12.

Life and Ageing

Life management of power transformer is very important aspect both for utilities and manufacturer as well. Utility engineers have greater expectations from this important piece of equipment. They want to draw maximum output with optimum efficiency from this equipment in its complete life span. The life of a transformer may be introduced as the change of its condition with time under impact of thermal, electric, chemical, electromagnetic and electro-dynamic stresses, as well as under the impact of various contaminations and ageing processes. Technical life of a transformer may be thought as of several components: Dielectric life, Thermal life, Mechanical life and life of accessories. In fact Dielectric life is shorter than Thermal life due to critical effect of oil ageing products resulting in reduction of dielectric withstands strength of oil and degradation of surface strength. The life of a transformer depends initially on the design and quality of manufacture and later on service conditions. Estimation of life of the transformer can be assessed by: The design stresses and safety margins, the materials used to operate this equipment, power system parameters and periodic checking/testing/ maintenance. The Life of a transformer is the life of the insulation. When insulation fails the transformers life ends. The life is a controllable factor. The Estimated life of a transformer as per seventh schedule in Indian Electricity Supply Act, 1948 for 100 kVA and above is 35 years and in respect of lower capacities is 25 years. The service life of a dielectric subject to heating is therefore also dependant on temperature, the higher the temperature the shorter the service life. This means that the life of a given insulation will be determined by its thermal and electrical loading conditions during service and is closely related to the heat resistance of the insulating materials concerned. The heat resistance is defined to be the limiting temperature at which a given class of insulation can operate for a period of life of the equipment in which it is used i.e transformer. Ageing is a concept with several possible meaning, with passage of time or grow old or even a negative change in the property. Ageing is a natural phenomenon in transformers and influenced by several factors. It is influenced by over loads, intensity of short circuits, incidence of lightning surges and internal faults. Transformer ageing would be irreversible, deleterious changes to the serviceability of the transformers. Further, ageing of a material is an irreversible negative change in its pertinent property. Transformer insulation system paper-oil is by far the best known system and is adopted in power transformers even for EHV/UHV transformers. The three materials used paper, press board and oil. Paper is hygroscopic and does not have good

mechanical properties while oil shows very marked deterioration of its electrical properties when contaminated with water even to a small degree and in presence of fibrous material. This behaviour of insulating material results in greater impact in very high voltages. Transformer insulation is subjected to lightning impulses, switching impulses, low frequency, and temporary over voltages and the normal operating voltages during its life in service and the unit can be expected to work without insulation failure for its expected life. However, insulation ageing cannot be prevented but can be retarded in oil-insulation system. Degradation mechanism of an oil-paper insulation falls into P.D of low intensity with gaseous voids, P.D in oil or impregnated paper or arcing between conductors and hot-spots in oil-impregnated paper. Weakness of the insulation whether they were there originally in the insulation or resulted from gradual ageing of insulation causes P.D at certain voltages. Transformer oil is adversely affected by, oxygen, moisture (as a catalyst) and heat (as an accelerator). Unstable hydrocarbons (in the oil) + Oxygen + Catalyst + Accelerators = Oxidation by-products. The effect of moisture in oil is two-fold. It reduces the resistivity and thus causes higher leakage currents and accelerates ageing of oil. Ageing of oil results in higher acidity, higher viscosity and sludge formation, These products of decomposition of oil in turn causes corrosion of metallic parts, inefficient cooling and blocking of cooling passes through windings leading to accelerated decomposition of oil. Ultimate result of all these is shortening of life of transformer in service. Transformers Do not die of Old age, but they are Killed. The primary factors that contribute to eventual failure consist of, operating incidents, over loading and poor maintenance. The end-of-life can be defined in three different ways; Strategic endof-life, Economic end-oflife and Technical end-oflife. It is of paramount importance that to understand the behavour of transformer under varying conditions of ambient air temperature, load and winding temperatures and how they affect the life of the transformer, so that it would help in conserving the vital materials, energy and capital resources by maximizing their use without unduly sacrificing the safety, reliability and normal expected life. 1 What is the life of a machine/equipment / system? Life of a machine / equipment / system is a function of the integrated or cumulative effects of time and temperature. Secondly, there is always an interaction between different materials in given equipment and behaviour of a specific material depends upon the function of the materials in the system. 2What is the criterion for evaluating the life of an asset?

