, 2002, personal communication), hydrocarbons are believed to have migrated to the southwest from the offshore source rock in an updip direction toward onshore, where the Tambaredjo and Calcutta fields in Suriname were discovered (Figure 1A). Although a lot of information indicates that the Guyana Basin has hydrocarbon potential, until now, no major hydrocarbon fields have been found offshore. The extension of the basin is quite large, and only 22 exploration wells have been drilled offshore since the 1970s. Some of these wells encountered oil and gas shows in noncommercial quantities.

PREVIOUS WORK AND OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY The Guyana Basin, covering an area of approximately 3000 km2 (1158 mi2) of the passive margin of northeastern South America, remains mostly
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underexplored and has not yet been studied in as much detail as the neighboring Trinidad and eastern Venezuela hydrocarbon provinces. Little has been published on the geology of the basin, and most of the work is only in the form of older reports by previous exploration campaigns. Research work in the area has been mostly focused on the macrotectonic evolution of the basin (Pindell, 1991; Benkhelil et al., 1995; Mann et al., 1995), the seismic geometry character of the shelf (Campbell, 2005), or the biochemistry and lithostratigraphy of the ODP wells in the Demerara Rise (Meyers et al., 2006). These studies show that few structures exist in the basin. Extensional tectonics along the Guyana continental shelf were caused by the final drift of the African plate from the South American plate during the Early Cretaceous, which ceased in the Late Cretaceous, with normal cooling subsidence (Gouyet et al., 1994). The northeast-southwest Waini arch was interpreted in offshore Guyana by Mobil (R. H. Kirk, 1993, personal communication), but no further studies have been done on its origin and evolutionary history. The middle Miocene unconformity is documented over the entire Guyana shelf (Erbacher et al., 2004; Campbell, 2005; Goss et al., 2008), but no correlation with the middle Miocene unconformity in Trinidad (Kugler, 2001; Garciacaro et al., 2011) has been established. A large increase of terrigenous input and progradation occurred in the basin during the postmiddle Miocene (Goss et al., 2008). Previous workers suggest that this rapid progradation is a response of paleodrainage rearrangement in northern South America as a consequence of the Incaian event (Andean uplift) during 49 to 37 Ma (Hoorn et al., 1995; Golonka, 2002; Campbell, 2005), but no clear correlation has been established because the basin is not sourced by any of the large river systems (e.g., Amazon and Orinoco rivers) but instead by localized paleodrainages (e.g., Corantijn River). The presence of widespread TuronianSantonian organic-rich source rocks is also widely acknowledged (Meyers et al., 2006), but until now, most studies have shown that they are mostly immature (B. Ravanas, 1990, personal communication), and

Figure 1. (A) Location of the Guyana Basin showing wells with oil and gas shows, oil and gas seeps and Tambaredjo and Calcutta oil fields onshore, and giant oil and gas fields of eastern Venezuela and Trinidad. The passive margin and Demerara Rise are also shown. (B) Guyana onland geology map showing the basins southeastern limit of the outcropping crystalline Proterozoic basement of the Guyana Shield (GEBCO, 2009) and main structural features, indicating the location of the northeast-southwest orientation Waini arch. (C) Free-air gravity map from Sandwell and Smith (2009) showing the shelf break along the Guyana Basin, the lineament related to the Cretaceous and Jurassic oceanic crusts, gravity lows offshore suggesting Jurassic grabens similar to the onland Takutu graben, and the eastern Venezuela foreland and forebulge.

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many questions remain regarding the distribution, origin, migration paths, and maturation patterns of the area (Erlich et al., 2003; Meyers et al., 2006; Arndt et al., 2009). Nevertheless, the basin lies next to the hydrocarbon-rich Eastern Venezuela Basin with its large heavy oil accumulation that extends toward the subsurface of the Orinoco delta and the Trinidad Columbus Basin. In addition, little attention has been given to the effect of the Caribbean orogeny in the Guyana Basin and the possible connection to the Venezuelan and Trinidad petroleum systems. The availability of two-dimensional (2-D) seismic data and well data in this area and our current knowledge on the evolution of the oblique convergence of the Caribbean plate with northern South America give us the opportunity to improve our understanding of the structure and depositional history of the Guyana Basin into a better regional context and to evaluate the impact on its petroleum system. Specific objectives are (1) to build up the regional tectonostratigraphic framework of the continental shelf of the Guyana Basin, (2) to evaluate the impact of the oblique collision of the South AmericanCaribbean plates since the Cretaceous, and (3) to evaluate the petroleum system and its relationship with the adjacent petroleum systems.

