THEJATROPHAHANDBOOK

FromCultivationtoApplication
FACTFoundationandindividualauthorsmentionedperchapter. Horsten1 5612AXEindhoven TheNetherlands www.factfoundation.com info@factfoundation.com Allrightsreserved. FirstprintingApril2010. ISBN9789081521918 Thematerialinthispublicationiscopyrighted.Requestsforpermissiontoreproduceportions of it should be sent to FACT Foundation. FACT Foundation encourages dissemination of its workandwillnormallygivepermissiontoreproducepromptly,and,whenthereproductionis for noncommercial purposes, without asking a fee. Permission to photocopy portions for classroomuseisnotrequired,thoughnotificationofsuchusewillbeappreciated. ThiscompletehandbookhasbeenplacedinmodularformontheFACTFoundationwebsite,in English,SpanishandPortuguese. FACTFoundationandtheauthorsarenotliableforanydamageorinjuriesresultingfromthe use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained within this Handbook.

ii

FOREWORD
In our fight for a global cleaner environment, the Dutch Ministry of Environment invests in various ways to achieve GHG emission reductions within the framework of sustainable development. Local production and utilization of biofuel such as derived from the Jatropha plantcanbecontributingtoachievingthesegoalsthroughenhancingincomeinagriculture,the provisionofenergy,andpositiveenvironmentalimpact.Jatrophaseedscanbeconvertedinto energycarrierssuchasoilorbiodiesel,electricityandbiogas.Itcanassistinruralproduction, transformingrawagriculturalproductstoaddedvaluemarketableproducts,energygeneration forirrigationandconservinglandfromerosion.Assuch,Jatrophadisplaysawidepotentialof applications.Inthishandbookhowever,thefocusisontheenergyusesofJatropha. DriversforincreaseduseofbiofuelssuchasJatropha,arelocalemployment,energysecurity and climate change mitigation. The Jatropha plant increases above ground and underground biomass and hence fixes CO2 as carbon. At the same time the Jatropha nuts can be used for biofuel production, thereby reducing the need for fossil fuels. An additional positive effect is thatJatrophacanbeusedinalocalrenewableenergysystemthatallowslocalsmallholdersto generate income on energy, rather than having no other option than to pay for fossil fuels. Although Jatropha cannot solve all problems related to energy in developing countries, it is likelytobeoneofthemostpromisingbiofuelcrops,thatwouldalsocontributetosustainable agricultureandimprovedlivelihoods. Althoughagriculturalproductioninmostdevelopingcountriescanbeintensified(moreoutput perha)byafactor2to4usingproventechnology,thishasnothappenedduetoinadequate agriculturalpoliciesinmanycountriesaswellasdisappointinginvestmentlevelsinagriculture. For local use Jatropha can be well combined with agricultural production, where improved food production combined with Jatropha can generate more output on a hectare basis, as a badly managed food crop alone. Jatropha emerged as a highly interesting biofuel some 15 years ago and expectations were high. Over the last years, many studies from Jatropha plantationsgiveusabetterideaonwhattheplantcanyieldunderwhichconditions. ThisbookaimstoprovidethereaderwithusefulinformationtoappraiseJatrophaasabiofuel intherealmofbiofuels.Itcoversallaspects(technical,organizational,financial)fromJatropha plantingtoconversiontoelectricityorbiodiesel. This book is dedicated to the late professor Kees Daey Ouwens, who established the FACT Foundation, and in whos honor I have created the Daey Ouwens Fund. He was a pioneer in thisfield,hasexploredwaystopracticallymakeadifferencebyusinglocallyproducedbiofuels basedoncarefulresearchwithrespecttolocalcircumstances.Itiswiththisapproachinmind thatIwishyouwellwithmakingadifference. Dr.JacquelineCramer, MinisterfortheEnvironment oftheNetherlands

iii

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TheapplicationofJatrophaoilforenergypurposesisarelativelynewphenomenon.Although theplantanditsfeatureshavebeenknownforgenerations,onlyin2005therealinterestin Jatrophaoilasbiofuelstartedtotakeoff.Sinceitsestablishmentin2005,FACTFoundationhas obtainedalotofexperienceinallaspectsofJatropha,fromcultivationtoenduse,mainlyby theexecutionofitsfirstthreepilotprojectsinHonduras,MaliandMozambique. ThisHandbookistheresultoftheknowledgegatheredbyFACTFoundationfromitsprojects andseminars,andfromprojectsofothersthatFACTwasinvolvedwith.Itwasfirstpublishedin an electronic form on FACTs website in march 2006 and has been regularly updated ever since.Thecurrentversionisthefirstthathasbeentakenintoprint.Theauthors,listedbelow, havedonetheirutmostinwritingtheassignedchaptersandwewouldliketothankthemfor theircontributions: Ir.EricvanderPutten, Ir.YweJanFranken Dr.Ir.FlemmingNielsen Ir.JandeJongh Ir.WinfriedRijsenbeek Ir.PeterBeerens Ir.JanskevanEijck Ir.TitusGalema Ir.GerGroeneveld Ir.NielsAns Ir.MaraWijnker Ir.ThijsAdriaans Drs.PeterMoers InadditionwewouldliketothankBillDickinsonforreviewingthetextoncorrectEnglish.The layouthasbeendesignedbystudentsoftheEindhovenseSchool.Forthegeneralcoordination wethankMaraWijnkerandElsValkenburg. We are much obliged to Stichting Het Groene Woudt, who has funded FACTs work since its establishment. ForFACT, JandeJongh,editor

vi

TABLEOFCONTENTS

1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 GENERALDATAONJATROPHA INTRODUCTION BOTANICALDESCRIPTION ECOLOGY GEOGRAPHICALDISTRIBUTION JATROPHAHISTORICALANDCURRENTUSES FACTSHEET JATROPHAANDLOCALDEVELOPMENT JATROPHAHANDBOOKOUTLINE REFERENCES PLANTATIONESTABLISHMENTANDMANAGEMENT 2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.2 SOILSANDFIELDPREPARATION 2.2.1 Soilrequirements 2.2.2 Soilsampling 2.2.3 Soilpreparation
2.2.3.1 2.2.3.2 2.2.3.3 Plantingholes Plantspacing Plantingseason

1 1 1 3 4 4 6 6 6 7 9 9 9 9 10 11
11 11 12

2.3 JATROPHAPLANTDEVELOPMENT 2.3.1 Jatrophadevelopmentstages 2.3.2 Rootdevelopment 2.3.3 Floweringandfruiting 2.4 PLANTINGMATERIALANDPLANTINGMETHODS 2.4.1 Geneticandphenotypicalvariation 2.4.2 Seedselection 2.4.3 Germination 2.4.4 Directseeding 2.4.5 Nurseryplanting 2.4.6 Cuttings 2.4.7 Micropropagatedclones 2.5 PLANTATIONMANAGEMENT(AGRONOMY) 2.5.1 Weeding 2.5.2 Nutrientmanagement
2.5.2.1 2.5.2.2 2.5.2.3 2.5.2.4 Nutrientrequirements Organicmatter Fertilisation Mycorrhiza

12 12 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 15 16 16 17 17 17
17 19 19 19

2.5.3 Pruning 2.5.4 Irrigation 2.5.5 Intercropping 2.6 JATROPHAHEDGES 2.7 SEEDYIELDS

19 20 21 21 22

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2.8 PESTANDDISEASES 2.8.1 Controlmeasures 2.8.2 Preventivemeasures 2.9 REFERENCES 3 HARVESTING 3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.2 HARVESTINGTECHNOLOGIES 3.2.1 Manualpickingofjatrophaseeds 3.2.2 Mechanicalharvestingsolutions 3.3 SEEDEXTRACTIONFROMFRUITS 3.3.1 Dehulling
3.3.1.1 3.3.1.2 UniversalNutSheller(UNS) Largesizeindustrialdehuller

23 24 24 25 29 29 29 29 30 32 32
32 33

3.3.2
3.3.2.1 3.3.2.2

Separationofseedsandfruitshells
Smallscale(byhand) Largescale(mechanical)

34
34 34

3.3.3 Dryingfruit 3.4 DRYINGANDSTORAGEOFSEEDS 3.4.1 Dryingofseeds 3.4.2 Storageareaofsacks 3.4.3 Storageconditions
3.4.3.1 3.4.3.2 Seedstorageforplanting Seedstorageforoilextraction

35 35 35 36 36
36 37

3.5 4

REFERENCES OILPRESSINGANDPURIFICATION

37 39 39 40 40 40 40
41 41

4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2 MECHANICALOILEXTRACTION 4.2.1 Cleaningandcheckingtheseeds 4.2.2 Thepressingprocess 4.2.3 Importantparameterswhenpressing
4.2.3.1 4.2.3.2 Oilrecovery Oilquality

4.3 PRESSTECHNOLOGIESANDEXPELLERTYPES 4.3.1 Rampresses 4.3.2 Expellers

4.3.2.1 4.3.2.2 Cylinderhole Strainer

42 42 43
44 44

4.3.3 Powerrequired 4.3.4 Suggestedmodels 4.3.5 Concludingremarksexpellers 4.4 CLEANINGOFVEGETABLEOIL 4.4.1 Impuritiesintheoil 4.4.2 Sedimentation

45 45 46 46 47 47

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4.4.3
4.4.3.1 4.4.3.2 4.4.3.3 4.4.3.4 4.4.3.5 4.4.3.6

Filtration
Gravityfilters Bandfilter Filterpress Pressureleaffilter Bagfilters Candlefilters

48
48 49 50 51 52 53

4.4.4 Centrifuging 4.4.5 Concludingremarksoilcleaning 4.5 QUALITYSTANDARDSFORSVO 4.5.1 Oildegumming 4.5.2 Oilneutralization 4.6 HANDLINGANDSTORAGEOFOIL 4.6.1 Handlingcriteria 4.6.2 Storagecriteria
4.6.2.1 4.6.2.2 4.6.2.3 4.6.2.4 Coolstoragetemperature Avoidingtemperaturevariations(andhencewatercondensation) Darkness Contactwithfreshair

53 54 54 56 56 56 56 57
57 57 57 57

4.7 5

REFERENCES APPLICATIONSOFJATROPHAPRODUCTS

57 59 59 59 59
59 60

5.1 INTRODUCTION 5.2 APPLICATIONSOFOIL 5.2.1 Lampsandcookingstoves

5.2.1.1 5.2.1.2 Lamps Cookingstoves

5.2.2
5.2.2.1 5.2.2.2 5.2.2.3 5.2.2.4 5.2.2.5 5.2.2.6 5.2.2.7 5.2.2.8 5.2.2.9 5.2.2.10

Directfuelforcarsanddrivingenginesforshaftpowerorelectricitygeneration
Introduction PPOfuelproperties Otherproperties Engineconversion/Enginetypes Engineconversion Importanttechnicalissues Serviceandmaintenance Externalcomponentsattachedtotheengine Emissions Examplesofconvertedengines

61
61 61 62 64 66 69 74 75 75 76

5.2.3 5.2.4
5.2.4.1 5.2.4.2 5.2.4.3 5.2.4.4 5.2.4.5 5.2.4.6 5.2.4.7

Feedstockforsoapproduction Feedstockforbiodieselproduction
Somechemistry Typeofalcohol PreparationofPPOfeedstock Biodieselproductionrecipe Biodieselrefining Biodieselbyproducts Concludingremarks

76 77
77 78 78 79 79 80 81

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5.3 APPLICATIONSOFOTHERJATROPHAPRODUCTS 5.3.1 Woodenstemsandleaves 5.3.2 Presscake
5.3.2.1 5.3.2.2 5.3.2.3 5.3.2.4 5.3.2.5 Handling Presscakeasabiogasgenerationfeedstock Presscakeasbriquettesforfuel Presscakeasafertilizer Insecticidefromoiland/orpresscake

81 81 82
82 82 83 84 85

5.3.3 Whatisnotrecommended 5.4 REFERENCES 6 PROJECTIMPLEMENTATION 6.1 INTRODUCTION 6.2 OWNERSHIP,PRODUCTIONANDFINANCEMODELS 6.2.1 Ownership
6.2.1.1 6.2.1.2 Ownershipmodels Appropriateownershipmodels

85 85 87 87 87 87
87 89

6.2.2
6.2.2.1 6.2.2.2 6.2.2.3

Productionmodels:thejatrophavaluechain
Thebasicjatrophabiofuelproductionchain Mainfactorsdeterminingfeasibilityofthebasicbiofuelchain Theextendedproductionchain

91
91 92 93

6.2.3
6.2.3.1 6.2.3.2 6.2.3.3 6.2.3.4 6.2.3.5

Financingmodels
Howtofinancefarmersplantations Howtofinancetheprocessingenterprise Howtofinanceengineadaptations ProjectFundingSources Alternativefinancingschemes

101
101 106 107 108 110

6.3 SUSTAINABILITYOFJATROPHACURCASACTIVITIES 6.3.1 Introduction 6.3.2 Sustainabilitycriteriaandinitiatives 6.3.3 Tentativecriteriaforsustainabledevelopmentoflargescalejatrophaproduction 6.3.4. Conclusion 6.4 REFERENCES

112 112 113 114 115 116

ANNEXA: ANNEXB: ANNEXC: ANNEXD: ANNEXE: PLANTATIONESTABLISHMENTANDMANAGEMENT HARVESTING OILPRESSINGANDPURIFICATION APPLICATIONSOFJATROPHAPRODUCTS PROJECTIMPLEMENTATION

GENERALDATAONJATROPHA

Mainauthor:EricvanderPutten,withcontributionsofYweJanFrankenandJandeJongh 1.1 Introduction

Jatropha curcas L. (Latin name) is often referred to as jatropha. It is a plant that produces seedswithhighoilcontent.Theseedsaretoxicandinprinciplenonedible. Jatrophagrowsunder(sub)tropicalconditionsandcanwithstandconditionsofseveredrought andlowsoilfertility.Becausejatrophaiscapableofgrowinginmarginalsoil,itcanalsohelpto reclaimproblematiclandsandrestoreerodedareas.Asitisnotafoodorforagecrop,itplays animportantroleindeterringcattle,andtherebyprotectsothervaluablefoodorcashcrops. Currentinterestbyinvestors,farmersandNGOsinjatrophaismainlyduetoitspotentialasan energycrop.Jatrophaseedscanbepressedintobiooilthathasgoodcharacteristicsfordirect combustionincompressedignitionenginesorfortheproductionofbiodiesel.Thebiooilcan also be the basis for soapmaking. The pressed residue of the seeds (presscake) is a good fertilizerandcanalsobeusedforbiogasproduction. Jatrophaisapromisingcropwithmanyapplications.Thetechnologyisinitsinfancyandonthe vergeofcommercialisation.Expectationsarehigh.Thefirstdevelopmentsareunderway,but notmuchhasbeenrealisedsofar.FACT(FuelsfromAgricultureinCommunalTechnology)is gaining experience in several pilot projects and has encountered many initial obstacles and problems. In several projects it has tried to tackle these problems. The objective of this handbookistosharethemostrecentknowledgeonallaspectsofjatrophawithpractitioners and other people involved in making use of jatropha for local development, with biofuel as themostinterestingoption. Withinthiscontext,theprimaryfocusofthisbookwillbeonthestartupofplantations,the processingoffruit,seeds,oilandtheuseofoilforlocaldevelopment.Eachtopicisdiscussedin moredetailintheappropriatechapters. Thisintroductorychapterdescribesthebasicandglobalcharacteristicsofjatropha.Itincludes the botanical description, ecology, geographical distribution, applications of jatropha and its oil,sustainabilityissuesandreportoutline. 1.2 Botanicaldescription

Jatropha curcas L. has many local names, including bagani/ (Ivory CoastMali), pourghre (French), physic nut (English), tabanani (Senegal), makaen/ mmbono (Tanzania), pion (Latin America),purgeernoot(Dutch),sketnoto(Surinamese). InallcasesJatrophacurcasL.isatallbush/shruborsmalltreethatcangrowupto6meters tall,belongingtotheEuphorbiaceaefamily.Itslifespanisintherangeof50years.Thetreeisa deciduouswoodtypewithleavesfallingoffunderconditionsofstress.

 The plant has green leaves with a length and width of 6 to 15 centimetres. Jatropha plants showdifferentplantarchitecture,rangingfromamainstemwithnoorfewbranchestoaplant thatisbranchedfrombelow.Thebranchesofthejatrophaplantcontainawhite,stickylatex thatleavesbrownstains,whicharehardtowashout.Therootsystemfromnaturaljatropha plantsiswelldeveloped,withrootsgrowingbothlaterallyandverticallyintodeepersoillayers.

Figure11TheJatrophaplant(photosMauricioMoller)

Theplantismonoecious,withmaleandfemaleflowersonthesameplant.Fruitformsatthe endofbranchesinbunchesof520,haveashaperesemblinganAmericanfootballandare about 40 mm. long. Each fruit contains 3 seeds, though occasionally one may have 4 or 5 seeds.

Figure12Jatrophafruits(photosArthurRiedacker)

Jatrophaseedslooklikeblackbeansandareonaverage18mmlongand12mmwideand10 mmthick.Thesedimensionvarywithinseedsfromthesameplantorprovenanceandbetween seedsfromdifferentprovenances.Seedweighbetween0.5and0.8gram,withanaverageof 1333 seeds per kilogram. Seeds contain various toxic components (phorbol esters, curcin, trypsininhibitors,lectinsandphytates)andarenonedible.Seedsconsistofahardshellthat makes up around 37% by weight on average and soft white kernel that makes up 63% by weight.Thedryseedshaveamoisturecontentofaround7%andcontainbetween32and40% ofoil,withanaverageof34%.Virtuallyalltheoilispresentinthekernel.

Figure13Nomenclaturefrom[1]:afloweringbranch,bbark,cleafveinature,dpistillateflower,e staminateflower,fcrosscutofimmaturefruit,gfruits,hlongitudinalcutoffruits;acandfh (AponteHernandez1978);dandefromDehgan1984(inPhysicnut,JoachimHeller,IPGRI1996)

1.3

Ecology

Someconsiderjatrophatobeaweed.However,itisdefinitelynotaninvasivespeciessinceit hardly propagates by itself. Seeds from fruits that are left on the ground surrounding the motherplantseldomgerminateanddevelop.Thefruitandseedsarepoisonousandnoteaten orcollectedbyanimals,Jatropha,therefore,isnotnaturallydispersed.

