EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 1

1 Starting of Cage Induction Motors

There are a number of ways of starting squirrel cage induction motors. Each method has its
own characteristics and place of correct application. The most commonly used methods are
outlined in the following paragraphs.

1.1 Direct-On-Line (DOL) Starting

At standstill, the cage-type induction motor is similar to a transformer with a shorted
secondary winding. Hence, the application of rated voltage to the stator winding causes a
high stator current of around 6 times the rated full-load value, at low power-factor. This
current quickly decreases as the machine accelerates and slip decreases. The high starting
current is generally not a problem for the motor itself, since the machine thermal time
constant is usually much greater than the rotor run-up time. However, it has to be taken
into account when choosing protection devices for the machine, such as fuses and
overloads. The protection devices are normally designed to effectively ignore this starting
characteristic.
An induction motor with a Direct-On-Line (DOL) starter is shown in Fig. 1. Note the fuse
and overload sensor (OLS) used as protection devices. The drawing of large starting
currents, in all but small machines, causes the supply voltage in the vicinity of the machine
to fall, or dip slightly. This is due to the voltage drop across the source impedance and
may be explained with reference to Fig. 1 in which the voltage at the main distribution
board is given by: V = E
S
- I
dol
Z
S

The system voltage dip may lead to objectionable lamp 'flicker' if excessive or frequent.
Incandescent lamps are particularly sensitive to fluctuations of voltage magnitude in that a
fluctuation of 0.5% at a frequency of 8-Hz will cause annoying lamp flicker. Thus, frequent
starting could be particularly problematic. In addition to incandescent lamp dimming,
voltage dips can affect other motors running on the same supply, e.g. increase in running
slip or possibly stalling. This simple method is therefore used where system capacity and
stiffness is sufficient to stand the high inrush currents without excessive voltage drop.
The following factors are to be considered while selecting the type of starting:
Size: e.g. DOL starting of pump motors up to 45-kW.
Inertia of Load: e.g. DOL starting of fan motors up to 18.6-kW.
Frequent Start: e.g. DOL starting of pump motors up to 15-kW.

It is good practice to avoid, where possible, simultaneous starting of motors, which may
lead to excessive voltage drops.
I
Z
E
S
V ~
S
Other loads
M
o o
DOL
contactor
starter
OLS
Fuse

Fig.1: Connections and equivalent circuit for DOL starting
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Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 2
1.2 Reduced Voltage Starting

- Star-Delta starting
This starting method is employed when the motor windings are connected in delta (A) for
normal operation and in star (Y) during start-up. Fig.2 shows a Y/A starter in which three
contactors (RLS) per phase are used to connect the stator windings in Y and/or A. At
starting, the star (S) contactors are closed while the delta contactors R are open to allow the
stator windings to be Y connected. When the motor picks up speed and current falls below
a set value, the star contactors S are de-energised and after a very short delay (to reduce
electrical transients) the delta (A) contactors R are energised connecting the stator winding
in delta.

Fig.2: Winding connections for Y-start A-run (Y/A) method

When the Y-connected motor is started, the stator phase voltage is reduced to 1 3 / , or
58%, of its normal running value (line voltage). The star phase current is, therefore, also
reduced by 1 3 / of its normal running delta phase value.
To consider the effect of star-delta starting on the motor line current, assume an effective
motor impedance of Z O/phase, as shown in the figure below.
I
Line
V
Phase
R
Y
B
V
Line
R
Y
B
I
Phase
V
Line
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
I
Line

Y A
If the motor is started in delta-connection (i.e. DOL) then:
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Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 3
I
V
Z
Phase
Line
A
= i.e. I I
V
Z
Line Phase
Line
A A
= = 3 3
However, for the star-connected motor the starting line current is significantly reduced as
follows from:
I I
V
Z
V
Z
V
Z
Line Phase
Phase Line Line
Y Y
= = = =
/ 3 1
3
I I
Line Line Y A
=
1
3
.
The advantage of this scheme is that no equipment other than a Y/A starter is needed.
However, the disadvantages are that all six ends of the stator windings must be accessible
and six 1-core cables or two 3-core cables are required between the starter and the motor.
In addition, both the starting current and torque are greatly reduced, since the
electromagnetic torque developed by the motor (at any slip) is directly proportional to the
square of the applied winding voltage (phase voltage) i.e. T k V =
2
where k is a constant.
If the motor is started with delta-connection (i.e. DOL), V
Line
= V
Phase
, and therefore
T k V
DOL Line
=
2
. For Y-connected windings during start-up, V V
Phase Line
= / 3 , so that
T k V
Line Y
= ( / ) 3
2
meaning that:

( )
T
T
k V
k V
DOL
Line
Line
Y
= =
3
1
3
2
2
.
The starting torque is 1/3 of that available with DOL starting (the low torque leads to an
increased run-up time) which makes this method suitable for applications where load
torque during acceleration is low. Note that since the line current for star connection is also
1/3 of the DOL value as shown above, the Torque/Line Ampere for the machine remains
constant.

- Autotransfomer starting
In this method, an auto-transformer is placed in series with the motor during starting as
shown in Fig.3 and the corresponding single-line diagram in Fig. 4-b. The transformer
action reduces the voltage applied to the motor terminals (by transformer ratio) and the line
current is consequently less than the motor current. For this reason this method is usually
used in applications where complete motor acceleration at reduced amperes is needed.
At starting, the contactor R is open and S & Y are closed so that the stator windings are
supplied via the low-voltage taps of an autotransformer (Fig.4-b). After run-up, during
normal running, the switching states of the contactors are changed (R is closed and S&Y
are open) to allow the machine direct on-line connection.


Fig.3: Motor terminal connections for auto-transformer starting
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Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 4
M
V
I
DOL

M
V
xV
x I
DOL
I = x
2
I
DOL

(a) (b)
Fig. 4: Single-line diagram for DOL (a) and auto-transformer (b) starting

In Fig. 4-a, a voltage V is directly applied to the motor, which results in a starting current
of I
DOL
(DOL starting). When starting by an autotransformer, each phase of the motor
windings is supplied with xV volts which results in a phase current of xI
DOL
. Consider
now the power-balance of the autotransformer:
V I xV x I
DOL
= i.e. I x I
DOL
=
2

From the above expression it is obvious that when starting with an autotransformer at x-pu.
tapping (x is less than 1), the starting current is reduced to x
2
of the DOL value.
As with the Y/A starting, due to the lower applied voltage, the starting torque is also
reduced:

( ) T
T
xV
V
x
X
DOL
= =
2
2
2

so that the Torque/Ampere is unchanged.
Three tappings are commonly provided with an autotransformer starter (e.g. 40, 60, 75 %
or 50, 65, 80 % of full voltage) but only one is used during starting. For example, if a 50%
tapping is used, the motor current is reduced by a factor of 2 and the line starting current is
reduced to of that with DOL starting. Note that the starting torque is also reduced by a
factor of 4.

The main advantages of this scheme are that only a 3-core cable is required between the
starter and the motor and that the value of tapping (x) can be chosen to suit the
circumstances. Note that the motor may be either star or delta connected.
The main disadvantages are the loss in the starting torque and that the autotransformer
starter (its cost is comparable to or in excess of the Y/A starter) is only utilised during
starting.

2 Effects of Source Impedance on Motor Starting

In the previous section, the effects of source impedance on starting performance of the
induction motor were ignored, i.e. the motor terminal voltage was assumed constant.
However, the flow of starting current through the source impedance creates a voltage drop,
which reduces the voltage at the terminals of the motor.
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Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 5
For DOL starting the induction motor and supply system may be represented by the
equivalent circuit shown in Fig.5, where:
Z
m
is the motor standstill impedance per phase and
Z
S
is the source impedance.
Hence I
E
Z Z
DOL
S
S m
=
+

and V I Z
Z
Z Z
E
DOL DOL m
m
S m
S
= =
+

When starting with a Y/A starter, the starting
line current is reduced to 1/3 of the DOL
value. For the same supply voltage E
S
, this is
equivalent to increasing the motor effective
impedance by a factor of 3 (i.e. 3Z
m
). Thus
the equivalent circuit becomes that in Fig.6,
which gives:
I
E
Z Z
S
S m
Y
=
+ 3

and V I Z
Z
Z Z
E
m
m
S m
S Y Y
= =
+
3
3
3

With autotransformer starting, the effective
standstill impedance as seen at the terminals
of the autotransformer, shown in Fig.7, can be
expressed as:
Z
V
I
V
x V
Z
Z
x
in
LX
m
m
= = =
'' ''
'' 2 2

Hence I
E
Z
Z
x
LX
S
S
m
=
+
2

and V I Z
E
Z
Z
x
Z
x
Z
Z x Z
E
LX in
S
S
m
m m
m S
S
' ' = =
+
=
+
2
2 2

Several important observations can be made from the above expressions:

1
/ 3 1
/ 1
3
<
+
+
=
+
+
=
s m
s m
m s
m s
DOL
Y
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z
I
I
i.e. the line current is generally lower for Y/A
starting as compared to DOL as expected. For instance, if
s m
Z Z = then
DOL Y
I I 5 . 0 = and for
s m
Z Z 4 = this is only 38% of DOL current.