of more than 3000 m (9850 ft) (Gouyet et al., 1994; Goss et al., 2008). The free-air gravity map shows clearly the shelf-break margin, which suggests the different plate boundary lineaments such as the Jurassic and the Cretaceous oceanic plates (Figure 1C). Several gravity lows can also be identified in the shelf, suggesting graben structures similar to the onland Takutu graben located in Guyana and Brazil (Figure 1C). The Takutu graben was formed when the central Atlantic Ocean opened during the Jurassic (F. D. Crawford, 1985, personal communication). West-southwesteast-northeastbending faults affecting the basement can also be interpreted close to the gravity high in eastern Venezuela. We propose that this gravity high is the present-day forebulge formed as a response to the tectonic loading of the Caribbean plate over the South American plate (Figure 1C). The tectonic development of the Guyana Basin can be divided into three main tectonic movement phases from Late Jurassic (200 Ma) to present (Figure 2). To illustrate the stratigraphic distribution during the three tectonic phases, a summarized stratigraphic column of the Guyana Basin is shown in Figure 3. Central Atlantic Phase (200145 Ma) The north-south rifting during the Jurassic between South America and North America, which was initiated in the central Atlantic region, resulted in eastwest extension with a large component of dextral shearing (Gouyet et al., 1994) (Figure 2A). This rifting event was recorded as grabens developed along the offshore region of the Guyana Basin and also onshore in the east-westoriented Takutu graben (Figure 1C). The Takutu graben is the best record of the Jurassic event in the Guyana Basin region. In the graben, the Lower Jurassic (200 Ma) volcanic formation of the lower Apoteri was deposited (Crawford et al., 1985) and subsequently covered by the upper Apoteri and Pirara formations of the EarlyMiddle Jurassic (Berrang and Dearnley, 1975) (Figure 3). These two formations consist of halite and interbedded shale that was regarded as a matured source rock in the graben. The Upper Jurassic clastic rocks of the Takutu

REGIONAL GEOLOGIC SETTING The Guyana Basin is located on the edge of the central Atlantic continental margin of northeast South America, and it lies along the continental shelf of Guyana and Suriname (Figure 1A). The basins southeastern boundary is limited by the outcrop of the crystalline Proterozoic basement of the Guyana shield (Figure 1B). The continental margin from Guyana to French Guiana is approximately 930 km (580 mi) long and approximately 150 km (95 mi) wide, and the widest extent is approximately 380 km (240 mi) in the area of Demerara Rise (Figure 1A). Water depths on the continental shelf range from 0 to approximately 200 m (660 ft), and the deep basin reaches depths
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Figure 2. Plate tectonic evolution of the Guyana Basin using the University of Texas Institute for Geophysics PLATES database and PaleoGIS software. (A) Central Atlantic phase (200145 Ma). (B) African rifting phase (145113 Ma). (C) Passive margin phase (1130 Ma).

Formation conformably overlay the previous formations. The Takutu Formation includes the reddishbrown shale interbeds of very fine grained sandstone, siltstone, and micritic limestone sediments developed within the fluvial and coastal facies of the formation and could be a good reservoir (Crawford et al., 1985). Africa Rifting Phase (145113 Ma) During the Early Cretaceous, South Africa and South America started to rift apart. The rifting event happened in the South Atlantic because of the counterclockwise rotation of Africa relative to South America (Pindell, 1991; Mann et al., 1995), resulting in two conjugate margins, the Guinea Rise on the African margin and the Demerara Rise on the South American margin (Figure 2B). Because of

complex plate rotation, a late compressional phase resulted before final rifting and was recorded in the Demerara Rise as northeast-southwest en echelon folds and northwest-southeasttrending normal faults (Gouyet et al., 1994; Goss et al., 2008). During the Early Cretaceous (Barremian), the basal-clastic sandstone of the Stabroex Formation was deposited and overlain by nonmarine siliciclastic deposits of the Potoce Formation (Brouwer and Schwander, 1988) (Figure 3). During rifting of the South Atlantic, major erosion affected the region, resulting in a stratigraphic break throughout the entire Guyana Basin on top of the Aptian. This regional unconformity was then covered by a regional flooding event that resulted in the Albian to Turonian shelf marine platform (Canje Formation) (Lindseth and Beraldo, 1985) (Figure 3). This period correlates well with a global sea level rise event
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1344 Tectonostratigraphic Evolution of the Guyana Basin Figure 3. Generalized stratigraphic column showing the lithology distribution along the basin dip (left) and along the shelf (right) of the Guyana Basin.

and a global anoxic event (Erlich et al., 2003). The Canje Formation is a black shale with average total organic content (TOC) between 4 and 7%, with the highest TOC concentration of 30% in the Demerara Rise (Meyers et al., 2006; Nederbragt et al., 2007).

DATA AND METHODOLOGY Two-Dimensional Seismic Data The data used in this study consist of approximately 3000 km (1870 mi) of 2-D seismic reflection lines, which include several surveys acquired in this region by the oil industry (Figure 4A). The data were kindly donated by Christopher Kendall at the University of South Carolina to the Caribbean Basins, Tectonics, and Hydrocarbons consortium at the University of Texas at Austin and the Department of Petroleum Engineering at the University of Stavanger in Norway. Seismic lines were available in paper and converted to SEGY files using Chesapeake Technologys Image to SEGY software. Most surveys are from the 1970s and 1980s, and data quality ranges from bad to good.

Passive Margin Phase (1130 Ma) During the Late Cretaceous, Africa drifted away from South America, which formed the main extensional geologic regime in the Guyana Basin and caused a general collapse of the unstable shelf edge and slope (Figure 2C). This predominantly transcurrent movement occurred mostly from the Albian to the Eocene, but is still active at present. Previous workers proposed the creation of a large pull-apart basin with a gentle thermal subsidence caused by a relatively low heat flow in this transcurrent setting (Benkhelil et al., 1995). In the shelfal areas of the Guyana Basin, the uppermost Cretaceous is a siliciclastic interval interpreted as littoral shelf deposits with sand and lagoonal deposits (Lawrence and Coster, 1985) and is found as oil-bearing sediments in the Arapaima-1 well in offshore Guyana (Figure 3). The end of the Cretaceous is marked by an erosional unconformity overlain by carbonate shelf deposits (Georgetown and lower Pomeroon formations) of the Paleocene to the Eocene (Campbell, 2005). Carbonate sedimentation ended during the middle Miocene because of an increase of clastic input into the shelf area (mid-Corentyne Formation) followed by a major unconformity (Erbacher et al., 2004) that can be correlated across the entire Guyana Basin. Above this unconformity, the entire margin became completely clastic, dominated by a rapid influx of clastic sediments of the Corentyne Formation (Workman, 2000), with a shelf progradation of 50 to 60 km (3137 mi) toward the northeast from the late Miocene to the Holocene. In the Demerara Rise area, the upper Neogene interval is missing. Erosion in this region has been suggested to be related to glacioeustasy and closure of the Panama Isthmus, causing global changes in ocean circulation patterns (Mosher and Piper, 2007).