In electrical equipment, perhaps the most important factor is the maximum hot-spot temperature to which the insulation is subjected. That is where the conditions prescribed in the standard specifications for evaluating rating become so important. If the plant is operated within the limitations prescribed, the equipment may be expected to last its life term, provided of course that it is operated and maintained well. The life of no equipment ceases abruptly it starts giving more and more trouble as age advances and a point comes, when the cost of repair becomes excessive or its dependability becomes reduced that it has to be scrapped. It could of course be kept going on indefinitely by replacing part by part and by patch repair work, but ceases to be effectively useful. From the economic point of view life should be deemed as having ended when the probability of failure becomes too high or the cost of repairs becomes excessive compared to the service it renders. Quite often however machines used for bulk production of parts become obsolescent and out of date much before the end of their useful life, because of new inventions or improvements in the engineering art, leading to greater efficiency and higher production rate. In such cases it may be worthwhile replacing the machine by a new improved unit at considerable additional cost if the resulting savings are sufficiently high. The equipment thrown out of use, which may be serviceable, would fetch a high credit or salvage value from someone whose requirement is more modest. Assuming that the equipment (transformer) receives reasonable care in operation and maintenance, the average life in years, which may be expected for transformers below 100 kVA and for above 100 kVA indicated 25 and 35 years respectively (as per 7th schedule of Indian Electricity Supply Act, 1948). 3What are the factors upon which the life of insulating materials depends? The useful life of a transformer is wholly dependant upon the ability of its insulation to withstand deteriorating effects of heat and moisture and the physical and dielectric stresses at which it is subjected to under operating conditions. Proper insulation therefore is the most critical feature of transformer construction. Insulation is perhaps the most important part of a transformer since the performance of transformer is poor in other respects it will still perform its major function of transforming power, but insulation failure at any point is disastrous. The life of insulating materials used in transformers depends upon the temperatures to which they are subjected to and duration of such temperature. For transformers, since the actual temperature and the temperature rise is apparent that ambient temperature is determines the load, which can reasonably be carried in service. Other factors upon which the life of insulating materials depends on: -Electric stress and associated effects; -Vibration or varying mechanical stresses;

-Repeated expansions and contractions; -Expose to air, moisture, etc,. 4When an insulating material ceases to be an insulator and becomes a conductor? When there is an e.m.f. between two conductors that are separated by an insulating material, there are electrical forces exerted upon the electrons in the atoms of the insulating material. These electric forces are trying to pull the electrons out of the atoms. If these forces succeed in pulling the electrons out of the atoms, the material ceases to be an insulator and becomes a conductor. When this occurs, it would be said that the insulation had broken down. When the voltage between the conductors is small, these forces exerted in the atoms are not great enough to pull the electrons out of the atoms. As the voltage between the conductors is increased, the forces on the electrons are increased. If the voltage continues to be increased, the forces will eventually become great enough to pull the electrons out of the atoms and the insulation will breakdown. The voltage at which the material ceases to be an insulator is called the breakdown voltage. Any insulating material can be broken down and cease to be an insulator if the voltage impressed across it is raised high enough. The breakdown voltage of any material depends upon thickness, condition of the surface, the homogeneity of the material. Q What is the relation between electrical stress and the life of insulation in a transformer (EHV)? There are two approaches to obtain the co-relation between electric stress and life of insulation system. Those are through 1. 2. through Electrical stress (E)- Partial Discharge (P) and life of insulation (L) and through E-L path

Present technology is to follow E-L path and avoid partial discharge totally in case of EHV/UHV transformers. The E-P-L diagram for the relation among E-P-L is shown: 6What are the important characteristics determine the life and performance of the oil in the transformer? In developing a oil for insulation purposes, information related to most of the characteristics should be obtained so that potential users may see the scope for possible application and use. Certain characteristics are inherent to the type of fluid and this should therefore only be applied to those fields. The important characteristics from the specification point of view are those which affect the fluid life and performance. These parameters must be limited in order that the material will fulfill its intended purpose. Therefore, a standard can be divided into various

sections to cover physical, chemical and electrical properties of the oil. These properties can be classified as; Functional: Properties of oil, which have on its function as an insulating and cooling liquid. Refining and stability: Properties of oil that are influenced by quality and type of refining and additives. Performance: Properties that are related to long-term behavior of oil in service and or its reaction to high electrical stress and temperature. Health, Safety and Environment: Oil properties related to safe handling and environment protection. Under certain situations there is a possibility of overlap among the above properties. 7What is the influencing factor for bubble evolution? Moisture content is the most important influencing factor for bubble formation. The temperature at which bubbles evolve decreases exponentially as the moisture content in the cellulose insulation increases. Increasing content of other gases also significantly influences bubbles evolution when high moisture content exists. Data show that in a dry transformer (less than 0.5% moisture by dry weight) bubble evolution from overload may not occur below 200 C. A service aged transformer with 2.0% moisture may evolve bubbles even at 140 C or less (Oommen et al,. 1995). 8What is the aim of studying the life assessment of transformers? The key concept for life assessment is serviceability, i.e. the ability to function as intended. The serviceability is endangered when the transformer malfunctions or when it is unusable from some other point of view. (Too small, too expensive). The life assessment studies aim at comparing and ranking of transformers with respect to their suitability for use in a relative evaluation procedure of several transformers. It could also be used for an absolute determination of the serviceability (in the remaining years). The serviceability is determined by actions taken before the transformer was pressed into operation and from the history and events occurring in service. Just as an introduction one should examine the risk factors. These factors describe what may jeopardize the serviceability. serviceability Detailed evaluation Non-technical suitability. Technical suitability