~
E
Z
Z
m
I =
LX
x V
2 ''
Zm
V
''
xV
''
I =
m
xV
''
Zm
Z
in
S
S

Fig.7: Autotransformer starting
I
E
S
V ~
Z
S
o o
Z
m
DOL
DOL

Fig. 5: DOL starting

I
E
S
V ~
Z
S
o o
3Z
m
Y
Y

Fig. 6: Y/A starting
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Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 6
1
1
/ 3 1 3
2 2
s
+
+
=
+
+
=
s
m
s m
m
s
m s
Y
LX
Z x
Z
Z Z
x
Z
Z
Z Z
I
I
if 3 / 1
2
> x i.e. 58 . 0 3 / 1 = s x .
Therefore, if the autotransformer tap-ratio at start-up is less than 58% then the current
loading is lower than with Y/A starting.
1
3 / 1
/ 1
>
+
+
=
m s
m s
DOL
Y
Z Z
Z Z
V
V
i.e. the voltage drop on the source impedance is smaller for
star/delta starting method due to lower starting current as shown above.
1
/ 1
3 / 1 ' '
2
>
+
+
=
m s
m s
Y Z Z x
Z Z
V
V
for 58 . 0 s x . Under this tap-ratio condition, the
autotransformer starting is better than star-delta one as it gives a higher terminal
voltage i.e. lower voltage drop.

Example 1 : Auto-transformer starting
A 3-phase, 93.5-kW, 460-V, 1141-rpm induction motor has the locked-rotor torque at rated
voltage equal to 125% its full load value. If started DOL, the motor inrush current is 1-kA.
Determine starting torque and corresponding stator inrush current if the motor is started at
reduced voltage using an auto-transformer with a 65% tap. What is the inrush line current
under this condition?
Solution:

Given the rated parameters of the motor, its full load torque is :-
Nm - 52 . 782
1141
93500 30 30
= = =
t t n
P
T
The starting torque is therefore : Nm - 15 . 978 25 . 1 = = = T T T
DOL st
.
Since the motor input impedance is constant at standstill (n = 0 i.e. s = 1), the stator inrush
current is proportional to the stator applied voltage. Thus, 650 1000 65 . 0 = =
m
I -A.
With the 65% tap, the motor terminal voltage is 299 460 65 . 0 = =
m
V -V. The starting
(locked-rotor) torque is proportional to the voltage square which means that :-
= = = 15 . 978 65 . 0 ) (
2 2
DOL
rated
m
at
T
V
V
T 413.27-Nm.
The current calculated above is the secondary current of the auto-transformer. The primary
(line) current can be easily determined from the power balance expression :-
= = = = 650 65 . 0
m
line
m
line m m line line
I
V
V
I I V I V 422.5-A.
Note that the above current can be actually expressed as (see Fig.4b) :
DOL line
I x I =
2

where x = 0.65 and
DOL
I =1000-A.
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Example 2 : Star-delta (also called Wye-Delta) starting
A 3-phase, 45-kW, 460-V, 60-Hz, 1750-rpm induction motor has a locked-rotor impedance
of 0.547 O/phase while the torque is 140% rated. Assuming the machine is to be started
Wye-Delta (a) sketch the starter-motor connections and explain briefly the starting
procedure; (b) determine the starting current and torque as well as the machine pole-
number. What would be the motor terminal current if started delta connected?
Solution:

(a) The winding connections for this starting method can be found in Fig.2. On starting, the
supply is first applied to the motor with its stator windings star-connected (star contactors S
are closed and delta ones R are open). As the motor accelerates, its speed stabilises when
its developed torque become equal to its load torque. This usually happens at about 75% -
80% of nominal speed as shown in Fig 8. The star contactors (S) are then de-energised, and
the delta contactors (R) energised to delta-connect the stator windings. Each winding is
now fed with the full supply voltage, and the motor adopts its normal operating
characteristics. The run-up time with the windings star-connected is controlled by a timer
which, typically, can be adjusted from 0 to 30 seconds. This timer is adjusted during
commissioning to ensure that the star-delta changeover occurs, as closely as possible, at the
point of torque equilibrium (Fig 8).




Fig. 8: Typical starting characteristics of conventional cage induction motors: star-delta vs
DOL method

(b) The motor is star-connected at start-up and its starting current is therefore:-
52 . 485
3 547 . 0
460
3
= = = =
Z
V
Z
V
I
LL
phase
start
-A
The full load torque of the machine can be calculated using the rated parameters provided
as follows:-
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Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 8
55 . 245
1750
45000 30
60
2
= = =
O
=
t
t
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
n
P P
T -Nm
The locked rotor torque for delta connected stator is given and it is 140% of the above
value (this is in fact the starting torque for delta connected machine i.e. the DOL torque)
i.e. 77 . 343 4 . 1 = =
fl DOL
T T -Nm. Bearing in mind that the torque is proportional to phase
voltage square the following torque relationship applies:-
59 . 114
3
77 . 343
3
1
)
3 /
(
2
= = = =
start
LL
LL
DOL
start
T
V
V
T
T
-Nm.
If started A-connected then
LL phase
V V = and the DOL line current would be :-
57 . 1456
547 . 0
3 460
3 = = =
A
Z
V
I
LL
line
-A.

Finally, the machine pole-number can be determined using the fact that the rated speed is
very close to synchronous i.e. about 0.92-0.97
s
n . The synchronous speed in rpm can be
expressed as
poles poles poles
f
n
ply
s
7200 60 120
120
sup
=

= and the number of poles is therefore 4

as 1800 =
s
n -rpm under this condition (this is the first synchronous speed value above the
rated speed of the machine = 1750-rpm).

Example 3 : Series-resistance starting

A 3-phase, Y-connected, 230-V, 78-A, induction motor has a locked-rotor impedance
0.0978 + j0.2549 O/phase. The motor is to be started using series resistors in each line. (a)
Draw starter-motor connections for this starting method and explain its mechanism; (b)
Determine the resistance of the resistors required to limit the starting current to 3 times
rated current; (c) Calculate the stator phase voltage at locked rotor; (d) If the locked-rotor
torque at rated voltage and frequency is 150% rated value, what is the starting torque (in pu
taking the rated torque as a base) at reduced voltage?

Solution:

(a) Series-impedance starters start the motor at reduced voltage by connecting a resistance
(in this case) or reactance bank in series with the motor windings (see figures below) to
limit the inrush current during start-up. The impedance seen by the power system then
is that of the reactance plus that of the motor. The running contacts (R) are open when
starting (S contacts are closed) and once the motor has run up and its speed has
stabilised (Fig.11), the resistance (reactance) bank is shorted out by closing R contacts
(and opening S contacts), and the motor becomes DOL connected. This change-over is
normally controlled by an adjustable timer within the starter. The ohmic value of the
resistor or reactor is generally selected to provide approximately 70-80% rated voltage
at the motors terminals when starting. The series impedance starter is of simple design
and allows smooth acceleration.

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Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 9


Fig. 9: Series resistor starting


Fig. 10: Series reactor starting



Fig.11: Typical characteristics for series impedance induction motor starting

(b) The total impedance as seen from the line terminals is obviously (0.0978 +
ext
R ) +
j0.2549 O/phase. Due to the system Y-connection, the voltage from line to neutral is
79 . 132 3 / 230 = -V, and the locked-rotor current is to be limited to
234 78 3 3 = = =
rated start
I I -A. The 3-phase stator and series-connected resistors
present a balanced circuit and the current magnitudes in the respective branches are
consequently equal. Applying Ohms law to one phase:-
234
2549 . 0 ) 0978 . 0 (
79 . 132
2 2
=
+ +
= =
ext
total
LN
start
R
Z
V
I -A

Solving the above quadratic for
ext
R one gets 4093 . 0 =
ext
R -O.

(c) The voltage applied to the machine (across terminals T1-T3 in the above figures) is
actually the voltage drop on the motor impedance Z:-

88 . 63 234 273 . 0 = = =
start m
I Z V -V.

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Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 10
(d) The starting torque at reduced stator voltage of 63.88-V can be calculated from the
following torque ratio :-

fl start
start
fl
start
volts full
T T
T
T
T
T
= =

347 . 0
88 . 63
79 . 132
5 . 1
2
2


The starting torque is therefore 34.7% rated value or 0.347-pu.


Example 4 : Series-reactance starting

A certain 208-V, 24-A, 60-Hz, Y-connected induction motor has a locked-rotor current of
139.5-A at full voltage. The power factor under this condition is 0.342 lagging. The motor
is to be started using the series-impedance method with pure inductors (of negligible
resistance) in each line. Calculate the inductance and voltage rating of each series-
connected inductor required so that the starting current is 200% rated.