Well Data Information on 16 wells (Figure 4A; Table 1) was used to correlate the 2-D seismic data interpretation. Eleven wells from published articles (Erlich et al., 2003; Campbell, 2005) and well reports (T. Doran, 1985, personal communication; B. Chevallier, 1988, personal communication; A. Noyau, 1991, personal communication) were used to display key geologic tops to correlate the seismic data and extend the important strata information throughout the entire Guyana Basin. In addition, five ODP wells (12571261, leg 207) from the Demerara region were available and used as distal correlation for the continental shelf (Figure 4A) (Erbacher et al., 2004).

Methodology The seismic framework follows the convention proposed by Mitchum et al. (1977), in which seismic sequences are bounded by unconformities and their correlative conformities. These seismic sequence boundaries are designated by their stratigraphic ages identified in seismic data and tied to the wells in the basin (Figure 4B). They are correlated
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Figure 4. (A) Topography and bathymetry basemap showing the seismic data and well data used. Red points represent wells used from published sources, green points are Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) wells, red lines represent the seismic transects from published articles that were used as a reference in the work, and the black lines represent the seismic transects that were interpreted in the work. (B) Correlation between seismic tectonic sequences and the Arapaima-1 well. Locations are shown in (A). 1346 Tectonostratigraphic Evolution of the Guyana Basin

Table 1. Wells Data Used in This Study Well Label Arap-1 Esseq-2 Berbice-2 OG-1 Mahai-1 Mahai-2 Abary-1 CO-1 NCO-1 GO-1 Well-A 1257 1258 1259 1260 1261 Well Name Arapaima-1 Essequibo-2 Berbice-2 Offshore-Guyana-1 Mahaica-1 Mahaica-2 Abary-1 Coronie-1 Ncoronie-1 Galibi-Offshore-1 Well-A ODP-1257 ODP-1258 ODP-1259 ODP-1260 ODP-1261 Company Total Total Shell Shell Shell Shell Shell Conoco ELF Tenneco Petrleos de Venezuela, S.A. Ocean Drilling Program Ocean Drilling Program Ocean Drilling Program Ocean Drilling Program Ocean Drilling Program

and stratigraphic features is primarily based on their character in map view at different depths. We include key vertical seismic reflection profiles that support our interpreted provenance directions, fault geometries, and unconformities on the structural and isochron maps. Acoustic Basement We correlated the acoustic basement top in the seismic data with wells in the study area (Figure 4B) and previous regional interpretations from seismic data in the adjacent region of the Demerara Rise (Erbacher et al., 2004; Goss et al., 2008) and Orinoco delta and shelf (Di Croce et al., 1999). Two different reflection styles of the basement based on its seismic response are interpreted (Figures 6, 7A). Single-Reflector Acoustic Basement This type of acoustic basement is found in the southeastern region mostly covering the largest gravity low in the basin that is interpreted as a possible Jurassic graben (Figures 1C, 7D). The basement is characterized by a strong reflective surface with chaotic reflections beneath it. Basement top depths range from 1700 ms toward the mainland in the southwest to about 5000 ms in the northeast (Figure 6A). Reflective Acoustic Basement This type of acoustic basement is located in the central and northwestern parts of the basin. The seismic depth ranges from approximately 800 ms in the central part of the basin to about 3000 ms in the northeast basinward direction (Figure 6B). The basement is characterized by a strong reflection on top followed by pseudoparallel reflectors as much as 3000 ms thick, suggesting stratification. These internal reflections pinch out in the landward direction and dip gently basinward (10 on seismic). The basement character suggests a similar but gentler characteristic of seaward-dipping reflections interpreted along volcanic margins such as the North Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico (Diebold et al., 1999; Kroehler, 2007) or the Norwegian Sea continental margin (Mutter et al., 1982). Its thickness is quite homogeneous over the shelf region, but it changes basinward where it develops
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throughout the 2-D seismic survey and correlated within the well sections (Figure 5). Depositional systems were defined between flooding surfaces and unconformities, and structural and isochron maps were constructed from surface subtraction. These maps represent the final interpretation for building up the depositional history of the Guyana Basin from the Cretaceous to the Pliocene. In addition, Zetaware software was used to build up subsidence curves from two of the deepest wells to establish the main subsidence events and the relationship between tectonics and sedimentation. The burial history for three wells was completed to analyze the source rock maturation in the basin.