 Jatropha is a resilient plant that can adapt to many ecological conditions. Its survival mechanism enables it to withstand periods of stress (cold weather/ severe drought/ low radiation).Itisabletoretrievethenutrientsfromitsleavesandstorethemintheplantstem and root system. The leaves then turn yellow and are subsequently shed by the plant. The stemremainsgreenandphotosyntheticallyactive.Inthisdormantstatetheplantcansurvive periodsofmorethanayearwithoutrain. In some cases jatropha naturally forms a symbiosis with soil mycorrhiza (a specific kind of fungus)thatincreasestheplantsuptakeofnutrientsandwaterfromthesoil.Thepresenceof mycorrhiza increases the plants tolerance to drought and low levels of nutrients. This symbiosisoccurssometimesunder naturalconditionsbutneveroccursinplantations,unless artificiallyintroduced. 1.4 Geographicaldistribution

JatrophahistoricallyoriginatesfromCentralAmericaandthenorthernpartsofSouthAmerica. Jatropha has been distributed to other tropical regions by European seafarers and explorers from the 16th century onwards. Presently it grows in tropical areas worldwide (SubSaharan Africancountries,SoutheastAsia,India).

Figure14indicationofthemostsuitableclimateconditionsforthegrowthofJatrophacurcasL (30N,35S)andOilpalm(ElaeisguinensisJacq.)(4N,8S).[3]

1.5 Jatrophahistoricalandcurrentuses

Historical records show that jatropha was used by native Indians of Central America and perhaps South America, where it was traditionally used in herbal medicine. Jatropha seeds were commercially produced on the Cabo Verde Islands already in 1836. The seeds were exportedtoPortugalandFranceandtheoilwasusedforstreetlightingandsoapproduction [1].Duetothetoxicityoftheleavesanditsfastgrowthandresilience,jatrophaisoftenusedas ahedgeorlivingfencesinceitisnotbrowsedbycattle.Therearemanyothercurrentusesfor jatropha.Figure15givesanoverviewoftheseveralapplicationsofjatrophaanditsproducts.


Jatropha Curcas

Fruits

Fruit hulls - Combustibles, - Fertiliser

Whole plant - Erosion control - Hedge plant - Medicinal use - Plant protectant - Fire wood - Fertiliser

Seeds

Oil - Fuel - Resource * Lamps * Cooking stoves * Direct engine fuel * Soap production * Bio diesel

Seed cake - Fertiliser - Input for biogas production - Input for combustion - Charcoal production

Figure15Usesofthejatrophaplantandproducts

Figure16Left:Pongamiaseeds(anotheroil containingtreeseed);Middle:jatrophaseeds fromTanzania;righttop:soapfromKakuteTanz; rightbelow:JatrophaoilfromDiligent Figure17Piecesofpresscake,pressedbya strainerpress(photoRuralBiodieselBrazil)

 1.6

Factsheet

Table11belowlistsanumberofminimum,maximumandaveragevaluesofseveralJatropha attributes. Table11JatrophaFactsheet

Parameter Seedyield Unit drytonne/ hectare mm/year Minimum Average 0.3 1.5 Maximum 6 Source PositionPaperonJatropha LargeScaleProject Development,FACT2007 PositionPaperonJatropha LargeScaleProject Development,FACT2007 Jatrophabiodiesel productionanduse,W. Achtenetal,2008 varioussources

Rainfall requirementsfor seedproduction Oilcontentof seeds Oilyieldafter pressing Energycontent

600

1,000

1,500

%ofmass

34%

40%

%ofmassof seedinput MJ/kg

20% 37

25%

1.7 Jatrophaandlocaldevelopment

Jatrophacanbeintegratedintotraditionalfarmingsystemsindevelopingcountries.Itcanbe planted as a living fence around agricultural fields or on marginal soils to control erosion. Whenthepresscakeisreturnedtothefieldsthereisasustainablerecyclingofnutrientsand thesoilremainsproductive.Theproductionofseedsandprocessingintobiofuelprovideextra jobopportunities.Jatrophabiofuelcanbeusedforbothtransportandelectricityproduction, andcangivelocalcommunitiesenergyindependence.Anyexcessbiofuelthatisproducedcan besold.Theoilcanalsobeusedforsoapproduction,providingaprofitableruralactivity. Jatropha production should only take place when there is sufficient land for local food production. Intercropping jatropha with food crops is also a good option; the extra investmentsinagriculturewillincreasefoodproductionaswell. 1.8 Jatrophahandbookoutline

This handbook describes the jatropha oil production process step by step, as indicated in Figure18.
Introduction (CH 1) Plantation establishment (CH 2) Harvesting (CH 3) Oil pressing and purification (CH 4) Use of jatropha products (CH 5) Project implementation (CH 6)

Figure18Jatrophahandbookoutline

Plantation establishment (Chapter 2) discusses the aspects of the establishment and management of a jatropha plantation on a small scale (0.5 to 5 ha.). It elaborates on soil sampling,fieldpreparationandplanting.Furthermorethechapterhighlightsthedangersand hazards on a plantation, including pests and diseases. At the end, there is a discussion of variousdryseedyieldsoftheplantation.

 Harvesting (Chapter 3) discusses the harvesting and drying of fruit, and the dehulling and storage of seeds. It provides insight into the major issues of the harvesting process of the jatrophaseeds. Oilpressingandpurification(Chapter4)discussesthemechanicaloilextractionmethodsand oil quality aspects for jatropha oil production. Multiple technologies are available for oil extraction. The selection is mainly a tradeoff between the acceptable complexity, costs of technologyandtherequiredoilquality.Productionscaleisanimportantlimitingfactorinthe choiceoftechnology.Oilextractionisoneaspectofoilproduction.Afterpressing,thejatropha oilneedsfurtherpurificationbeforeitcanbeused.Cleaningmethods,handlingguidelinesand storageconditionsarethereforediscussed. Useofjatrophaproducts(Chapter5)discussesthepotentialapplicationsofjatrophaandits products.Jatrophaisfirstofallcultivatedfortheoilanditsseveralapplicationsarediscussed. During the process manybyproducts are created which can be used as well. However, until nowonlyafewapplicationshavebeenrealizedonareasonableandlargescale.Thischapter elaboratesfurtheronthetechnicaldetailsandconceptsneededtomodifyandadaptexisting technologiesfortheuseofjatrophaoilandbyproducts. Project implementation (Chapter 6) focuses on the implementation phase, which requires several strategic decisions about who will own the production facilities, what products to include in the chain and how to finance the different components of the enterprise. These decisions determine to a large degree the social impact and sustainability of the production chain. This chapter also aims to describe the most important options, with its respective advantagesanddisadvantages. Sustainabilityisanotherimportanttopicoftheimplementationphase.Conformationwiththe CramerCriteria,forexample,isobligatoryifonewantstosellitsproductsintheNetherlands. Other sustainability issues, namely environmental, social and economic subjects (people, profit,planet)arealsoimportantforthelongtermacceptanceandsuccessofanyproject. 1.9 1. 2. References JoachimHeller,IPGRI1996Physicnutunderutilizedspecies Jongschaapetal.,2007

PLANTATIONESTABLISHMENTANDMANAGEMENT

Mainauthor:YweJanFrankenwithcontributionsofFlemmingNielsen 2.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the aspects of establishing and managing a jatropha plantation on a smallscale(0.5to5ha.).Itelaboratesonsoilsampling,fieldpreparationandplanting.There aremanyoptionsforstartingaplantation,fromseedstocuttingsanddifferentplantspacing arrangements. The growth process of the jatropha plant is described here. Subsequently, plantation managementisdescribed.Issuesoffertilizationandweedingbelongtothistopic. Furthermore,thischapterhighlightsthedangersandhazardsonaplantation,includingpests anddiseases.Attheend,thereisadiscussionofthevariousdryseedyieldsofaplantation. 2.2 2.2.1 Soilsandfieldpreparation Soilrequirements

Jatropha prefers welldrained soils with an open wellaerated structure. The soil types mentionedinthetextbelowrefertoFigure21withtheUSDAsoilclassificationbasedongrain size. Mostsuitablesoilsareloam,sandyclayloamandsiltloam.Heavysoils(clay,sandyclay,clay loam,siltyclayloam,andsilt)areonlysuitableunderrelativelydryconditionswhenfrequent periods of heavy rainfall are absent. In that case jatropha can be quite productive because thesesoilsusuallyhaveagoodnutrientsupply.Jatrophacannottoleratepermanentwetness (it becomes waterlogged). Heavy soils, therefore, are only suitable when they are not saturated with moisture for long periods (maximum one week, which will already have a negative impact on production). These conditions occur when there are no periods of high rainfallthatleadtowaterloggingandwhenthegroundwatertableisoutofreach.Heavysoils are not suitable under conditions where very dry and wet periods quickly follow each other becausetheyshrinkandswellandrootformationisimpaired. Sandysoils(sand,loamysand,andsandyloam)aresoilsthatarepronetodryingoutquickly (unless they are very high in organic matter). On these soils jatropha has a comparative advantageoverothercrops,becauseitisdroughttolerant.Thesesoilsusuallyarenothighin nutrients, so jatropha will need fertilization or high organic matter application to the soil in ordertobeproductive. Regardlessofthesoil,agoodpHforjatrophaliesbetween5.5and8.5.Undermoreacidicor alkalineconditionsjatrophagrowthislimited.Soildepthshouldbeatleast45centimetersand soil slope should not exceed 30. Jatropha can survive low soil nutrient contents, but in that case growth and production are limited. Higher nutrient levels in the soil translate into increased production. Soil organic matter is also favorable to jatropha growth, especially in coarsesoils.

 Figure21belowclassifiessoilsaccordingtosand,siltandclaycontent.Thefigureconsistsof threeaxesgivingthesandcontent(leftaxis),siltcontent(rightaxis)andsandcontent(bottom axis).Thevariousblocksinthefigureindicatedifferentsoiltypes.

Figure21USDAsoilclassification

2.2.2 Soilsampling

Itisimportanttohaveagoodindicationofthesoiltypeandfertilityattheplantingsite.Before startingaplantation,soilsamplesshouldbetakenandanalyzed. Soil samples should be taken at around 30 cm depth and per spot (100 m2) around 10 15 samples should be taken of 100 cm3 each. The location of each spot should be exactly described preferably by GPS coordinates. The samples should be pulverized and mixed well togethertoget1sampleforanalysis.Onecupofsoilshouldbeputinaplasticbag,labelled andusedforanalysis.Theremainderofthemixedsampleshouldbelabelledandstoredasa backup.Perhectare,atleast5mixedsamplesshouldbeanalyzed. Theclay,siltandsandcontentneedtobemeasuredtodeterminethesoiltype.Soilnutrient levels need to be measured for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and, preferably, also magnesium, zinc, copper, sulphur and calcium. Other aspects that should be included in the analysis are organic matter (OM), soil pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC) and saturation percentageoftheCECforpotassium,magnesiumandcalcium. The data should be professionally analyzed to get a good indication of soil fertility (low, medium, high) and the Jatropha production potential at the site (see also annex A on seed yields).Thiscanbedonebyasoillaboratoryorbyanexternalsoilscientist.Incasethisisnot possibleacommercialsoiltestingkitcanbeused.

10

 2.2.3

Soilpreparation

Thesoilneedstobeclearedfromvegetationbeforeplanting,andweedsneedtoberemoved. 2.2.3.1 Plantingholes

Whenplantingjatrophaonly,plantingholesshouldbeprepared.Theseholescanbedugwith an axe or by drilling. On hard or compacted soils, ploughing or deep ripping of the soils is advisable,especiallywhenconsideringintercropping,inwhichcasetheentiresoilneedtobe prepared. Incaseofhardcompactedsoils,itisalsopossibletopreparelinesforplantingorseedingwith adeepripperwhichisachiselploughwithjustonehook.Adeeprippershouldripfrom3050 cm. deep. This will allow the root system of the jatropha seedlings to develop well. A ripper cannotbemanuallyoperatedbutmustbeusedwithanimaltractionorfixedtoatractor. Holes for planting should ideally have the following minimum dimensions: diameter of 30 centimetresandminimaldepthof45centimetres.Theholesshouldberefilledwithamixture ofsoilandorganicmatter(compost)inaratio1:1. Artificialfertilizerormanureshouldbeadded.Theamountoffertilizeraddedshouldbeabout 1020gramsofcommonN:P:K(nitrogen,phosphorusandpotassium)fertilizer(from6:6:6to 15:15:15 or variations between these limits). The fertilizer should be mixed evenly. In case animalmanureisused,about0.5kgwouldbesufficientperplanthole.Theamountoforganic matter can vary between 20% and 50%. The formula of the mixture then changes into soil: compost:manureinaratio2:1:1.Incaseofheavier(moreclay)soilsjatrophacultivationisnot advised. However, in that case sand should be added to the mixture in a ratio of soil: sand: organicmatterof1:1:2. Themixtureshouldbefreefromstonesandlargerobjects.Makingtheholesneedstobedone justbeforetherainyseason.Plantingshouldstartwhenthesoilshavereceivedthefirstrains. Morefertilizercandamagetherootsoftheyoungseedlingsandcanbestbeaddedafterone or two months. About 50 to 100 grams of the same NPK (see before) needs to be evenly distributedandmixedwiththetopsoilinadiameterofabout50centimetresaroundtheplant. 2.2.3.2 Plantspacing

Spacinginplantationscanvary.Acommonlyappliedplantspacingisinarectangularpattern of3x2,5meterswith1333plants/ha.Whenplantsgrowtheyneedtohaveenoughspacefor growthandbranching.Inthispatternthereisenoughspaceforintercroppinginthefirstyear andeventhesecondyearwhenjatrophadevelopsslowly.Widerspacingleadstolargertrees thatgrowtallerandhigher,whichhindersharvestingandpruning.Inamorenarrowspacing 2.5 m x 2.5 m or 2 m x 2 m more intensive pruning is necessary to keep the plants from growingintoeachother.Thisrequiresalotofextralabour.Amorenarrowspacingleadstoa moreintensiveagricultureandrequiressoilswithgoodnutrientandwatersupply. Incaseofpermanentintercropping,theplantsshouldbeplantedinrowswithalargerdistance inbetweenforothercrops.Thedistancebetweentherowsdependsonthespaceneededfor intercropping, usually about 4 meters. The distance between Jatropha plants within a row is 2.5or3meters.

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 In case mechanized agriculture is considered, e.g. a tractor, there should be at least 4 m spacinginbetweentherows,assuming2metersforthetractorand1meterofbrancheson each side. The spacing between plants within a row can be reduced to 1.5 m in this case resulting in an overall spacing of 4 m x 1.5 m [31]. In living fences, plants should be spaced about 25 centimetres apart from each other in a single or in double rows. For quick establishmentitisadvisabletostartfromcuttingsintherainyseason. Monoculturejatrophaitselfislargelyfireresistant,buttheburningofweedsandgrasseswill kill the plant. [31]. In fire hazard areas it is advised to split plantations into separate compartments by making fire lanes of at least 2 metres wide. This will prevent fire from damaging the entire plantation. These fire lanes should be kept free from weeds, crops and overgrownvegetation. 2.2.3.3 Plantingseason

Thebesttimeforplantingisattheonsetoftherainyseasonwhenthesoilhastakenupthe firstsoilmoisture.Whenwaterisavailableatlowcosts,itispossibletostartplantingseveral weeksuptoamonthbeforetherainyseason. Afterplanting,extrawateringoftheplantsisnecessaryonlywhentherainsarenotsufficient, anditcanceaseafter3monthsofgrowthwhentheplantshavedevelopedtheirrootsystem. 2.3 Jatrophaplantdevelopment

Toapplyanoptimalmanagementofajatrophaplantation,itisimportantto understandthe developmentstagesofthejatrophaplant. 2.3.1 Jatrophadevelopmentstages

Startingfromseed,jatrophagoesthroughvariousstagesofdevelopment. The first is the juvenile stage. It starts with the seed that soaks up water when planted (imbibition)andisfollowedbygermination.Thesmallseedlingthencomesabovetheground (emergence)andstartstodevelopshootsandroots(establishment).Thisjuvenilestagetakes abouttwoandahalfmonthsunderoptimalconditions. Thesecondstageistheflowerinductionsensitivephase.Atthisstagetherightenvironmental conditions (high radiation/ high average temperatures/ high minimum temperatures(>18C) and sufficient rainfall can trigger flower induction. Flowering is the third stage. After pollinationthefruitstartfillingandripening,whichisthefourthstage.Thetimefromflower inductiontoharvesttakesapproximately3months.Afterharvesttheplantmayenterastage of dormancy where it is insensitive to flowering or it may enter another flower induction sensitivephase.Thisdependsonstressconditions,buttheexactmechanismisnotyetknown.

Figure22Jatrophadevelopmentstages[28]

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 2.3.2

Rootdevelopment

Aftergerminationfromseedsjatrophaseedlingsdevelop onetaprootandfourlateralroots.Therootsystemthus grows both into the upper and deeper soil layers, provided the soil is deep enough. Figure 23 shows a jatropharootsystemwheretheleftplanthasdeveloped athicktaprootgrowingdownvertically. Incasecuttingsareused,onlylateralrootsdevelopand notaproot. 2.3.3 Floweringandfruiting

Jatrophafloweringisacomplexmatter.Itisknownthat flowering is induced by stress factors, like temperature fluctuations and drought, but how exactly and at what thresholds this occurs is still unknown. For flower Figure23Jatropharootsystem. induction Jatropha plants need to be exposed to high Picture:JoachimHeller solar radiation. Plants that grow shaded under trees or in clouded conditions do not flower or flower markedly less than plants in the full sun. In a climate with distinct seasons Jatropha starts flowering after these periods of stress have ended,whichcanbeseveraltimesperyear.Inclimateswithanevenlydistributedrainfalland no large seasonal variation in temperatures Jatropha may flower continuously when there are no other formsofinducedstress. Under optimal conditions, jatropha usually flowers about 36 months after the seeds have been sown. The time from flower induction to fruit maturation is 90 days. The female flowers produce fruits that are first green, and turn yellow when ripening. Figure24Thevariousstagesoffruitdevelopment. Later the yellow fruit hull turns brown Theopenfruitsshowstheblackseedsinside andblackwhentheydry. 2.4 Plantingmaterialandplantingmethods

One of the first actions to take when starting a Jatropha plantation is to obtain enough Jatropha plant material and decide how to produce Jatropha plants. Jatropha plants can be produced by seeds, cuttings, or by micro propagation. These methods and the suitability of thesemethodsfordifferentconditionsaredescribedbelow. 2.4.1 Geneticandphenotypicalvariation

ProvenancetrialsandresearchintothegeneticsofJatrophacurcasL.hasshownthatthereis some genetic variation between plants from different provenances (or accessions) that are growingworldwide.Naturalgeneticvariationbetweenprovenancesislargestinthecentreof origin(CentralAmericaandtheNorthernpartsofSouthAmerica).