Solution:

Following on from the previous example and applying Ohms law to one phase of Y-
connected stator windings one can determine the locked-rotor impedance of the machine :-
O = = = - 861 . 0
3 5 . 139
208
lr
LN
m
I
V
Z
Since the power factor is 0.342 lagging, the impedance phase angle is therefore

70 342 . 0 cos
1
=

.

The total impedance of the system is the external reactance plus the motor impedance i.e.
) 809 . 0 ( 294 . 0 ) 70 sin 342 . 0 ( 861 . 0
ext ext
X j X j j + + = + +

. The starting current needs
to be limited not to exceed 48 2 =
rated
I -A. Therefore :-
A - 48
) 809 . 0 ( 294 . 0
3 / 208
2 2
=
+ +
= =
ext
total
LN
start
X
Z
V
I
From the above equation, one can solve for O = = - 675 . 1 2
ext ext
L f X t . The added
inductance is thus 44 . 4 =
ext
L -mH as f = 60-Hz.
The voltage drop across each of the inductors represents their voltage rating. This is simply
4 . 80 675 . 1 48 = =
ext start
X I -V.


3 Starting of Wound-Rotor Induction Motors

The DOL starting current of a wound-rotor motor may be reduced by connecting an
external 3-phase variable resistance in series with the rotor windings, via the slip rings. The
value of external resistances is gradually reduced as the rotor speed increases. An interlock
is usually employed to prevent main switch closure unless the starting resistances are at
their maximum values. The circuit arrangement and torque-slip characteristics of a wound-
rotor type induction motor with a four-point starter are shown in Fig.12.
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Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 11
When the required number of resistance steps is small, the starting resistors may be
mounted on the rotor shaft and cut out using a centrifugal switch. This avoids the
requirement of slip rings and external switchgear. However, this device is complicated if
frequent starting is required, due to heat dissipation requirements, or if more than two
resistance steps are required. A motor fitted with a centrifugal switch will automatically
reset the starting resistors if stalled.

Fig.12: Starting of a wound-rotor induction motor with a four-point starter

As a remainder and for convenience of the following analysis, it would be useful to
reproduce here the steady-state equivalent circuit of an induction machine (Fig.13), the
corresponding equations as well as a typical torque-slip characteristic similar to those in
Fig.12.
I
s
R
s
jX
os
jX
or
I
r




V
n
I
m
jX
m
R
r
/s




Fig.13: Steady-state per-phase equivalent circuit of an induction machine for purely
sinusoidal supply voltage (iron loss resistance not shown)

All the rotor parameters in Fig.13 are referred to the stator winding, by means of the
transformation ratio. Symbols in bold denote phasors. The variable resistor in the rotor
circuit represents both rotor copper loss and power converted into mechanical. Recall that
the stator winding of the machine can be connected in either star or delta; the equivalent
circuit is valid for phase rather than line values, regardless of the winding connection. Thus
V
n
stands for the rated phase to neutral voltage of the stator. All the reactances are given at
fixed, rated supply frequency.

The general torque-slip characteristic for a 2P-pole machine shown in Fig.14 follows from
power flow considerations in Fig.13, in the form:-

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
3
2
3
) (
X s R R
s R
V
f
P
X X s R R
s R
V
f
P
s T
r s
r
n
r s r s
r
n e
+ +
=
+ + +
=
t t
o o
(1)
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Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 12

T
e

maximum (pull-out) torque


T
en


T
est

operating region

slip
1 s
m
s
n
0 s

0 n
s
speed

Fig.14: Torque-speed curve of an induction machine for rated supply conditions

The operating region is restricted to slips up to typically 10%, indicating that the speed of
rotation changes with load but remains within rather narrow boundaries from no load up to
rated load. The maximum (pull-out) torque, rated torque and starting torque, as well as the
corresponding slips (indicated in Fig.14) can be calculated from the following expressions:

( )
( )
( )
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
3
) (
2
3
) 1 (
1
4
3
2
3
) (
X s R R
s R
V
f
P
s s T T
X R R
R
V
f
P
s T T
X R R
V
f
P
X s R R
s R
V
f
P
s s T T
X R
R
s
n r s
n r
n n e en
r s
r
n e est
s s
n
m r s
m r
n m e em
s
r
m
+ +
= = =
+ +
= = =
+ +
=
+ +
= = =
+
=
t
t
t t
(2)

Referring to the first two expressions for maximum electromagnetic torque ) (
em
T and the
corresponding slip (
m
s ) it is apparent that the rotor resistance (
r
R ) influences
m
s , but not
the magnitude of the maximum torque. It is obviously possible to obtain maximum torque
at starting by adding the appropriate resistance in the rotor circuit (in series with the rotor
windings) so that 1 =
m
s (see Fig. 15). Therefore the value of external resistance per phase
required to achieve maximum torque at start-up can be determined using the first
expression above as follows:-
r s ext
s
ext r
m
R X R R
X R
R R
s + = =
+
+
=
2 2
2 2
1 (3)
This unique property of a wound rotor (slip ring) induction machine to achieve maximum
starting torque with relatively low supply current is its principal advantage over a cage
counterpart. It also serves as a basis for speed control of this machine (Fig.15) as we shall
see in the following sections.
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Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 13

Stator T
e


R
add
= 0
IM
Load torque

Rotor
Increasing R
add


R
add


1 s
1
s
2
s
n
0 slip
Fig.15: Speed control of a WRIM by addition of resistance in the rotor winding basic
principle and torque-slip curves.

Example 5 : External resistance control for maximum torque at start-up of a WRIM

A 380-V, 50-Hz, 4-pole, Y-connected slip ring induction machine is fully loaded at 5-Nm.
The stator and rotor resistance are 10-O and 6.3-O, respectively, while the leakage
reactances are 12-O each. A magnetising reactance can be neglected.
(a) Determine the slip for rated operating conditions;
(b) Calculate added resistance that will enable starting of the motor with the maximum
starting torque.

Solution:

(a) Calculation of rated slip:


( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Nm 84 . 12
2
3
Nm 92 . 6
1
1
2
3
% 2 . 24 242 . 0
Further,
rpm 5 . 1441 1 rpm 1500 / 60
% 9 . 3 039 . 0
0 7 . 39 5 . 1039 676
- : gets one , expression torque rated in es known valu the all ng Substituti
V 220 3 380 connection star to due that Note
Nm 5
2
3
constant = Nm 5
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
=
+ + +
=
=
+ + +
=
= =
+ +
=
= = = =
= =
= +
= =
=
+ + +
=
= =
r s m r s
m r
n em
r s r s
r
n est
r s s
r
m
n n n s
n
n n
n
r s n r s
n r
n en
en L
X X s R R
s R
V
f
P
T
X X R R
R
V
f
P
T
X X R
R
s
n s n P f n
s
s s
V
X X s R R
s R
V
f
P
T
T T
o o
o o
o o
o o
t
t
t

EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 14
(b) If the machine is to start with starting torque equal to maximum torque, then an
additional rotor resistance per phase required can be calculated as follows:-

O = + =
+
+
=
= =
7 . 19 1
1
2 2
2 2
r s add
s
add r
m est em
R X R R
X R
R R
s T T


4 Power Electronic Control of Induction Machines

4.1 Introduction

Three-phase induction motors are the most frequently utilised electric machines in industry
(more than 70%). They are characterised with low cost, high reliability, high efficiency,
simple construction and, in the case of squirrel-cage induction motors, with virtually
maintenance-free operation. If operated with the stator three-phase voltage supply of fixed
frequency and magnitude, induction motors will run at a speed that very slightly depends
on loading.

In contrast to DC machines, where the choice of speed control methods and associated
power electronic converters that are nowadays in use is rather limited, there exists a variety
of both speed control techniques and appropriate power electronic converters that are used
in conjunction with 3-phase induction motor drives. A 3-phase induction machine requires
3-phase AC supply at the stator side. In a squirrel-cage type of induction machines this is
simultaneously the only accessible winding. However, in slip-ring induction machines
there is more degrees of control freedom as the three-phase rotor winding may be
approached as well. Thus the speed of an induction machine may be controlled via the
stator voltage variations for both types of induction machines; additionally, the speed may
be controlled in slip-ring machines from the rotor side as well. Squirrel-cage induction
machines are by far the most frequently used. It is for this reason that the following
discussion will be predominantly devoted to speed control methods associated with the
alteration of the stator supply voltage. Only one method, specifically aimed at slip ring
machines, will be looked at.

If a 2P-pole induction machine is supplied with a voltage of frequency f then the so-called
synchronous speed of the stator revolving field can be expressed in rpm as:
n
s
= 60f / P (4)
From this expression it follows that the synchronous speed can be altered by simply
changing the number of pole pairs - P. Assuming that the load torque is constant, if P is
doubled during operation of the machine, the synchronous speed will be halved, leading to
operation at approximately one half of the rated speed (as slip is small under normal
operating conditions). This method of speed control is used in low performance drives that
typically require operation at two distinctly different operating speed (say, a washing
machine; spinning is done at high speed, while normal washing cycle takes place at low
speed) but where control accuracy is not an imperative.