SEISMIC SEQUENCES AND STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION OF THE GUYANA BASIN Four seismic sequences were identified by five key seismic horizons in the study area illustrated on the seismic well sequences in Figure 4B. These horizons are top basement, top Maastrichtian, top Oligocene, top middle Miocene, and top Pliocene. For each sequence, we describe the most significant structural features observed on the structural and isochron maps. The description of structures

1348 Tectonostratigraphic Evolution of the Guyana Basin Figure 5. Well cross sections in the Guyana Basin. (A) Well correlation showing the stratigraphic distribution along offshore Guyana Basin. (B) Well correlation section showing the stratigraphic distribution along the Guyana Basin dip. The two cross sections indicate Cretaceous source rock thicknesses of as much as 550 m (1800 ft) and continuous along the shelf. (C) Free-air gravity base map showing the location of cross sections A and B (Sandwell and Smith, 2009).

tongue shapes across the present-day shelf break (Figure 7A). High-angle normal faults are interpreted in both basement types, as observed in Figures 6B and 8A. These faults have northwest-southeast strike, which is parallel to the shelf margin (Figure 7B). In the single-reflector area, the faults are covered by Cretaceous sediments of the Stabroex Formation (Figure 6A), whereas in the reflective basement area, one can interpret small graben structures that are covered by the stratified basement (Figure 6B). These faults are interpreted as Jurassic normal faults as a result of crustal extension related to early rifting between the African and South American plates. Sequence 1: Jurassic BasementCretaceous Maastrichtian Seismic Character The thickness of this sequence ranges from 700 ms in the southeastern part of the basin to 2400 ms in the northeast (Figure 6A). A clear wedge shape with divergent reflections basinward is observed with enhanced amplitude and continuity of seismic reflections toward the main Cretaceous depocenter (Figure 6A). The parallel and continuous reflectors with a high amplitude suggest that carbonate rocks and marine shales of the Canje, New Amsterdam, and lower Georgetown formations of the Upper Cretaceous exist (Figures 35). In the northwestern part of the basin, the thickness ranges from 500 ms in the southwest to about 600 ms in the northeast (Figure 6B). The main features in this area are parallel and continuous reflectors with moderate to high amplitudes, suggesting an increase in terrigenous sedimentation. In this sequence, the source rock thickness is as much as 550 m with TOC levels between 4 and 7% (Meyers et al., 2006) (Figure 5). Structural and Isochron Map Interpretation The general structure of the Cretaceous interval reflects a stable shelf region, slope, and basin, with a major depocenter located in the southeastern part of the basin (Figure 7C). This depocenter represents the area of the single acoustic basement on top of the gravity low (Figure 7D). The interval is

affected by Miocene listric faults that detach in the Upper Cretaceous shales (New Amsterdam and Canje formations) (Figure 8A). These listric faults have a northwest-southeast strike, are parallel to the paleoshelf edge (Figures 7C, 8A), and reflect instability of the Tertiary prograding wedge. During the Cretaceous, large amounts of sediments were deposited mostly in the southeastern region. More than 2000-ms thick sediments were deposited in the main depocenter by a large canyon system fed by the proto-Berbice and protoCorantijn rivers in the southern region (Figure 9A). In this area, the shelf progradation reflects a large clastic input (Figure 9B), whereas in the central and northern parts of the basin, the shelf is aggradational, reflecting less clastic input and more carbonate sedimentation. Sequence 2: Cretaceous MaastrichtianPaleogene Oligocene Seismic Sequence Character Sequence 2 is Paleogene in age and 100 to 600 ms thick. The seismic character of this unit consists of high-amplitude and subparallel reflections in the inner region of the shelf break and changes to highamplitude and discontinuous reflections in the outer region of the shelf break. The base of the sequence is defined by the Cretaceous unconformity with clear onlaps, whereas the top of the Oligocene unconformity is defined by truncations and channel incisions. Basinward, the correlative top of the sequence is defined by Miocene downlapping on top (Figure 8B). Based on well data, the sequence is composed of the middle-upper Georgetown and lower-middle Pomeroon formations. Carbonate deposition that dominated the shelfal regions supports the high-amplitude reflections and terrigenous deposition toward the Orinoco delta area. Along the shelf edge, steeper clinoform and mounded shapes indicate the development of carbonates in this area (Figure 8B). Structural and Isochron Map Interpretation The structural map of the top of the Paleogene (Figure 10A) clearly shows progradation of the shelf margin relative to the Cretaceous structural
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Figure 7. (A) Regional isochron map showing the distribution of the two different types of basement interpreted. The black dashed line represents the boundary between the two different basements. (B) Regional structural map of the top of the acoustic basement. The purple line represents the basement shelf edge. (C) Regional structural map of the top of the Cretaceous. Purple line represents the Cretaceous shelf edge, and the dashed black line represents the basement shelf edge showing that the Cretaceous shelf edge moved basinward. (D) Interpreted Cretaceous depocenter on the top of the free-air gravity, suggesting that the Cretaceous depocenter developed on the top of an inherited Jurassic graben (Sandwell and Smith, 2009).

map (Figure 7C). Most of the progradation occurred on top of the Cretaceous depocenter in the southeastern part of the basin by 60 km (37 mi); whereas in the center and northern parts of the study area, progradation was minimal, reflecting a low accommodation space. Similar to sequence 1, listric faults of the Miocene affected this interval, causing collapse of carbonate buildups and sandstones, resulting in turbidite and debris-flow de-

position in the toe of the slope and deep basin (Figure 8B). This regional faulting along the Paleogene shelf edge is expressed in the top of the Paleogene as a tilted structure (Figure 8B). The Cretaceous to Paleogene isochron map (Figure 10B) shows that the southeast depocenter continued to be the main area of deposition, and that another localized depocenter started to develop to the north, in the area next to the Orinoco

