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A1.1 Soils and foundation types

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SUBSTRUCTURE
FOUNDATIONS AND BASEMENT CONSTRUCTION
Philip P. Page, Jr.

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A1.1 Soils and foundation types A1.2 Retaining walls

Martin Gehner, P.E.

A1.3 Subsurface moisture protection

Donald Baerman, AIA

A1.4 Residential foundation design

John Carmody, Joseph Lstiburek, P.Eng.

A1.5 Termite control

Donald Pearman

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A1.1 Soils and foundation types This is an informative presentation of soils and foundations. Details of foundation types, are useful for preliminary design. Tables provide representative values for column footings and standard pile caps.
authors: Philip P. Page, Jr.; edited for 7th edition by Martin D. Gehner, P. E.

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A1.1 Soils and foundation types

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Soils and foundation types

Summary: This article provides an overview of soils and foundation types. Soil bearing capacity and soil tests are reviewed along with substructure foundations, including piers, piles, caissons and footing design.

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Fig. 1. Typical soil boring rig

1 Evaluating the bearing capacity of soil The first step in evaluating the bearing capacity of the soil is site reconnaissance, noting existing buildings, rock outcroppings, streams, and bodies of water. A topographical survey locating these items plus important trees should follow. In areas of substantial previous construction, reference to old maps may indicate features long removed from the landscape. Subsurface investigation is most often done by borings, but test pits are also used. A typical boring rig (Fig. 1), consists of a tripod or frame with a pulley and a small winch. A hammer is raised by the winch and allowed to fall free, driving a pipe casing into the ground. The casing is cleaned out by a water jet. At stated intervals, normally every 5 ft. (1.5 m), a piece of split pipe (called a spoon) is guided through the casing and driven ahead of the lead end to obtain a sample. The spoon is then withdrawn and opened so that the samples may be identified and placed in a sample jar. The number of blows necessary to drive the spoon 1 ft. gives important information as to the compactness of the soil. Generally a 300-lb. hammer falling 18 in. is used for advancing the casing and a 140-lb. hammer falling 30 in. is used to drive the spoon. When rock is reached, a rotary power takeoff on the hoist drives a core bit uncased into the rock. Rock core samples are recovered, identified, and placed in sample boxes. The soil boring contractor then furnishes a drawing giving the location and ground elevation of the holes, a scale section of each hole showing materials encountered, and a log of the casing and spoon blows. Many codes as well as good engineering practice dictate boring locations about 50 ft. (15 m) on center within the building outline. Soils or geotechnical engineers may typically designate critical points with respect to either site configuration and/or the proposed building footprint. Abnormal ground conditions may require closer spacing. Depth of borings are typically 15 to 20 ft. (4.5 to 6 m) below foundation level, with one or more borings deeper to look for weak lower levels. Test pits give a more immediate idea of the soil conditions but are limited to a depth of about 10 ft. (3 m). Dug with a backhoe, they give a method for economical and visually evident evaluation. Where rock is near the surface, a possible picture of the rock profile is obtained. Once the type and degree of compactness of soil has been established, its supporting ability must be evaluated. Table 1 shows representative values for presumptive bearing capacities as listed in two national codes. Local codes may have different values.

When a soil load test is required, a 2-ft. (60 cm) square plate is loaded to the proposed design load and held until no settlement is observed in 24 hr. The load is then increased 50 percent and held until no settlement is observed in 24 hr. If the settlement does not exceed 3/4 in. (20 mm) under the design load and if under the overload it does not exceed 60 per cent of that observed under the design load, the test is satisfactory. 2 Selecting a foundation type One of the most important decisions in designing and constructing any building is determination of its connection to the earth which supports the structure. The earths substrata is investigated and tested to help define the soil conditions beneath a site of a proposed foundation. Yet even the most thorough investigation encounters only a small portion of the soils and a foundation design relies heavily on interpretation of the data from soil tests. The most common types of footings are the spread footings and wall footings. These are used where the soil bearing capacity is adequate for the applied loads. The applied loads accumulate from either column loads or bearing wall loads. Variations of spread footings include eccentric footings, where center of the superimposed load does not line up with the resultant center of the soil bearing pressure, combined footings, where two or more columns must share one footing, and matt footings, where the required superimposed loads require most of the buildings footprint to transfer the accumulated loads to relatively weak soil bearing capacity. Pile foundations are required where poor surface and near surface soils are weak and column like shafts must be used to penetrate the weak soil and reach acceptable supporting stratum and greater depths below grade. Piles are tied together with pile caps upon which the buildings columns or walls are supported. When large column loads exist, caissons are used as extensions to columns. Caissons typically are larger in diameter and longer. They rely on end bearing directly on earth with very high bearing capacity. Retaining walls are used where a grade change occurs and the upper levels must be stabilized behind a wall. The wall portion of the foundation extends vertically cantilevered from a substantial and carefully designed footing. When good bearing material occurs directly under the building excavation, spread footings are designed for uniform bearing on the soil. The most common footing for square and round columns are square footings. Table 2 illustrates some sizes of square column footings

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Authors: Philip P. Page, Jr.; edited for 7th edition by Martin D. Gehner, P. E.
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Key words: borings, caissons, piers, piles, soil bearing capacity, spread footings, wall footings.

