Lecture 1.

Relativistic kinematics
Prof. Michael Gershenson, Office: Serin Physics 122W Phone 5-3180, E-mail: gersh@physics.rutgers.edu Office hours: Mon. 2:30-3:30 PM and by appointment (e-mailed questions are encouraged) Textbook: A.Beiser, Concepts of Modern Physics, 6th Ed. Additional reading: T.A. Moore, Six Ideas that Shaped Physics, Unit Q (Particles behave like waves).

Outline: Structure of the course Modern Physics Classical Mechanics, Galilean Principle of Relativity Special Relativity, Einsteins Principle of Relativity Lorentz Transformations Time Dilation

Some Comments
Its a very fast-paced course (absolutely no time for warm-up). In particular, strictly stick to our schedule. The most efficient learning approach: read the lecture notes and the textbook before the corresponding lecture (you will be able to formulate your questions in class and be more comfortable with PowerPoint format). Ill be updating the lecture notes, but these changes (hopefully) will be minor. Do not ignore office hours, a valuable learning resource. When solving problems, dont just look for a formula to plug in the numbers, think about underlying principles. Exams: closed-textbook/lecture-notes, formulae/notes is allowed. one sheet with

Structure of the course Modern Physics

v/c
Maxwells Equations of electromagnetism (1873)

Relativistic mechanics, El.-Mag. (1905) Classical physics

Relativistic quantum mechanics (1927-) Quantum mechanics (1920s-) h/s

s the action=momentumdistance, units kgm2/s

Newtonian Mechanics, Thermodynamics Statistical Mechanics

Relativistic Mechanics (kinematics/dynamics)

Course Modern Physics

Quantum (non-relativistic) Mechanics Intro to Statistical Mechanics of bosons and fermions

Newtons Laws (1687)

First Law It is possible to select a set of reference frames, called inertial reference frames, observed from which a particle moves without any change in velocity if no net force acts on it. This law is often simplified into the sentence "A particle will stay at rest or continue at a constant velocity unless acted upon by an external unbalanced force." Second Law Observed from an inertial reference frame, the acceleration of a particle is proportional to the net force on it and inversely proportional to its mass: a = F /m. Force is a vector quantity and the resultant force is found from all the forces present by vector addition. Third Law Whenever a particle A exerts a force on another particle B, B simultaneously exerts a force on A with the same magnitude in the opposite direction. This law is often simplified into the sentence "Every action has an equal and opposite reaction."

Galilean Principle of Relativity

All this makes sense only when we consider inertial reference frames! Reference frame a set of 3 spatial coordinates (e.g. x,y,z) and a time coordinate t. Space and Time in Classical Mechanics: Space uniform and isotropic. Time uniform and absolute (the same in both IRFs and non-IRFs). Inertial reference frames (IRFs) (experimental observation, the existence of IRFs is postulated by the 1st Newtons Law): the frames where bodies removed from interaction with other bodies will maintain their state of rest or of uniform straight-line motion. Practical definition of IRF: a frame that moves with a constant velocity relative to very distant objects, e.g. distant stars. (velocity vector (!), speed the length of this vector) Significance of IRFs: Newtons Laws have the same form in all these frames (the laws are invariant under the coordinate transformations that transform one IRF into another one). Galilean Principle of Relativity (1632) The laws of classical mechanics are invariant in all inertial reference frames

Galilean Transformations
The IRF transformations that preserve invariance of Newtons Laws are known as Galilean Transformations (G.Tr.)

t = t r = r Vt

- the absolute time - because the space is uniform and isotropic, the IRFs can move with respect to one another with constant velocity

t = t x = x Vt y = y z = z

V
r
x, x

Lets check that the 2nd Newtons Law is invariant under Galilean Transformations: 1. differentiate with respect to the (absolute) time:

Vt

dr dr dr = = V v = v V dt dt dt
2. differentiate again :

- Galilean velocity addition rule

(at t=0 the origins coincide with one another)

dv dv = dt dt

a = a

- acceleration is the same in all IRFs

The force in N. mechanics can depend (only!) on the difference of two radius-vectors and velocities. Thus

N. Laws are invariant under G. Tr.

(This is not the case in non-inertial RFs)

F = F

Importance of Vectors in Classical Mechanics

Invariant: Lets formulate some physical law in the form A=B. If a coordinate transformation affects neither A nor B, we say that this law is invariant under the transformation.

Galilean transformations do not affect the relations between vectors.

In particular, G.Tr. do not affect the length of a vector: the length of a vector is invariant under G.Tr.

t = t x = x Vt y = y z = z

length = length =

( x2 x1 ) + ( y2 y1 ) + ( z2 z1 )
2 2

( x2 x1 ) + ( y2 y1 ) + ( z2 z1 )
2 2

= length

That makes vectors so useful in classical mechanics: if one can formulate a law that looks like vector = vector , this automatically means that this law is invariant under G.Tr. ! All laws of classical physics must have the following forms to be invariant under G.Tr.: scalar A = scalar B vector A = vector B

In other words, if one side of an equation is a scalar (vector), the other side must also be a scalar (vector) to satisfy Galilean Principle of Relativity.