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 Plantsgrownfromthesameseedsourcecandifferconsiderablyinmorphologicalaspectslike plant height and seed production. It is not yet known to what extent this morphological variation can be attributed to genetic or environmental factors. When seeds from a certain location are collected, variation can be minimized by selecting seeds (see next part on seed selection). 2.4.2 Seedselection

First of all, it is important to obtain high quality seed material. When ordering seeds one shouldmakesuretheymatchthefollowingcriteria: Seeds come from highyielding provenances that grow under similar agroecological conditionsaswheretheplantationisplanned. Seedsareaselectionoftheheaviestandlargestseedsfromtheseselectedprovenances. Seedshaveamoisturecontentofaround7%. Seedsareyoung(preferablynotolderthan6months). Seedshavebeenstoredundercool,darkanddryconditions. 2.4.3 Germination

Jatrophaseedsgerminateeasilywhenplantedinsoilatabout2cmdepthandwiththewhite tipoftheseedfacingslightlydownwardsandtheroundedsideoftheseedfacingupwards. Jatrophagerminatesinanysoilwithacontinuouslyhighhumidityandsufficientairsupply(in waterloggedsoilsjatrophaseedswillrot).Pretreatmentofseedsdidnotshowbetterresults in germination compared to dry seeds directly planted in Mozambique [20]. Seeds with the above mentioned characteristics will germinate within 78 days under hot (average temperature>25C)andhumidconditions.Undercoolerconditionsgerminationtakeslonger. Seedsthatgerminatewithin10daysaremorevigorousandshouldbeused. Jatrophacanbedirectlyseededinthefieldsorcanbegerminatedinanursery,dependingon thefactorsthatwillbediscussedhereunder.

Figure25Jatrophaseedgerminating(left)andsmallseedlingsthathavejustemerged(right)(photo: PeterMoers)

2.4.4

Directseeding

Theadvantagesofdirectseedingaretheoptimalrootdevelopmentofthejatrophaplantsand lower costs for labour and materials as compared to setting up a nursery. A disadvantage is thatthecontentoftoxinsinseedlingsislowinthefirstmonthsandrabbitsandotheranimals

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 can eat the emerging plants. Direct seeding is recommended in case sufficient water supply duringgerminationanddevelopmentoftheseedlingscanbeguaranteed,e.g.whensoilshave taken up enough moisture naturally or by irrigation. When direct seeding, competition from weedsinthefirst3monthsmustbeavoided. For optimal jatropha establishment, the seedlings should have access to easy penetrable, nutrientrich andorganic matterrichsoiltoadepthofatleast 45cm.In caseofcompacted soils,plantingholesshouldbemadeofabout45cmdeepandabout30cmwideandshouldbe filledwithloosesoilmixedwithorganicmatterandpreferablyabasicmixoffertilizer/manure. Seeds should be planted as described under germination in the planting spots in the chosen plantingpattern(commonis2.5mx3m(seeearlierpartonplantspacing).Oneshouldplant twoseedsinsteadofoneforeverythirdplantingspotatabout25cmapart(sotherootsystem ofthetwoseedlingsdoesnotgrowintoeachother).Thiswillresultinsomespareseedlings that can be easily transferred. In case seeds in some planting holes do not germinate or are lost, the extra seedlings can be planted there. The extra plants can also be used to replace plants that develop slowly compared to the other plants or show abnormal growth (e.g. strangelyshapedleafs).Thisselectionstepisimportantbecauseslowlydevelopingplantswill producelessfruitsandseedsandwillhaveloweraverageyields. The amount of seeds needed depends on the planting density. At a spacing of 2.5 m x 3 m, 1333 plants are needed, which requires 2000 seeds (including the extra plants for non germinatingseedsandtocompensateforlostplantsorreplacementoflowqualityseedlings). Thisequalsaround1.2kgseeds/hawithanaverageseedweightof0.6grams. 2.4.5 Nurseryplanting Theadvantagesofgrowingjatrophainnurseriesaretwofold:first,seedlingscangrowunder controlled, optimal circumstances and slow or abnormally performing plants can easily be removed.Anotheradvantageisthatnurseryplantsarestrongerwhenplantedinthefieldsand can more easily survive when the conditions for establishment are suboptimal (drought, weeds, presence of browsing cattle and insects). There are, however, drawbacks of nursery plants. The root development of seedlings is hampered because of growing in the smaller containers.Thisisespeciallydisadvantageouswhentheseedlingsarenotplantedtimelyinthe fields (< 1 month). There are also extra labor and capital requirements, and there is the possibilityofspreadingpestsanddiseasestoallseedlingsandthefieldduringplanting. Anurseryisagoodoptionincaseyouhaveverylowqualityseedmaterialbecausethebest performingplants/seedscanbeeasilyselected.Itisalsopossibletogerminateseedsinlarger germinationbedsordirectlyintopolybags(lesswork).Themostvigorousseedsthatgerminate within10days(ataveragetemperaturesof23Corhigher)shouldbeused,theothersshould be discarded. The selected germinated seedlings should be transferred into polybags (see Figure26below).Inthepolybagsthejatrophaplantscangrowforamonth(infullsun)or2 months (when shaded) and should then be transferred to the fields. The plants should be providedenoughsoilmoistureandinfullsuntheywillneedmorewater.Allplantsthatshow growth visibly slower than others or show abnormal growth (e.g. strangely shaped leafs) shouldberemovedinordertoincreasetheaverageplantproductionintheconsecutiveyears ofseedproductioninthefield.

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 InMozambiqueanurseryhasgrownseedlingsinaseedbednurseryonarelativelylargescale andnopolybagswereused.Despitethecuttingoftherootswhentheseedlingsareremoved fromtheseedbed,theseedlingsareperformingwell[31]. Itiswisetoinvestinchemicalpestanddiseasecontrolinordertokeeptheseedlingsfreefrom pestanddiseasesthatcouldotherwisebespreadtothefields.

Figure26Jatrophanurserywithseedlings(forapprox.2ha)inpolybagspartlyshadedartificially(left) orbytrees(right)(photos:PeterMoers)

Aftertheseedlingshaveestablished(11.5months),theyshouldbetransferredtothefieldas quickly as possible. The soil requirements for planting are similar to those for direct seeding (seedirectseeding). 2.4.6 Cuttings

CuttingsareafastandcheapwayofpropagatingJatropha.Oneadvantageisthatcuttingsare cloneswith thesamegenetic characteristicsasthe motherplant,andincaseahighyielding motherplantisselectedthecuttingshavethesameproperties[31].Thedisadvantageisthat cuttingsdeveloponlylateralrootsandcannotaccessnutrientsandwaterindeepersoillayers. Cuttingsthereforehavelimiteddroughttolerance.Werecommendthisonlyforlivingfences. UsingcuttingsforaJatrophaplantationonlyworksonfertileandsoilswithagoodpermanent watersupplyandabsenceoflongdryperiods. Cuttingsarebestmadefromthethickestbranchesatthebaseofthejatrophaplant.Bestisto make cuttings of at least 30 cm (but 50 cm gives a higher success rate). Cuttings should be placeddirectlyinwetsoilleaving15cmormoreofbranchabovethesoil.Cuttingscanalsobe produced in a nursery in polypropylene bags. Soil should be kept wet (therefore the rainy seasonisthebesttimeforcuttings).Normallythefirstshootsappearafter3to4weeks. 2.4.7 Micropropagatedclones

A technologically advanced method of obtaining larger amounts of jatropha plants is by micropropagation.Theadvantageisthatyoucancreatelargenumbersofgeneticallyidentical plantsofonemotherplantwiththedesiredcharacteristics.Similartocuttings,therootsystem development is not natural and it requires hormonal stimulation to induce roots to grow vertically instead of laterally. This method requires sophisticated technologies and chemicals and is costly and as such is not recommended for smaller scale plantations. However when

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 goodqualitymicropropagatedplantsbecomeavailableonthemarketataffordablepricesthis willbeinterestingforsmallerplantationsaswell. 2.5 2.5.1 Plantationmanagement(agronomy) Weeding

Jatropha usually survives when overgrown by weeds, but growth and production will be minimal [31]. It is very important to keep the jatropha fields free from weeds. At regular intervalsweedsshouldberemovedandleftonthegroundtoprovideorganicmaterialtothe topsoil.Thefrequencyofweedingdependsonthegrowthoftheweeds.Whenweedsstartto shadethejatrophaorgrowastallasthejatrophaplantstheyshouldberemoved,aswellas whentheylimitaccesstothespaceinbetweenrows.Afteronetothreeseasonsdependingon the agroclimatic conditions the canopies of Jatropha will be so dense that weed growth is severelysuppressedandlabourforweedingconsequentlydrops[31]. In most cases the amount of labour determines the area that can be kept weedfree. In the case of largescale plantations with partly mechanized cultivation, around 2 ha/person could besufficientlyfreedfromweeds.Incaseofsmallscalecultivationthisiscloserto1ha/person. 2.5.2 2.5.2.1 Nutrientmanagement Nutrientrequirements

Jatropha needs sufficient amounts of nutrients in order to grow into a full size plant and to produceseeds.Inthefirst4yearsnutrientsareneededtobuildupagoodplantarchitecture (roots, stems, leaves). Also in this period an increasing amount of nutrients is needed to produceflowersandfruits.After4years,whentheplantshavedevelopedtotheirfinalshape andsizenutrientsareprimarilyneededformaintenanceoftheplantandforfruitproduction. Thenutrientsremovedbyharvestingjatrophafruitshouldbereturnedtothefieldsafterthe energy (mostly lipids consisting of the elements C, H and O and no nutrients) is extracted. Jatropha fruit shells and presscake (or residue from biogas production) are best returned to thefieldsasorganicfertilizer,whichclosesthenutrientcycle.Inthatcase,jatrophaplantscan continuouslyproduceandnoorlittlefertilizationisnecessary. When fruitshells and presscake (or biogas residue) are not returned to the fields regular fertilization with NPK (nitrogen/ phosphorus and potassium) and micronutrients will be necessary. In case of highly fertile soils, jatropha fertilization is not necessary. There are enoughnutrientsforplantdevelopmentandfruitproduction. 1.Nutrientsrequirementsduringjatrophaestablishment In the first years, nutrients are needed for maturation and development of highyielding jatropha plants. Under conditions of poor soil fertility extra nutrients are required for plantationestablishmentandseedproductioninthefirst4years.

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Table21Annualmacronutrientrequirementstobuildupjatrophastandingstockandfruitsinyears 14[29].Productioninyear4,with50%ofrequirednutrientsfromexistingsoilfertility Year 1 2 3 4 Total Annualneed kg/ha/yr kg/ha/yr kg/ha/yr kg/ha/yr N 23 34 69 103 229 P2O5 7 11 21 32 71 K2O 34 50 101 151 336

The yearly amounts of different types of fertilizer needed in the first 4 years have been calculated. This is based on the nutrient requirements given in Table 21 and the nutrient contentofdifferenttypesoffertilizer.TherequirementsarecalculatedbasedonsufficientN supplyandingeneraltherequirementsforothernutrientsarealsometwhentheamountsin thetablebelowaregiven.Thesevaluescountforpoorsoils,whereonly50%ofthenutrients neededarederivedfromthesoil.Incaseofextremelypoorsoils,morefertilizerisneeded.The composition of chemical fertilizer in Table 21 and Table 22 is given as the amounts of Nitrogen:Phosphorus:Potassium(N:P:K)inpercentages.
Table22Annualfertilizerrequirementstobuildupjatrophastandingstockandfruitsinyear14[5] Typeoffertilizer Year1 Year2 Year3 Year4 Total Drycowmanure(t/ha) 5 6 12 18 41 Drychickenmanure(t/ha) 1 1.2 2.4 3.6 8.2 Vermicompost(t/ha) 1.2 1.7 3.4 5.2 11.5 Chemicalfertilizer(16416)(kg/ha) 140 210 430 640 1420 Urea(46%Nitrogen)(kg/ha) 44 74 150 224 492

2.Nutrientsrequirementsforseedproduction Aharvestof1MTofseedsisequivalenttotheremovalofthefollowingamountofnutrients (infruitsincludingseeds)[3]: 14.3to34.3kg/haN 0.7to7.0kg/haP and14.3to31.6kg/haK SeeannexAforthewithdrawalofnutrientsofonetonofdryseedofjatrophacomparedwith otheroilseedcrops. Incasefruitshellsandpresscake(orresiduefrombiogasproduction)arenotreturnedtothe field,thesenutrientsneedtobereplaced. Theyearlyamountsofdifferent typesoffertilizer necessary per hectare to replace the nutrients removed by harvesting 1 MT of seeds are shown below. The requirements are calculated based on sufficient Nsupply and, in general, therequirementsforothernutrientsarealsometwhen theamountsinthe tablebeloware given. Table23Nutrientsneededtoreplacethelossbyharvesting1MTofseeds
Type Dry(solid)cowmanure Dry(solid)chickenmanure Vermicompost Chemicalfertilizer(15510) Chemicalfertilizer(12210) Urea(46%Nitrogen)

Amountneeded 7MT 1.3MT 1.65MT 0.22MT(220kg) 0.27MT(270kg) 0.072MT(72kg)

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 2.5.2.2

Organicmatter

OrganicMatter(OM)levelinthesoilleadstoanenhancedcationexchangecapacity(resulting inalosebindingofnutrientsintheorganicmatter)andalsoabettersoilstructure.Ithasbeen demonstrated in a number of trials that jatropha responds positively to a high OM level. Organicfertilizersarethereforerecommended. 2.5.2.3 Fertilisation

The best time to fertilize is just before or at the start of the rainy season. It is best to apply fertilizer evenly in a circle around the jatropha plant with a maximum of 1 meter from the plant. In case anorganic (artificial) fertilizer is used, it is best mixed with organic matter or compost. Applying artificial fertilizer in smaller quantities and with a higher frequency throughout the year decreases losses due to runoff and deep percolation and increases its efficiency. Heavy nitrogen fertilization may lead to strong emissions of the greenhouse gas NO2 with a strong global warming potential. This will reduce the number of carbon credits that can be earnedinaJatrophaproject. 2.5.2.4 Mycorrhiza

A simple and cheap way of increasing jatropha yields is by the use of mycorrhiza, which are fungi that live in symbiosis with plant roots. Mycorrhiza taps organic substances from the plant, especially sugars and Bvitamins. In return mycorrhiza make nutrients in the soil available for the plant and help in water uptake. Mycorrhiza, combined with moderate fertilization,guaranteesahighnutrientuptakebytheplantandminimizesnutrientslossesby percolation. The use of mycorrhiza is cheap (about 510 /ha). Mycorrhiza are especially effectiveinpooranddrysoilswheretheycanincreaseyieldsbyabout30%. Mycorrhizaarebestapplieddissolvedinwaterandappliedintheplantholebeforeorduring planting.Mycorrhizacanalsobeappliedtoexistingjatrophaplantsbydiggingacircularpitof around 1020 cm deep at around 40 cm around the stem and applying the water with mycorrhiza. Afterwards the pit should be covered with soil. It is also possible to coat seeds withmycorrhizabeforeseeding.Inaddition,theyareeasytoapplyinanurserywhenmixed withthewater. 2.5.3 Pruning

Jatropha flowers form only at the end of branches, pruning leads to more branches and as suchtomorepotentialforfruitproduction.Anotherimportantreasontopruneistokeepthe plantsinamanageablesize.Undernaturalconditionsjatrophacangrowintoatreeofabout6 meterstallwithacrownwidthof6meters,whichmakesitveryhardtoharvest.Inaplantation with a high density (around 1100 plants/ha), it is important to sufficient keep distance between the plants to avoid competition for light and space. Plants should be kept low to facilitatemanualpicking. Withgoodpruningthejatrophaplantsshouldhavestronglateralbranchesthatcanbearthe weight of the fruits. In the fourth or fifth year after planting and after several rounds of pruningtheplantsshouldultimatelyhavesome200250terminalbranches. Itisimportanttoprune onlyunderdryconditionsandbestwhentheplantshaveshedtheir leaves. When pruning make slightly vertical cuts (see pictures) so water runs off and avoid

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 making horizontal cuts where water can stack. Pruning in the rainy season and with high relativeairhumidityincreasestherisksforbacterialorviralplantinfectionandfungalattacks. Allcutplantmaterialcanbeleftasgroundcoverormulch. Thefirstpruningisneededafter36monthsandwhenplantshavedevelopedwell(atleast70 centimetrestall).Whenbranchingfromthegroundhasstartednaturallycuttingbackthemain stem is not necessary. Cutting the main stem is done at a height of 3045 cm aboveground. Largerplantscanbecutbackat45cmandsmallerplantsat30cm.