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Table 1. Presumptive soil bearing values

A1.1 Soils and foundation types reinforced with steel bars of grade Fy = 60 ksi [kips per square inch. A kip is equal to 1000 lb.]. The concentrated load of the steel column requires a steel bearing plate to distribute and transfer the load to an acceptable stress on the concrete footing, which in turn distributes the load to the soil at the allowable soil pressures. This condition is generally detailed as shown in Fig. 2. Sometimes the load must be distributed over a large area to lower-strength material by an I-beam grillage as schematically shown in Fig. 3. A reinforced concrete column often bears directly on the footing and the stress in the column reinforcing is transferred to the footing by steel dowels as indicated in Fig. 4. Bearing walls have continuous footings under them as shown in Fig. 5. When the footing projection beyond the face of the wall equals D/ 2 or less, the footing requires no tensile reinforcement. When the projection is greater than D/2, reinforcement across the footing is required to carry the tensile stresses. As a rule, a footing that is twice as deep as its projection will require no reinforcing. Longitudinal reinforcement is desirable to help distribute more uniform pressures on the soil. Where a lot line or interference from another footing precludes the use of square footings, a combined footing may serve two or more columns. Fig. 6 shows examples of popular types of combined footings. Note that the centers of gravity of the plan area of the footing and the combined loads from the column must coincide. Wall footings often intersect column footings or column piers. Fig. 7 illustrates such a condition. Footing and wall reinforcement is required to develop continuity through the intersection unless specific expansion joints are properly installed. Piers supporting grade beams extend to footings placed on bearing strata substantially below the general excavation. The grade beams, designed as flexural members, carry wall and floor loads to the piers as diagrammed in Fig. 8. If the grade beam is shallower than the frost penetration depth, frost bevels may be placed on the beam soffits to prevent frost heave. Unreinforced concrete piers are limited to a heightto-thickness ratio of six. A more slender pier must be designed as a reinforced column. Dowels develop the strength of the column reinforcing into the pier. Small dowels between the pier and the footing prevent pier displacement during backfilling. In areas of varying and unpredictable bearing elevations, field adjustments may easily be made to the height of the pier. For even deeper bearing strata, piles are used. Concrete pile caps then support the columns and grade beams. The choice between walls and footings, piers and grade beams, or piles and grade beams is determined by soil conditions, by the requirements of the buildings structural system, and cost. The requirement of many codesthat a pile be at least 10 ft. (3 m) long in order to provide adequate lateral stabilityoften determines the change-over depth between piers and short piles. Mats can distribute loads to large areas, permitting light soil bearing loads on weak material. Hydraulic mats resist upward water pressure. Because of the various possible arrangements and loads, each mat becomes a specialized custom design. Eccentric footings When the center of a footings upward pressure cannot be placed directly under the column or wall, methods must be employed to distribute the resulting eccentric footing loading without the uneven pressure exceeding the allowable bearing pressure. Building codes generally limit the projection into the street to 1 ft. beyond the property line. Thus footings under columns located on the property lines are

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The BOCA National Building Code/1993. Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc.
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The Uniform Building Code, 1997. International Conference of Building Officials, 1997. These values are taken for a footing 3' - 0" below grade. Refer to the Code for other widths and shallower depths of footings.

Table 2. Square column footings - soil bearing value: 3000 psf.

Note: Table 2 has been prepared according to ACI 318-89. Strength design: fc = 3,000; fy = 60,000. Tabulated column loads are actual working loads.