Figure 6. (A) Uninterpreted seismic line and interpreted seismic line showing the main tectonosequences. The depth of the basement top increases rapidly from 1700 ms in the southwest to about 5000 ms in the northeast. (B) Uninterpreted seismic line and interpreted seismic line showing that the depth of the basement top is 800 ms in the southwest and changes to approximately 3000 ms in the northeast. A strong parallel reflector can be observed within the basement. This reflection is dipping in a seaward direction and thickening basinward from 500 ms to 1300 ms. Location of the lines are shown on Figure 4A. Yang and Escalona 1351

Figure 8. (A) Uninterpreted seismic line and interpreted seismic line showing the Jurassic and Miocene fault families. (B) Uninterpreted seismic line and interpreted seismic line also showing listric faults affecting the Pliocene to Cretaceous intervals. Paleogene carbonate buildups along the shelf edge formed largescale collapse forming toeof-slope turbidites. Locations of the lines are shown in Figure 4A.

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platform and Columbus Basin region. A main feature revealed in the map is major thinning of this sequence in the central part caused by westsouthwesteast-northeast regional uplift and formation of the Waini arch across the entire shelf (R. H. Kirk, 1989, personal communication). On seismic data, the Waini arch can be identified by onlapping of Upper Cretaceous to lower Miocene rocks against its axis on both sides, indicating its syndepositional uplift character since the Late Cretaceous (Figure 11A). Sequence 3: LowerMiddle Miocene Seismic Sequence Character Sequence 3 is approximately 100 to 750 ms thick. The sequence includes high-amplitude continuous parallel to subparallel coherent reflections in the continental shelf reflecting continuous progradation of the shelf. The base of the sequence is the Oligocene unconformity, and the top of the sequence is defined by regional erosion with widespread incised channels in most of the shelf and by downlap of the upper Miocene to Pliocene sequence in the slope and basin (Figure 11B). The sequence is composed of the upper Pomeroon and lower Corentyne formations of the early and middle Miocene. According to well data (Figure 5), the interval consists of shelfal clastics with isolated carbonate rocks toward the shelf edge. Toward the Demerara Rise, the sequence sedimentation becomes more carbonate rich (Figure 5). Structure and Isochron Maps Interpretation The structural map of sequence 3 shows a similar behavior to the previous sequence, with aggradation and not much sedimentation of the shelf edge relative to sequence 2 (Figure 12A). Thinning of this sequence toward the Waini arch is also interpreted (Figure 11A). Listric faults affecting the lower sequences were formed during this sequence time, and most of them end toward the top of the sequence at the middle Miocene unconformity (Figures 8A, 12A). The isochron map of sequence 3 shows that thickness ranges from 100 to 750 ms, with the main depocenter located in the southeastern part

of the basin as it was within sequences 1 and 2 (Figure 12B). Continuous deposition in the southeastern depocenter suggests that this region experienced continuous subsidence and was connected to main onland paleoriver systems. The central and northwestern parts of the basin were affected by the uplifted Waini arch, exposing the paleoshelf, and allowing sediments to bypass toward the deep basin. Unfortunately, we do not have seismic data available in the deep-water part of the basin to corroborate this observation, but the fact that incised channels are observed on top of this unit suggests large accumulations of clastic sediments in the deep basin. Sequence 4: Upper MiocenePliocene Seismic Sequence Character The thickness of sequence 4 is between 200 and 2000 ms, and its seismic character consists of moderate to poor coherency reflections in the innershelf region (Figure 8A). Along the shelf break region, reflections become low amplitude and chaotic to discontinuous (Figure 11B), with large clear sigmoidal clinoforms, suggesting mostly terrigenous input. This sequence is composed mainly of the upper Corentyne Formation. According to well correlations (Figure 5), most sedimentary rocks are thick shelfal sandstones interbedded with thin shale on the shelf, and thick shaly sandstone close to the southeast depocenter of the basin. The sequence is not present in the Demerara Rise area (Figure 5). Structural and Isochron Maps Interpretation The structural top of sequence 4 (Figure 12C) is characterized by a broader and more stable shelf than previous sequences, by the development of a structural depression toward the Orinoco delta and Columbus Basin, indicating the development of the Caribbean-related foreland basin, and by an elongated depocenter off of and parallel to the shelf edge (Figure 12D). Shelf-edge migration basinward during this time is as much as 60 km (37 mi) to the northeast, indicating a large influx of terrigenous sediments (Figures 6B, 8B). Two main fault families are affecting this sequence: (1) listric faults
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of the upper Miocene, similar to those that affected previous sequences (Figure 8A); and (2) Pliocene shelf-edge shallow northwest-southeaststriking normal faults that parallel the shelf break, formed by rapid sediment loading and instability of the slope (Figures 8B, 12C). The shelf edge and upper slope depocenter contain as much as 1600-ms-thick prograding clastic sediments. Large amounts of clastic sediments were transferred from inland drainage systems across the shallow shelf toward the slope and basin, where large deep-water fans are inferred.