General evaluation (Structured acc, to possible risks) Auxiliaries Electrical Mechanical Thermal Experience Global view Strategy Economy Environment. Advanced evaluation Normal evaluation Events Handling PF Oil DGA Temp Time Experience Size Application Economy Safety/ Environment Screening evaluation 19What is meant by life of a transformer? As per IEEE C 57.71-1955 Guide for loading mineral oil filled transformer is defined as: For a given temperature of the transformer insulation the total time between the initial state for which the insulation is considered new and the final state for which dielectric stress, short circuit stress or mechanical movement, which would occur in normal service, and would cause an electrical failure. 20What are the factors influencing the life of transformer? The useful life of a transformer is wholly dependant upon the ability of insulation to withstand the deteriorating effects of heat and moisture and the physical and dielectric stresses at which it is subjected to under operating conditions. Paper insulation therefore constitutes the most critical feature of transformer construction. The life of insulating materials commonly used in apparatus depends very largely upon the temperatures to which they are subjected to and the duration of such temperatures. For transformers, since the actual temperature is the sum of the ambient temperature and temperature rise. It is apparent that the ambient temperature very largely determines the load, which can reasonably be carried in service. It is well established that the major stresses on power transformer windings due to various conditions which ages the insulation either individually or in conjunction are mechanical, thermal, dielectric, magnetic and chemical degradation in electrical insulating paper in service. Other factors upon which the life of insulating materials depends are: -Electric stress and associated effects;

-Vibrations or varying mechanical stresses; -Repeated expansions and contractions; -Exposure to air, moisture, etc,. Experience has shown that moisture and temperature are the main parameters influencing the ongoing characteristics of oilpaper insulation and thereby life expectancy. Additional transformer life influencing factors by utilities are: -Changes in load profile; -Effectiveness of oil preservation system; - Effective control of oil temperature. -Operating practices. Major factors affecting the transformer life are: Effect of moisture: Transformer oil absorbs readily moisture from the air. It is also known that the effect of water in solution in the oil is to decrease the dielectric strength of insulation paper and oil. Insulating paper has higher affinity of water than oil. Therefore it is essential to take preventive steps to guard against moisture penetration to the inside of the transformer. This will include blocking of all openings for free access to air in storage and frequent reactivation of breathers in service. Effect of oxygen: Oxygen is always present inside the transformer due to air in the oil, air pockets trapped in the windings, etc. The oxygen react with the insulation and decomposition products lead to the formation of organic acids soluble in oil and sludge blocks the circulation of oil. The adverse effect of oxygen, which may also be aggravated by catalytic action between hot oil and bare copper, increase the operating temperature. Effect of solid impurities: The dielectric strength of oil is diminishing appreciably by minute particles of solid impurities present in the oil. New transformers may contain particles of insulating materials and other solid impurities. It is, therefore good practice to filter the oil after it has been in service for a short time, especially for the units of higher voltage class. Effect of varnishes: Oxidizing type varnishes readily in reaction with transformer oil and precipitate sludge on the windings. This should be carefully noted particularly while rewinding and replacing the coils.

Effect of slackness of windings: Due to repeated movement of coils during operation and also at momentary short-circuits slackness of windings may cause failure due to wear of the insulation, at some places can lead to an inter-turn failure, electric and magnetic unbalance and even greater displacement. It is therefore, a good practice to lift the core and coils of transformer and take-up any slackness, which may have developed, by tightening the tie-rods or pressure screws where provided for this purpose. In all cases, the instruction given by the manufacturers should be followed carefully. 21What is the consideration for fixing the transformer service life of 25-35 years? This estimate is based on the continuous operation at rated load and service conditions with an average yearly ambient temperature of 32 C and the winding hottest temperature of 98 C as per standards (IS 2026). The characteristics of a transformer (losses, short-circuit, voltage drop) depend on the rated values of the power, current and voltage at which the heating of the different parts must not exceed the limits set by standard specifications. These limits have been set after years of service experience to ensure that transformer may be operated permanently at their rated power and in the predicted ambient conditions for a normal service life. Paper impregnated with insulating oil, which is expected to last the life of the transformer for minimum of 25 years at operating top temperature of 65 - 95 C. Temperature and heating limits sets by the standards ensure an estimated normal life of 25 - 35 years 22What is meant by Remnant Life Assessment of transformer and what are the methods? Transformer life is its life of insulation-system. Failure is the condition in which a transformer is unable to perform satisfactorily. During operation due to undesirable and unavoidable losses, results in heating of the insulation which degrades their dielectric characteristics. Normally customer must certainly likely to know, how long his aged transformer will render service, so that he can make proactive decisions for refurbishment or replacement of the transformer. There are two methods of performing RLA. The first method is the analysis of furan content in the liquid insulation and the second is the estimation of DP of the insulation paper. The insulation material used in transformer consists of cellulose paper, pressboard, wood and impregnating mineral oil. When the paper insulation is overstressed by high temperatures or electrical discharges, the chemical bonds in it molecules break creating new ones. These irreversible reactions cause ageing of the transformer, with decrease in the electrical and mechanical strengths of its insulation. These