Speed control by pole pair changing requires a specially wounded stator and is usually
realised by mechanically reconnecting the stator winding from one pole pair number to
another. The linear portions of typical torque-speed characteristics for a change-over from
EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 15
2-pole to 4-pole stator are shown in Fig.16. Power electronics converters are obviously not
involved in this speed control method, and its applicability is restricted to the cases where
two discrete speed values, rather than continuous speed variation, are needed. Therefore
speed control by pole pair changing will not be considered further on.

The general torque expression for an induction machine (1), suggests that, for a given
torque, the speed (slip) of an induction machine can be adjusted by changing the stator
applied voltage (V) and/or frequency (f). The two consequent methods of speed control,
universally applicable to all the 3-phase induction machines, that will be elaborated in
more detail are:
(1) the speed control by stator voltage variation and
(2) speed control by simultaneous stator voltage and frequency variation.

The former, although relatively simple, has restricted applicability for the reasons that will
be explained in the following; the latter is the most widely used method of speed control of
induction machines. Finally, a method valid for slip-ring machines only based on the
insertion of a series resistance in the rotor circuit, will be discussed as well.
T
e

load torque

A B


1500 3000 speed (rpm)

Fig. 16: Speed control by changing pole pair number: drive operates either at point A or B.

4.2 Speed Control by Stator Voltage Variation

The equation (1) shows that electromagnetic torque developed by an induction machine is
proportional to the square of the applied rms stator phase voltage (V). Thus, for a given
load torque, a reduction of voltage will lead to the operation with an increased slip, i.e.,
with a decreased speed as shown in Fig. 17. As the supply voltage is not allowed to exceed
its rated value, this method of speed control can be utilised only for reducing the speed
below rated. Note that, according to (3), the pull-out slip is not a function of the applied
voltage. Hence the motor develops maximum torque at constant slip (speed), determined
with (5), regardless of the applied voltage. However, as both maximum (pull-out) and
starting torques are functions of the voltage squared, the reduction in voltage results in the
reduction in starting torque which means that the motor will be able to start only light loads
at low speeds; also a decrease of maximum torque implies that overloading capability of
the motor is compromised. This is one of the major drawbacks of this speed control
method.

Another limitation of the method is that the speed drops with reducing the voltage
incurring additional copper losses in the rotor winding due to increased slip as previously
mentioned. Regardless of these two serious shortcomings, this speed control technique is
widely used in two distinct cases. When the load torque is proportional to the speed
squared (pumps, ventilators, compressors, etc.) then even a small reduction in speed means
significant reduction in the output power, which is proportional to the cube of the speed.
EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 16
For a number of applications having load torque of this type it is sufficient to vary the
speed in this narrow region. The second application is in drives that run for prolonged
periods of time with very light loads. In such a situation it is advantageous to reduce the
voltage for light load operation as this improves the efficiency of the drive. In other words,
considerable saving in electricity consumption may be achieved in this way.


T
e

rated voltage


reducing voltage


operating region

slip
1 s
m
0 s

Fig.17: Torque-slip characteristics of an induction machine with speed control by stator
voltage variation.

Example 6: Speed control by stator voltage variation

A 3-phase squirrel-cage induction motor drives a full load at rated slip of 3%. A stator and
rotor resistance (referred to stator) are both equal to 0.015-O and a total leakage reactance
is X = 0.09-O. (a) Calculate the necessary reduction in the stator supply voltage if the
induction motor is to drive the same load but with a 15% slip; (b) Compare the rotor losses
for the two operating points and comment on the results obtained.

Solution:

(a) Pull-out slip of the motor is:
% 4 . 16 164 . 0 09 . 0 015 . 0 015 . 0
2 2
2 2
= = + =
+
=
X R
R
s
s
r
m

The reduction of the voltage to allow the operation with 15% slip at unchanged load torque
can be calculated as follows.

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
37.6%. is reduction voltage Necessary 624 . 0
39 . 0
09 . 0 03 . 0 / 015 . 0 015 . 0
09 . 0 15 . 0 / 015 . 0 015 . 0
03 . 0
15 . 0
2
3
2
3
1
15 . 0 and 03 . 0 : points operating
1
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
1 1
2
1
2 2
2
2 2
1
1 2
1
2 2
2
2 2
1
1 2
1
1
1
=
=
+ +
+ +
=
+ +
+ +
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ +
=
+ +
+ +
= =
= =
n
n r s
r s
n n
n r s
n r
n
r s
r
n r s
n r
n
r s
r
en
e
n
V V
X s R R
X s R R
s
s
V
V
X s R R
s R
V
X s R R
s R
V
X s R R
s R
V
f
P
X s R R
s R
V
f
P
T
T
s s
t
t

EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 17
This situation is illustrated in the accompanying figure.


T
e

rated voltage
T
L
= T
en



62.4% of
rated voltage

0.16 0.03 slip

0.15

(b) Let us now examine an increase in rotor losses that takes place with this speed control
method. Taking the power transferred from the stator to the rotor (electromagnetic
power) to be P
sr
, for these two operating conditions one has
( )
( )
n n sr cur
srn n n sr
n
n
n en s en en
n srn n curn n
n
n
srn srn n n
n
P P sP P
P P P
s
P
P
P
s
s
T s T T P
s
P P s P P
s
P
P P s P
s
1545 . 0 03 . 1 15 . 0 : loss copper
03 . 1 85 . 0 / 876 . 0
1
: power netic electromag
876 . 0
1
1
1 : power mechanical
: torque (rated) same at the 15 . 0 slip new for
031 . 0 : losses copper ; 03 . 1
1
1
: 03 . 0 slip rated for
= = =
= =

=
=

= = =
=
= = =

= =
=
e e e


This consideration shows that power transferred from stator to rotor is the same for the two
cases. Hence reduction in output power of 12.4% reflects itself directly on an increase in
rotor copper loss from 3.1% to more than 15% of the rated power. As this loss takes place
in the motor, it will essentially cause overheating. Needless to say, efficiency is sharply
reduced. Starting problems with reduced voltage and this increase in losses are the two
main reasons why this speed control method is not used with constant load torques. The
situation is much improved in both respects when the load torque is proportional to the
speed square as is the case in pump-like applications. Speed control by stator voltage
variation is therefore applied in conjunction with this type of load in practice.

Speed control by stator voltage variation is realised by using an AC-AC voltage controller
in each stator phase of the machine as shown in Fig.18. The firing delay angle of the
thyristors may be controlled to provide soft-starting as well in order to alleviate the
starting problems of cage-type motors as will be discussed earlier. The same voltage
controller structure is also a basic configuration used in power systems for reactive power
compensation.

It should be noted that although the principle of operation of an AC-AC controller is very
simple (to be reviewed in the following section), an analysis of the system in Fig.18 is
extremely tedious even for steady-state operation. This is due to the inductive nature of the
machine, which makes the instant of cessation of the current flow through each of the
thyristors essentially unknown. As the voltage exists as long as there is current flow, then it
EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 18
is actually very difficult to evaluate the actual voltage applied across the machine under
given operating conditions. Note that the voltage value calculated in the previous example
for reduced speed operation is the required rms value of the fundamental harmonic of the
output phase to neutral voltage of the AC-AC voltage controller.
IM
R
Y
B
T
1
T
2
T
3

Fig.18: Stator voltage variation of an IM using an AC-AC voltage controller


4.3 Speed Control of Slip Ring Induction Machines

From a set of equations (2) it follows that the pull-out slip is proportional to the added
resistance. On the other hand, the corresponding maximum torque is not influenced at all
by addition of resistance, indicating that overloading capability of the machine is
unaffected. Compared with the stator voltage variation method, an addition of rotor
resistance is to be preferred, for the following reasons: (a) any operating speed between
zero and rated can be obtained (with the stator voltage variation speed control region is
confined to speeds higher than pull-out speed); (b) maximum torque is not affected (with
stator voltage variation it reduces proportionally to the stator voltage reduction squared);
(c) additional copper loss is now developed in the added resistance, which is external to the
machine and therefore the problem of overheating does not take place. Note however, that
the problem of low efficiency still remains to be present: as speed is reduced, larger and
larger portions of the total input power are dissipated in the additional resistors. A principle
of this speed control method and resulting torque speed curves are shown in Fig.15.


Example 7. For a wound rotor induction motor from Example 5, calculate an added
resistance that is needed to reduce its speed from the rated value to 1000 rpm.