Figure27Branchingafterpruning(photo: ArthurRiedacker) Figure28Plantcutback(photo:Arthur Riedacker)

Afteroneyear,asecondroundofpruningisneededwhenplantshavegrownextensivelyafter the first pruning. Secondary and tertiary branches should be cut leaving about one third of branch (as seen from the last branching) on the plant. After two years, a same round of pruning(asafteroneyear)shouldberepeated. On the longer term, after about 8 to 10 years andwhen plants are growing very dense, it is advised to cut back the entire plant to about 45 cm aboveground an allow it to regrow. Becauseofthewelldevelopedrootsystemtheplantwillgrowbackveryrapidly. 2.5.4 Irrigation

Irrigationcanincreaseyields.Thecostsforirrigationarehighandinmostcases,withcurrent jatropha seed prices, it is not economically viable. Installation and material costs for the irrigationof1hectareareatminimum400.Operationalcostspermmofirrigationareinthe rangeof0.300.40/mm/ha. Insomecasesafteroneyieldtherainyseasonisjustnotlongenoughtosustainasecondyield. Withirrigationthegrowthseasoncanbeextendedlongenoughforasecondyield.Thereturns from an extra yield are maximally around 1500 kg/ha. At a price of e.g. 0.06/kg the extra returnis90.Whenanextra200mmneedstobeappliedthecostsperhectareareatleast 60,notyetincludingthecostsforinstallationoftheirrigationsystem.Consideringtheextra

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 manpowerneededforharvesting,andthecostsforextrafertilizationonecaneasilyconclude thatthebenefitsdonotoutweighthecosts. Therefore, under normal conditions, irrigation only makes sense in show gardens and in the production of jatropha plants for special purposes, e.g. highquality seed production for propagation,plantbreeding,clonalgardens,andscientificexperiments. 2.5.5 Intercropping

The greatest advantage of intercropping jatropha with annual crops is that the farmers will applygoodmanagementoftheannualcropsandalsoforjatropha.Jatrophaplantsareoften neglected in the first year(s) because the production is not interesting from an economic perspective. Growing jatropha in combination with other plants is only possible when sufficient nutrients andwaterareavailable.Indrylocationswithoutirrigation,intercroppingisnotpossibledueto competition for water. In soils poor in nutrients, intercropping is only possible with extra fertilization.ItisalsopossibletogrowfoddercropsinbetweentheJatrophaplantsandallow grazing. In this case the jatropha plants should be well established and tall to avoid damage caused by animals. Jatropha should notbeintercroppedwithcassava,sinceitisa possiblehostforseveralcassavadiseases. It is advisable to start intercropping at the sametimeasplantingthejatropha.Jatropha initially might grow slower than the intercroppedspecies.Inthatcase,andwhen intercroppedspeciesareplantedclosetothe jatropha plants, it is recommended to plant the intercrops a month later so jatropha is given a head start. Intercropping with species that provide yield in the first and Figure29JatrophaintercroppedwithArachis second year ensures good management, PintoiandCapsicumchinensisinBelize(photo: especiallyclearingthecropsfromweeds. SylviaBaumgart) Cropsthatcanbeconsideredshouldbeannualor biannual cropsthatremainrelativelylow andwillnotshadethejatrophaplants.Examplesarecorn,peanuts,beansandpeppers.After1 or 2 years, the jatropha plant canopy closes and there is no more room for intercropped speciesanditbecomesdifficultforweedstoestablish.Nitrogenfixingspeciessuchasbeans areatanadvantageinintercroppingsystemssincejatrophaitselfdoesnotfixnitrogen[31]. ThemodelsinChapter6describetheeconomicfeasibilityofintercropping. 2.6 Jatrophahedges

Jatrophaisalsocultivatedinhedges.Thehedgesareusedaslivingfence,forerosioncontrol, demarcationofboundariesandfortheprotectionofhomesteads,gardensandfieldsagainst browsinganimals[12].Inhedgesjatrophaisoftenplanted25to50cmapartinasinglerowor adoublerowwith50cmbetweentherows[5].Itisrecommendedtoplantabout1jatropha plant from seed for every meter of hedge. This will ensure that water and nutrients from

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 deepersoillayersareused[31].Onfertilesoilswithagoodmoisturesupplyyieldsareabout 0.8kgpermeterofhedge[12].Onpoorsoilsthiswillbemuchless. 2.7 Seedyields

Jatrophaseedyieldsdependonanumberoffactors(seeFigure210below):

Figure210Overviewoftheproductionsituationswithindicativedrymatteryieldlevels[24]

Whenallgrowthconditionsareoptimalandonlywaterandnutrientlevelsdeterminejatropha yield,FACThasestimatedjatrophayieldsandpotentialseedyieldsfordifferentlevelsofwater andnutrientsupply(seetablebelow).Thesedataaremeanttogiveanindicationonyieldsand bynomeansguaranteetheseyieldswillbeobtainedinreality.Thetableisbasedonfielddata FACT has collected since 2005. The yield under optimal conditions is based on data from N. Foidl from the welldocumented proyecto tempate (1992) in Nicaragua, with maximum yields of 4.5 MT of dry seeds/ha/year (FACT seminar on Jatropha agronomy and genetics, 2007). The 6 MT maximum yield given is based on the assumption that the breeding and selectioneffortsofthelastyearshaveledtohigheryieldingplantsandtheagriculturalpractice hasbeenoptimized. Thefollowingconsiderationsandrestrictionsapplytotheaforementionedinformation: Jatropha genetic material. Abovementioned yields only apply to plants from selected seeds from the highest yielding provenances available that are adapted to local soil and climatic conditions. Agroecological conditions. These figures only hold for areas with the optimal temperatures andradiationforJatropha.

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 Watersupply.OptimalwatersupplymeansthatwaterisavailabletotheJatrophaplantatall timesanddroughtandwaterloggingdonotoccur.Incaseofrainfall,growthiseither: water limited (drought), gradually reducing the number of harvest from three to one harvestperyearandreducingthewateravailabilityforgrowthandfruitproduction. limitedduetonegativeimpactsfromwaterloggingleadingtorootdamage.Thishappens incaseofexcessiverainfallincombinationwithwaterholdingsoils. Soilfertility.Highsoilfertilityismentionedandalsoimpliesgoodsoilstructureandaeration. Table24ExpectedJatrophaseedyieldsfordifferentwatersupplyandsoilfertility[5]
Watersupply Optimal Normal Suboptimal SoilFertility high medium low high medium low high medium low DrySeeds(kg/ha/yr) 6,000 2,500 750 3,500 1,500 500 1,500 750 250

2.8 Pestanddiseases

Author:FlemmingNielsen When Jatropha curcas grows as solitary plant in the landscape or in small stands it rarely showssignsofpestsanddiseases.However,whencultivatedinhigherdensitiesinplantations or hedges this situation changes. Reports of pests and diseases come from all parts of the worldinincreasingnumbers.Inmostcasesthesepestsanddiseasesarenotdetrimentaland sofarfewareofeconomicimportance. Whenanewcropisintroducedandcultivatedonalargescaleitcantakeyearsbeforethepest anddisease pressureisfelt. Thiseffect,forexample,isdemonstrated withseveralnewagro forestryspecies.Thelowincidencerateofpestsanddiseasescurrentlyobservedinmostareas canthereforenotbeassumedtolast[3].Pestsanddiseasesthathavebeenreportedtoaffect jatrophaarelistedinannexA. Mostofthepestsareofminorimportance.Theimportantpestsvarywithregions: Africa: Flea beetle (Aphthona spp.) eats the leaves and their larvae penetrate the roots (Nielsen 2007, Gagnaux 2008). The yellow flea beetle (Aphthona dilutipes) appears to cause moreseveredamagethanthegoldenfleabeetle,sometimesresultingin100%mortality.The authorhasonlyobservedtheyellowfleabeetleinManicaProvinceinMozambiqueandknows only of one other observation namely from Malawi where it also causes severe damage. (TimothyMahoney,Pers.comm.). Central and South America: fruit feeding true bugs, Pachycoris klugii Burmeister (Scutelleridae)andLeptoglossuszonatus(Coreidae)(GrimmandMaes1997).

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 Asia:The scutellarid bug Scutellera nobilis Fabr. which causes flower fall, fruit abortion and malformation of seeds, and the inflorescence and capsuleborer, Pempelia morosalis that causesdamagebywebbingandfeedingoninflorescencesandinlaterstagesboringintothe capsule(ShankerandDhyani2006). Virus damage is of major concern and appears to be spreading fast in India. In Africa virus presenceisstillrare. There is concern that, for instance, African Cassava Mosaic Virus may be transferred by Jatropha curcas, although cases have only been reported in Jatropha multifida. L. Mnch (1986) states that cassava superelongation disease (Sphaceloma manihoticola/Elsinoe brasiliensis)canbetransmittedtoJatrophacurcas.Forthesereasonsitisadvisednottoplant cassavaandJatrophacurcasinthesamefield(Heller1996). Commonbean(Phaseolusvulgaris)issusceptibletoJatrophaMosaicVirus(Hughesetal2003). Itistransmittedbywhitefly(Bemisiatabaci)(Rajetal2008). 2.8.1 Controlmeasures

Researchonbiologicalcontrolmeasuresisongoing,butcurrentlythereisnoknowledgeabout theefficiencyofvariousmethods,sospecificrecommendationscannotyetbemade(Grimm 1999, Raj et al 2008). However, methods that work with other crops may be efficient in jatropha too. It is also likely that local methods can be developed in many cases so experimentationisencouraged. ChemicalpesticidesareusedsuccessfullyagainstmajorpestsinJatrophacurcas,including: Pesticides containing Chlorpyrifos or Cyphenothrin are efficient against Aphthona spp. (fleabeetle)(FNielsenpers.obs.) Captafol at 3000 ppm is recommended as a dip for the eradication of super elongation disease(Lozanoetal1981)incassavacuttings.ItislikelytobeefficientforJatrophatoo. Collar rot can be controlled with 0.2% Copper Oxy Chloride (COC) or 1% Bordeaux drenching(FACTSeminar2007) Bark eater (Indrabela sp.) and capsule borer can be controlled with a mixture of vitex, neem,aloe,CalatropisorRogor@2ml/litofwater.Alternatively,sprayingEndosulfan@ 3 ml/lit of water can be used (Paramathma et al 2004, FACT Seminar 2007). Many countrieshavebannedendosulfan. 2.8.2 1. Preventivemeasures

Use resistant jatropha varieties. Presently there is no systematic knowledge about resistant varieties. However, nondiseased plants should be selected as "mother plants" forseedsandcuttings. Don'tplantJatrophacurcaswhenthepestpressureishigh.Highpestpressureisnormally foundtowardstheendoftherainyseasonwhentemperaturesandtherelativehumidity ishigh.Arecentstudy(Gagnaux2007)foundthatJatrophacurcasplantedwhenthepest pressurewashighshowedincreasedinfestationratesyearsafterplanting.

2.

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 3.

Sanitarymeasures: i) Disinfect tools used for cutting and pruning. Alcohol, chlorine and household cleaners like Lysol are quite efficient but may not be feasible for small farmers. Cleaning with water, grass or sand is not very efficient for removing latex but is betterthannothing.Ifafireisavailableflamingmaybethemostefficientlowcost method. ii) Ifpossibleavoidusingthesamecutting&pruningtoolsforcassavaandjatropha. iii) Uproot diseased plants. Inspection should preferably be done at least weekly duringthefirstfewmonths.Ifnurseriesareused,inspectionand"rogueing"should be part of the routine. Whiteflies, which are responsible for spreading important viruses,donotfeedonwiltedleaves,sotheywillusuallynottouchuprootedplants. However,thereareotherfactors,soitisadvisabletodrytheuprootedplantsata distancefromthefieldortoburyorburnthem. iv) Minimise damage to the Jatropha plants to reduce the risk of microorganisms entering. Prune with sharp tools only and always cut at an angle. Avoid creating horizontalcutswherewaterwilldrainslowly. Largedensestandsofanycropincreasetheincidenceofpestanddiseases.Trytouse: i) Widerspacinge.g.3by3orrowplantingwithatleast4mapart ii) Manysmallfieldsseparatedandisolatedfromeachotherinthelandscape iii) Boundaryplantinginsteadofplots iv) Mixedcropping Jatropha presscake has pesticidal properties and can be useful as a pesticide to protect recentlyestablishedjatrophabecauseyoungjatrophaplantshavelowlevelsoftoxins.

4.

5. 2.9

References

1. Dataonvermicompost.http://assamagribusiness.nic.in/NEDFi/map30.pdf 2. Dataondrycowmanure. www.umaine.edu/animalsci/Issues/Nutrient/Nutrients%20from%20Manure.ppt 3. Achten,W.M.J.,Verschot,L.,Franken,Y.J.,Mathijs,E.,Singh,V.P.,Aerts,R.,Muys,B.,2008. Jatrophabiodieselproductionanduse.BiomassandBioenergy32:10631084. 4. DaeyOuwens,K.,Francis,G.,Franken,Y.J.,Rijssenbeek,W.,RiedackerR.,Foidl,N., Jongschaap,R.,Bindraban,P.,2007.PositionPaperonJatrophacurcas,StateoftheArt, SmallandLargeScaleProjectDevelopment.FACTFoundation,Eindhoven,Netherlands. 5. Y.J.Franken,FACTFoundation 6. GagnauxP.C.A.(2008)IncidnciadaentomofaunaassociadaculturadeJatrofa (JatrophacurcalL)emMoambique,Thesis,UniversidadesEduardoMondlane, Mozambique 7. GrimmC,MaesJM.ArthropodfaunaassociatedwithJatrophacurcasL.inNicaragua:a synopsisofspecies,theirbiologyandpeststatus.In:GubitzGM,MittelbachM,TrabiM, editors.BiofuelsandindustrialproductsfromJatrophacurcasProceedingsfromthe symposiumJatropha97,Managua,Nicaragua,February2327.Graz,Austria:Dbv Verlag;1997.p.319.

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 8. Gbitz,G.M.,Mittelbach,M.,Trabi,M.,1999.Exploitationofthetropicaloilseedplant JatrophacurcasL.BioresourceTechnology67:7382. 9. Grimm,C.(1999).Evaluationofdamagetophysicnut(Jatrophacurcas)bytruebugs. EntomologiaExperimentalisetApplicata.Aug.92(2):127136.{a}InstituteofForest Entomology,ForestPathologyandForestProtection,UniversityofAgriculturalSciences, Vienna,Austria 10. Heller,J.1992.UntersuchungenbergenotypischeEigenschaftenundVermehrungsund AnbauverfahrenbeiderPurgiernu(JatrophacurcasL.)[Studiesongenotypic characteristicsandpropagationandcultivationmethodsforphysicnuts(Jatrophacurcas L.)].Dr.Kovac,Hamburg. 11. Heller,J.,1996.Physicnut.JatrophacurcasL.Promotingtheconservationanduseof underutilizedandneglectedcrops.InstituteofPlantGeneticsandCropPlantResearch, Gatersleben/InternationalPlantGeneticResourcesInstitute,Rome. 12. Henning,R.K.,JatrophacurcasL.2007.In:vanderVossen,H.A.M.&Mkamilo,G.S. (Editors).PlantresourcesofTropicalAfrica14.Vegetableoils.PROTAFoundation, Wageningen,Netherlands/BackhuysPublishers,Leiden,Netherlands/CTAWageningen, Netherlands.pp.103108. 13. HughesJDA,ShoyinkaSA(2003).Overviewofvirusesoflegumesotherthangroundnutin AfricainPlantvirologyinsubSaharanAfrican,ProceedingofPlantVirology,IITA,Ibadan, Nigeria.EdsHughesJDA,Odu.B.pp553568. 14. Janssen,B.H.,1991.Nutrientsinsoilplantrelations(inDutch:Nutrinteninbodemplant relaties).Collegereader.WageningenUniversity. 15. Jongschaap,R.E.E.,Corr,W.J.,Bindraban,P.S.,Brandenburg,W.A.,2007.ClaimsandFacts onJatrophacurcasL.PlantResearchInternationalB.V.,Wageningen/StichtingHet GroeneWoudt,Laren. 16. Kar,A.K.andAshokDas.1988.NewrecordsoffungifromIndia.IndianPhytopathol. 41(3):505. 17. Lozano,J.D.,Bellotti,A.,Reyes,J.A.Howeler,R.,Leihner,D.andDoll,J.(1981)Field ProblemsinCassava.CIAT,CaliColombia. 18. Meshram,P.B.andK.C.Joshi.1994.AnewreportofSpodopteralitura(Fab.)Boursin (Lepidoptera:Noctuidae)asapestofJatrophacurcasLinn.IndianForester120(3):273274. 19. Mnch,E.1986.DiePurgiernu(JatrophacurcasL.)Botanik,kologie,Anbau.Diploma thesis.UniversityHohenheim,Stuttgart. 20. NielsenF(2007)FNResearchProgressReportNo.1,2007,Project:Jatrophaoilforlocal developmentinMozambiqueSubtitle:BiofuelfordevelopmentandCommunalEnergy SelfSupplyReportingperiod:January2007July2007 21. Paramathma,M.,Parthiban,K.T.andNeelakantan,K.S.2004.Jatrophacurcas.Forest College&ResearchInstitute,TamilNaduAgriculturalUniversity,Coimbatore.48p.

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 22. Phillips,S.1975.AnewrecordofPestalotiopsisversicolorontheleavesofJatrophacurcas. IndianPhytopathol28(4):546. 23. RajS.K.,SnehiS.K.,KumarS.,HandM.S.andPathreU.(2008)Firstmolecular identificationofabegomovirusinIndiathatiscloselyrelatedtoCassavamosaicvirusand causesmosaicandstuntingofJatrophacurcasL.AustralasianPlantDiseaseNotepp.6972 24. Source:RudyRabbinge,presentedduringFACTseminarMay2008. 25. ShankerC.,DhyaniS.K.(2006)InsectpestsofJatrophacurcasL.andthepotentialfortheir management.CurrentScience(Bangalore)91,1623.Contact:Shanker,Chitra;NatlRes CtrAgroforestry,GwaliorRd,Jhansi284003,UttarPradesh,India 26. Singh,I.D.1983.Newleafspotdiseasesoftwomedicinalplants.MadrasAgric.J.70(7):490. 27. U.S.Dept.Agr.HandbookNo.165.1960.HardinesszonesoftheUnitedStatesandCanada, p.ii.InIndexofPlantDiseasesintheUnitedStates,U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice, Washington,D.C. 28. FACTFoundation,Y.J.Franken 29. W.Rijssenbeek,FACTFoundation 30. Agriculturalvalueofsoiltypes:http://www.recreationalland.co.uk/soilclassification.htm 31. FlemmingNielsen,FACTAdvisor/BananaHill

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28

HARVESTING

Mainauthor:WinfriedRijssenbeek,withcontributionsofTitusGalema 3.1 Introduction

Theharvestingofthejatrophaseedsisadifficultprocessduetotheripeningcharacteristicsof thejatrophafruit.Duetotheseripeningissues,theharvestingofjatrophaismainlydoneby hand.Theharvestingprocessbecomesaverylabourintensiveprocess,andhasahighimpact on the production costs of jatropha oil. Harvesting, therefore, is an important aspect to consider in the entire production process. There have been many attempts to improve this process by mechanisation. These mechanical improvements are still under development, however,andhavebeenappliedonlyinpilotprojects. To provide insight into the major issues of the harvesting process of jatropha, this chapter discussesthefollowingaspects:theharvestinganddryingoffruit,thedehullingandstorageof seeds,andthebasicplanningissuesofaplantation1.AnnexBprovidespracticaltipsandrules ofthumbregardingtheharvestingpractice. 3.2 Harvestingtechnologies

One of the main impediments to producing biooil from the jatropha plant, is the relatively high cost of harvesting. These high costs, compared to other oilproducing crops, have a numberofcauses: The jatropha fruit ripens over a long period, requiring weekly picking for weeks up to manymonthsayear. Theunevenripeningofthefruitmeansonlysomeofthefruitofabunchcanbeharvested atonetime:(i.e.yellow,brownandblackfruitsareripeandcanbepicked). Thejatrophafruitcansofaronlybehandpicked.Thisrequiresalotoftime,aseachfruit issmall(e.g.threeseedsinafruitweighabout2grams). Theproductionofjatrophafruitonahectarebasisismoderate:i.e.thedensityoffruitsin thefieldislow,requiringmoretransportdistancesinthefield. Allinall,thereisarelativelylowyieldperhectare,alongharvestingseason,asmallfruitsize that requires a lot of hand picking and transport of the pickers, and thus is very labour intensive. This section first elaborate on the actual picking rates and a labour cost threshold. Next the possible mechanical harvesting solutions are discussed, followed by the ongoing technology developments. 3.2.1 Manualpickingofjatrophaseeds

Itisgoodtofirstknowthatthedefinitionofpickingisnotalwayswelldefined.Forexample,is itthepickingproper?Ordoesitalsoincludebaggingtothedryingarea?Andtransporttothe pressingplant?Italsoisnotalwaysclearifitconcernsdryseedorfreshseed.Dataofgeneral

Thetermplantationisusedforfieldwithjatropha,notintheconnotationofEstateplantation.We refertothepreviouschaptersonhowjatrophacanbegrownassinglecropashedgeorintercropped.