Maxwells Equations: challenge to Galilean PR

In 1873, Maxwell formulated Equations of Electromagnetism. On one hand, Maxwells Equations describe very well all observed e.-m. phenomena, on the other hand, they are not invariant under G.Tr.!

E = / 0 B = 0 B t E t

Some odd things: At first glance, there is a built-in asymmetry: a charge in motion produces a magnetic field, whereas a charge at rest does not. Also, it follows from M.Eqs that the speed of light is the same in all IRFs, at odds with Galilean velocity addition.

E =

B = 0 J + 0 0

This asymmetry brought into being an idea of a unique stationary RF (ether), with respect to which all velocities are to be measured, and where M. Eqs can be written in their usual form. However, the famous Michelson-Morley experiment (1887) did not detect any motion of the Earth with respect to the ether.

0 0 =

1 c2

What are the options? At least one of the following statements must be wrong: (a) the principle of relativity applies to both mechanical and e.-m. phenomena; (b) M. Eqs are correct; (c) G. Tr. are correct.

Einsteins Principle of Relativity

Einstein (1905) assumed that (a) and (b) are correct, and put forward the following Einstein's Principle of Relativity (the first postulate of the Special Theory of Relativity): The laws of physics are the same (covariant) in all IRFs. Covariance is less restrictive than invariance: Let A=B. If, under RF transformation, both A and B are transformed into A and B, but still A=B, than the law is covariant. One of the consequence of Einsteins Principle of Relativity (being applied to Maxwells Equations): the speed of light in vacuum is the same in all IRFs and doesn't depend on the motion of the source of light or an observer (in line with the experimental evidence that the ether does not exist). However, this applies to all (not necessarily e.-m.) phenomena. Thus, The second postulate: The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all inertial observers, regardless of the motion of the source. Thus, Maxwells Equations agree with Einsteins Principle of Relativity. Conclusion: Galilean Transformations must go. The idea of universal and absolute time is wrong ! One has to come up with correct transformations that work for both mechanical and e.-m. phenomena (any speed up to ~c). Consequently, the laws of mechanics have to be modified to be covariant under new (correct) transformations.

Lorentz Transformations
The class of transformations that maintain the covariance of Maxwells equations was already derived by Lorentz by that time (1904) (though Lorentz suggested that the ether wind physically compresses all matter in just the right way to conceal the variations of c in Michelson-Morley experiment, he still believed in absolute time).

L.Tr. for a 1D motion along the x axis:

or, if we introduce

z
t = t x c x = ( x ct ) y = y z = z

V
r x, x

V x 2 c t = V2 1 2 c x Vt = x V2 1 2 c y = y z = z t

V = c
=
1 V 1 2 c
2

1 1 2

ct = ( ct x ) x = ( x ct ) y = y z = z

Vt

Linearity of L.Tr. reflects the fact that the space is uniform and isotropic, the time uniform. Note the symmetry btw the transformations of space and time coordinates.

For small V<<c (<<1, ~1) L.Tr. are reduced to G.Tr. Minkowski: Space of itself, and time of itself will sink into mere shadows, and only a kind of union between them will survive.

ct = ct x = x ct = x Vt y = y z = z

Example
Lorentz transformations (similar to G.Tr.) show how to calculate the coordinates (t,x,y,z) of some physical event in one IRF if one knows the coordinates of the same event in another IRF.

A flash of light occurs at x = 1m, y = 1m, z = 1m, and ct = 1m (so t = 3.310-9s). Locate this event in the primed RF, which moves at V/c = 0.6 to the right. (At t = 0, the origins of these RFs coincide).

V
x, x

V/c =0.6, =1.25, so =0.75

y
Galilean Tr.

Vt

Lorentz Tr.

x = x Vt = x 0.6ct = 0.4m y = y = 1m z = z = 1m ct = ct = 1m (thus t = 3.33 109 s)

x = ( x ct ) = 1.25 x 0.75ct = 0.5m y = y = 1m z = z = 1m ct = ( ct x ) = 1.25ct 0.75 x = 0.5m (thus t = 1.67 109 s)

The relativity of simultaneity

One of the striking consequences of Einsteins postulates in the relativity of simultaneity. (a) (b) (a) (b)

K K
K the rest reference frame of the car. By reckoning of an observer in this IRF, light from the bulb in the middle of the car reaches the car ends [events (a) and (b)] simultaneously. Second postulate: the speed of light is the same in all IRFs! K an observer on the ground. By this observers reckoning these two events are not simultaneous: for as the light travels from the bulb, the train itself moves forward, and thus, event (a) happens before event (b). Two events that are simultaneous in one IRF are not, in general, simultaneous in another.

