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VEP-411, BATCH-2007

Veterinary Epidemiology (VEP-411)


Epidemiology
It is the study of diseases in population & of factors that determines its occurrence. Investigation of diseases in a population is basis of epidemiology.

Factors
(1) Causative agents (2) Predisposing factors Factors determine how disease progress in population, so that forecasting of occurrence & its preventive occurrence would be easy.

Uses of epidemiology
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Determination of origin of the disease whose cause is known. Investigation & control of the disease whose cause is initially unknown. Acquisition of information on the ecology & history of a disease. Planning & monitoring of disease control programs. Assessment of economic effect of a disease & analysis of a cost & economic benefits of alternative control programs.

Types of epidemiological analysis


1) Descriptive epidemiology:- it involves observing & recording diseases & possible causal factors. It is usually the first part of investigation. 2) Analytical epidemiology:- it is the analysis of observations using suitable diagnostic & statistical test. 3) Experimental epidemiology:- in this, epidemiologist takes two groups of diseased animals in which one given treatment & other is kept control. Observations made & compare these two groups. 4) Theoretical epidemiology:- it consist of a representation of disease using mathematical models that attempt to stimulate natural patterns of disease occurrence.

Components of epidemiology
1) Qualitative investigations:Natural history of disease:- the ecology of disease, including the distribution, made of transmission & maintenance of infectious agents is investigated by field observations. Causal hypothesis testing:- if field observations suggest that certain factors may be causally associated with the disease. Then the association must be assessed by formulating a causal hypothesis. Satyajeet Singh Chaudhary 1

VEP-411, BATCH-2007 2) Quantitative investigations:- it involve measurement (e.g. no of cases of disease) & therefore expression & analysis of numerical values. It includes survey, monitoring, surveillance, studies, modeling, biological evaluation & economical evaluation of disease control.

1. Survey: An investigation involving collection of information is called survey. There are 3 types of survey: a) Cross sectional survey:- it records the events occurring at particular point of time. b) Longitudinal survey:- it records events over a period of time. c) Screening survey:- it is particular type of diagnostic survey. It is identification of undiagnosed cases of disease using rapid tests & examinations. 2. Monitoring: It is the making of routine observations on health, productivity & environmental factors & recording & transformation of these observations. E.g. regular recording of milk yield is monitoring. 3. Surveillance: It is a more intensive form of data recording than monitoring. It is study of incidence & trends of distribution of disease by systemic collection, consolidation & evaluation of morbidity & mortality reports. 4. Study: It is a general term that refers to any type of investigation. However in epidemiology, study involves comparison of groups of animals. There are 4 types of epidemiological studya) Experimental studies:- in this investigator has the ability to allocate animals to various groups according to groups which the investigator can randomly assign to animals. E.g. clinical trials & investigation studies. Following 3 types of studies are observationalb) Cross sectional study:- This study investigates relationship between disease (or other health related factors) & hypothesized causal factors in a specified population. c) Case control study:- this study compares a group of diseased animals with a group of healthy animals with respect to exposure to hypothesized causal factors. d) Cohort study:- (prospective study) In this study, a group exposed to factors is compared with a group not exposed to the factors with respect to development of disease. Case control & cohort studies often have been applied in medicine. 5. Modeling: Disease dynamics & the effects of different control strategies can be stimulated using mathematical equations. This simulation is modeling.

Measures of disease occurrence


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VEP-411, BATCH-2007 1) Used for comparison between healthy & diseased animals. 2) Used to access the extent of disease in population as well as to compare two populations. 1. Prevalence (P) It refers to the amount of the disease in a known population at a designated time without distinction between old & new cases. Two types of prevalence: i) Point prevalence:- taken at a particular point of time No. of diseased animals P= No. of animals in population at risk ii) Period prevalence:- taken at a particular period of time Characters: prevalence has no dimensions, no unit & it takes value between 0 & 1. 2. Incidence It has an expression of number of new cases that occur in known population over a period of time. It measures the flow of individuals from the disease free to diseased state during period. Number of affected animals over a period of time I= Number of animals in population at risk Cumulative incidence:- It is the proportion of non-diseased individuals at the beginning of a period of study that become diseased during the period. Incidence rate:- It is the number of cases of disease occur in population during particular period of time divided by average of population at risk during period of risk of developing disease. Characters: o Incidence rate has a dimension, time; it is calculated per week, per year & so on. o Relation between prevalence & incidence:- prevalence (P) depends on the duration (D) & incidence (I) of a disease. P ID o The prevalence of a stable endemic disease equals the product of incidence & duration. P = ID When disease is rare Total no. of cases of disease P = Population at risk 10n n = integer depending upon rarity of disease 3. Case fatality rate It is the proportion of diseased animal that die of a disease therefore a measure of the probability of death in diseased animals. Satyajeet Singh Chaudhary 3

VEP-411, BATCH-2007 4. Mortality It is the proportion of diseased animal that die due to disease from a given population.