Solution:

For operation at 1000-rpm with the same load torque the following resistance is needed:


( )
O = = O = = +
+ =
+
|
|
.
|

\
| +
+
+
= = =
= =

=
4 . 48 3 . 6 7 . 54 7 . 54 0 2168 . 1 9 . 0 016 . 0
equation in torque es known valu the all ng Substituti . Let
2
3
5
3333 . 0 1500 / ) 1000 1500 (
2
2
2
1
1 2
1
1
1
add
add r
add r
s
add r
n en e
s
s
R R R R
R R R
X
s
R R
R
s R R
V
f
P
T T
n
n n
s
t

EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 19
Example 8. A 3-phase 220-kW, 16-pole, 60-Hz slip ring induction machine drives a pump
at rated slip of 2.5% and full load torque. The pumps torque is proportional to the speed
squared. A rotor phase resistance is 0.0175-O. Determine the value of an added resistance
that needs to be inserted in series with the rotor phases to achieve the speed of rotation of
300-rpm. Assume a linear torque-speed characteristic around the rated operating point.

Solution:

Motor torque in the operating region (i.e., for slips between rated and zero) can be
approximated with a straight line i.e. T
e
= ks. Calculations in this example will be therefore
based on this expression.

( )
( )
O = = =
+
=
+
|
|
.
|

\
| +
+
+
= =
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= =
=
= = = = = = =
= = =
= = =
= = = =
= = =
= = = = = =
48 . 0 ) 1 01165 . 0 / 333 . 0 ( 0175 . 0 Thus
resistance added with curve at
) (
2
3
5 . 2230
stic characteri natural
2
3
5 . 2230
Hence rpm. 300 is torque with this speed required However, rpm 75 . 444
01165 . 0 4785 / 5 . 2230 025 . 0 4785 5 . 2230
slip in result would Nm 2230.5 of e with torqu operation stic characteri natural At
333 . 0 450 / ) 300 450 ( /
Nm 5 . 2230 ) 30 / 300 ( 26 . 2
rpm 300 at state - steady new In
rad / Nms 2.26 = Nm 4785 ) (
Nm 4785 ) 439 /( 30 220000
rpm 439 450 ) 025 . 0 1 ( 1 rpm 450 8 / 60 60 / 60
2
1
1 2
2
2
1
1 2
1
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2 2 2
1 1
2 2
1 1
2 2 2
r r add
add r r
add r
s
add r
n e
r
s
r
n e
en
e
n n en e
s s
L
n n L L
n n en
s n n s
R R
s
s
R
s
R R
s
R
X
s
R R
R
s R R
V
f
P
T
X
s
R
R
s R
V
f
P
T
n
x
T
T
s s ks T ks T
n n n s
x K T
K K T K T
x P T
n s n x P f n
t
t
t e
e e e e
t e

Torque-slip curves for this example are illustrated below.


T
e
T
L




0.48 O
4785 Nm

2230.5 Nm


0 300 444.75 n(rpm)
439
EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 20
If the speed of a slip ring induction motor is to be continuously varied, it is necessary to
provide a method of continuous additional resistance variation. This is possible if power
electronic converters are used as shown in Fig. 19. A 3-phase bridge diode rectifier is
connected to the rotor winding via slip rings. The output of the rectifier is connected to a
chopper, whose circuit contains a resistor R. When the switch S (normally a transistor) is
closed, the resistor R is short circuited; else i.e. with the switch S open, R is connected to
the rectifier output. The purpose of a large inductor
DC
L in the circuit is to provide almost
level DC load current, regardless of the state of the switch S.

Three-phase diode
bridge rectifier L
DC


stator rotor
IM S R



Fig. 19: Continuous speed control of a slip ring induction machine by addition of an
electronically controlled variable resistance in the rotor circuit.

What now has to be considered is the correlation between the resistance R of Fig. 19 and
per phase added resistance R
add
in the rotor circuit (Fig.15) used previously in all the
calculations. If the switch S is open all the time (duty cycle equal to zero), the resistance
seen by the rectifier will be R. If the switch is permanently closed (unity duty cycle) then
the equivalent resistance as seen from the rectifier terminals is zero. Hence the resistance
presented to the rectifier by the chopper is:

( ) T t R R
on e
= = o o where 1 (5)

The input rectifier current (i.e., phase rotor current) is, due to large inductance at the DC
side, of quasi-square waveform with 120 degrees of non-zero value in each half-period. For
a constant DC current, of value I
DC
, the total rms of the rotor current (i.e., rectifier input
current) is then:

I I d I
r DC DC
= =
}
1
2
2
2
3
2
0
2 3
t
u
t/
(6)

The required equivalent value of the added resistance per phase, R
add
, is determined from
the power balance at the input/output of the rectifier. Assuming that the rectifier, chopper
and the DC side inductor are ideal (i.e. lossless), real power at the input of the rectifier
must equal that delivered to the resistance of (5). Hence, using (5) and (6), one gets the
following relationship:

( ) ( )R R I R RI RI I R P
add r add r DC DC e DC
o o o = = = = = 1 5 . 0 3 ) 1 (
2
3
1
2 2 2 2
(7)

Note that the value of added resistance per rotor phase in (7) is the actual value and it has
to be referred to the stator side by means of transformation ratio in order to enable its use in
torque calculations.
EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 21
Example 9: Chopper speed control of a WRIM

For the slip ring induction machine analysed in Example 8, determine the chopper duty
cycle that will enable operation with the calculated additional resistance per phase if the
chopper output resistance is R = 2-O.

Solution :

Required value of per phase added resistance was calculated as 0.48 O. From (7) it follows:
( ) ( ) 52 . 0 48 . 0 1 1 2 5 . 0 48 . 0 1 5 . 0 = = = = o o o o x x R R
add


Example 10: A 30-kW, 1170-rpm, 60-Hz slip ring induction motor has the open-circuit
rotor voltage of 400-V. A chopper with a resistive load of 5-O and switching frequency of
200-Hz is used for continuous variations of the rotor external resistance. Calculate the
chopper on-time required for the motor to develop a 200-Nm torque at 900-rpm.

Solution:
For a 60-Hz supply frequency and 1170-rpm rated speed the synchronous speed must be
the first possible value above 1170-rpm i.e. =
s
n 1200-rpm this corresponding to a 6-pole
machine. The slip at 900-rpm is therefore: 25 . 0 1200 / 900 1 = = s .
The rotor voltage between the any two slip-rings for the above slip value and the locked-
rotor (open-circuit) voltage of 400-V is: V - 100 400 25 . 0 = = =
oc r
E s E .
The DC voltage of the diode bridge rectifier: V - 135 100 35 . 1
2 3
= ~ =
r dc
E V
t
.
The power delivered to the rotor from the stator at 200-Nm: kW - 13 . 25
60
2
= =
s
em
n
T P
t
.
The power dissipated as heat in the rotor circuit: W - 6282 25130 25 . 0 = = =
em loss
P s P .
The chopper input resistance determined from power balance:
. - 9 . 2
6282
135
2 2
O = = =
dc
dc
e
P
V
R
The chopper duty-cycle calculated using (5): 42 . 0 5 / 9 . 2 1 / 1 = = = = R R f T
e sw on
o .
The chopper on-time is therefore: ms - 1 . 2 200 / 42 . 0 = =
on
T .


4.4 Soft-starting of induction motors

Soft starters (also called solid state starters) are used for gentle starting and stopping of 3-
phase induction motors. Pumps, centrifuges, compressors, escalators, belt conveyors, mills,
fans, stone crushers and saws are typical applications. If a motor is not adequately protected
the sudden change in rotation torque and speed, which occurs on starting and stopping will
jolt the equipment linked to it. Over the long-term this can lead to increased mechanical
wear of gearboxes, clutches, transmission and conveyor systems. Abrupt starting and
EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 22
stopping can also damage goods being handled by mechanical equipment. For instance, the
filling and distribution of glass bottles and containers loaded onto a conveyor holds the
potential for a minor disaster. One sudden jerk during starting and stopping and the whole
process line could be turned into a mass of broken glass and dripping liquid or sticky
product. With pumps soft starters eliminate pressure shocks in pipes and valves when the
pump starts or stops. This poses a particular safety hazard when the transfer of volatile
and/or inflammable liquids is involved.

In all the applications mentioned previously, the back-to-back converter configuration of
Fig.18 with associated electronics (Fig. 20) can be used to chop the sine-wave system
power so that only a portion of the supply voltage is applied to the motor during starting
and/or stopping. This kind of voltage control ensures smooth acceleration and deceleration
thereby eliminating the disruptive effects of sudden starts/stops. The gradual supply of
current to a motor also eliminates unwanted tripping, erratic current supply and motor
overheating. The logic circuits (Fig.20) can be programmed to respond to any of several
sensors to control the voltage: internal time ramp; current sensor feedback, or tachometer
feedback. In addition, most such starters also have provisions for reducing the voltage
when the loading on the motor is low, thus minimizing the no load losses of the motor and
improving its efficiency (issues related to this will be addressed in the following).



Fig.20: Design of an electronically controlled soft starter for induction motors

The starting controls are set so that, initially, the voltage increases rapidly until the motor
just begins to turn, after which the voltage rises linearly with time until full voltage is
reached (Fig.21a). Some of these ramp-up schedules incorporate a short pulse of full (or
nearly full) voltage to overcome the static friction of machinery that has not operated for
some time or that is covered with frost (Fig.21b). In other schedules (Fig.21e) the starting
current can be limited automatically to, say, 4 times the rated current.