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 pickingratesarefoundinanumberofstudies.Theindividualdatashowalargevariation,but anaverageofallthesefigureshowever,providesusefulindications,asshownbelow: Nicaragua50kg/dayto80kg.ThebestpickersinNicaraguaharvestupto30kgoffruit/ hour,whichwouldmeanapproximately18kgofseeds/hr,or144kg/day. Tanzania assumption: Picking seeds. Between 2 and 10 kg of seeds can be picked per hour,(itdependsonthedensityoftheplants). Tanzania:collectionofseeds:2kgofdryseedsin1hour. Tanzania52kg/dryseedperday. Indiaassumption:Hoursnecessarytoharvesttheseeds125/MT.Thiscomesto64kgdry seed/day India:8kgofdryseeds/Ihrwork Sudan:12kgofdryseeds/4hrwork Indonesia:60kgofdryseeds/8hrday(modelbased) Congo:4050kgofdryseeds/day Brazil:ca48kgdryseed/day Nicaragua:64kgdryseed/day Honduras:40kgdryseed/day Theexamplesshowthatthepickingratesvaryconsiderablybycountryandwithinacountry. Lowfiguresmightbemeasuredinareasoffieldhedgesorlowyieldplantations,whereseed density might be low and picking difficult because of height. If all the data are analyzed it becomesclearthat1)thereisalargevariationinpickingefficiency,2)thatpickingefficiency variesbetweenwildstands(lowyieldingharvestsof2030kgperpersonperday)andwell managedplantations(highyieldingfrom4070kgperpersonperday). How does this affect costs? In a number of case studies where relatively high picking rates wereused(60kgdryseed/day),theoperatingcostsofajatrophaplantationofapproxUS$600 perhaperyear,includeroughlyUS$200inharvesting,morethan30%oftheoperatingcost. Currently, under the presumption that only manual harvesting is possible, it appears that jatropha is not a good choice for planting for a country where the labour costs exceed approximately US$4/day. This rule of thumb is based on experience in several projects over theperiod19962009.Thealternativeismechanicalpicking,andalthoughnotfullydeveloped, thismightbringdowncostsinthefuture. 3.2.2 Mechanicalharvestingsolutions

At the inception of most crop developments, picking was done by hand. But with increasing labour costs, mechanical systems were developed and allowed for substantial expansion of areas.Forjatropha,thisdevelopmentisalsotakingplace.Theobviouswayoflookingatthe problemiscomparingplantswithsimilarsizeoffruitandripeningpatternsandhowtheyare mechanicallyharvested.Thenextstepistotrytoadaptthetechnologytojatropha.Plantswith similarsizedfruitareanumberofnuttrees,likewalnut,andfruittreeslikeapricotandcherry. Alsooliveandgrapescanbecompared,buttoalesserextent. Jatrophafruitarebestharvestedwhenyellow.Seedsfromdriedfruitshaveslightlyloweroil content,whilegreenfruit arelowinoil.Jatrophaseedsbuild up FreeFattyAcids(FFA)once theyhaveripenedandlieontheground.Severalmechanicalharvestingtechniquesforplants with a similar fruit size and shape as jatropha exist. These techniques are discussed below, togetherwiththesuitabilityforharvestingofthejatrophafruits:

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TreeorstemshakersAmechanicalgripsystemisputtothestemandthenitisshaken sothatallripefruitsfalldown.Forjatrophathismightworkifthegrip/toolhastheability to open the fruit when drying, or when the yellow fruit will fall down when shaken. Experiencetellsthatshakingdoesnotalwaysprovidetheexpectedresult. NetstopreventfruitsfallingonthegroundThesenetspreventthefruitfrombruising androttingontheground.Forjatropha,suchnetscanbeinterestingiftheyellowingor ripefruitwouldeasilybeshakenoffwhilethegreenoneswouldnot.Jatrophafruit,once ontheground,willlosetheirseeds.Seedsdonoteasilydecayontheground.Netsneed to be relatively small gauge as the fruit/seeds are of small diameter of less than 6 to 8 mm.Thedisadvantageofnetsisthecollectionofleavesandotherdebristhatconcentrate especiallywhentheseasonoffruitingislong. StrippersInthiscasethebranchesarerakedandallfruitarestrippedoffthebranches. ThisposesaproblemintheripeningoftheJatrophafruit.Ifthefruitripenoveralonger period,thestrippingofthebranchesisnotadequate.Thestrippingalsowouldrequirethe branches to be strong and flexible enough not to break. Unless jatropha plants can be designedsuchthattheripeningisconcentratedinoneperiod,thismethodisnotfeasible. RobotswithpickingarmsR&Dinrobotsismovingfastandinhighyieldingfruittheycan befeasibleastheproductpriceallows.Forjatropha,robotswithpickingarmsareunlikely tobesuccessfuldueto1)lowdensityofyieldoverthesurfaceandintime2)lowcostsof theendproduct. Vacuum cleaners One can also choose to forego the best oil content. In this case, its possible to vacuum clean the soil of the seeds on a regular basis. In this method one shoulddesignthemachinesuchthatthesuctionforceallowsonlytheseedstobelifted andtaken,leavingthesoilaggregatebehind.Next,usingaseparatorlikeacyclonemight separatetheseedsfromotherdebris.Thismethodmightworkforjatropha,ifthevariety reallydropsthefruit. OtheroptionsTherearechemicalsthatmightallowfruittobelessfixedontheterminal. Thesemightbesprayed,butagainthecostsmightbeprohibitive. Combinations of these systems Of the above methods, combinations can be made. These options might also include the use of handpicking, in which the pickers would be movingonachariotalongthejatrophabushlines.

It is too early to say what the best methods are and what combinations might work best. If plantsarenotselectedormodifiedtoconcentrateripeninginashortperiod,itislikelythata manualpickingwithtractorchariotsmightbeastep,vacuumcleaningmightalsodevelop,or carefullystripping. Research&developmentintomechanicalharvestinghasadvancedwithcompaniesrushingto developmechanicalharvesters.AtJatrophaWorldMiami2008,apresentationwasgivenbya group of companies like Viridas PLC and DreamFuels Ltd. DreamFuels Ltd has developed a prototypeofamechanicalharvestingmachineforJatrophaplantations,whichtheyplantouse intheirnewlyestablishedplantationinLaBelle,Florida. Viridas PLC, a Brazilian company, has developed a prototype mechanical harvesting for jatrophaplantationsbasedonthe"shakers"usedintheoliveindustry.Basedonstatisticsfor the olive industry, one worker can hand pick just over 4 kilos per hour .With a mechanized shakerpicker,oneworkercanpick635kilosperhour.Oncemechanicalharvestinghasbeen developed,itholdsatremendouspromisetoreducelabourintensityandcost.

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 Recently,attheHamburgJatrophaseminar,Nov2008,neithercompanyannouncedanynews, sothestatusoftheirmechanicalharvestingdevelopmentsisunknown. 3.3 Seedextractionfromfruits

Author:TitusGalema The next activity after harvesting is dehulling of the jatropha fruit, which is the process of removing the fruit shell from the seeds. Considering the shape, texture and size of jatropha fruititcanbeconcludedthatnocomplicatedtechnologyisneededtoseparatethefruitshells from the seeds inside. The description given hopefully provides some ideas to handle the dehullingissuewithlocalsolutions.Dehullingcanbedonemanually,semimechanizedorfully mechanized. Manually dehulling is a timeconsuming activity that can be mechanized easily. Theprocessexistsoutoftwosteps:crushingandseparation. Dehullingcanbedonewithfresh(yellow)fruitsorwithdry(brown)fruits.Theshellofafresh jatrophafruitisapproximately5mmthick,whiletheshellofthedriedfruitisapproximately1 mmthick.Dehullingthelargersizedfreshfruithastheadvantageofprovokingmorefriction, whichresultsinahigherdehullingefficiencythandehullingofdryfruit.Thefruitshellscome outofthedehullermixedwiththeseedsandtheyneedtobeseparated. A few methods are known and discussed below. At this time there is a scope for further developmentoftechnologiesinrelationtologistics. 3.3.1 Dehulling

Thedehullingprincipleisbasedonprovokingslightpressureandfrictiononthefruitswithin thedehullerthatresultsintheopeningandcominglooseofthefruitshells.Therearedifferent kinds of dehullers; from manual driven to motor driven. Most of the existing dehullers are designed for industrial uses and large volumes. Similar dehullers are used for coffee and peanuts. There are also small, locally made types in use, which are made of local available materials,usingmanpower. 3.3.1.1 UniversalNutSheller(UNS)

Thefirstinterestingexampleofasemimechanizeddehullerisahanddrivenbellshapedevice madeofconcreteandsteeldesignedbyJoostBrandisoftheFullBellyProject.Thefrictionis provokedbytheverticalturningmillandtheouterbellshapedhollowconcreteshell.Withthe adjustable lock nut on the top of the vertical axe, the UNS can be adjusted to every desired fruit size. The UNS is made with glass fibre malls, which are to be filled with concrete and upright metal rods. The metal parts are made in standard sizes and can be found in most developingcountries.Thissimplebuteffectivedevicehasacapacityof250kgoffreshfruitper hour, which is equivalent to 125 kg ofdry seeds. It is about 60 centimetres high and 35 cm. wideandweighsabout40kilograms. Thisdehullercanbeconnectedtoapedalforcedormotorizedtransmissionof1HP.

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Figure31TheUniversalNutSheller

ThecostofthematerialsofthisdehullerisaboutUS$30intheFullBellyProject. Twodaysoflabourareneeded topreparethemetalpieces,poorthecementinthemoulds and assemble the dehuller. If assembled correctly, no maintenance is required for this UniversalNutSheller.OnedisadvantageoftheUNSisthatitcanbreakeasilyifitfalls ThesupplierofthisdecentralizednutshellerisBYSA,Yoro,Yoro(Honduras).Amoredetailed descriptionontheUniversalNutShellerassemblingcanbefoundontheGotaVerdewebsite: www.gotaverde.org. InMali,thesesimplehanddehullerswerealsobuiltandusedforjatrophafruitdehulling.Itis claimedthatthisimprovesthemanualhandlabourby5times.Theyaresimpletomakelocally ascanbeseeninFigure31.MaliBiocarburant,activeinMaliwithsmallfarmers,hasobtained thetechnologyfromtheFullBellyProjectgroup(USA),whichdesignsappropriatetechnology. 3.3.1.2 Largesizeindustrialdehuller

Anexistingexampleofalargesizeindustrialtypedehullerforjatrophaistheonedesignedby the projector tempate in Leon Nicaragua. It works with a horizontal rotating cylinder (100 rotationsperminute)ofmesh,whichprovokesthefrictioninthefruitagainstthefixedmesh on the upper side. This mesh can be adjusted to the fruit size to optimize the dehulling process.An8HPdieselenginedrivesthedehullerandtheseparatorsimultaneously.Ithasa capacity of 1000 kg of fresh fruit per hour (yielding up to 500 kg of seeds per hour) and consumes0.75litresoffuelperhour. ThemachinecostsaboutUS$2000.Itsoveralldimensionsare70x100x150cmandweighs about120kg.

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Figure32Dehullerproyectotempate

For dehulling, mechanized versions are available in most countries. See example from Indonesia(EkaBukit,www.kreatifgroup.com) 3.3.2 Separationofseedsandfruitshells

Inpracticetherearetwomethodstoseparateseedsandfruitshells. 1. Asimplewaybyhand 2. Byusingamechanicalseparator In both cases the principle of separation is based on the size difference between the seeds (small)andthefruitshells(yellowandlarge).Thedifferenceoffreshfruitshellsandseedsis greater than of dried fruits (brown and shrunken) and seeds, making fresh fruit easier to separate. 3.3.2.1 Smallscale(byhand)

When a manualoperated small dehuller is used, the mix of seeds and fruit shells can be separated by using a sieve, which is shaken by hand, to let the seeds pass trough the mesh whilethefruitshellsareretained.Thisallowsthejatrophagrowertodehullthefruitdirectlyin the field where the shells can be used as a fertilizer without the need of drying areas and transport. 3.3.2.2 Largescale(mechanical)

With a mechanical separator, the seeds are separated from the shell by a rotating hollow cylinderofmeshthatisininclined position.The meshsizecanbeadjustedtotheseedsize. Theshellsfalloutatthebottomendoftherotationcylinderandthefruitshellscomeoutthe lowerendofthecylinder,whichisinclined.Overallsizeoftheseparatoris100x200x300cm andcostsaboutUS$700.

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Figure33Sketchandphotographofaseparator(usedintheGotaVerdeproject,Honduras)

Whenshellsandseedsofdryfruitscannotbeseparatedeasily,theyshouldbeseparatedwith ablowerorwhennopowerisavailableinthefield,bywind. 3.3.3 Dryingfruit

Fordehullingdryfruit,ofcoursethefruitneedsfirsttodry.Inaddition,transportingwetfruit, addstotheweightandcosts,makingdryingevenmorebeneficial.Ithasbeenreportedthat directsunhasanegativeeffectonsowingseedviability,andthatkindofseedsshouldbedried intheshade. Themanualdehullingandfirstdryingcanbedoneonthefieldorinacentralarea.Whenfruit arepackedwithoutaerationtheymightrotanditmightmaketheseedsdirty.Forthepurpose of designing a system of solar drying and posterior storing some important parameters are discussed here. The area for drying should ideally consist of a concrete floor or a simple agriculturalplastic.Aconcretefloorhasmoresolidityandcanbeworkedonmoreefficiently. Thefloorshouldbeslightlyinclinedsothatrainwilleasilyrunoffandnotstagnate.Ifdehulling machinesareusedonthefloor,itmightrequireasteelmattingandminimumdepthtohold theweightofsmallfrontloaders.Localcontractorscanprovidetherightdesigndependingon theuseofmachinery. 3.4 Dryingandstorageofseeds

Whentheseedsareseparatedfromthefruitshellstheyhavetobestoredforuse.Itisbestis totransporttheseedsfromthefieldtotheprocessingarea.Transportmodesaretractorcarts, donkey carts, bikes or manual. The seeds require drying to a 6% moisture content (ideally) before pressing. The drying process takes place for the individual seeds, while storage takes placeinsacks.Thissectionelaboratesmoreonhowtodryandstoreseeds.Italsodiscusses thestorageconditionsfordifferentendapplications. 3.4.1 Dryingofseeds

The yield per ha, period of harvesting and the duration of drying determine the size of the drying area needed. If one looks at the area needed, it is estimated that one seed requires about2cm,so1000seeds,whichcanweigh550to800grams,require0.2m(averagewould be1400seeds/kg).Perkgofseed,thiswouldbearound0.25m.Afterdryingtheseedscanbe storedinwovensacks(aeration)forfurtherstorage.