5. Morbidity It is the proportion of animals that become diseased from a given population. 6. Attack rate It is the proportion of animals to develop a disease in case when period of risk is very brief. Explanation: Total herd size in 1 July 1983 = 600 Number of clinically ill on 1 July 1983 = 100 Total number become clinically ill between 1/7/1983 to 1/7/1984 = 200 Total number dying from the disease from 1/7/1983 to 1/7/1984 = 120 Prevalence on 1 July 1983 = 100/600 = 0.167 Cumulative incidence = 200/500 = 0.4 Morbidity = 100/600 = 0.16 Mortality = 120/600 = 0.2 Case fatality = 120/300 = 0.4

Determinants of disease
A determinant is any characteristic that affect the health of a population. Determinants can be classified in 3 ways: (1) Primary or secondary (2) Intrinsic or extrinsic (3) Associated with host, agent & environment (1) Primary & secondary Primary determinants are factors whose variation exerts a major effect in inducing disease. E.g. exposure to distemper virus is primary determinant of canine distemper. Secondary determinants correspond to predisposing enabling & reinforcing factors. For example sex is a secondary determinant of canine heart valve incompetence. Males are more prone to disease than female. (2) Intrinsic or extrinsic Intrinsic or endogenous are internal to the host like genetic constitution, metabolism, behavior, species, breed & sex. Primary determinants

Intrinsic/endogenous Genetic constitution Metabolism & behavior Animate Satyajeet Singh Chaudhary

Extrinsic/exogenous

Inanimate 4

VEP-411, BATCH-2007 Endoparasitic Virus, bacteria, fungi, protozoa Ectoparasitic Physical arthropods trauma, Climate, Radiation Secondary determinants Chemical excess, deficiency Allergic allergens

Intrinsic Genetic constitution Age Size Conformation Hormonal status Nutritional status Behavior Functional status (Pregnant or lactating) Immunological status

extrinsic Location Climate Management Trauma Concurrent disease Vaccination status stressors

Host Determinants
1. Age: The occurrence of many diseases shows a distinct association with age E.g. Endoparasitic diseases more seen in calf, foal, lamb, kid. BQ is mostly seen in one year age group. Strangles seen in young horses. Lamb dysentery seen under 15 days age group. Rickets seen in faster growing animals. Malignant tumors, chronic pulmonary disease, chronic valvular heart disease; these diseases are mostly seen in the older age group. 2. Sex: Sexual differences in disease occurrence may be attributed to hormonal, occupational, social, ethological & genetic determinants. Hormonal determinant:- Bitches are more likely to develop diabetes mellitus than male dogs. Occupational determinant:- incidence of heart worm infection is more in male dogs due to increasing exposure of male dogs to mosquitoes during hunting. Social & ethological determinants:- depend upon the behavior of animal like bite wound is excessive in male cats than females. Genetic determinants:- genetic difference in the disease production may be due to the sex linked, sex limited & sex influence in heredity. E.g. Sex linked canine haemophilia is more in males inherited with X-chromosome recessively Sex limited disease limited to only one sex. E.g. cryptorchidism Satyajeet Singh Chaudhary 5

VEP-411, BATCH-2007 Sex influenced expression of a character is more in one sex like canine patent ductus arteriosus is more in female dogs. 3. Species & breed: Species & breeds vary in their susceptibility & responses to different infectious agent thus: Dogs do not develop heart water. Doberman & pinschers react more severely to canine parvovirus enteritis than other breeds. Boxers appear to more susceptible to mycotic diseases than other breeds.