reactions are further catalyzed by the presence of moisture leading to a chain reaction inside the paper. The byproducts, so generated are called Furans which get dissolved in the transformer oil. These Furan- compounds keep on accumulating in the oil as age passes and therefore by determining the concentration of furans in oil, it is possible to find out the remnant life of the transformer. During ageing, along with furans, another phenomenon that happens is the rupture of large cellulose chains or polymers into smaller ones with less number of glucose molecules in them. The number of glucose units in a cellulose polymer of the paper insulation, is called the Degree of Polymerization (DP) of the paper. Fresh paper insulation may have a DP value between 1000- 1500, whereas a aged paper insulation may have a DP value of 200-250. Therefore DP analysis predicts remnant life of the transformer by counting the numbers of glucose units in the cellulose paper samples directly, unlike furan analysis. Practical values ascertained that the credibility of DP as a promising remnant life estimation tool. 24Differentiate among strategic / economic / technical END-OF-LIFE of transformer? -When the transformer is judged unsuitable for use in its present location, it has reached the end of its useful life. Taking a transformer out of service always involves fundamental cost estimation. It is evident that not only technical but also strategic, economic and other factors should be taken into account for these estimations. Thus, end-of-life can be defined in (at least) three different ways; Strategic end-of-life: It occurs when the transformer has become too small in some way for its present location and should be replaced. Possible causes to be considered include: -Load -ability, -Short-circuit capability, -Service voltage, -Risk evaluation. Economic endof-life: The economical life of a transformer is the time span beyond which the losses and maintenance costs become a liability. That means in some cases, economic reasons have an impact on the decision, for instance losses, maintenance costs, spare-parts value Technical End-of-life: Technical life of a transformer is the time span beyond which it is deemed not suitable on technical reasons like failure of windings, explosion, fire accident and damages that cannot be repaired. Technical End-of-life occurs only

applicable on purely technical reasons. Possible causes include true failures and preventive scrapping. 25What are the various components of Technical Life? The life of a transformer may be introduced as the change of its condition with time under impact of thermal, electric, chemical, electromagnetic and electrodynamics stresses, as well as under the impact of various contamination and ageing processes. Technical end of transformer life comes when the unit is deemed unsuitable or unusable for purely technical reasons. Technical life of a transformer is the time span beyond which it is deemed not suitable on technical reasons like failure of windings, explosion, due to fire and damages that cannot be repaired. Technical Life of a transformer may be thought as of several components: Dielectric Life: Life span up to critical reduction of dielectric margin of insulation. Thermal Life: time up to critical decomposition of winding conductors insulation, e.g. DP</ 200. Thermal Life: time up to critical mechanical weakness under cumulative stresses of through faults, in-rush currents, vibrations. Life of accessories: especially bushings and OLTC, which sometimes can be shorter than complex life of active part of a transformer. In fact Dielectric Life is shorter than Thermal life due to critical effect of oil ageing products resulting in reduction of dielectric withstands strength of oil and degradation of surface strength. 26What are the methods to be considered to enhance/prolong the life of the transformer? Although the normal life of the transformer in India is estimated as 25-35 years but the actual life of the transformer can be less or more than that upon the quality of maintenance being carried out on the transformer. The life of the transformer can be prolonged by adopting the following measures: -Providing thermo siphon system for continuous circulation of oil. -Using nitrogen seal, air cell type diaphragm type conservator tank which acts as a barrier between oil and air. -By using naphtha base oil in the transformers as the sludge is more soluble in oil thus less affecting the transformer cooling. -By providing pressure relief valve on OLTC tank.

-By mounting the diverter switch in separate tank to ensure that any problem in OLTC would not damage the winding. -By adopting on line filtration system for OLTC oil as well main transformer oil using super-dry cartridges. -By providing gapless type lightning arresters on the transformer due to its high discharge capabilities. -By effective grounding system of neutral to ensure correct operation of protection system. -Adhering to the maintenance schedule properly for oil testing of transformer and bushings etc. -Using condition monitoring techniques for paper-oil insulation, bushings, windings, OLTCs etc. 27What are the techniques to be evaluated for assessing the life of the insulation materials? -The evaluation of insulating materials and complete systems of insulation (which may include widely different materials and techniques in combination) is to a large extent a functional one based on accelerated life tests. Both normal life expectancy and service conditions will vary widely for different classes of electrical equipment. Accelerated life tests on models, called motorettes, are commonly used in insulation evaluation. Life tests generally attempt to simulate service conditions. They usually include the following elements: -Thermal shock resulting from heating to the test temperature -Sustained heating at that temperature. -Thermal shock resulting from cooling to room temperature or below. -Vibration and mechanical stress such as may be encountered in actual service. Exposure to moisture -Dielectric testing to determine the condition of the insulation. Life-temperature relations obtained from these tests lead to the classification of insulation or insulating system in the appropriate temperature class. 33What are the causes of loss of tensile strength of paper in oil?