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 3.4.2

Storageareaofsacks

Thestorageareaneededdependsonthevolumetobestored,whichisafunctionofboththe production seasonality and the press operation period during the year. It is well understood thattoreducepresscapacityinstallationcostsandoperationalcostsforrunningthepress,one can best have presses operating throughout the year. However with a need of a continuous supply,thisrequiresnormallysomestorage,especiallyifthejatrophaharvestisseasonal. Intheexamplebelow,afirstestimateisgivenonthemaxstoragecapacityforanareaof100 ha,withanannualproductioncapacityof500MTandcontinuousdemandof42MT/monthfor theoilpress. TheharvestseasonisfromDecembertoJune.Theyieldvariesovertime.Theminimumyieldin MT/monthisinDecember(30MT)andtheoptimumisinMarch(120MT).Thedemandis42 MT/month. The required storage capacity is therefore the production per month minus the demand. The maximum required storage capacity is 220 MT (sum storage need January June).Inthisexampleanoilpresscanoperateapproxcontinuouslyoverthewholeyear. Table31Storageapproximationsfor100haareaofcultivation
Parameter Production Demand Storageneed Maxstorage Maxstorage Unit MT/month MT/month MT/month MT/month MT(DecJun) Jan 50 42 8 Feb 80 42 38 Mar Apr 120 42 78 78 100 42 58 May Jun 70 42 28 50 42 8 220 Jul 0 42 42 42 Aug Sep 0 42 42 42 0 42 42 42 Oct 0 42 42 42 Nov Dec 0 42 42 42 30 42 12

Maxdepletion MT/month

Thebulkdensityofjatrophaseedisestimatedatca400kg/m3.Thisisforairdryseedof0.8 gramsperseed. The design of a storage shed needs to have a large roof and an open or semiopen wall structure. It can be similar as one used to store maize. It should be well aerated and the containers should be open bins, just like those for maize. Yet jatropha seed is not eaten, so fumigationisnotneeded.Becausesome400kgpercubicmetercanbestored,thenetvolume for this storage shed would be 220/0.4= 550 m. If one converts that to a gross area (for pathways,etc.)byafactorof2thiswouldneed1100m.Withanaverageheightof3mthis wouldbeabout366mor19mx19m. 3.4.3 Storageconditions

Storage conditions certainly will affect the oil quality. Seeds for oil production require more dedicatedstorageconditionsthanseedsusedasplantingmaterial.Thestorageconditionsfor bothapplicationsareexplainedbelow. 3.4.3.1 Seedstorageforplanting

Seedsareoilyanddonotstoreforlong.Undertropicalconditionsseedsolderthan15months show viability below 50%. High levels of viability and low levels of germination shortly after harvestindicateinnate(primary)dormancy. Seedsforplantingshouldbedriedtolowmoisturecontent(5%7%)andstoredunderdarkand coolconditionsincontainers.Asseedsbreatheslightlytheyshouldnotbepackedairtight.Ata

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 temperatureof20Ctheseedscanretainhighviabilityforatleastoneyear.However,because ofthehighoilcontenttheseedscannotbeexpectedtobestoredforaslongasmostcommon species. The seed stored in ambient conditions maintains viability for 78 months. Seed viability begins to deteriorate after eight months. Therefore, seed being used for plantation shouldbekeptatlowtemperaturetoretainitsviabilityandabilitytoeffectivelyemerge. 3.4.3.2 Seedstorageforoilextraction

Theoilindustryrequirescontinuoussupplyofrawmaterialforoilextractionandesterification. Theseedscontainingtheoilmustbeproperlystoredandpreparedforextraction,tomaintain highqualityinthefinalproduct.Thelongstorageofseeds(morethan8months)isreportedto affectoilqualityandquantityhencelongstorageshouldbeavoided.Longexposuretosunwill alsodegradeoilquality.Fornormalstorage5%7%ofmoistairorsundryingisadequate,the periodofwhichdependsonanumberoffactorssuchsunshinehours,humidity,temperature, andwind. Theseedstorageshould beproperly aerated.Thiscanbedoneinsilossimilartomaize. The dryingofseedsupto4%moistureenhancesstorability.However,thedryertheseedthelower theefficiencyofthepress.Thereforeitisrecommendedtopresstheseedathighermoisture content,e.g.between7%10%,andpreventlongstorageoftheseed. 3.5 1. References www.malibiocarburant.com

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38

OILPRESSINGANDPURIFICATION

Mainauthor:PeterBeerenswithcontributionsfromJanskevanEijck Glossary: Oil recovery rate: the percentage of the oil that is removed. A recovery rate of 100% meansalltheoilisremovedfromtheseed.Forjatrophathiswouldbe0.41literperkg seed. SVO(StraightVegetableOil):thisisoilafterpressingandcleaningthatisreadytobeused variouspurposes.AlsoreferredtoasPPO(pureplantoil). Crudeoil:Jatrophaoildirectlyafterpressing Bleaching: an adsorptive process that removes all gross impurities such as meals, metal components, peroxides, products of oxidation, soap residue from alkali refining. Hydratablegumscanalsoberemovedinthisstepifthelevelisbelow55ppm[9]. Deodorizing: the only good way to remove Sulphur. In addition it removes some fatty acids[9]. Freefattyacids(FFA):existincrudeplantoilsasadeteriorationbyproductofhydrolysis. In their free form, they are soluble in oil and insoluble in water and can therefore not easilybeseparatedfromtheoil[9]. Hydrolysis:theconversionofglyceridesintofattyacidsandglycerol. 4.1 Introduction

Basically, the process of gaining oil from oilseeds is as old as mankind. Although the means thatareusedforthispurposehaveevolved,itstillentailsthecrushingoftheseedstoextract theoil.Thereisnotmuchpracticalexperiencewithpressingofjatrophaseedstodrawupon. GTZ(GermanAgencyforTechnologicalCooperation)wasoneofthefirstorganisationstobe involved in jatropha pressing in the late 80s and early 90s. New studies on expelling and cleaningofjatrophastartedatotherinstitutions,includingtheWUR (Wageningen University andResearchCentre)andRUG(UniversityGroningen)intheNetherlands.Inadditiontothese big research institutes, smaller, practically oriented initiatives by jatropha enthusiasts have yieldedinterestingresults. Thetotalproductionprocessfromjatrophaseedstooilisdisplayedbelow.Foreachprocess steptheparagraphthattreatsthisspecifictopicisindicated.

Figure 41 Production steps for jatropha SVO production. Degumming and neutralization are only required if high amounts of FFA (free fatty acids) and phosphor are present. The values in the DIN V51605standards(Table42)areagoodreference.

Thischapterdiscussesmechanicaloilextractionmethodsandoilqualityaspectsforjatropha oilproduction.Mechanicaloilextractionmeansusingsomesortofpressingmachinetoforce

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 oiloutoftheoilseeds.Multipletechnologiesareavailableforoilextraction.Theselectionis mainlyatradeoffbetweentheacceptablecomplexity,costsoftechnologyandtherequiredoil quality. Production scale is an important limiting factor in the choice of technology. Oil extraction is one aspect of oil production. After pressing, the jatropha oil needs further purification before it can be used. Different ways of solidliquid separation are therefore discussed. Section 4.2 treats the subject of mechanical oil extraction. Press technologies are discussedandsuggestionsforjatrophaaremadeinsection4.3.Section4.4elaboratesonoil cleaningmethods.Generalqualityaspectsforvegetableoiltobeusedasfuelarediscussedin section4.5.Section4.6treatsqualityrelatedstorageissues. 4.2 Mechanicaloilextraction

Therearedifferentwaystoextractoilfromoilseeds.Onewayismechanicalexpressionusinga machinetoexertpressureontheoilseedsinordertoremovetheoil.Asecondmethodforoil removalissolventextraction,whereasolventisaddedtoprecrushedseedsinwhichtheoil dissolves. The oil can later be recovered from the solvent. In industrial oil mills, theses two processesmechanicalexpressionandsolventextractionareoftencombinedtoobtainthe highest yields. The oil recovery from mechanical extraction is limited to 9095% of the oil presentintheseeds,whereassolventextractioncanyieldupto99%.Solventextractionisa complex,largescalesolutioninvolvingdangerouschemicals. Since this handbook focuses on smallscale applications, solvent extraction should not be considered a possibility. Mechanical extraction using an expeller is the most popular oil extractionmethodforconsumableoilsasitissimple,continuous,flexibleandsafe. 4.2.1 Cleaningandcheckingtheseeds

Cleaning and checking the seeds can reduce machine wear. Most contamination consists of sand,woodymaterialandstones,thelastofwhicharemostdestructivetotheexpeller.The mostcommonwaytoremovestonesandsandisbythresherora(vibrating)sieve.Thechoice betweenmanualandmechanizedsievingdependsonproductioncapacity. 4.2.2 Thepressingprocess

Duringthepressingprocesstheseedsarefedintotheseedhopperandthensimultaneously crushedandtransportedinthedirectionofarestriction(alsoreferredtoasdieornozzle)by a rotating screw (often called worm). As the feeding section of the expeller is loosely filled withseedmaterial,thefirststepoftheprocessconsistsofrolling,breaking,displacementand theremovalofairfromintermaterialvoids.Assoonasthevoidsdiminishtheseedsstartto resisttheappliedforcethroughmutualcontactanddeformation.Thecontinuoustransportof newmaterialfromthehoppercausespressuretoincreasetoalevelneededtoovercomethe nozzle. At this point the press is in operation. The builtup pressure causes the oil to be removedfromthesolidmaterialinsidetheexpeller.Formoredetailsee[2]. 4.2.3 Importantparameterswhenpressing

When designing or installing a facility to press jatropha seeds it is useful to know the main variablesaffectingtheoilrecoveryandoilquality.Theinformationgivenbelowappliestothe expellingprocessingeneralandmightnotapplytospecificcases[2].Figure42subsequently summarizestheinfluenceandimpactofthevariables.

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Oil recovery Pressure Temperature Throughput Energy/liter Press parameters RPM restriction size Seed treatments heating flaking moisture content hull fraction boiling -

Figure 42 The effect of press parameters on output and process parameters. The upward arrows indicateanincreaseofavariableandadownwardarrowsadecrease[2].RPMindicatestherotational speed of the screw in rounds per minute, restriction size is the opening where presscake leaves the expeller.Flakingisgrindingintosmallpieces.

4.2.3.1

Oilrecovery

Theamountofoilthatcanberecoveredfromtheseedsisaffectedby: Throughput: the amount of material that is processed per unit of time (kg/hr). Higher throughputgivesloweroilrecoveryperkgofseeds,duetoshorterresidencetimeinthe press.Throughputcanbeaffectedbychangingtherotationalspeedofthescrew. Oil point pressure: the pressure at which the oil starts to flow from the seeds. If seeds can, for example, be manipulated so that the oil point pressure is reduced, it becomes easiertoextracttheoil. Pressure: at higher pressure more oil is recovered from the seeds. However, the higher pressure forces more solid particles through the oil outlet of the press. This makes cleaning more difficult. Typical operating pressures for enginedriven presses are in a rangeof50150bar. Nozzlesize:smallernozzlesizeleadstohigherpressureandthereforehigheroilyield.An optimumshouldbefoundforeachindividualpress. Moisturecontentoftheseeds:thisisrelatedtostorage.Anoptimalmoisturecontentof 26%wasidentified.Moisturecontentof>8%shouldbeconsideredtoohumidandneeds moredrying. Hull content of the seeds: This is a difficult variable. Ideally one would like to press jatrophawithoutitshull.However,thehullappearsvitaltopressurebuildupinsidethe press. Removal of the hull would require less energy for pressing and result in zero presence of hull fibers in the crude oil. Unfortunately seeds without a hull turn into a pasteinsidestandardexpellers,whichstickstothewormandkeepsrotatingalongwithit. Adaptationofthepressisrequiredtoincreasethefrictionwiththepresschamber. 4.2.3.2 Oilquality

Theoilqualityisaffectedby: Moisturecontentofseeds:accordingtofuelnormsthewatercontentinSVOshouldbe below0.08%(Table42).HighmoisturecontentmightalsoincreasetheformationofFFA duringstorage. Processtemperature:thefrictioninsidetheexpellergeneratesheat,whichispassedon totheoilandpresscake.Abovecertaintemperaturesphosphorisformed,whichleadsto carbon deposits on fuel injectors and combustion chambers. For rapeseed oil, for example,themaximumtemperatureoftheoilduringtheprocessis5560C.Forjatropha the exact temperature at which phosphor starts to dissolve in the oil has not yet been determined.Avaluecomparabletorapeseedisexpected.

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 4.3

Hullcontent oftheseeds:lowerhullfractionintheseedsleadstolowerpressuresand thus less hull fraction in the crude oil. Partial dehulling is a direction for further investigation. Pressure: higher pressure leads to higher temperature and more solid particles in the crudeoil.

Presstechnologiesandexpellertypes

A distinction can be made between handoperated oil presses (e.g. ram press) and mechanicallydrivenones(e.g.expeller).Forsmallpressingcapacities,intherangeof110kg seed/hr,rampressesandexpellersarebothsuitableoptions.Forpressingmorethan10kg/hr, handoperatedpressesarenolongerpossibleandexpellersshouldbeused. Differentcategorizationscanbemadebetweentheseveraltypesofpresses: 1. Continuousoperationvs.batchoperation 2. Manually driven vs. enginedriven, where for the latter a distinction can be made betweenelectricalenginesanddieselengines 3. Coldpressedvs.hotpressed. Intheoilprocessingindustry,adistinctionismadebetweendifferentprocesstypes.Thefirst distinctionisbetweenbatchandcontinuous.Mosthandoperatedpressesoperateinbatches. Rampressesusethecombinationofpistonandcylindertocrushtheseedsandsqueezeout theoil.Operationofthepressiseasyandcanbedonemanually.Expellerscanbeoperatedin acontinuousway.Asnotedearlier,foroilproductionofmorethan5liters/hour,continuous expellingisanecessity. Forruralapplicationsindevelopingcountries,bothmanualandsmallenginepoweredpresses areviable,dependingonthelocationandtheapplication.Soapormedicinaloilcanbemadein small quantities with a hand press. In case of fuel production processes, enginepowered pressesaremoresensible. The third distinction is between cold pressing and hot pressing. Coldpressed means the temperatureoftheoildoesnotexceed5560Cduringtheprocess.Forhotpressingexternal heatisoftenappliedtoseedsorpressandthetemperaturecanincreasetoover100C.Hand operatedpressesfallinthecategoryofcoldpressing.Duetothehigherpressuresandfriction in an engine driven expeller, coldpressing temperatures will be exceeded. Cold pressing is most desirable for jatropha, although it is not always possible due to high friction in the expeller. 4.3.1 Rampresses

ThemostwellknownrepresentativeofthiscategoryistheBielenbergrampress.Basedonan existing design of a ram press that was expensive, inconvenient and inefficient, Bielenberg madethedesignofhispressthatwouldbecheap,durable,locallymaintainableandeasyto use. Several hundreds of these presses have been manufactured by local workshops in Tanzania,leadingtogoodqualityatanattractiveprice,whichhasleadgogoodadoption.The Bielenbergpresswasoriginallydesignedtopresssunflowerseeds.Itisapplicableforjatropha seeds as well, although with reduced efficiency. The capacity is limited to 23 kg/hr. At a recoveryrateof7080%andanoildensityof0.918kg/literthismeans<1liter/hr.

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Figure43TheBielenbergrampressoperatedat KakuteLtd.,Tanzania[12] Figure44CloseupoftheBielenbergpressing mechanism.Noticetheautomaticdischargeof thepressingchamberandthestopperintheseed funnel[12]

4.3.2 Expellers

Expellersarealsoreferredtoasscrewpresses.However,inthisreportonlythewordexpeller will be used as it describes what the process does is expels oil from solids. Nearly all the mechanized presses that can be found on the market use a continuous pressing process. Usually this involves an endless screw that rotates in a cage and continuously kneads and transportstheseedmaterialfromtheentryfunneltoanozzlewherepressureisbuiltup.Over thelengthofthescrewtheoilisexpelledfromtheseedsandflowsfromthesideofthescrew to a reservoir. At the nozzle the seed material is maximum compressed to a press cake. All expellerscanbecategorizedaseithercylinderholetypeorstrainertype(seeFigure45and Figure46).

Figure45Schematicdrawingofcylinderholetype press.Noticethenozzlethatcanbechanged[4]

Figure46Schematicdrawingofthestrainertype press.Noticethechokeadjustmentthatisonthe oppositesideofthechokeitself[4]

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 4.3.2.1

Cylinderhole

In the cylinderhole type, the oil outlet is in the form of holes at the end of the cylindrical presscage(Figure47).Theseedgetsarisingcompressioninthedirectionofthepresshead. The oil is pressed out of the seeds near the outlet holes and drained from them. Special cavities near the nozzle prevent the cake/seedmix from sticking to the screw. Otherwise, therewouldbenoforwardmovement.Thepresscakeispressedthroughchangeablenozzles andformedtopellets.Inmosttypesofpressesthenozzleisheatedtoavoidblockingofthe presscake.Cylinderholetypepressesexistforsmallcapacities(uptoapproximately200kg/h seed). For different types of oilseeds the press can be adjusted by changing the nozzle diametersandscrewrotationspeed. 4.3.2.2 Strainer

Thestrainertypepresshasanoiloutletoverthefulllengthofthepresscagethatservesasa strainer. The strainer is actually a cylindrical cage builtup of separate horizontal bars or verticalringsarrangedat asmallinterspacing.Thespacing betweenthestrainerbarscanbe either fixed or adjustable. Strainer presses come with various screw design although the principle of all screws is similar. The screw diameter increases towards the nozzle thereby increasingthecompressionofthesolidmaterial.Screwsforcontinuouscompressionaremade fromonepiece.Forsomeseeds,theoilrecoveryishigheraftermultiplecompressionsteps.A screwwithmultiplecompressionsectioncanbeusedtocreatemultiplecompressionstagesto increase oil outlet. For flexibility, subsections of different size and shape are often available. Otherpressesareequippedwithdifferentscrews. During the flow of the seed through the press, the oil is drained via the strainer, which surroundsthepressingspace.Thechokesizecanbeadjustedtochangethepressureleveland distribution.Forseveraltypesofoilseeds,itisnecessarytochangethegapsizeofthestrainer bars (interspacing) where the oil comes out, to get an optimal yield and cleanness of the vegetable oil. In addition the choke size and the rotation speed should be adjusted when pressing different kinds of seed. Strainer presses exist in a wide capacity range from approximately15kgofseed/hrto10tonnesofseed/hr.