DISCUSSION Plate Movement Effect on the Guyana Continental Shelf The Guyana continental shelf and basin have developed as passive margins since the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. However, several tectonic events seemed to have affected this region, resulting in the development of subtle regional structures, unconformities, and variations in the depositional patterns. Two different plate tectonic elements seem to be related to the disturbances observed on the basin that include oblique rifting with the African plate during the Early Cretaceous and oblique convergence of the Caribbean plate with northern South America since the Late Cretaceous. In this section, we provide a plausible explanation of the possible causes of the main events observed in the Guyana continental shelf. Single-Reflector Versus Reflective Basement The origin of seaward-dipping reflectors has been discussed by Mutter et al. (1982) based on the observation of wedge-shaped basinward reflections within the basement off the Norwegian Sea margin. Mutter et al. (1982) suggested that this seismic response in the basement is caused by a layered

igneous sequence that is produced when crustal accretion occurs at the subaerial spreading axis during the earliest phase of ocean-basin genesis. A similar case is the magmatic basalt province observed by Hames et al. (2000) on the North American margin and the Carolina Trough, offshore southeastern United States, where flood basalt developed during the Jurassic rifting between the African and North American plates (Oh et al., 1995). The observation of a reflective basement in the central and northern parts of the Guyana Basin supports the idea of seaward-dipping reflectors formed by subaerial basaltic floods during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous rifting between the African and South American plates. Well Arapaima-1 drilled gneiss rocks on the upper part of the reflective basement. This gneiss may be the result of metamorphosed basalt, which correlates with Deep Sea Drilling Project wells 353 and 354 drilled close to the central ridge of the Atlantic Ocean (Supko et al., 1977). Basalt flows over the Jurassic basement cover graben structures as evidenced by highangle faults interpreted from seismic data. Origin of the Waini Arch The Waini arch was interpreted by Mobil (R. H. Kirk, 1989, personal communication) in the Pomeroon block of offshore Guyana, but there have been no further studies on its origin. The arch has a west-southwesteast-northeasttrending fold axis formed from at least the Late Cretaceous until the early Miocene (Figure 11A). Possible tectonic events that could have formed the arch include the following: 1. Early Cretaceous rifting between the South American and African plates that created a shear zone, resulting in en echelon folding on the Demerara Rise with a northeast-southwest axis (Gouyet et al., 1994; Goss et al., 2008). This direction is similar to the Waini arch axis, indicating a similar stress condition. However, the

Figure 9. (A) Regional isochron map of sequence 1 (Cretaceous). The map shows that the main depocenter developed in the southeastern Guyana Basin. A main canyon connects this depocenter with onland paleodrainage systems. (B) Uninterpreted seismic line and interpreted seismic line showing seismic canyon fill facies into the Cretaceous depocenter in the southeastern region of the basin. Location of the line is shown in Figure 4A. Yang and Escalona 1355

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Tectonostratigraphic Evolution of the Guyana Basin

age of this event, Early to Late Cretaceous, does not fit with the syndepositional growth observed on both flanks of the Waini arch from the Late Cretaceous to the early Miocene. 2. CaribbeanSouth American oblique convergence is suggested to be a possible mechanism for the formation of the Waini arch from the Late Cretaceous to the middle Miocene (Lugo and Mann, 1995) (Figure 13A, B, C). The timing and syndepositional growth of the Waini arch and formation of the middle Miocene unconformity correlates with timing of the west to east migration of oblique convergence between the Caribbean and South American plates. The longdistance development of the arch relative to the migration of the Caribbean plate may be the result of flexural response of the continental crust caused by loading, similar to forebulge development, which has been previously proposed by Pindell and Erikson (1994) along the entire margin, in the Maracaibo Basin during the Eocene (Escalona and Mann, 2003), and in the Guarico Subbasin during the Oligocene (Perez De Armas, 2005), among others. These previous interpretations of paleoforebulges have orientation axes similar to the Waini arch. Middle Miocene Unconformity A regional middle Miocene unconformity is interpreted from seismic and well data across the entire Guyana continental shelf and has been previously interpreted in the region by Erbacher et al. (2004), Goss et al. (2008), and in the Trinidad and Venezuelan regions (Di Croce et al., 1999; Garciacaro et al., 2011). We attribute the development of the middle Miocene unconformity to the main Caribbean orogeny in the Trinidad region as the Caribbean plate continuously moved eastward before strain partitioning in the area (Escalona and Mann, 2011) (Figure 13C). This main tectonic event reactivated west-southwesteast-northeast Jurassic nor-

mal bending faults in the eastern Venezuela region (Taboada, 2009) (Figure 1C). We propose that the Caribbean convergence and the development of the middle Miocene unconformity in Trinidad were propagated toward the Guyana Basin area as a regional uplift that exposed most of the continental shelf, forming incised river systems and bypass of sediments toward the slope and deep basin. Interestingly enough, continuous folding of the Waini arch seems to end during this period, suggesting the ending of southeast-directed convergence of the Caribbean plate over South America in the Trinidad margin. Pliocene Progradation As interpreted, a long-distance progradation of the shelf caused large accumulations of sediments and increased in sediment load over the platform during the Pliocene (Figure 12C). Similarly, a large progradation is also observed south of the study area, in the Foz dos Amazonas and northern Brazilian margin basins (Campbell, 2005). This largescale basin infilling along the eastern South American plate boundary indicates a regional process. A possible mechanism for the large increase of terrigenous influx and progradation of the Guyana continental shelf may include the paleodrainage system reorganization of northern South America. Before the Oligocene, most paleodrainage systems were north directed and captured into the protoMaracaibo river system (Escalona and Mann, 2011). Sediments were mostly sourced by the Brazilian and Guyana shields and the central and western Cordillera of Colombia (Hoorn et al., 1995; Xie et al., 2010). During the middle and late Eocene, the increase in Andean uplift in western South America (Incaian event of Pindell and Tabutt, 1995) and emplacement of the Lara nappes in northern South America produced major denudation and deflection of north-directed paleo-drainages toward the east (Hoorn, 1993, 1994; Golonka, 2002; Escalona and Mann, 2011).