Agent Determinants
1. Virulence & Pathogenicity: Virulence is an ability of an infectious agent to cause disease in a particular host, in terms of frequency & severity. Pathogenicity refers to the quality of disease induction. 2. Gradient of infection: It refers to the variety of responses of an animal to challenge by an infectious agent & therefore presents the combined effect of an agents pathogenicity & virulence & host characteristics suchas susceptibility, pathological & clinical responses. i) Inapperent (silent) infection:- this is symptom of susceptible animal without clinical signs. ii) Subclinical infection:- it also occur without clinical signs but here loss of product is seen which is not seen in silent infection. iii) Clinical infection:- it produces clinical signs. Infection is either mild or severe & sometime death results due to infection. E.g. anthrax 3. Outcome of infection: Clinical infection may result in the development of chronic disease, recovery or death Two states are important determinants o Carrier state:- carrier is any animal that sheds an infectious agent without showing clinical signs. Carriers are inapperent, subclinical, incubatory & convalescent carrier. o Latent infection:- it is one that persists in an animal without producing clinical signs. It may or may not be accompanied by transmission or spread to other susceptible animal. Microbial colonization of hosts: Infectious agents enter a host at varying time during its life. 1) Exogenous pathogens:- exogenous pathogens are not usually present in host & cant normally survive for a long time in the external environment. 2) Endogenous pathogens:- endogenous pathogens are often found in healthy animals in GI tract or respiratory tract & usually don not cause disease unless the host is stressed. E.g. E. coli infection 3) Opportunistic pathogens:- some organisms produce disease only in a host whose resistance is lowered. E.g. Pasteurella multocida

Environmental Determinants
1. Location: Local geological formations, vegetation & climate affect the spatial distribution of both animal & disease. Satyajeet Singh Chaudhary 6

VEP-411, BATCH-2007 2. Climate: Two types of climate i) Macroclimate:- include normal components of weather like rainfall, temperature , solar radiation etc. ii) Microclimate:- it is the climate that occurs in a small defined space. It may be as small as few mm of an animals surface or as large as calf house. 3. Husbandry: It includes 3 things i) Housing:- well designed & ventilated animal house is necessary structure of bedding materials & surfaces are also determinants ii) Diet:- diet has obvious effect in diseases caused by energy, protein, vitamin & mineral deficiency. iii) Management:- it determines stocking density & production policy. Increased densities increase the challenge of pathogens. 4. Stress: a. It is the sum of biological reactions to any adverse physical, mental & emotional stimulus that tends to disturb homeostasis. b. Factors that are capable of producing stress are called stressors. E.g. extreme climate, trauma.

Interaction
It refers to the interdependent operation of factors to produce an effect. Determinants associated with host, agent & environment do not exert their effect alone but they have to interact to induce disease. Two types of interaction: 1) Biological interaction:- it involve a dependence between two or more factors based on an underlying physical or chemical association. 2) Statistical interaction:- it is a quantitative effect involving two or more factors.

Transmission
Agent can be transmitted by horizontal or vertical Horizontally transmitted infections are those transmitted from any segment of population to another. Vertically transmitted infections are transmitted from one generation to next by infection of the embryo or foetus while in-utero or in-ovo. Horizontal transmission is of two types: 1) Direct:- occurs when susceptible host contracts an infection either by physical contact with infected host or by contact with the hosts infected discharge. 2) Indirect:- it involves an intermediate vehicle, living or inanimate that transmit infection between infected & susceptible host. This vehicle generally may be termed as vector.

Host
A plant, animal or arthropod that is capable of being infected with infectious agent & therefore giving sustenance to it. Satyajeet Singh Chaudhary 7

VEP-411, BATCH-2007 Classification: 1) Definitive or final host:- a host in which organism undergoes its sexual phase of reproduction. E.g. Taenia pisiformis in dog. 2) Primary/natural/maintenance host:- an animal that maintains the infection in endemic area. E.g. dogs infected with distemper virus. 3) Secondary host:- a species that additionally is involved in the life cycle of an agent, especially outside typically endemic areas. E.g. cattle infected with strain of FMD virus that usually infects buffalo. 4) Paratenic host:- a host in which the agent is transferred mechanically by ingestion of the host, without futher development. E.g. fish containing Diphylobothrium spp. Larvae prayed by larger fish. 5) Intermediate host:- an animal in which an infectious agent undergoes some development frequently with asexual development. E.g. Cysticercus pisiformis in rabbits. 6) Incidental/accidental/dead end host:- one that does not usually transmit in infectious agent. E.g. bulls infected with Brucella abortus.