Figure47TheDanishBTpressisanexampleofa cylinderholetypepress.Noticethenozzle,leftin front[10] Figure48TheSundharaoilexpellerisa representativeofthestrainertypepress.Onthe rightthechokeadjustment[12]

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 Doesitmatterwhichofthesetwopresstypesyouuse?ExperiencefromFACTindicatesthat forjatrophaitdoesmatter.Itwasconcludedthatstrainerpressesarepreferredovercylinder hole presses. In Table 41 the two expeller types are qualitatively compared in suitability to pressjatrophaseeds. Table41ComparisonbetweenstrainerandcylinderholepressbasedonFACTexperience
Attribute Throughput Easeofmaintenance Price Oilyield Robustness Easeofoperation Wearresistance Cylinderholepress +/ +/ ++ +/ Strainerpress ++ +/ + + + + +

4.3.3

Powerrequired

To press oilseeds, as in all production processes, power is needed. Small presses like the Bielenbergrampresscanbepoweredbyhand,byoneorseveraloperators.Capacityisthen typically 35 kg seed/h. One hour of press operation costs 3000 kilojoules if operated by 2 persons2 and roughly produces 1 liter of oil. This comes down to an energy consumption of 0.85kWh/liter. Larger capacity presses, especially the expellers, are engine driven. In general, electrical enginesarechosenbecauseoftheireaseofinstallation,coupling&operationandlowcost.As aruleofthumb12.5%oftheenergycontentoftheproducedoilisusedasinputpower[2].It is, however, perfectly possible to couple the press directly to a diesel engine to be independentofgridthedieselenginecanevenrunonthejatrophaoilthatitispressing.In caseanexpellerispoweredbyadieselengine,theenergyinputwillbe510%oftheenergy contentoftheproducedoil[8].Becauseofthesuperioroilrecoveryrateoftheexpellerthis comesdownto100200kjoules/kgor0.30kWh/liter.Fromanenergyefficiencypointofview the expeller is preferable, although one should keep in mind that the electricity or fuel requiredarenotavailableinmanyruralareas. 4.3.4 Suggestedmodels

Itisimpossibletosuggestanoptimal expellermodelforjatrophaforallcases.Theselection depends on many factors, including the production capacity, final purpose for the oil, rural/urban location, distance to supplier, reliability and ease of supply chain, the level of technologyinthecountryandlastbutcertainlynotleastthebudget.Acompleteoverviewof manufacturersandmodelsisgiveninannexC.2.FortheruralprojectsintendedbyFACT,only capacitiesrangingfrom10kg/hr(handpress)to500kg/hr(enginedrivenexpeller)shouldbe consideredviableoptions[8]. Whattokeepinmind: Whatequipmentisavailableinthecountrywherethejatrophaprojectislocated? Productioncapacitybeloworover100kg/hr(typicallythesmallestexpellercapacity)? Ifproductionisover100kg/hrdoyouwantonepressorseveral? Isefficiencymoreimportantthaninvestmentcosts?
2

Basedontheenergyusedforsawingwoodhttp://mensengezondheid.infonu.nl/dieet/6131 energiebehoefteenenergieverbruik.html

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Whataretheease,speedandreliabilityofthesupplychain? Consider the drive train of the press, either with diesel engines (on SVO/diesel) or electricaldriven. Willthepowertakeoffbewithpulleysandbeltsorwithgears? Whatistherequiredmaintenance?Whataboutandspareparts? Considerthetrainingofoperators. What is the operational temperature of the expeller? (Too high temperature causes amountofphosphorintheoiltoincrease)

Ingeneral,oneshouldchooseasinglepressoflargecapacityinsteadmultiplesmallerpresses. However, the advantage of using more than one press is that parts can be exchanged and productioncanstillcontinueatalowerlevelifoneofthemachinesfails.Furthermore,smaller machines are easier to operate and maintain for local artisans. Smaller machines also allow production capacity to modularly increase over time with project size by just increasing the numberofexpellers. 4.3.5 Concludingremarksexpellers

Expellingcanbedefinedastheprocessstepthatdeterminesproductionefficiency.Thehigher the oil recovery and the lower the amount of solid particles in the crude oil, the higher the efficiency. Lower amounts of solid particles reduce the need for subsequent cleaning. Industrialpresssuppliershavealreadyconductedjatrophatestswithsedimentlevelsaslowas 5%. All fuelrelated production should use mechanically driven expellers. Activities like soap making or cosmetic oil production could use manually operated presses like the Bielenberg. Thechoiceoftechnologydependsonthespecificproject.Ifpressesarelocallymanufactured to an acceptable quality standard compared to costs of replacing spare parts, this can be a good solution as the technology is known and parts are available. In other cases European pressesaresuperiorregardingrobustnessandwearresistance,butmoreexpensivethantheir IndianandChinesecounterparts.Selectionisalwaysatradeoff. 4.4 Cleaningofvegetableoil

This section provides an overview of the available cleaning technologies for solid/liquid separation of crude jatropha oil. The oil that leaves the expeller directly after pressing is further referred to as crude jatropha oil. The crude oil contains significant amounts of solid material that need to be removed. The solids can be mechanically separated from the oil, basedonparticlesize(filtration)oronspecificgravity(sedimentation,centrifuging).Thetwo separationprinciplescanalsobeusedinseries.Sections4.4.1through4.4.4willsuccessively treatsedimentation,filtrationandcentrifuging. Thecrudejatrophaoilleavingtheexpellercontains515%solidsbyweight.Thiscomesdown to 1030% by volume, depending on what the sediments are. In addition, the circumstances duringpressingandtheintendedapplicationfortheoilmayrequirefurtherprocessingofthe crude oil. For soapmaking and lamp fuel, the quality requirements are less stringent than whenapplyingthejatrophaoilinadieselengine.Inmostcases,vegetableoilproducedbycold pressingdoesnotrequiredegummingandneutralization.However,pressesappeartooperate at much higher temperatures when processing jatropha compared to rapeseed. A typical processing temperature for rapeseed is 4550C. Measurements in a Danish BT50 (80100C, thermocouples in press head) and a Keller P0100 (75C, infrared measurement) show values above 70C. If rapeseed reaches temperatures above 6070C the oil requires an additional neutralizing step to remove the phosphor that dissolved into the oil under the influence of

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 heat.Whetherornotthiscanbeextrapolatedtojatrophaoilisunclearatthemoment,butitis at least something to keep in mind. Pressing at higher temperatures yields more oil but in exchangerequirestheseadditionalcleaningsteps. As cleaning is most important for fuel production, the section below applies mainly to fuel production. Prior to use in a diesel engine the oil should be free of all particles > 5 m to prevent clogging of fuel filters. Normal diesel fuel filters have a pore size of 510 m. The cleaningprocessshouldfollowshortlyafterthepressingprocesstoavoidfiltrationproblems whentheoilwasstoredunderunfavourablestorageconditions(seesection4.6). ToassuregoodSVOqualitytheGermanDINV51605wasintroducedinEuropein2007.This norm is based on the earlier Quality standard for rapeseed oil as fuel 5 / 2000 from the German Bavarian State Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Wiehenstephan. In order to minimize the negative effects on engines, SVO from jatropha should comply with this DIN V 51605normforplantoil.Thestandardisdescribedinsection4.5andshowninTable42. 4.4.1 Impuritiesintheoil

Thecrudejatrophaoilcontainsmanyimpurities.Thissectiongivesafirstideaofthetypesof impuritiesandunderlinesthenecessityofcleaningsteps.Theimpuritiespresentinjatrophaoil consistofbothdissolvedandsuspendedparticlesthatarenotpartofthestructureoftheoil. Solid particles, FFAs and phosphor need to be removed before the oil is ready to use in engines.Removaloftheseimpuritiesisalsorequiredtopreventdeteriorationoftheoilduring storage.Water(bothfreeorintermolecular)will,forexample,hydrolyzetheoilandstimulate theformationsofFFAs.Prooxidantmetalslikecopperandironwillspeedupoxidation.Dust orsolidparticlesthatmighthavenotbeenfilteredfromoilwillnotaffecttheoilitselfbutthe usageoftheoilwillbemoredifficult.Itisthereforeimportanttomonitorfeedstock(moisture level&freshness)andoilqualityaftercleaning. 4.4.2 Sedimentation

Sedimentation is the simplest and cheapest way ofcleaning by using the earths gravity: the solids settle at the bottom of the tank. Sedimentation is only recommended for small processes.Forproductionratesof<50liters/hrsedimentationisapreferredlowcostsolution. It requires little technology and efficiency losses are less important when producing small volumes.Itisacheapcleaningmethodbecauselittlehardwareneedstobepurchasedonlya storagetanklargeenoughtokeeptheoilforaboutaweekwithlittleornoflow.Ifnecessary, theprocesscanbecompletedinmultiplestagesasshowninFigure49.
crude oil

Safety filter

sediment storage tank

clean oil storage tank

Figure410Oildrumsforsedimentation(photo: DiligentTanzaniaLtd.)

Figure49Exampleflowdiagramofa sedimentationsystem[4].

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 One disadvantage of a sedimentation system is that it depends on optimal conditions to removeparticleswithsizesof8mandless[2].Thereforeasecurityfilter(bagfilterorcandle filter)isrequired.Sedimentationaloneisnotenoughtoproducegoodfuelquality.Additionally the relatively high amount of oil that remains in the sediment (5055%) is lost if no further steps are included. Both available alternatives, filtration and centrifugation, have higher oil yield,assumingtheinputproductmeetsthefiltersrequirements. 4.4.3 Filtration

The basic principle of filtration is blocking any particles bigger than the pore size in a membrane.Theeasiestwayoffilteringisbyusingacloth.However,beawarethatnotevery textile has a suitable pore size! The capacity to absorb particles, referred to as the nominal capacity, differs between materials. A nominal capacity of 85% for a cloth with pores of, for example, 5m means that 85% of the particles bigger than 5m are stopped by the cloth. Special filtering cloth or bag filters can be bought at various suppliers, like Monopoel, amafiltergrouporlocalsuppliers.Theclothisavailableinsheets(seeFigure411)orasbags, for example. Filtering is easier at lower viscosity of the oil. A temperature between 4055C wouldbeoptimal.Makesurethefilterclothisresistanttothesetemperatures.Ifnotthemesh maywidenanda5mfiltermayonlyfilterupto20m[5]. Fivemethodsforfilteringwillbedescribedhere.Themostsimplifiedcustommadesolutionis gravityfilters(bagsandbandfilter)usingclothorfilterbags.Theserequirelittlemachineryor electricity(Figure411andFigure412).Thesesimplesolutionsarebestsuitedforsmallrural activities.Inadditiontocustommadesystems,suppliersofferprofessionalsystems.Theseare often too expensive for processes <50 liter/hr. The following will be explained here: gravity filters,bandfilters,filterpress,pressureleaffilters,bagfiltersandcandlefilters. 4.4.3.1 Gravityfilters

Asexplainedabovethequalityandporesizeofthefilterclothareimportantdeterminantsfor thefinalresultoffiltration.Usinga1mfilterclothinsimplecustommadedevicesyieldsoil withqualitycomparabletoindustrialfiltersystemswiththesameporesize.Cottonbagsare availablewithdifferentporesizes,rangingfrom200mto1m.Itisadvisabletofinishwitha 1mporesizeforfuelproduction.Thedisadvantageofsimpledevicesisaverylowcapacityif thefilterisnotpressurized.Forhomeusersandsmallfactories(uptoafewlitersperhour), nonpressurized filters can be an attractive lowcost option as the process can run without purchasingspecialhardware. Handling will in that case consist of frequent cleaning of the filter cloth or bag filter. It is recommended to leave the oil to settle for 47 days before filtering to avoid even shorter changing intervals of the filter cloth. Depending on how clean the oil is after sedimentation, filteringoilthroughgravitytakesbetween5minutesto1hourper20liters[11].Thesediment in the oil should be considered a process loss or can be used as input material for the productionofbiogasinadigester. FilterbagscanbeobtainedthroughforexampleamafiltergrouporAllfilfiltertechniekinthe Netherlands. Suppliers can be found worldwide. One bag is sold for around 3.75 (amafiltergroup, 2008). Locally available cotton material might also prove suitable after testing.

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Figure411Lefttop:SVOfiltrationofcookingoilonthesiteofGermansupplierMonopoel.Righttop: simplefiltrationsetupusingbagfilters(photo:DiligentTanzanialtd.).Leftbottom:improvedsetupfor bagfilters(photo:DiligentTanzanialtd.).Rightbottom:employeecollectinganoilsampleforanalysis afterfiltration(photo:DiligentTanzanialtd.)

4.4.3.2

Bandfilter

The use of bag filters under gravity has very low processing capacity and requires frequent cleaningofthebags.ThereforeFACTengineeredasolutionataprojectinHonduras.Theband filter prototype in Figure 412 was engineered by Ger Groeneveld. It consists of K&C workmansclothX70onarollconstructiontocreateamovingfiltercloth.Thekeyfactorsto performance of the device are: the entire filter area is used, there is constant removal of sedimentwithoutinterruptingthefiltrationprocess,andthereisconstantqualityduetouseof gravitationalforceforseparation.Themovingclothonthebandfilterhelpstoreduceclogging

49

 problemsandenableseasiercleaning.Thecapacityofthismodelis2060liters/hourforafilter clothwith5mporesize[5].

Figure412Bandfilterwherethecrudeoilflowsontothefiltercloth.Thetransportrollersare equippedwithsandpaperforbetterfriction.Theclothiscontinuouslymoving[5].

4.4.3.3

Filterpress

If using pressurized bag filters, a different type of filtration is needed in advance. Otherwise thefilterwillclogafterseveralminutes.Forthatreasonthefilterpressandpressureleaffilter arediscussedherefirst. Filterpressesarewidelyappliedinthefoodindustryandareoftenlocallyavailableindifferent sizes. Use of local machinery stimulates employment and enables local engineers to provide bothrepairandmaintenance.Localtrainingprogramscouldbeastimulusandmightincrease qualitystandards. Afilterpressisbuildupofmultiplefilterplatesthataresheathedwithfiltercloth(Figure413). The filter cloth material can be used several times before cleaning. When the plates are pushedtogethercavitiesareformedbetweenthem.Beforefiltrationthecrudeoilflowsinto thecavities.Byapplyinghydraulicpressureontheplatesandpumpingpressureontheoil,the oil is forced through the cloth and the filter cake remains in the cavities. Oil keeps running through the filter until there is too much cake in the cavities. The plates are then separated (either manually or automatically) and the presscake falls off. Manual cake discharge takes abouthalfanhourperdayforrapeseedanddependsonthelevelofimpuritiesintheoil[11]. Howdoesthiscomparetojatrophaoil?Thefollowingkeynumbersapplytorapeseedoil:oil contentinthefiltercakeofabout3550%and24kgoffiltercakeafterprocessing100kgof rapeseed. For jatropha, the amount of filter cake after processing 100 liters of crude oil is expected to be 1525 kg with an oil content similar to rapeseed. This means that cake discharge will be 510 times as frequent, which comes down to 2.55 hours per day. This is clearlynotpractical.Thereforesedimentationisstillrequiredbeforemostfiltrationmethods duetothehighamountofsedimentsinjatrophaoil. After discharge, the process cycle restarts. The membrane pore diameter is intentionally chosenlargerthanthesizeoftheparticlesthathavetoberemoved.Afilterpresshastobe usedforsometimeinaclosedloopsituationtobuildupalayerofparticles(cake)againstthe membrane.Thiswaythesedimentsintheoilformtheactualfiltermedium.Whetherornot

50

 thesedimentlayerisaproperfiltrationmediumdependsontheparticlesizedistribution.In caseallparticlesareofthesamesizethelayerwilleasilyclog. The capacity of a filter press is directly proportional to the filter cloth area in m2 and can thereforebeeasilyadapted.Smallermeshsizesresultinlowerthroughputanditistherefore uncertain what the processing speed will be at the desired purity of the output product. Althoughthefilterpressiscapableofremovingparticles<0.01mitisadvisedtoinstallabag filtercandlefilterbehindthefilterpressforsafetycleaning.Dependingonthesizeoftheplate filtertheoilcontentinthefiltercakewillnormallybearound10%[11].

Figure413Platefilters.Left:Smallsystem(150l/h)producedbyTEMDOTanzania,installedat DiligentTanzanialtd.Right:platefilterforfoodindustry,capacityaround1000l/h.

4.4.3.4

Pressureleaffilter

Thepressureleaffilterconsistsofacylindricalfiltervesselfilledwithfilterplates.Similartothe filterpress,thisfilterfirstbuildsupalayerofparticlesinclosedloopoperation. Crudeoilentersthevesselandcanonlyleavethroughthehollowframesurroundingthefilter plates.Toenterthehollowframetheoilfirstneedstopassthroughthefilterplatewherethe solid particles are then stopped. When the filter vessel is full the system is pressurized by pumpsto1015bar,afterwhichtheoilstartsflowingandthesolidmaterialintheoilformsa layeronthefilterplate.Thisplateservesastheactualfiltermedium. A pressure leaf filter is capable of filtering particles > 1020m, depending on the selected meshsize.Iftheamountofsedimentsinthecrudeoilis>10%asedimentationstepisrequired upstreamofthepressureleaffilter.Asaguidelineforthepressingprocess,beforefiltrationan oilcontentinthepresscakeof>12%isconsideredoptimal.Reductionoftheoilcontentinthe press cake to for example 8% by second pressing results in fines in the oil and lower filter capacity (amafiltergroup). After the pressure leaf filter almost all particles >1020 will be removedfromtheoil.Additionalfilteringstepswillberequiredbeforetheoilcanbeusedas fuel.

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Figure414Pressureleaffilter.Left:drawing.Right:Closeupofoneofthefilterplates.The frameworkaroundthemeshismadeofhollowtubesthatserveasadischargeforthecleanoil (picturesamafiltergroup)

4.4.3.5

Bagfilters

Bagfiltersusethesameprincipleascustommadefiltersbutarepressurizedbyanelectrical fluid pump to enable higher throughput. The bag filter consists of a filter housing with a removablebasketfittedwithafilterbag,similartotheonesusedforgravityfiltration.Figure 415(secondfromleft)showsanimpressionofthebagfilter.Typicaloperatingpressuresare 35bar. Abagfilterof1m,meansthatparticles>1mareremovedatanominalefficiencyof6598%. Thismeansthatthequalityoftheoutputproductfluctuates.Tocoverforthesefluctuationsa candlefilterisnormallyaddedtotheprocess.Bagfiltersgenerallyhavetobecleanedevery14 days. Some examples of Dutch suppliers are amafiltergroup, EFC filtration and Allfil filtertechniek.Thepriceofabagfilter rangesfrom 5001000withoutelectricalpumps and 10001500withpumpsincluded.Othermodulesliketheelectricalpump,hosesandstorage tanks can be bought locally, if desired. A bag filter is suitable for >50 liter/hr process flows. Attention: sedimentation or prefiltration are necessary prior to running the oil through the bagfilter.Whentryingtofiltercrudeoildirectlyafterpressing,thebagfilterwillclogwithin minutes.

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Figure415Bagandcandlefilters.Fromlefttoright:1)Filterhousingwithfilterbasket.Thefilterbag isinsertedinthebasketandneedcleaningevery14days.2)Bagfilterhousingunitforabagfilter (withoutpumporstorage),atDiligentTanzanialtd.3)Candlefilterhousingwithfiltercandles.The candlesneedtobereplacedbynewonesevery68weeks.4)Combinedsetupofabagandcandle filter(photos:1&3www.amafilter.nl,2&4DiligentTanzanialtd.)

4.4.3.6

Candlefilters

Candle filters are often referred to as polishing filters as they perform the final touch in the cleaningprocess.Thismeanstheoilalreadyneedstobequitecleanbeforeenteringthefilter. Acandlefilterof1mmeansthatparticles>1mareremovedatanominalefficiencyof92%. The candle filter is stable, which guarantees product quality. A single candle can support approximately 60g of solid material before it needs changing. When fed with prefiltered rapeseedoilcandlesneedtobereplacedevery68weeks.Ifabagfilterisinstalledinfrontof thecandlefiltersimilarmaintenanceintervalsaretobeexpectedforjatrophaoil. Thecostsforacandlefilterhousingarecomparabletothebagfilter.Candlescostapprox.75 persetforathroughputof200litre/hr,whichis500650peryearwhenchangedaccording to the maintenance interval of 68 weeks. Note that the candles cannot be cleaned like the filterbags.Anincreaseinoperatingpressureindicatesthatthecandlesneedreplacing. 4.4.4 Centrifuging

Inadditiontosedimentationthisisthesecondmethodofseparationthatisbasedonspecific gravity.Thereasonformentioningitonlyattheendofthischapteristhatitisnotsuitedfor smallprojects.However,itisworthmentioningtheworkingprinciplesofthistechnologymight provideideasonhowtodeveloplowcostalternatives. Using centrifugal force for particle separation is a fast alternative to sedimentation. Both decanters and separators are industrial devices that work according to this principle. Decantersandseparatorsusethedifferenceinspecificgravitybetweenmedia. Forsolidliquidseparationtheliquidviscosityanddensitydifferencebetweensolidsandliquids determine if the residence time in the centrifuge is enough to enable separation [11]. Solid contentandparticlesizeareofsubordinateimportanceasdecantersettingscanbeadjusted. Decanters and separators are successfully used in almost all industrial separation processes involving food and beverage. Due to their high prices and capacities they have not yet been appliedinjatropharelatedprojects.Althoughtheyareperhapsthebestseparationtechnology

53

 for jatropha oil, decanters/centrifuges are generally not an option for capacities below 500 1000l/h.Forsuchcapacitythepricewillbearound50,000.