During stalling, when power is shut off, the motor may coast to a stop too quickly. In such
cases the slow ramp-down feature of the electronic starter is a significant advantage
(Fig.21d). In this phase the motor terminal voltage is reduced gradually until the motor
comes to rest. The starter can be appropriately programmed to generate the desired ramp
characteristics (Fig.21d) that are best suited to a particular load.
EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 23


Fig.21: Typical soft starting/stopping characteristics of cage induction motors

Usually soft starters are only active during the starting and stopping procedure; the rest of
the time the motor is supplied directly from the mains. For improved steady-state
performance it is useful to be able to keep control of the motor and the load at all times so
most soft starters are designed to continuously control or monitor the running of the motor
instead of controlling it only during starting and stopping. The explanation for this can be
found in the fact that once a start has been completed the motor operating efficiency
becomes of interest. When working at or near full load, a typical 3-phase induction motor
EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 24
is relatively efficient, readily achieving efficiencies of 85% to 95%. However, motor
efficiency falls dramatically when the load falls to less than 50% of rated output. In fact, a
very few motors actually experience consistent fully rated operation, the vast majority
being operated at much lower loads due to either over-sizing (a very frequent situation), or
natural load variations. At light loads and mains voltages, induction motors always have
excess magnetic flux, and suffer efficiency loss and power factor degradation as a result.
By detecting the load at any instant, and adjusting the motor terminal voltage accordingly,
it is possible to save some of the excitation energy and reduce core losses, thus improving
the motor efficiency at light loads (as shown earlier in Section 4.2). For this reason, many
soft-starters are often microprocessor controlled which brings them a number of important
advantages. Firstly, all the calculations necessary to find the most optimal firing angle of
the thyristors for any load condition is made by the micro-computer. Secondly, the start
always synchronises with the supply voltage and a special structure of turn-on pulses
virtually eliminates the inrush currents normally associated with motor start-up. Lastly,
there is the absolutely step-less starting process, found only with series impedance electro-
mechanical starters - but without the wasted energy, with improved reliability, salient
contact-less operation and with the opportunity to control the maximum current allowed to
flow during the starting process. Other features such as soft stopping can be also included
to give considerable control over all modes of induction motor operation.


4.5 Speed Control by Simultaneous Stator Voltage and Frequency Variation

All the speed control methods elaborated so far are characterised by relatively poor
efficiency. Additionally, stator voltage variation method leads to a decrease in maximum
torque when stator voltage is reduced. This reduction in maximum torque is a consequence
of the field weakening in the machine i.e. the fact that, when the supply voltage is reduced
while the applied frequency is kept constant, the machine flux reduces as well. From the
equivalent circuit of Fig.13 it follows that the induced emf is:

( ) f k I jX R V I jX E
s s s m m
u = + = =
o
(8)

i.e. it is determined as the product of the flux and frequency. Clearly, in order to maintain
flux constant, it is necessary to simultaneously alter both f and E. A wide speed control
range with an induction machine can be realised only if the stator frequency f is made
variable and reasonably high. Additionally, when f is varied, it follows from (8) that it is
necessary to simultaneously vary the rms value of the supply voltage V. Ideally, the change
of V and f should be done in such a way that E is held constant. In this case both the flux
and maximum torque of the machine will be kept constant at all operating frequencies. The
control law that allows constant flux operation at all frequencies can be therefore expressed
as follows:

E/f = E
n
/f
n
(9)

A set of resulting torque-speed curves is shown in Fig. 22. The machine operating region
above the rated speed, which is achieved by increasing frequency above rated at full
voltage, is called the field-weakening region as the air-gap flux is then reduced.

EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 25
In reality however it is not possible to control the machine by using the previously stated
law as the internal emf cannot be measured. Instead, control is done in such a way that the
supply voltage to frequency ratio is held constant, i.e.

V/f = V
n
/f
n
(10)

The consequence of this is that at low operating frequencies the stator resistance voltage
drop (RI) becomes dominant, this significantly reducing the flux and the maximum torque
of the machine (Fig. 22). A compromise is found usually by applying a modified voltage
control law that contains the so-called voltage boost at low frequencies, i.e.

V = (V
n
/f
n
) f + V
0
(11)

The two possible control laws are illustrated in Fig. 23.


20 Hz 40 Hz 60 Hz 80 Hz 60 Hz, two-pole machine
T
e




speed
[rpm]



E/f = E
n
/f
n


1200 2400 3600 4800

Base speed region Field-weakening region


T
e


Rated voltage, rated frequency

speed



V/f = V
n
/f
n







Fig. 22: Torque-speed characteristics of an induction machine for two control laws:
E/f = E
n
/f
n
(top) and V/f = V
n
/f
n
(bottom)
EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 26

V V
n
V V
n





V
0


0 f
n
f 0 f
n
f


Fig. 23: Voltage vs frequency relationship for V/f = V
n
/f
n
and V = (V
n
/f
n
)f + V
0
control

Let the ratio of operating frequency to rated frequency be a =f/f
n
. The original equivalent
circuit of Fig.13 at operating frequency f now becomes as shown in Fig. 24. All the
reactances are given for the rated frequency; hence at any other frequency they become aX.
The input stator voltage is assumed to be determined using either (10) or (11).

I
s
R
s
jaX
os
jaX
or
I
r




V = a V
n
I
m
jaX
m
R
r
/s





Fig. 24: Steady-state equivalent circuit of an induction machine at an arbitrary frequency

Note that slip s in the above figure is defined as per-unit (pu) value. If n
s
= 60f
n
/P is the
synchronous speed of a 2P-pole machine at rated frequency, then for operation at any other
frequency

s = (an
s
- n)/an
s
(12)

where n denotes operating speed at this other frequency. Calculations related to V/f method
of speed control are best illustrated by means of examples.

Example 11: V/f control of Induction machines

A 3-phase, 60-Hz, 1728-rpm induction motor has the following parameters: stator
resistance = rotor resistance = 0.024-O; stator leakage reactance = locked rotor leakage
reactance = 0.12-O. The motor is to be controlled according to the law V/f = const.
For an operating frequency of 12-Hz calculate:
a) The maximum torque as a ratio of its value at the rated frequency;
b) The starting torque and current in terms of their values at the rated frequency.
c) If this motor is used to drive a load of constant torque equal to rated, calculate the motor
speed for the supply frequency of 30-Hz.
EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 27
Solution:

a) The purpose of this part of the example is to show that with V/f = constant law the air-
gap flux in the motor is not constant; hence the maximum torque at 12-Hz will be
consequently reduced in motoring with respect to the value at rated frequency.

2 2 2
2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
2
/ /
1
4
3
] / / [
1
4
3 1
4
3
) (
1
4
3
) (
2 . 0 60 / 12 /
X a R a R
V
f
P
X a R a R a
aV
f
P
X a R R
V a
af
P
af T
X R R
V
f
P
f T
f f a
s s
n
n
s s
n
n
s s
n
n
n em
s s
n
n
n em
n
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
= = =
t
t t
t


( )
68 . 0
24 . 0 ) 2 . 0 / 024 . 0 ( 2 . 0 / 024 . 0
24 . 0 024 . 0 024 . 0
) (
) 2 . 0 (
) (
) (
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
=
+ +
+ +
=
=
=
+ +
+ +
=
=
=
n em
n em
s s
s s
n em
n em
f f T
f f T
X a R a R
X R R
f f T
af f T


b) This part of the example demonstrates some additional benefits of the V/f speed control.
As will be shown, starting at low frequency gives an increased starting torque compared to
starting at rated frequency. Even better, this higher starting torque is achieved with reduced
starting current.
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
72 . 0
24 . 0 2 . 0 048 . 0
24 . 0 048 . 0
2 . 0
) (
) (
) (
) (
6 . 2
24 . 0 048 . 0
024 . 0
24 . 0 2 . 0 048 . 0
024 . 0 2 . 0
) (
) (
2
3
2
3
) (
2
3
) (
2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
) (
) (
2 2 2
) (
2 2
) (
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
2
=
+
+
=
+ +
+ +
=
=
=
+ +
= =
+ +
= =
=
+
+
=
+ +
+ +
=
=
=
+ +
=
+ +
= =
+ +
= =
x X a R R
X R R
a
f f I
af f I
X a R R
aV
af f I
X R R
V
f f I
x
x
X R R
R
X a R R
aR
f f T
af f T
X a R R
aR
V
f
P
X a R R
R
V a
af
P
af f T
X R R
R
V
f
P
f f T
r s
r s
n st s
n st s
r s
n
n st s
r s
n
n st s
r s
r
r s
r
n est
n est
r s
r
n
n
r s
r
n
n
n est
r s
r
n
n
n est
t t
t


Thus V/f control undoubtedly provides high starting torque with reduced starting current.

EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 28
c) Since the motor rated speed at 60-Hz is 1728-rpm, the motor has 4 poles and the
corresponding synchronous speed is 6060/2 = 1800-rpm.
The rated slip is therefore: 1 1728/1800 = 0.04 i.e. 4%.

( )
( )
gives equations two these of sides hand right the Equating
2
3
) (
2
3
) (
5 . 0 60 / 30 /
2 2 2
2
2 2
2
X a s R R
s aR
V
f
P
af f T
X s R R
s R
V
f
P
f f T
f f a
r s
r
n
n
n en
n r s
n r
n
n
n en
n
+ +
= =
+ +
= =
= = =
t
t

( ) ( )
( ) rpm - 820 1 rpm - 900 / 60 Hz 30
% 9 . 8 089 . 0 0 1 98 . 0 04 . 26
2
2 2 2 2 2
= = = = = =
= = = +
+ +
=
+ +
s s n
r s
r
n r s
n r
n s n P f n af f
s s s
X a s R R
s aR
X s R R
s R


Note that at rated frequency synchronous speed and operating speed are 1800-rpm and
1728-rpm respectively; the difference of the two is 72-rpm. At 30-Hz synchronous speed
and operating speed are 900-rpm and 820-rpm respectively; the difference between the two
is now 80-rpm. Indeed, for constant load torque, difference between synchronous speed and
operating speed in rpm is constant and independent of frequency if true E/f control is
implemented. In this example V/f control is used instead, so that the difference between
synchronous and operating speed slightly varies. Nevertheless, one notes that slip in per
unit is substantially different (4% and 8.9%); this is a consequence of the change in
synchronous speed when frequency varies.


Example 12: Scalar (V/f = const) control of induction machines

A 3-phase, 60-Hz, 460-V, 1746-rpm cage induction motor operates with constant V/f speed
control. Assume the motor torque-speed characteristic in the range of 0 150% rated
torque to be linear.
a) Calculate the applied voltage and speed of the fully loaded motor at 45-Hz supply
frequency.
b) If the motor drives a centrifugal pump (of approximately square torque-speed
characteristic) under rated operating conditions, determine the supply voltage and
frequency at 75% of full-load torque.

Solution:
Using a linear approximation of the torque-slip (speed) curve at small slips
(
s r
R s R >> / and
l r
X s R >> / ) the motor torque can be written in a form convenient for the
analysis under the conditions of constant V/f control :-
sf
f
V
R
p
s
R f
pV
X
s
R
R
V
p
f s
R
s T
L
r r
L
l
r
s
r

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

~
+ +

=
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
) (
2
3
) (
t t t

EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 29
a) The machine is operated with constant V/f ratio, and therefore at 45-Hz supply
frequency the applied voltage is :
line) - to - (line V - 345 460
60
45
= = = =
r
r r
r
V
f
f
V
f
V
f
V

In order to determine the rotation speed at 45-Hz one should take into account that the
machine is fully loaded, which means that the load torque is equal to the rated value. The
motor rated slip is:-
03 . 0
1800
1746
1 1 = = =
s
r
r
n
n
s
Since the load torque is constant, the slip frequency has to be constant too as follows from
the above torque expression. This allows the speed to be calculated in the following way:-
rpm - 1296 1350 96 . 0
2
45 60
96 . 0 ) 1 (
04 . 0 03 . 0
45
60

= =

= =
= = = =
s
r
r
r r
n s n
s
f
f
s sf f s

b) The centrifugal load torque is proportional to the speed squared and at 75% rated torque
the corresponding speed value is:-
rpm - 08 . 1512 75 . 0 1746
2
= = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
r
r
r r
T
T
n n
n
n
T
T

The slip frequency under the same loading conditions is now using the initial torque
expression:-
Hz - 35 . 1 60 03 . 0 75 . 0 75 . 0 = = = = sf
f s
sf
T
T
r r r

and the supply frequency can be obtained as :-
Hz - 753 . 51
60
2 08 . 1512
35 . 1
60
)
60
1 ( ) 1 ( 35 . 1 =

+ = = = = = f
np
f f
f
np
f
n
n
sf
s

The applied line voltage required is consequently: V - 77 . 396 460
60
753 . 51
= = =
r
r
V
f
f
V .


4.6 Control of Inverter-fed Induction Machines

Variable voltage, variable frequency operation of induction machines is realised utilising
autonomous inverters, in conjunction with a rectifier and a DC link circuit as shown in
Fig.25. There are two generic structures of autonomous inverters. The first one, voltage
source inverter (VSI), is the most frequently applied power supply source for control of
induction motors. The second one, current source inverter (CSI), is beyond the scope of
interest here and wont be considered. The principle of operation of a three-phase VSI is
explained next.
EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 30
C
L
d.c.
link
+
-
Filter
Inverter
Controlled
Rectifier
IM
3-ph
fixed
frequency
supply
3-ph
variable
frequency
V
f


Fig.25: Variable speed drive system (top) and family of torque-speed curves with
V/f = const control (bottom)

The 3-phase VSI contains three inverter legs with the input voltage being provided by a
three-phase (or single-phase) bridge rectifier with a capacitor placed at the output (Fig.25).
The capacitor provides smoothing of the DC voltage and, for sufficiently large capacitance,
the DC output voltage approaches a constant value for a given firing angle. It will therefore
be assumed that inverter input voltage is constant in the subsequent analysis.

The power circuit of a six-step voltage source inverter is shown in Fig. 26. As the inverter
itself controls only the frequency of the output AC voltage, a controllable rectifier must be
used in order to provide control of the output voltage magnitude via DC voltage variations
(output voltage magnitude is proportional to the input DC voltage). Each switch in the
inverter circuit is again composed of two back-to-back connected semiconductor devices.
One of these two is normally a transistor switch (most commonly an IGBT), while the
other one is a diode. The diode is essential for the correct operation of the VSI as the output
voltage and current are out of phase due to inductive nature of the machine. It enables
current flow when one switch in a given inverter leg is turned off and the other one turned
on, while the current still flows in the previous direction. This diode is usually called a
freewheeling or feedback diode.

The three inverter legs are controlled in such a way that the corresponding voltages
constitute a 3-phase system of square-wave voltages. This means that, assuming that the
upper transistor in the leg A is fired at time instant zero, firing of upper transistor in the leg
B will take place after 120, while firing of the upper transistor of the leg C will be delayed
for another 120. The conduction of each of the six semiconductor switches is again 180
so that at any time three out of six switches are on and the remaining three switches are off.
The resulting output voltage waveforms of line-to-line voltages in Fig.27 are quasi-square
waves, with two 60 zero intervals and two 120 non-zero intervals in which line-to-line
voltage equals plus and minus DC link voltage, respectively. A VSI operated in this 180
conduction mode is therefore usually called a six-step inverter.
EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 31
The leg voltages of the inverter are given in Fig.27 with respect to the negative pole of the
DC link. The line-to-line voltages applied to the induction machine, also illustrated in
Fig.27, are obtained directly from the leg voltages as v
AB
= v
An
- v
Bn
, v
BC
= v
Bn
- v
Cn
and
v
CA
= v
Cn
- v
An
. Finally, if the machine is star connected, it can be shown that in the
system of Fig.26 line to neutral (phase) voltages of the machine (presented in the Fig.27)
are determined with the following expressions:




p


C
V
DC
A B C



n



Rectifier and inverter control: IM
rectifier controls V
DC
while inverter controls
output frequency so that V/f = V
n
/f
n
or
V = (V
n
/f
n
)f + V
0
.


Fig.26: 3-phase voltage source inverter (VSI) fed induction motor.


( )
( )
( )
An Bn Cn C
Cn An Bn B
Cn Bn An A
v v v v
v v v v
v v v v
+ =
+ =
+ =
3 / 1 3 / 2
3 / 1 3 / 2
3 / 1 3 / 2
(13)

As is obvious from Fig.27, waveforms of line to line and line to neutral voltages are not
sine waves. Indeed, it can be verified by Fourier analysis that they contain higher odd
harmonics but not those divisible by three. The situation is quite similar with the current
harmonic content.

In the previous analysis it has been assumed that the inverter is operated in 180
conduction mode and that variation of the inverter output voltage magnitude is achieved by
rectifier control. Such a solution is nowadays rarely applied. Instead, the inverter is
operated in pulse width modulated (PWM) mode and is supplied from a diode (not
thyristor) bridge rectifier (single-phase or three-phase), so that the input DC voltage of the
inverter is constant. This operating mode allows variations of both inverter output voltage
and output frequency to be achieved by appropriate inverter switching.


EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 32
The idea of PWM can be relatively easily explained using a single-phase VSI circuit of Fig.
28. The most frequently utilised method of PWM is the so-called sinusoidal PWM
technique, in which the reference signal - a sine wave of desired amplitude and frequency -
is compared with a triangular carrier wave of constant amplitude and frequency. The
instants for turn-on and turn-off of semiconductors are then determined with intersections
of the reference signal and the carrier wave. Switches are turned on and off in pairs: S1 and
S2 are always together either on or off and similarly, S3 and S4 are always together either
on or off. The advantage of this approach is twofold. Firstly, the inverter now becomes
capable of controlling both the frequency and the first harmonic magnitude, so that there is
no need for application of a controllable rectifier. Instead, a diode rectifier is quite
sufficient. Secondly, switching now occurs not at line frequency, as is the case with a six-
step inverter, but at much higher carrier wave frequency. This enables significantly faster
control and, at the same time, greatly improves harmonic spectrum of the load current. The
inverter output voltage now does not contain low order harmonics (the fifth, seventh, etc.)
present with the six-step inverter. Instead, harmonics are situated around multiples of the
switching frequency (i.e., triangular carrier wave frequency). Thus, if the switching
frequency is 5-kHz (typical value nowadays), then the inverter output voltage will contain,
apart from fundamental, higher harmonics of frequencies around 5 kHz, 10 kHz, 15 kHz
etc. If the motor operates with 50-Hz fundamental frequency, then 5-kHz means that the
order of the harmonic is around 100 (rather than 5, as it is in the simple VSI discussed
previously). As the motor reactance is 100 times greater at 5-kHz than at 50-Hz, harmonic
currents in the motor will be consequently very small.

The principle of sinusoidal PWM applied to the single-phase bridge inverter of Fig. 28, is
illustrated in Fig.29. The impact of amplitude variations of the reference signal on the
output voltage waveform is evident from the same figure. The widths of the pulses in the
two cases shown differ although output frequency and triangular carrier wave frequency are
the same. This change in pulse widths leads to subsequent difference in the values of the
first harmonic of the output voltage. It can be shown that the fundamental harmonic of the
output voltage waveforms shown in Fig.29 equals in frequency and in amplitude the
reference signal.

An extension of the PWM principle from a single-phase to a 3-phase voltage source
inverter is rather straightforward. The reference sinusoidal voltage (which equals desired
fundamental voltage at the inverter output) is formed on the basis of the control law for
given operating point (say, V/f = V
n
/f
n
law). This is further compared with the carrier
signal (again, high frequency triangular waveform) and the intersections points represent
the switching instants for the inverter legs. The 3-phase inverter however requires three
120 mutually displaced reference sinusoidal signals in order to achieve operation with
three-phase system of output voltages. If a triangular carrier frequency is sufficiently high,
one carrier may be utilised for all the three phases. It can be shown that although the output
voltage is again composed of a series of rectangular pulses, fundamental component of the
output voltage is of the same frequency and magnitude as the reference sinusoidal signal.







EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 33

v
An
V
DC
v
AB
V
DC




v
Bn
v
BC






v
Cn
v
CA





0 60 120 180 240 300 360 et []
Leg voltages
Line-to-line voltages
2/3 V
DC

v
A
1/3 V
DC




v
B




Line to neutral voltages

v
C







Fig.27: Typical voltage waveforms in a VSI fed induction machine.

In summary, it can be stated that the operation of a VSI in PWM mode yields two
substantial benefits, when compared to operation in 180 conduction mode. A diode
rectifier can be used instead of a controllable rectifier, since the inverter is now capable of
controlling both the frequency and the rms value of the fundamental component of the
output voltage. Additionally, higher harmonics of the voltage are now of substantially
higher frequencies, meaning that current is much closer to a true sine waveform. Due to
high control rate and improved power supply quality, the machine performance is also
generally much better and its operation can be very smooth and free of torque ripples.



EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 34

Rectifier i
S1 S3

V C v Load
S4 S2


0<t<T/2 T/2<t<T


S1 S3
V R, V R,
v L v L
S2 S4


Fig. 28: Single-phase bridge inverter and its equivalent circuits in two half-periods of the
output frequency.
Reference and carrier signals





High amplitude of reference
v signal
V




Reference and carrier signals



Medium amplitude of reference
signal


v
V




Fig.29: Sinusoidal PWM in single-phase bridge inverter for high and medium amplitudes
of the reference signal at the same output frequencies.

EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 35
Example 13: Induction motors with V/f control and PWM inverter supply
A 3-phase, 415-V, 50-Hz, 1440-rpm inverter-fed cage induction motor with constant V/f
speed control drives a centrifugal pump under rated operating conditions.
a) Using the approximate equivalent circuit of the machine, derive the torque expression
stating the meanings of all the parameters used.
b) Show that the torque-slip (speed) characteristic is linear at small slips and that the
motor torque is approximately constant providing that the slip frequency is constant.
c) Use the above approximation to estimate the supply voltage and frequency required to
reduce the drive speed to 1000-rpm.

Solution:

This example is closely related to the previous and the two should be considered together.

a) The electromagnetic torque expression for a 2p-pole IM is :

sf X s R R
V pR
s
I R
s T
r s
r
s
r r
] ) / [(
2
3 3
) (
2 2
2 2
+ +
=
O
=
t


where
r
I is the rotor phase current,
s r
R
,
are the rotor and stator phase resistances
respectively, V is the machine phase voltage, X is the total leakage reactance (stator plus
rotor leakage), s is the slip and f is the supply frequency.

b) Linear approximation at small slips: X R s R
s r
, / >>
sf
f
V
c s
f
V
R
p
s
sf R
V pR
s T
r
r
r
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
2
3
) (
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = ~
t t

Therefore if sf = rotor (slip) frequency is constant then the motor torque is constant too.

c) Centrifugal load torque at 1000-rpm and 1440-rpm (torque ratio under constant V/f
control) :
r r r rated
load
f s
sf
n
n
T
T
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
1440
1000


Slip frequency:
60 60
) 1 (
np
f p
f
nf
f f
n
n
sf
s
= = = .
The above torque ratio now becomes (the machine is 4-pole as its rated speed is 1440-rpm
i.e. the synchronous speed at 50-Hz is 1500-rpm) :-

Hz - 3 . 34
120
2000 60
1440 50 60
1000 60
60
60
1440
1000
2
=

=


=

= =
|
.
|

\
|
f
f
p
p f
p n f
np f
f s
sf
r r r r

3
The supply voltage at 34.3-Hz is thus:
LL
V - 69 . 284 415
50
3 . 34
= = = = =
r
r r
r
V
f
f
V const
f
V
f
V


EN0567 Power, machines and renewable energy

Lecture Notes - Dr M Jovanovic Page 36
Example 14: Constant Volts/Hz control of IMs using a PWM voltage source inverter

A 3-phase, 440-V, 6-pole, 50-Hz, delta-connected induction motor has the following rated
parameters per phase: stator resistance = 0.2-O; rotor resistance = 0.18-O; stator and rotor
leakage reactance = 0.58-O each. The machine operates with constant V/f scalar control
supplied from a PWM voltage source inverter.
(a) The machine is subjected in service to a 40% fall in both voltage and frequency. What
total mechanical load torque is it safe to drive so that the machine does not stall under
these conditions?
(b) If V and f were both halved, what would be the increase in starting torque from the
normal DOL start? Compare the starting currents for these two cases and comment
upon the results obtained.

Solution:

(a) This part of the question asks effectively for the maximum torque with voltage and
frequency reduced to 0.6 of rated values. Substituting for a = 0.6 in the expression for
maximum torque derived earlier (refer to Example 12) one gets:

Nm. - 4 . 1800
) 16 . 1 6 . 0 ( 2 . 0 2 . 0
) 440 6 . 0 (
50 6 . 0 4
3 3 ) (
4
3
) (
max
2 2
2
2 2 2
2
max
=
+ +

=
+ +
=
T
X a R R
aV
af
P
af T
s s
r
r
r
t t


(b) The ratio of starting torque at reduced and full voltage and frequency for a = 0.5 is (see
Example 12) :

( )
( )
( )
( )
88 . 0
58 . 0 38 . 0
16 . 1 38 . 0
5 . 0
) (
) (
55 . 1 5 . 0
58 . 0 38 . 0
16 . 1 38 . 0
) (
) (
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
=
+
+
=
+ +
+ +
=
=
=
=
+
+
=
+ +
+ +
=
=
=
X a R R
X R R
a
f f I
af f I
a
X a R R
X R R
f f T
af f T
r s
r s
r st
r st
r s
r s
r st
r st


Note that due to improved power factor following the reduction of reactance (because of
the lower supply frequency), the starting torque is increased by 55% relative to the DOL
value while the current required to achieve this torque rise is 88% DOL value. Therefore
the starting torque per ampere (TPA) is much higher with reduced voltage and frequency
starting and can be calculated as follows:

r
f
f
r st
r st
st
st
r st
st
r st
st
TPA
TPA
f I
f T
f I
f T
f I
f I
f T
f T
= = = =
) (
) (
) (
) (
76 . 1
88 . 0
55 . 1
) (
) (
) (
) (


The TPA is increased by 76% compared to DOL starting. This ratio is even better at lower
frequencies.