Disease
It is an interaction between agent, host & environment. Classification: A. According to mode of origin: 1) Hereditary:- disease transmitted through genes means comes with Parental genes. E.g. haemophilia 2) Congenital:- may be hereditary or transmitted to foetus if dam become infected during pregnancy. E.g. AIDS 3) Acquired:- disease occur because of exposure of infection, malnutrition or trauma. E.g. FMD, rabies. B. According to etiology: 1) Specific:- disease caused by specific organism i) Infectious disease:- disease caused by microorganism. E.g. tetanus ii) Contagious disease:- disease spread by contact. E.g. FMD 2) Non-specific:- disease occurs because of more than one specific cause. E.g. mastitis, abortion, diarrhoea. C. According to clinical occurance: 1) Primary/principal disease:- disease occur first & developed independently without any other disease. E.g. canine distemper. 2) Intercurrent disease:- disease occur as sequel of primary disease. E.g. lack of heat tolerance in FMD. 3) Secondary disease:- in animal, entry of new disease which is already infected with primary disease. This new disease modifies the course & complicate with primary disease. E.g. anaplasma enter in animal already infected with babesia. D. According to organ affected: 1) General disease:- disease involves many parts of body & organs. E.g. dehydration & toxemia. 2) Local disease:- disease affect only one organ or local part of body. E.g. disease of bones, actinobacillosis. Satyajeet Singh Chaudhary 8

VEP-411, BATCH-2007 E. According to changes produce in organ: 1) Functional disease:- due to disease normal function of organ is deviated & disease occur due to deviation in normal function. E.g. diabetes mellitus. 2) Structural changes:- causative organism change the structure of organ. E.g. Liver fluke F. According to severity & duration: 1) Acute disease:- characters are sudden onset, attack is severe, short duration. E.g. anthrax & rinderpest. 2) Subacute disease:- onset is less than acute. Attack is medium. E.g. brucellosis. 3) Chronic disease:- onset is slow, duration is long. Attack is not severe. E.g. T.B & J.D G. According to distribution: 1) Endemic/Enzootic:- in particular area infection is persist at particular level & good number of animlas are affected. E.g. brucellosis in Gujarat is endemic. 2) Sporadic:- disease which occur in isolation, they are not tending to spread. They are normally present in area & occurance amy be single or shorter in nature. E.g. rabies 3) Epizootic:- infection is present in the area when the disease occur higher than the regular frequency in part than endemic. 4) Panzootic:- when spread of disease occur in all over the world or continent or country called panzootic. 5) Exotic disease:- disease which is of foreign origin. E.g. babesiosis. 6) Indigenous disease:- disease which has been known in country for long time. E.g. RP, BQ

Symptom
Symptom means outward manifestation of disease. Classification: Symptoms mainly classified into two1. Subjective symptoms: Symptoms which are told by patient to doctor. E.g. pain, deafness In animals, no subjective symptoms except colic is seen but they are available in the form of history. 2. Objective symptoms: Symptoms which are observed by clinician. In veterinary most of symptoms belong to this type. Kinds of symptoms: 1. Diagnostic/pathognomonic symptoms:- typical symptom indicative of disease. E.g. prolapsed of 3rd eye lid- tetanus, crepitating sound-BQ. 2. Direct/idiopathic symptoms:- symptoms which are directly related with disease. E.g. blood in faecesdysentery. 3. Indirect/sympathetic symptoms:- symptoms which are remotely connected with disease. E.g. renal pain due to calculi. 4. Periodical symptoms:- symptoms which are recognized periodically. E.g. biphasic fever in canine distemper. Syndrome: Satyajeet Singh Chaudhary 9

VEP-411, BATCH-2007 Group of symptoms associated with particular disease. E.g. uremic syndrome in renal & hepatic disease. Prognosis: To forecast the probable outcome of disease including cause, duration & termination of disease.

Diagnosis
1. 2. 3. 4. Direct diagnosis:- by observing symptoms & structural lesion by palpation & auscultation. Differential diagnosis:- comparison to contrast with disease showing same sign. Exclusion diagnosis:- determination of disease by excluding all other disease. Tentative diagnosis:- diagnosis based on available information & clinical examination on that spot. It is subjected to change. 5. Laboratory diagnosis:- diagnosis made by examination of various body fluids, skin scrapping etc.