Figure 10. (A) Regional structural map of the top of sequence 2 (Paleogene). The purple line represents the Paleogene shelf edge, and the dashed black line represents the Cretaceous shelf edge showing shelf edges progradation in the southeastern region. (B) Regional isochron map of sequence 2. Two Paleogene depocenters are interpreted toward each end of the basin and separated by a westsouthwesteast-northeast regional uplift developed in the central region of the basin (Waini arch). Yang and Escalona 1357

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During the middle Miocene, a major episode of Andean tectonic activity and complete blocking of north-directed paleodrainage systems formed the first west to east transcontinental system of the Amazon and Orinoco river systems (Hoorn et al., 1995; Dobson et al., 2001; Escalona and Mann, 2011) (Figure 13C). During the Pliocene (53 Ma), the Andes experienced the most rapid uplift (Hoorn, 1994; 1995), and both the Amazon and Orinoco fluvial systems captured other large drainage systems in the area, acquiring their present appearance, and provided large amounts of sediments into the Atlantic Ocean (Dobson et al., 2001; Latrubesse et al., 2010) (Figure 13D). The large margin progradation and increase of terrigenous influx on the Guyana continental shelf have been influenced by the tectonic evolutionary history between the Andean uplift and the Caribbean collision, which has modified the paleo-drainage systems in northern South America since the Eocene (Figure 13). In addition to this process, glacioeustasy plays an important role in the Pliocene shallow-marine continental shelf of the Guyana Basin. Large eustatic sea level fluctuations from the late Miocene to the present most likely exposed the shelf region and allowed large basinward progradation.

2.

3.

Tectonic Phases from Subsidence Analysis Two wells (Arapaima-1 and Essequibo-2; Figure 4A) drilled close to basement with excellent stratigraphic records were used to build subsidence analysis to understand the relation between accommodation space and basin fill (Figure 14). The subsidence pattern on both wells can be divided into five phases: 1. Rifting and passive margin development. During the Early Cretaceous, the Guyana continental shelf shows a gradual passive margin

4.

5.

subsidence followed by an abrupt uplift that resulted in the Aptian breakup unconformity. This event corresponds to drifting of the African plate away from South America. The Albian to Coniacian rapid subsidence is a result of crustal cooling that affected the region. The increase in water depth led to major flooding of the basin along with global anoxic conditions that deposited world-class marine source rocks during the Turonian (Erlich et al., 2003) (Figure 5). The subsidence rate during this period increased faster in the shallow shelf area (Arapaima-1) than in the deep shelf region (Essequibo-2). Initial Caribbean convergence in western South America. This interval covers the period from the Santonian to the Campanian of the Late Cretaceous and is characterized by a decrease in subsidence (Arapaima 1 well, Figure 14A) and uplift (Essequibo 2 well, Figure 14B). This change in subsidence pattern matches the initial formation of the Waini arch. Quiescence and basin fill. This phase covers the period from the Late Cretaceous to the middle Miocene. During the Campanian to the Maastrichtian, it is characterized by rapid subsidence representing a main pulse of clastic sedimentation in the Cretaceous platform. This main pulse of basin subsidence could have led to major maturation of Cretaceous source rocks. During the Paleogene to the early Miocene, a decrease in the subsidence rate is characterized by carbonate sedimentation in the continental shelf and continuous uplift of the Waini arch. Caribbean orogeny. This phase is characterized by regional uplift, resulting in shelf subaerial exposure and development of the middle Miocene unconformity. This event correlates with the main Caribbean orogeny in the Trinidad area. Passive margin. This phase is characterized by continuous passive margin subsidence in the continental shelf of Guyana. The subsidence rate

Figure 11. (A) Uninterpreted seismic line and interpreted seismic line showing the eastern flank of the Waini arch. Pinch-out against the arch is Lower Cretaceousmiddle Miocene. (B) Uninterpreted seismic line and interpreted seismic line showing the character of the middle Miocene unconformity, showing incised valleys that erode large parts of sequence 2. Locations of the lines are shown in Figure 4A. Yang and Escalona 1359

1360 Tectonostratigraphic Evolution of the Guyana Basin Figure 12. (A) Regional structural map of the top of sequence 3 (lower and middle Miocene). Purple line represents the middle Miocene shelf edge, and the dashed black line represents the Paleogene shelf edge showing slight basinward progradation. (B) Regional isochron map of sequence 3 showing thinning toward the Waini arch and continuous development of depocenters at both flanks. (C) Regional structural map of the top of sequence 4 (Pliocene). Purple line represents Pliocene shelf edge, and the dashed black line represents the middle Miocene shelf edge showing considerable progradation of sequence 3. (D) Regional isochron map of sequence 4 showing that the main depocenters are located off the shelf edge.

Yang and Escalona 1361

Figure 13. Proposed long-distance effect of the Caribbean plate on the Guyana Basin. (A) In the Late Cretaceous (80 Ma), the Caribbean plate started to move eastward and collided with South America. The Guyana shield supplied sediments to the Atlantic Ocean during this period. (B) During the end of the Paleogene (30 Ma), continuous west to east Caribbean collision with northern South America caused uplift of the Cordillera de la Costa and flexural loading, resulting in uplift of the Waini arch. (C) During the early and middle Miocene (14 Ma), major convergence in the Trinidad region produced regional uplift that affected the Guyana Basin region. (D) During the Pliocene (5 Ma), rapid uplift of the Andean mountains, development of major paleodrainages, and east-directed erosion of the uplifted Guyana Shield resulted in a large progradation on the Guyana Basin.