Insulation in oil filled transformers is deteriorating and loosing its life all the time. Paper is a natural product composed principally of cellulose fibres. Paper is subjected to temperature in relation to time and the presence in the oil small amounts of moisture, oxygen and all the possible reaction products. Tensile strength of paper is affected by: -Time and temperature; -Moisture; -Oxygen; -Decomposition products. By the nature of deterioration, it is very clear that, one must regulate the conditions of service, especially the temperature, so that it will not lose its life too rapidly. Q What is the effect of high operating voltage on the life expectancy of the transformer? The high operating voltage (IEEE Press Serien and Power Engineering) severely affects the life expectancy. A formula derived by Erying for electrical insulation stipulates: L = CE-n Where L is the insulation in hour C is a constant and n is Power Law Constant for paper. The over voltage exposure of the transformer electrical insulation system severely affects the life due to initiation of the partial discharge activity. The P.D also caused by bubble formation. Whenever the hot spot temperature is more than 135 C, and moisture content is insulating paper is high 3 - 4% by weight, it may initiate bubble formation in transformer oil. Since the permitivity air is equal to 1 and it is much below that of the kraft paper and oil, the void generated are subject to much higher electrical stresses (3 - 4 times) than the insulating medium. The breakdown strength of void (vacuum/air) is much lower than that of the paper/oil insulation, hence causes partial discharge and affects insulation. Transformer insulation system comprises of paper, press board and oil, where it is possible to change or reactivate the oil as and when it deteriorates to ore-defined level. The replacement of paper or press board being cumbersome task is feasible only at manufacturers works. Ageing 5What are the combined effects of thermal ageing and short circuit stresses on transformer life?

The functional life of a transformer and the parameters which affect it have been and will continue to be subjects of vital concern to both user and manufacturers of this equipment. There is a direct relationship between thermal ageing and insulation life. But there are facts which suggest that thermal ageing and short circuit stresses have an interrelated role in the mechanical deterioration of winding insulation, which can ultimately lead to dielectric breakdown and loss of functional capability. The following observations are pertinent: Thermally aged insulation retains a high level of dielectric strength until mechanical motion or stressing causes it to rupture. Transformers which failed as a result of short-circuit have revealed conductor insulation which was mechanically worn to the point of rupture in regions of high compressive stress. 9Differentiate between transformer ageing and material ageing. L. Petterson defined transformer ageing irreversible deleterious to the serviceability of transformers. Such changes are characterized by a failure as rate which increases with time. Further, ageing of materials has an irreversible negative change in the pertinent property. The pertinent property is to be identified by a careful study of ageing process. The clear difference in these two ageing factors must be known to transformer engineers. The main reason of such distinction is that, transformers have a function to perform in the sense; a material has no active function of its own, and its purpose is to endure the stresses so that the transformer can perform properly. Ultimately, ageing referred to transformer is that nonreversible characteristics of the insulating material and components in service and are characterized by a failure rate which increases with time. 12What is ageing of magnetic materials and what is meant by ageing of transformer core? Ageing of magnetic materials is the normal or accelerated change in magnetic properties under continued, normal or specified artificial ageing conditions. When applied to core it implies an increase in loss. When the term is applied in the positive sense to permeability or remanence, it means a decrease in these quantities. The deterioration of the core occurs by use. The magnetic properties of the iron gradually decay and the loss of energy by hysteresis become greater; magnetic fatigue. Q How magnetic ageing has been eliminated in C.R.G.O steel?

The main problem in electrical steels, until about 40 years ago, was magnetic ageing, which is slow deterioration of magnetic properties with time, mainly due to precipitation of iron carbide. However, modern steels contain little carbon and after

decarburisation the content drops to as low ass 0.001% (weight), below the critical level necessary to produce ageing. Ageing has also been virtually eliminated by causing excess carbon and nitrogen atoms to form stable harmless compounds with aluminium or titanium. 13What is the law of insulation ageing? When a transformer heated, it tends to deteriorate and hence to age. The higher the temperature the faster is the insulation deterioration. During the period of light loads operating temperature, the loss of life of the insulation will be less than normal. However when the operating temperatures are greater than normal, the loss of life will be higher than normal. Consequently, a transformer may be safely operated for a time at above normal temperatures, provided the loss of insulation life during this period is adequately compensated for by the operation of a sufficiently long time at temperature lower than normal (during light load). The law of insulation is not linear. It is now generally accepted that the life of insulation deteriorates with the temperature and is governed by the law of Arrhenius, Life = e(A+B/T) Where, A and B are constants, (derived by experiment for a given insulating material), the absolute temperature and e is the Napierian Base. In the range of 80 - 140 C winding hot spot, this law can be expressed in a more convenient form called Montsinger relation, Life=e-p Where p is a constant and is the temperature in C. Various investigators have not always agreed on the length of the life at any given temperature. However, they do agree that temperature between 80 - 140 C. The rate of loss of life due to ageing of transformer insulation is doubled for every 6 C temperature rise. The above two relations apply to the thermal ageing of paper only, in a controlled environment with a specific end-of-life criterion. 14What is meant by insulation ageing? Ageing of cellulose can be divided in two processes; oxidation and hydrolysis. For these processes ageing rate increases with temperature. The temperature depends is different in the sense, that the oxidation dominates at lower and hydrolysis at higher temperatures. Newer theories on hydrolysis propose is due to acid catalysis (or rather H2+) ions from carboxylic acids dissociated in water catalyses the chain scissoring of the