Treatment
It is medical & surgical care of sick animal. Classification: 1. Curative treatment: 1) Empirical treatment:- treatment given based on earlier experience & trial & error. 2) Rational treatment:- patient examined thoroughly & treatment is given based on pharmacology of drug. 3) Specific treatment:- drug given which directly act on causative agent. E.g. sulfa drug in coccidiosis. 4) Symptomatic treatment:- animals are treated on the basis of symptoms. E.g. antiemetic in vomition. 5) Biological treatment:- valuable animals & human being are treated by specific antiserum in early stages of disease. 2. Prophylaxis: All the possible efforts so as to prevent animal from disease & to maintain them in healthy state throughout their life. It consist of control, prevention & eradication of disease.

Prevention
Take special measure in particular group of animals, so that they will not suffer from the disease. These are following measures 1) Quarantine:- animal is separated from others to prevent movement of animal. Animal suspected to be carrier or under incubation period (I.P) or exposed to infection are kept in quarantine. Time requires vary from disease to disease on the basis of I.P. during this period animals are regularly examined for their body condition & symptoms of any disease. 2) Mass immunization & clean vaccination:- suspected animal population is vaccinated routinely before occurrence of disease. 3) Environmental hygiene:- proper feeding, hygiene, ventilation, management should be provided. 4) Chemoprophylaxis:Coccidiosis sulfa drugs Goiter iodized salt Tetracycline plague Tamiflu bird flu Satyajeet Singh Chaudhary 10

VEP-411, BATCH-2007 5) Early diagnosis:- diagnosis of disease in early stage & treat it so there is no chance of spreading infection to others. 6) Education:- development for understanding of disease like route of infection, incubation period, initial symptoms etc. Control of disease: There are 4 approaches to control the disease 1) Test & slaughter:- this particularly for chronic disease & used mostly for eradication of disease. 2) Mass treatment:- usually applied to poultry & partly for sheep & goat. 3) Vector control:- help to control the disease like haemoprotozoans. 4) Reservoir control:- rat for leptospirosis, dog for rabies Disease eradication: Means total elimination of disease causing organism from the environment. E.g. rinderpest has been eradicated from India. The ecology of disease: The study of animal & plants in relation to their habits & habitation. Objectives of study 1) An increase in the understanding of pathogenesis, maintenance of the infectious agent. 2) To forecast the occurrence of disease. E.g. fungi well grow in humid climate so fungi infection is higher in monsoon. Factors that determines occurrence of disease: 1) The distribution of population- depends upon distribution of food. 2) The size of population- decides availability of food.

Biome
A broad division of earth which is populated by similar animals called as biome. Theory of convergent evolution states that animals of different ancestral stock evolve similar feature to suit similar environments.

Regulation of population size


Number of birth = number of death Balance in population Calamities- natural control on population Following factors also control the size of population1) Competition: Competition for food, habitat etc. Food chain: one species depend on the other animal move for food so change in the home range & distribution of population. Competition is density dependent. E.g. growth curve

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VEP-411, BATCH-2007

For a simple population in confined space with limited input of energy is sigmoid. The logistic equation If R = observe rate of increment r = intrinsic rate of increment N = number of animals K = saturation number R = r N (1-N/K) Initially growth is rapid because much food is available. N/K is small, so R = r N Later growth decreases because less food is available. N/K = 1 so R = 0 Dispersal: Due to dramatic seasonal variation in climate Not density dependent Predation:It has an obvious role in controlling the size of population but most of evidences suggest that it is not true for large animals because predators take only sick, weak & young animals. Home range: Certain animals have a natural restriction to area over which they roam, this is their home range. This may control population depending upon the limited food on home range. Social dominance:When crowding occurs socially weak animals are forced out, this may be a population control mechanism.

2)

3)

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5)

Wynne-Edwards hypothesis
Population control is the main purpose of the group behavior, which sometimes causes physiological stress. E.g. grouping of rats Satyajeet Singh Chaudhary 12

VEP-411, BATCH-2007

Niche
An animals place in the biotic environment in relation to the food & enemies is known as niche. In niche two strong species cannot survive together & if survive they are called sympetric species. E.g. louse infestation

Intraspecific competition
It is competition between members of same species.

Interspecific competition
It is competition of two different species individuals.

Competition exclusion
Competition will exclude all but one species from a niche. E.g. turtle v/s goat.