1362 Tectonostratigraphic Evolution of the Guyana Basin Figure 14. Subsidence analysis on wells of Arapaima-1 (A) and Essequibo-2 (B) showing the main tectonic phases in the Guyana continental shelf.

Yang and Escalona 1363 Figure 15. Burial history analysis of well (A) Arapaima-1, (B) Essequibo-2, and (C) CO-1.

Figure 16. (A) Map showing potential reservoir and traps in the Guyana Basin. These traps include the Cretaceous canyon, Paleogene turbidites, Waini arch, middle Miocene incised valleys, and Pliocene sand bodies. (B) Cross section showing the petroleum system along the Guyana Basin dip. Matured oil of the deep Cretaceous depocenter could have migrated updip along listric faults and infilled deep-water toe of slope turbidites, shelf-break carbonate buildups, and Miocene incised channels in the shelf. (C) Cross section showing the petroleum system along the shelf margin. The Waini arch acts as a structural and stratigraphic trap for hydrocarbons migrating from the Guyana, eastern Venezuela, and Trinidad areas. Reservoirs can represent sandstone pinchouts of both flanks of the arch and carbonate buildups.

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is larger in the shallow shelf part (Arapaima-1 well area) than in the deep shelf break (Essequibo-2).

PETROLEUM SYSTEM OVERVIEW OF THE GUYANA BASIN Source Rock and Maturation The main source rocks in the Guyana continental shelf are world-class Turonian to Campanian organicrich shale rocks drilled by industry and ODP wells and are uniformly distributed over the entire region (Figure 5A, B). However, these rocks are mostly immature in most of the study area (Erbacher et al., 2004; Meyers et al., 2006). Subsidence and burial history analysis using information from existing wells show that the main pulse for source rock burial is during the Late Cretaceous (Figures 14, 15). During the Late Cretaceousmiddle Miocene, Caribbean collision with northern South America caused a reduction of the subsidence rate and uplift, which affected source rock maturation negatively in most of the shelfal region (Figure 14). Nevertheless, Cretaceous source rocks seemed to be matured in the southeastern depocenter of the Guyana Basin.

interpretation of these structures and basin modeling are needed to corroborate this assumption. The Waini arch may play a more important role both as a structural and stratigraphic trap. Late Cretaceous to lower Miocene sediments pinch out in both directions of the arch and also form anticlinal traps on top of the arch (Figure 16C). Hydrocarbons could have accumulated by stratigraphic migration from the northwest, from the Eastern Venezuelan and Columbus basins, and/or from the southeast in the Guyana Basin, similarly to the Venezuelan heavy oil belt. More exploration and drilling in this area are required to test this play. Stratigraphic Traps These are probably the most common and attractive types of trap in the basin. They consist of Cretaceous canyons in the southeastern part of the basin, Cretaceous to Miocene debris flows and turbidites in the toe of the slope, Paleogene carbonate buildups in the shelf edge, middle Miocene incised valleys, and shelfal Pliocene sandstones. We speculate that the presence of hydrocarbon seeps and oil fields along the Guyana and Suriname coastlines (Figure 1A) are caused by updip migration through Late Cretaceous and middle Miocene canyons and incised valleys from the Cretaceous depocenter and deep basin. If this is true, open possibilities for stratigraphic traps within the shelf and slope of the basin exist.

Reservoirs, Traps, and Migration Patterns Based on well correlations and seismic interpretation (Figure 5), a clear evidence of reservoir rocks exists in the Guyana Basin from the Cretaceous to the Pliocene. Based on our regional interpretation, we classify them as structural and stratigraphic traps (Figure 16A). Structural Traps Structural traps are limited to rollover anticlines and footwall blocks formed by listric faults along the paleoshelf edge and upper slope and the southwestnortheasttrending anticlinal structure formed by the Waini arch in the northeastern part of the shelf. Listric faults may be key migration paths from mature source rocks in the deep basin toward the shelf edge and shelf (Figure 16B), but more detailed

CONCLUSIONS The main results of this study follow: 1. Four tectonic sequences from the Cretaceous to the Pliocene are interpreted. 2. Three normal fault families are interpreted in the basin: (1) Jurassic high-angle normal faults that developed on top of the basement as part of the opening of the central Atlantic; (2) middle Miocene listric normal faults that developed on the outer-shelf region and detached in the Upper Cretaceous shales; and (3) Pliocene listric faults that formed in the shelf edge.
Yang and Escalona 1365

3. We propose that the Late Cretaceous to middle Miocene uplift of the Guyana Basin is related to oblique convergence between the Caribbean and South American plates. 4. Main source rocks are Late Cretaceous shales widely distributed in the basin. In most of the basin, the rocks are immature, with the exception of the southeastern depocenter. 5. Canyons and incised-valley systems of the Cretaceous and middle Miocene act as good reservoir rocks in the basin, but also are the best migration pathways. 6. The Waini arch acts as a potential trap for hydrocarbons that have migrated toward its flanks both from the hydrocarbon-rich provinces of eastern Venezuela and Trinidad to the north and from the Guyana Basin to the south. 7. Most potential reservoirs are stratigraphic traps such as carbonate mounds with seal along the shelf edge, incised channels on the shelf, and deep-water slope and deep-basin turbidites.

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