cellulose molecules. Since both hydrolysis and also oxidation produces carboxylic acids and water, this makes hydrolysis an auto-accelerating process. Here one must be aware that, the acids produced by the ageing of paper will predominately be of lower molecular weight, hydrophilic acids like formic, acetic and levulinic acids. High molecular weight acids not accelerate ageing, while the other ones their impact increases with falling molecular weight. The reason for the different influence on the ageing rate is mainly to the hydrophilic nature of the lower molecular acids. The ones with lower molecular weight do dissolve easier in paper than the stearic and acetic acids. 15Why transformer experiences reduction in dielectric and dynamic strength with age? A transformer may experience a number of short circuit events, unexpected over loads during its entire service. It is likely that such events can cause the movement of the windings due to forces generated by high currents. Moreover in a transformer, the winding shrinkage can occur with age, leading to reduction in clamping pressure and short circuit strength. In addition to that, insulation ageing in transformer cannot be avoided but can be retarded by proper maintenance. Insulation ageing reduces tensile strength of cellulosic (paper) insulation. Ageing makes the transformer vulnerable to system transient or short circuits. Above factors reduce the ability of transformer to withstand further short circuit and high voltage stress, leading to catastrophic failure. 16What is meant by oil ageing? In operation, transformer oil is heated, if it contacts with air and absorbs moisture. All this leads to eventual deterioration of the insulating properties of the oil- the ages. The ageing is caused mainly by the oxygen contaminated in the air, which oxidizes the hot oil. The oil grows dark and turbid; its viscosity increases. There appears sludge, which accumulates on the windings and core and obstructs the oil ducts. The moisture content of the oil grows higher and acids are formed in it, destroy the transformer insulation. The concentration of moisture and oxygen, in the presence of certain catalysts (copper is one of the most important one), and temperature are the principal factors, which determines the chemical action, which occurs in transformer oil in service. 17What is aging of cellulose based materials? And why its safe temperature is fixed at 105 C? Even at the lowest temperature than the specified fixed by standards, deterioration of insulation is imminent but is slower than normal deterioration.

Cellulose based materials un impregnated or not immersed in a liquid dielectric serve as class Y insulation. When impregnated or immersed in liquid dielectric, they comprise class A insulation. The thermal ageing of cellulose-base materials at temperatures of about 130 - 140 C is primarily result of oxidation of the cellulose by atmospheric oxygen. The first sign of this is a decrease in flexibility and a tendency of the material to become brittle. Highly aged paper, pressboard and fabric will break on bending. When rubbed between the hands, they crumble into dust. At an advanced stage of ageing cellulose materials darken and acquire a brown color. As thermal ageing become pronounced, the material break after a small number of double bends, exhibit a lower tensile strength and less elongation in tension as a result of reduced flexibility of the fibres. The electrical characteristics of cellulose materials are much less affected due to thermal ageing. Thermal ageing is accelerated in the presence of acidic products of oxidation. Such products may appear, for example, in transformer oil if it is allowed to age excessively. In the temperature range from 150 C upwards oxidation is accompanied by thermal destruction associated with a distillation process which produces many substances that catalyze the ageing process. In such conditions the presence of even slight traces of moisture (for instance in sealed vessels) is particularly dangerous. Cellulose base materials have rather definite temperature above which they rapidly lose their insulating qualities and mechanical strength by loss of water of combination due to temperatures near 100 C. The safe temperature limitation has been placed at 105 C for this class of materials in the standardization rules of the American institute of electrical engineers, a temperature close to the boiling point of water. Temperature forms the limitation on most insulating materials with a fixed ambient temperature of the cooling medium, the total amount of heat that can be conducted away from a given transformer with a given temperature limitation is thus a rather definite quantity. Therefore it is extremely important to fix an upper limit of temperature, to which insulation can be subjected. This ensures a long life of insulation and hence appliance. Temperature and heating limits sets by IE rules to ensure an estimated normal life of 25-35 years for transformers. 18What are the methods to be adopted for assessing Insulation age of a transformer? To establish a benchmark of insulation condition for life assessments, the key factor Insulation age is derived. To determine this figure for a particular unit, statistical analysis are applied to determine the normal level of each Ageing indicators in the oil for the particular class of transformer, depending on its year of service. This concept is based on the following rules: -Transformers are considered according to their class and operating environments. -The period of study is the advanced old age (say more than 20 years).