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Fig. 2. Steel column on spread footing

Fig. 6. Plan views of combined footings

Fig. 3. Steel grillage

Fig. 7. Typical foundation wall and column footings

Fig. 4. Concrete column on spread footing

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Fig. 5. Typical wall footings
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Fig. 8. Typical grade beam and pier

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A1.1 Soils and foundation types eccentric to the columns as illustrated in Figure 9. Straps, reinforced concrete beams, are carried back to an adjacent column for a holddown load to counterbalance the eccentric moment. The footings are proportioned so that the pressures are uniform and similar under both footings. The strap is reinforced to resist the bending caused by the eccentricity and is not considered as furnishing bearing support. The bending caused by the eccentric loading may be resisted vertically rather than horizontally by a couple composed of tension in the first floor and compression in the basement as seen in Fig. 10. The wall reinforcing required may be substantial. At corners, walls or grade beams permit the employment of special footing as seen in the example of Fig. 11. Foundations to rock Rock, having the highest bearing capacity, is often the only acceptable foundation available for heavy loads. Piers carry the loads directly to rock. On hard rock, piers require no footing, as the capacity of the rock is almost that of concrete. Typical column and grade beam construction is employed. Where rock occurs more than 10 to 15 ft. (3 to 4.5 m) below the grade beam soffits, piers become too costly. Clusters of piles driven to rock and encased in a pile cap can support substantial loads. For heavier loads, caissons are used. Caissons are big holes drilled through the weak soil strata down to rock. The drilled voids are then filled with concrete. Piles or caissons may vary in length from 15 to over 100 ft. (4.5 to over 30 m). Piles Piles carry loads to strata below the ground surface either by end bearing, which are called bearing piles, or by surface friction along their sides which are called friction piles. The soft material through which the pile is driven provides lateral stability, but for structures over water the piles must be designed as columns. Pile capacity is generally established by test load or driving resistance. Load tests are used to establish capacity. Driving resistance measurements are used to ensure that all piles are driven as hard as the test piles. Piles are generally grouped in clusters connected by pile caps. Borings are essential for proper pile evaluation. Individual piles may test to a capacity greater than their contribution to the capacity of a cluster. A soft stratum underlying a hard one may not be able to support the total load delivered from the hard stratum even though the resistance of the hard stratum may indicate satisfactory pile support as indicated in Fig. 12. Different piles shown in Fig. 13 have evolved with certain characteristics, briefly described as follows: Types I and II are cast-in-place concrete piles. A light-gage steel shell, driven on a mandrel which is then withdrawn, is inspected and filled with concrete. Care must be taken to avoid collapsing of the shell when an adjacent pile is driven. Type III is similar to Types I and II except that the shell gage is heavier and no mandrel is required. Type IV is an open-end steel pipe. It is excavated, often by air jet, as it is advanced, and then filled with concrete after refusal has been reached. In lieu of reaching refusal, driving may stop while a concrete plug is placed and then redriving will seat it. The advantage is less disturbance to adjacent structures. Type V is a closed-end pile. After driving, it is filled with concrete. Often it is used inside buildings with low head room. Shorter lengths are simply spliced with steel collars. Type VI is a precast concrete pile. It is good in marine structures but requires heavy handling equipment and accurate estimation of tip elevation as it is difficult to cut off in the field.

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Fig. 9. Pumphandle footing. Note: footing cannot be concentric with column 1 because it would cross the property line. Therefore the eccentricity is balanced by the use of the strap and hold-down load of column 2.

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Fig. 10. Eccentric wall footing section

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Fig. 11. Eccentric corner footing plan. Note: eccentricities are removed by walls acting as pumphandles. Each wall removes the eccentricity normal to it.

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A1.1 Soils and foundation types Type VII is a wood pilethe least expensive. Where the pile is partially exposed permanently above water level, it must be treated with a wood preservative. Type VIII, a composite wood and concrete pile, is seldom used. The timber is kept below groundwater and a greater over-all length is achieved. A closed-end pipe pile may be used in place of the timber section. Type IX is a rolled steel H section. It is the cheapest of the highercapacity piles. Protection must be provided when driving through cinder fill or other rust-producing material. Type X is a drilled-in caisson. A 24-in. (60 cm) round pipe is driven to rock and cleaned out. A rock socket is drilled and cleaned, a steel H-section core is set, and the shell is filled with concrete. This is good for very heavy loads.

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Piles almost always are installed in groups of three or more. Table 3 is included to represent a few simple examples of pile cap sizes and shapes along with representative capacities of the cap and the column being supported. For heavier column loads the reader is referred to a structural engineer for analysis of specific foundation requirements of the building(s) under consideration. Piles are located with a low degree of precision. They can easily be 6 in. (15cm.) or more from their desired location. If building columns, which are located with much greater precision, were to be located on single piles, the centerlines would rarely coincide. The resulting eccentric loads in both the column and the pile would generate unwanted moments in both members. A similar condition could exist around one axis for a column supported by a two pile foundation. Groupings of three or more piles provide a degree of safety and redundancy should one pile be driven slightly out of alignment. Lateral stability of the group increases with three piles as compared to fewer piles.

Fig. 12. Piles incorrectly seated in hard statum above soft stratum

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Fig. 13. Types of piles
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Table 3. Standard pile caps

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