Time dilation
The proper time (interval), t0 : the time interval between two events occurring at the same position as measured by a clock at rest (with respect to these two events). Light-clock: mirror

t 2

mirror

photon

y = y

t 2

photon

We want to know the time interval between the same two events occurring at the same position as measured by (synchronized) clocks in a moving reference frame:

2y t0 = c

t = 2

y 2 + (V t / 2 ) c

t0 t c + V 2 2 t = 2 c
2

Second postulate: the speed of light is the same in all IRFs! The time interval measured in the moving system K is greater than the time interval measured in system K where these two events occur at the same place (the proper time is the minimum time interval).

( ct ) = ( ct0 ) + (V t )
2 2

t =

t0
1

V c2

= t0

Time dilation (contd)

To observe this effect, the relative speed of the reference frames should be large. For the fastest spacecraft, the speed is ~10-4c, and the effect is of an order of 10-8:

t 1 = t0 1 2
1

2 t = t 1 + 2 2 1 t
Of course, the same results stems directly from L.Tr.: sparkler lit sparkler goes out

=V / c

Galilean Tr.:

K0

K0

Proper time interval:

0 t0 = t2 t10 0 x2 x10 = 0

t = t t = t 0

t10 , x10
K V

0 t2 , x10

Hint: the math is simplified if we write L.Tr. for the proper time interval in the right-hand side.

t=

t0

t1 , x1

t2 , x2
t2 t1 =

x1
V 0 0 x x1 ) 2 ( 2 c 1 V 2 / c2
but

( t20 t10 )

V 0 x 2 c V2 1 2 c
0 x2 = x10

t =

V x 2 c t0 = V2 1 2 c t 0 t+
1 V 2 / c2

Time dilation (contd)

time dilation on Earth
The effect of time dilation is symmetric: by the earths observer reckoning, all processes in a rocket are slowed down, and vice versa, by the rockets observer reckoning, all processes on the Earth are slowed down. There is no contradiction however: the observers measure different things!

time dilation on the rocket

rocket clock

rocket clock A

rocket clock B

ground clock A

ground clock B

ground clock The rocket observer compares two rocket clocks with one ground clock.

The ground observer compares two ground clocks with one rocket clock.

Clocks that are properly synchronized in one system will not be synchronized when observed from another system.

Twin Paradox
The symmetry will be broken if we consider the flight back and forth to the Earth. The RF of the rocket going back and forth is a non-inertial RF! Non-inertial RFs are considered in the General Theory of Relativity (Einstein, 1916).

IVI=const

Interestingly, the result of the GTR and that of a (wrong!) application of the STR coincide (e.g., one can consider a circular orbit with a constant speed (but not velocity, there is a constant acceleration that rotates the vector of velocity). As a result, a twin traveling on a rocket on arrival will be younger than his twin on Earth (twin paradox).

Problem
The lifetime of the unstable particle in its rest frame is 210-8s. The particles are generated in the center of a sphere of a radius of 8 m. Calculate the minimum speed (in the lab frame) that the particle should have in order to reach the spheres surface before it decays. Step 1: make a nice drawing, label all quantities. Step 2: identify reference frames you are working with. R=8m
0 quantities the particles rest RF (t0 is the proper life time)

quantities the lab RF ( t is the paricles life time in the lab RF)

t =
Step 3: write the equation(s) and solve it.
Requirement for the min. speed

t0 1 v2 / c2
2

R = vt = v=

v t0 1 v / c
2 2

v 2 ( t0 ) 2 R = 1 v2 / c2 8m + ( 2 10 s )
8

v=

R R 2 / c 2 + ( t0 )
2

Step 4: plug in numbers.

( 8m / 3cm / s )

= 2.4 108 m / s = 0.8c

Example: decay of cosmic-ray muons

Muon an electrically charged unstable elementary particle with a rest energy ~ 207 times greater than the rest energy of an electron. The muon has an average half-life of 2.2 10-6 s. Muons are created at high altitudes due to collisions of fast cosmic-ray particles (mostly protons) with atoms in the Earth atmosphere. (Most cosmic rays are generated in our galaxy, primarily in supernova explosions). N0 the number of muons generated at high altitude

v = 2.994 108 m / s = 0.998c = 0.998

In the muons rest frame

t0 = 2.2 106 s

By ignoring relativistic effects (wrong!), we get the decay length:

L = t0 c = 2.2 106 s 3 108 m / s = 660m 20, 000 N = N 0 exp = N 0 exp ( 30 ) 660 In fact, the decay length is much greater, the muons can be detected at the sea level!

altitude

~20 km

N the number of muons measured in the sea-level lab

Because of the time dilation, in the RF of the lab observer the muons lifetime is:

1 2 L = 35 106 s 3 108 m / s = 10.5km

20, 000 N = N 0 exp N 0 exp ( 2 ) 10,500

t =

t0

35 106 s

Homework Assignment
HW #1, due 09/09/2010 Problems: 4,5,9,10,11,12,14,18,20,21 Please make sure that all required reference frames are clearly identified!