- Age for the purpose of these predictive studies is determined, not by year of service but by a scientific assessment of the insulation condition (Insulation age). Based on the literature available Insulation age can be derived from the following three ageing indicating parameters: 1) Dissolved carbon oxide gas content, 2) Degree of polymerization of paper: Under this mechanism, the following are major degradation are: -Oxidative degradation, -Thermal degradation, -Hydrolytic degradation. 3) Furan analysis. 28When transformer reach end of life? And what are the ageing factors/ catalysts? The design life of a power transformer is around 30 to 35 years. In fact the typical Time of failure of a large generating transformer working at constant full load is 18 to 24 years, and a transmission or distribution transformer working at half load can be 40 to 60 years. The paper insulation and oil within most transformers are manufactured from organic materials, which will deteriorate during their life time. Insulating oil is a renewable commodity, and can be changed, although with caution, whereas paper insulation is not renewable. Once degradation of the cellulose insulation has advanced to a point where mechanical strength is lost, effectively the transformer has reached end of life, and will most likely fail during the next exposure to high electrical stress, for instance, as a result of a through fault. The catalyst for this deterioration is HEAT, OXYGEN and MOISTURE. Heat: Temperature cycles i.e. transformer load cycles, temperature of the oil rises and falls. During this process the hydroscopic properties change. As the temperature rises, the oil becomes more hydroscopic, and will absorb water made available from the paper insulation. Hot-Spot: The hotter the top temperature the greater the effect it has on insulation. For every six degree rise in operating temperature the paper life will half, based on the moisture content in the paper of 0.3% by weight. However, the rate of ageing will be up to 50 times higher at moisture content of 5% in paper. Oxygen: This movement of water back and forth across the oil to paper interface accelerates the degradation process within the cellulose, which is primarily a long chain glucose hydro carbon molecule. During the degradation a monomer can break

its bond with the hydro carbon reducing its length and strength. The bond consists of hydrogen and carbon molecules which, if oxygen is available in the oil, will combine to give CO, CO2 and H2O. The by-product of the ageing process is therefore water. Moisture: The relationship between the rate at which the paper insulation ages and the water content of that insulation is an exponential one. Typically for every percentage rise in the water content of the insulation a reduction of between 2 and four times the life of that insulation can be expected. 29Under transformer operation, conducting, magnetic and structural materials serves indefinitely? Yes. Given reasonable protection against corrosion, the copper and iron will last indefinitely. 30What is meant by thermal runaway? Heat is generated in the conductors and the magnetic materials and also in the volume of the insulation. This heat is conducted away from the surface by thermal conduction, convection and radiation mechanisms. This leads to a temperature gradient and the existence of hot spot in the insulation. If the insulation conductivity or the Er tan product is a function of temperature and increases as the temperature rises, then the hot spot temperature progressively increases until mechanical or electrical breakdown occurs. This phenomenon, which is quite common, is termed as thermal runaway. Any phenomena which lead to local heating give rise to these runaway conditions. If the temperature becomes critical then it should be restricted. 31What are the major causes of oil and paper degradation? The main mechanism for the degradation of oil is oxidation. Oxidation causes the formation of polar degradation products, with acids and sludge as the final products. Water is also produced in the oxidation process. Ultimately, the production of large amounts of these breakdown products leads to loss of insulating properties of the oil. In the degradation of cellulose several mechanisms are involved. The most important factors, which influence the degradation, are temperature, moisture and acidity. The latter promotes hydrolysis as well as oxidation. The degradation of cellulose can occur by: -Hydraulic chain scission; -Pyrolytic decomposition;

-Ionization in electric field, which releases gases, hydrogen, hydrocarbon and methane; -Oxidative degradation. 32What are the causes and counter measure of the cellulose ageing in transformer? The weakest link in any transformer insulation system is the cellulose. In the majority of cases the failure of transformer is related to an insulation breakdown, and the reason of failure is usually mechanical-under the stress of physical forces gives away. The physical stresses come principally from continuous vibrations and short circuit. These forces cause vibrations in all parts of the winding. Insulation failures are often caused by deteriorating agents. When this happens, the insulation system no longer has the capacity to support the stress that is imposed. This will eventually lead to an irreversible breakdown, for example an external short circuit. Ageing of the cellulose in transformer causes the following effects: -Reduction in paper strength; -Reduction of BIL withstands; -Reduction of short circuit with stand strength; - Reduction of the solidity of the windings; Practical measures to counter these effects are: -Reduce the water content in the windings; -Specify the maximum water content in the purchase specifications of the transformer; -Verify leaks in the gasket and silica gel circuit, frequently during operation. 34What are the methods to be adopted to increase the longevity of oil-paper insulation system in transformer? The insulation system of most transformers is oil-paper system. Both are deteriorated during service. The agreeable factors for deterioration are, heat, oxygen and moisture. To achieve longevity of the system, one or all these factors are to be with in permissible limits. Heat: The temperature is most often dictated by operational constraints, but care in planning, and predictive hot spot monitoring can reduce the temperature profile, and therefore aid the ageing process.