Epidemiological interference
The presence of one type of organism prevents the establishment of other type or if niche is occupied by one organism, others cannot enter in it. E.g. respiratory adenoviruses prevent the infection of other viruses.

Trophic level
Trophic levels are the feeding position in a food chain such as primary producers, herbivore, primary carnivore, etc. Green plants form the first trophic level, the producers. Herbivores form the second trophic level, while carnivores form the third and even the fourth trophic levels.

Eltonian pyramid/Ecological pyramid (EP)


Charles Elton (1927) developed the concept of ecological pyramids who noted that "the animals at the base of a food chain are relatively abundant while those at the end are relatively few in number" Ecological pyramids can be defined as, "a geographical representation of an ecological parameter like number of individuals or amount of biomass or amount of energy present in various trophic levels of a food chain with producer forming the base and top carnivores at the tip". In food chain if we go from top to bottom, on top animals are larger in size & less in number. In bottom, smaller in size & more in number. This shows pattern of pyramid called Eltonian pyramid.

Ecosystem
It is an interacting complex system made up of an area with their fauna, flora & physical & climetic features & this as a whole is known as ecosystem.

Biotope
A smallest spatial unit providing uniform condition for life. Biotope describes location of an organism while niche describe functional position of an organism. E.g. Caeca of chicken for coccidia

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VEP-411, BATCH-2007

Biocenosis or biotic community


Collection of living organism like plant, animal in a biotope is known as biocenosis or biotic community. E.g. major biotic communities are biomes.

Types of ecosystem
1) Autochthonous ecosystem: It is coming from land itself or exists in nature. E.g. tropical rain forest & desert 2) Anthropurgic ecosystem: It is the ecosystem which is created by man. E.g. those found in cultivated pastures & towns. 3) Synanthropic ecosystem: It is one that is in contact with man facilities the transmission of zoonoses E.g. rubbish tip, harbouring a variety of vermin

Ecological climax
When plant, animal & microbes adjust each other & comes to a stable & balanced relationship, it is called ecological climax. Factors which maintain balance of this relation may lead to epidemic state of an endemic disease. Such as: Factors favoring microbe growth Factors reducing immunity in human Increased virulence of organism

Ecological interfaces
An ecological interface is junction of two ecosystems. Infectious disease can be transmitted from these interfaces E.g. transmission of yellow fever, an arbovirus disease in man by apes. Autochthonous ecosystem Anthropurgic ecosystem

Synanthropic ecosystem

Ecological mosaic
It is a modified patch of vegetation, created by man, within a biome that has reached a climax. Infection may spread from wild animals to man in such circumstances. E.g. loiasis is transmitted by arthropods between man & canopy-dwelling monkeys.

Landscape epidemiology
The qualitative study of the disease (ecological factors that affect the occurrence, maintenance & transmission of disease) in relation to the ecosystem in which they are found is landscape epidemiology. It is also known as medical epidemiology, horizontal epidemiology & medical geography.

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VEP-411, BATCH-2007

Vertical epidemiology
It is the study of quantitative association between specific diseases and hypothesized factors is known as vertical epidemiology.

Nidus (latin: nidus = nest):


A distinct geographical area in a biome where infection is present is known as nidus. (Natural home of disease)

Nosogenic territory
An area that has ecological, social & environmental conditions that can support a disease is a nosogenic territory.

Nosoarea
It is a nosogenic territory in which particular disease is present. E.g. coccidiomycosis in USA Britain is a nosogenic territory for rabies & FMD, but not nosoarea for these diseases, because the microbes are prevented from entering the country by quarantine of imported animals.

Objectives of landscape epidemiology


o o When the nidility of disease is based on ecological factors, than study of ecosystems enables prediction to be made about occurrence of disease. Facilitates the development of appropriated control strategies.

Distribution of disease
1) Temporal distribution: Distribution of disease occurs in relation to time is known as temporal distribution. 2) Spatial distribution: Distribution of disease occurs in relation to place is known as spatial distribution.

Demography
The measurement & description of the size of population & its characteristic is known as demography. Two types of population: 1) Ambiguous population:It is one in which there is much contact between individuals of population & member of other population. Here chances of spreading infection are much more. 2) Separated population: Separated population occurs as discrete isolated units such as herd & flocks. Separated population may be open or closed.

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