Oxygen: If oil is to be de-gassed to remove oxygen, other gases will also be removed, and may affect the vital tool of dissolved gas analysis. An operator must weigh up the balance of losing the diagnostic capability of an accurate DGA or gaining the benefit of the reduction of internal production of moisture through the paper ageing process. Moisture: Can be managed from the start of life of a transformer by ensuring that water is not made available to the paper insulation from the time of commissioning. Fitting and maintaining (every month) a silica gel breather will help keep the air space in the conservator dry, and mitigate a potential source of water which otherwise be dissolved into the oil. Attention to careful maintenance to ensure that gaskets are sealed. Any indication of oil on the outside of a transformer means that moist air can be drawn into the transformer tank, and add to the accumulation of dissolved water. However, the single largest source of water is as a result of organic deterioration, or ageing. Q What are the salient factors to be considered to asses the ageing of insulation? The salient factors to asses the ageing of insulation are: -Ageing or deterioration of insulation is a function of time and temperature. Since, in most apparatus the temperature distribution is not uniform, part which is operating at highest temperature will ordinarily undergo the greatest deterioration. Therefore, in ageing studies it is usual to consider the ageing effects produced by the highest temperature. -Practically all of the data in reference to the ageing of insulation at different temperatures has been obtained in laboratory and model tests in which the decrease in mechanical and electrical strength has been measured. The relation between life expectancy of insulation, as indicated by such tests and actual life of a transformer is largely theoretical, so loading guides based on such information must be tempered by sound judgment based on experience of the industry. -Because the accumulated effects of temperature and time in causing deterioration of transformer insulation are not thoroughly established, it is not possible to predict with any great degree of accuracy the length of time of a transformer even under constant or controlled conditions, much less under widely varying service conditions. -The relation of insulation deterioration to changes in time and temperature are assumed to follow an adaption of the Arrhenius reaction rate theory rate theory which states that the logarithm of insulation life is a function of the reciprocal of absolute temperature;

Log life (hours 0 = A + B/T where T is absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin (K) A and B are constants The many variables mentioned and, particularly, varying conditions of load and ambient to which a transformer can be subjected in service make it impossible to give definite rules for loading the transformers. It is possible to give only suggested loadings under specified conditions. Q What are mechanisms influence the cellulose ageing (depolymerisation) during the transformer operation? The insulating system of transformer is composed of insulating oil and solid insulation such as paper for the windings and press boards for coil cylinders, insulating gaps, spacers etc. Both paper and press boards are made out cellulose. It is a chain molecule, consists of glucose rings, linked by OH-bridges. The number of glucose rings in a cellulose molecule is also known as the degree of polymerization (DP) which is 1000-1300 for new cellulose. During the transformer operation, three mechanisms influence the cellulose ageing (depolymerisation): Thermal ageing: At temperatures of about 105 C the glucose rings will be split (Depolymerisation). Typical ageing products are free glucose, water, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Oxidative ageing: Oxygen leads to a further depolymerisation already at normal operation temperatures lower than 105 C. Investigations have shown that the ageing rate is tripled when oxygen is present. Hydrolytic ageing: Water is the cause as well as the product of cellulose ageing and splits the oxygen bridges between the glucose rings. Tests has shown that in presence of oxygen and a moisture content of 2% in the paper insulation the ageing rate is increased by a factor of 20. The end of the insulation paper lifetime is reached with a DP of 250 and below. The paper loses its mechanical stability (resistance to tearing). Therefore the next mechanical stress, e.g. during short circuit, would lead to a transformer failure. The combination of high water content within the paper and increasing of the temperature is particularly critical because the water diffuses from the paper into oil and the dielectric strength of the oil will be reduced (oil ageing by moisture). BIBILOGRAPHY 1. Kayakalpa for aged transformer International Conference on Large Power Transformers -Modern Trends in Application, Installation, Operation & Maintenance: by Gowda. H. N. S. 12-13 October, 20O6; New Delhi India (CBIP) 2. Replacement to Retrofit: A Technique to Provide a New Lease of Life for Aged Transformers; Trafotech; by Gowda. H. N. S; Mumbai, January 21-22, 1998:

3. Life Enhancement and Reliability of Distribution Transformers: Conference on distribution transformers: Failure and new developments; by Gowda. H. N. S; 6-7th February, Lucknow. 4. Life Time Evaluation of Transformers WG 12.09 (The Thermal Aspects of Transformer) of study committee 12 Electra No. 150 pp 37 to 50, 1993. 5. A guide to Transformer: by Myers S. D. Kelly, J. J and Parish R. H. TMI Transformer Maintenance Institute Division S. D. Myer Inc., Akron, Ohio, 1981 pp 118. 6. Life Estimation Technique for Power and Distribution Transformers: by P. G. Agashe and T. S. R Murthy; Electrical Review; November 2003; pp 20. 7. Asset Health Reviews and Remaining Life: by A. Wilson and J. A. Lapworth; TrafoTech; 20-21 January, 2006. Mumbai, India. 8. Moisture Model and Assessment in Transformers: by Mario Scala Trafotech; 1819th January, 2010 Mumbai, India. 9. IEEE Guide for the Application of High Temperature Insulation Materials in LiquidImmersed Power Transformers, IEEE Standard C1278-1997. 10. IEEE Std C57, 106-2002.