Figure416Decanterandcentrifugesystems.Fromlefttoright:1)Z23decanterwithcapacityof500 1000l/h;2)AC100Disccentrifuge;3)Centrifugationsystemwithabagfilterasasecurity[12] (pictures:1&2FlottwegNederlandBV;3[12])

4.4.5

Concludingremarksoilcleaning

Oilcleaningistheprocessstepthatdeterminesproductquality.Althoughmanytechnological solutionsareavailableoneshouldalwaysapplytheKISS(KeepItSimpleStupid)principlewhen selectingoneinadevelopmentproject. Sedimentationisstillthemostfavorablesolutionforsmallproductionvolumes(<50liters/hr). Filtrationandcentrifugingtechnologiesaregenerallytooexpensiveformostprojectsinvolving farmer groups. Development of simplified versions of such technologies could provide a welcomesolutionintheseprojects.Simplefiltrationconstructionsarethebestcandidatesfor a final cleaning step for the oil that is skimmed off after sedimentation. Proper pore size of 1mensuresaSVOfreeofparticlecontamination. 4.5 QualitystandardsforSVO

Differentapplicationsofjatrophaoilrequiredifferentlevelsofquality.Inmostcasesjatropha oilwillbeusedforoneofthesethreeapplications: Soapmaking:properfilteringoftheoilissufficientforthisprocess. Lamps and stoves: proper filtering of the oil is sufficient for this process. Reduction in viscositywouldbedesirabletoimprovefuelflowinwicksandnozzles. Dieselengines:oilshouldcomplywithDIN51605normtominimizethechanceofengine damage. In general the amounts of FFA and phosphor will be most problematic and require chemical cleaning. Phosphor and FFA can subsequently be removed by degummingandneutralizing. Itcanbeconcludedthatqualityismainlyanissuewhentheoilisusedinengines.Fortheuse of rapeseed oil as a fuel in Europe a quality standard has been developed that contains the characteristics of the oil that are important and their limit values. As can be seen in the diagram below, DIN standards document the exact procedure of determination of the properties.Adistinctionismadebetweentwokindsofproperties,thecharacteristiconesthat depend on the oilseed used, and the variable ones that depend on the processing used (pressing, filtering, after treatment, etc.) Although this standard has been developed for rapeseedoil,thelimitingvaluesalsoapplytootheroilslikejatrophabecausetheyaremostly relatedtotheuseoftheoilinengines.

54


Table 42 DIN V 51605 norm for rapeseed, based on the earlier Weihenstephan or RK2000. This standard summarizes the criteria that determine the quality of SVO as an engine fuel [7]. FACT recommendsusingthisnormforjatrophaoilindieselenginesaswell Properties/constituents units Standards Densityat15C: 900930km/m3 AccordingtoDINENISO3675/12185 220C AccordingtoDINENISO2719 Flashpoint:min. 2 Kinematicviscosityat40C:max. AccordingtoDINENISO3104 36.0mm /s Calorificvalue:min. 36,000MJ/kg AccordingtoDIN519001,2,3 Ignite:min. 39 Carbon:max. 0.40% AccordingtoDINENISO10370 Iodinevalue 95125g/100g AccordingtoDINEN14111 Sulphurcontent 10mg/kg AccordingtoDINENISO20846/20884 Variableproperties Totalcontamination 24mg/kg AccordingtoDINEN12662 Acidnumber 2.0mgKOH/g AccordingtoDINEN14104 Oxidationstabilityat110C:min. 6.0h AccordingtoDINEN14112 Phosphoruscontent:max. 12mg/kg AccordingtoDINEN14107 Totalmagnesiumandcalcium:max. 20mg/kg AccordingtoDINEN14538 Ashcontent(Oxidasche):max 0.01% AccordingtoDINENISO6245 Water:max. 0.08% AccordingtoDINENISO12937

Tomakesurethepropertiesoftheoilarewithinthedesirablerange,severalthingshavetobe keptinmind.Thevariablepropertiesarebrieflydiscussed,togetherwiththeirconsequences fortheproductionprocess. Contamination:thisdescribeshowmuchforeignmaterial(particles)maybepresentin theoil.Ofcoursethisparameterisdirectlyinfluencedbythepurificationprocess.The contaminationvaluedeterminesthelifetimeoftheenginesfuelfilter. Acidvalue:thisisameasurementofthecontentoffreefattyacidsintheoil.Freefatty acidsgiverisetodegradationoftheoil(itgetsrancid)andthecomponentsincontact withit(oxidation).Theirformationismostlycausedbybadstorageconditions,i.e.contact withair,exposuretosunlight,heatetc. Oxidationstability:theoilqualityshouldnotdegradeinahotenvironment.Thisis becausethefuelisexposedtohightemperatureswhenitisinuse.Themechanismsare thesameasexplainedunderAcidvalue. Phosphoruscontent:incoldpressingmostofthephosphorusthatispresentintheseed goesintothepresscakeandnotintotheoil.Thatisdesiredbecausephosphorus (especiallyphospholipids)givesrisetoblockingoftheenginesfuelfilterandtooxidation ofthecombustionchamberbecausephosphorusisastrongoxidatorathigh temperatures. Ashcontent:theashcontentreflectstheamountofmaterialthatremainsunburnedafter combustionoftheoilintheengine.Mostofthismaterialissaltpresentintheoil.Itcan bekeptlowbygentlepressingandgoodfiltering. Watercontent:theplantmaterialcontainsapercentageofwater.Intheoilthewater contentshouldbelimited,becausewatercausesthefuelfiltermaterialtoswelland henceblockandwatercausesoxidationinsidetheinjectionequipment. Some components cannot be removed from the oil by the cleaning methods treated in section4.4. Examples are free fatty acids, phosphor, and different molecular contaminations (Fe, Mg, Ca etc). By restricting the operation temperature during pressing to ~60C (specific

55

 temp for jatropha has not yet been determined) the formation of FFA and phosphor can be limited. At excessively high levels, further refining might be required to assure smooth operationindieselengines.Standardrefiningstepsinindustrialproductionofbothconsumer andfueloilsaredegummingandneutralizing. 4.5.1 Oildegumming

The DIN 51605 norm states that phosphor content should be below 12mg/kg. Phosphatides, gums and other complex colloidal compounds can promote hydrolysis (increase in FFA) of vegetable oil during storage. In further refining steps such as transesterification these compounds can also interfere. They are therefore removed by a process called degumming. The process starts by heating the oil to 7080C. Then water is added and stirred. The gums andphosphatideswilldissolveinwaterandremovedtogetherwiththewaterinaseparation step.Dependingon thetypeofoilandphosphatidecontentacid(citric/phosphoric),base or saltscanbeaddedinsteadofwater[16]. 4.5.2 Oilneutralization

AccordingtoDIN51605,theacidnumbershouldbebelow2mgKOH/g.Thiscorrespondswith anFFAcontentof1%.Whenthefreefattyacidsareremovedassoapsbytreatmentwithlye, otherundesirableconstituentssuchasoxidationproductsoffattyacids,residualphosphatides andgums,phenols(e.g.,gossypol)arealsowashedout.Duringneutralizationtheoilisagain heated to 4080C. NaOH or KOH are added and stirred, causing the formation of soap. The soap,containingmostFFAs,settlesatthebottomofthetankandcanberemoved[16]. 4.6 Handlingandstorageofoil

Mainauthor:JanskevanEijck Thereareseveralissuestotakeintoaccount,whichaffecttheoilqualityandeaseofhandling. Theseareespeciallyimportantiftheoilisstoredathightemperaturesinruralareas. 4.6.1 Handlingcriteria

Therearetoxicingredientsinjatrophaoil(phorbolesters),whichmakeitnecessarytohandle theoilwithcare. Eye contact causes irritation, whereas ingestion can result into vomiting and diarrhea. Skin contact is essentially nonhazardous, but wearing safety gear (overalls, goggles and closed shoes)isadvisable. Prevent the oil from entering drains, surface and ground water. Although vegetable oils are biodegradable, when entering water they cover the surface. This results in a layer that preventsairexchangewiththewater,aswellaswiththecreatureslivinginthewater.Whenin contactwithwaterthehydrolysisresultsintheformationofcarbondioxide,whichresultsto carbonimbalanceinwater. Alsoavoidtheinhalationoffumes.PleaseconsultaMaterialSafetyDataSheet(MSDS)onhow to minimize the hazards. A MSDS is a form containing data regarding the properties of a particularsubstance.Itincludesinstructionsforthesafeuseandpotentialhazardsassociated withaparticularmaterialorproduct.

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 4.6.2

Storagecriteria

Storeinacool,dryroom,avoidingexposuretolightandpotentialvolatilegaseoussubstances (likepetrol).Thecontainerordruminwhichtheoiliskeptshouldpreferablybeairtightand filled up to the maximum. This prevents condensation and thereby water in the oil. Storage containersordrumscanbereusedandshouldthereforebeeasytoclean.Steelorhardplastic, thenormalmaterialsforthesedrums,canbeusedtostoreortransportthejatrophaSVO. 4.6.2.1 Coolstoragetemperature

Vegetable oils contain enzymes that originated from metabolic activities during the plants growth.Theactivitycoefficientofenzymesdoubleswitheach10degreecentigradeincrease. This shortens the life of oil during storage as it promotes auto oxidation of the oil. This will resultinfastcolourchangeandanincreaseinfreefattyacidsintheoil. Itisthereforeimportanttokeepthestorageareacool,inordertopreventinstabilityandan increaseinFFA.Mostoftheenzymesintheoilbecomemoreactiveatatemperatureabove30 degreescentigrade.Thereforeitisadvisedtostoreoilatatemperaturelowerthanthat. 4.6.2.2 Avoidingtemperaturevariations(andhencewatercondensation)

If the jatropha oil is kept in a drum, IBC (International Bulk Container, 1000 liters) or other storage containers, temperature variations can cause condensation of water. This means waterwillbedissolvedintheoil,whichisnotgoodforthequalityoftheoil.Thetemperature should therefore be kept, as much as possible, at the same level. Another way of avoiding condensationistokeepthecontainerairtightandfilledtothemaximum. 4.6.2.3 Darkness

Vegetable oils are from plants and contain photosensitive compounds like chlorophylls and carotenoids.Amongthesecompounds,chlorophylliswhatcausestheoiltoappearyellowor red. In the abundance of light these compounds activities fastens and results in strong color changeintheoil.Toavoidthisitisrecommendedtostoreoilindarkareasorinareaswhere thelightintensityislow.Ingeneralthismeansselectinganontransparentstorageunit. 4.6.2.4 Contactwithfreshair

Under unstable oil storage conditions like elevated temperatures, it is easy for the oxygen presentinairtooxidizethemultiplebondedcarbonatomsandreplacethefattyacidinthat area.Thiswillthenformperoxidecompounds.Theincreaseinthesecompoundsresultsinto moreunstableoil. It is difficult to prevent contact of air with oil using the normal container seal cap. In recent timesnitrogenhasbeenusedtofillcontainersholdingoiltopreventcontactwithatmospheric oxygen, as it is not as reactive to oil. Vacuum systems can also be used, but they are quite expensive. 4.7 1. 2. References

Adriaans, T and Jongh, de, J., Jatropha oil quality related to use in diesel engines and refiningmethods,FACTfoundation,September2007.(www.factfoundation.com) Beerens, P., Screwpressing of Jatropha seeds for fuelling purposes in less developed countries,EindhovenUniversityofTechnologyaugust2007.(www.factfoundation.com)

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 3. 4.

Beerens, P., Jatropha under pressure, Bachelors degree research report, Eindhoven UniversityofTechnology,December2005 Ferchau, E. and Ans, N., Equipment for decentralised cold pressing of oil seeds, Folkecenter for renewable energy, 2000Archive Kakute/Diligent Tanzania Ltd., 2004 (Availableat:www.factfoundation.com) Groeneveld,G.J.,DevelopmentofamodificationkitfordieselenginessuitableforSVO, FACTfoundation,December2008. Hui, Y.H., Baileys industrial oil & fat products, volume 4 Edible Oil & Fat Products: ProcessingTechnology,JohnWiley&Sons,inc.1996 Hynd, A. and Smith, A., Meeting a Pressing Need, Project Appraisal of the Oilseed Ram PressandApproachestoImplementation,DesignforDevelopingCountries,2004 Jongh, de, J. and Beerens, P., Note on Jatropha pressing for FACT pilot plants, FACT foundation,April2008.(Availableat:www.factfoundation.com) Wan, P.J., Introduction to Fast and Oils Technology, American Oil Chemists Society, ChampaignIllinois,1988 ArchiveDiligentEnergySystemsBV,2005 ArchiveDiligentTanazaniaLtd.,2008 ArchiveDajolka,NielsAns,2005 ArchiveKakute/DiligentTanzaniaLtd.,2004 Visit at Flottweg Netherlands, with director P. van Donselaar supplier/manufacturer of separationtechnologies

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

15. MSDS,Bioshapeltd.2008 16. Thomas, A., Fats and Fatty oils, Unimills International, Hamburg, Federal Republic of Germany,WileyVCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA,2005

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APPLICATIONSOFJATROPHAPRODUCTS

Authors:PeterBeerens,NielsAns,TitusGalema,ThijsAdriaans,JanskevanEijck 5.1 Introduction

Jatrophahasmanypotentialapplications.However,untilnowonlyafewhavebeenrealised onareasonableandlargescale.Jatrophaisprimarilycultivatedforitsoil.However,thisoilis not the only usable product from the plant. During the process of extracting the oil, many usefulbyproductsarecreated,aswell.Here,firsttheoilapplicationsarediscussed,followed bytheapplicationsforthebyproducts. 5.2 Applicationsofoil

Jathropa oil can be used in several ways. The pure (untreated) oil can be used as fuel or for soapproduction.Jathropaoilcanalsoserveasaresourcefortheproductionofbiodiesel. Firsttheapplicationsoftherawoilarediscussed,followedbytheoilrefiningtobiodiesel. 5.2.1 Lampsandcookingstoves

Author:PeterBeerens Forlampsandstoves,theconventionalfuelsinmostruralareasarefuelwood,charcoaland petroleum. By introducing alternatives like plant oils such as jatropha oil for cooking and lighting, the use of conventional fuels could be strongly reduced. Potential users of the jatrophaoilarethosepeoplewhocurrentlybuytheirfuel(charcoal,kerosene)inareaswhere thereisnofreealternative(fuelwood)available. 5.2.1.1 Lamps

Thedifficultywhenusingjatrophaoilforlightingisitshighviscosity.Mostkerosenelampsuse wicks. The suction of the Jatropha oil is sufficient in the beginning, but as the oil level diminishesandtheoilhastotravellongerdistancesthroughthewick,thelampsdim.Asecond problemistheformationofcokesonthewickssurface,whichisasecondcauseforthelamp to dim. Lastly the ignition temperature of jatropha oil (240C) is much higher than for petroleum(84C).Thismakesitmoredifficulttoignitethefuel. Toovercometheproblemwithafixedwickafloatingwickcanbeused.Anexampleofalamp usingthisprincipleistheBingalampdevelopedbythebingatreesprojectinZimbabwe.As theoilleveldrops,thewicksinkstogetherwithitkeepingthedistancebetweentheflameand theoilconstant.Animpressionofthebingalampisgivenbelow. Cokingofthewickiscausedbythehigherevaporationtemperatureofjatrophaoil.Petroleum normallyevaporatesfromthewickwhiletheflameburns.Theflameburnsatasmalldistance fromthewickssurfacetherebyleavingthewickintact.Asthejatrophaoildoesnotevaporate asquickly,itburnsonthewickssurfacecausingtheformationofcarbondepositsonthewick. After8hoursthevisiblepartofthewickiscompletelycarbonizedandhastobereplaced[1].

59

Figure51Ordinarypetroleumlamp(r),modifiedto runonjatrophaoil(l)[2] Figure52Bingalampdevelopedinthe'Binga Trees'projectZimbabwe[3]

5.2.1.2

Cookingstoves

Designsofstovesusingthejatrophaseedarebasedonthreedifferentmethods.Thefirstuses thesolidjatrophaseedkernelsasfuelaswiththeUB16,seeFigure53.Thesecondmethod uses the jatropha oil in modified kerosene stoves with a wick. The third method utilizes the jatropha oil, vaporized and sprayed under pressure into a specially designed stove, like the Protos.Themaindrawbackofjatrophaoilincookingstovesisitshighviscosity,whichoften leads to clogging of the fuel pipe or burners. Several stoves that have been adapted to or specificallydesignedforjatrophaoilareshownbelow.Althoughitisdocumentedthatjatropha stoves have very low emission levels compared to wood stoves, it is not known yet if the smokeofjatrophafuelisharmfulbecauseofitstoxicingredients.Thisisanimportantaspect andfurtherresearchishighlyrecommended.

Figure53Cookingstoves.Fromtheleft:1)UB16stovethatisclaimedtobedirectlyfiredwith(de hulled)jatrophaseeds[4];2)TheWheelbrandstove,atypicalexampleofanadaptedkerosenestove; 3)ProtosplantoilstovedevelopedbyBSHBoschandSiemensHausgerteGmbH

The PROTOS plant oil stove was developed in 2004. This unusual stove can be fuelled by unrefinedandrefinedvegetableoilssuchascoconutoil,sunfloweroil,rapeseedoil,jatropha oil,castoroil,cottonseedoilandpeanutoil.Exceptfortheburner,thisstovecanbeproduced locally thereby creating employment. Over 500 Protos stoves have been tested in the Philippines,India,Indonesia,SouthAfricaandTanzania.

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 5.2.2

Directfuelforcarsanddrivingenginesforshaftpowerorelectricitygeneration

Author:NielsAns 5.2.2.1 Introduction

By nature, PPO generally has excellent properties as fuel in diesel engines, socalled compression ignition engines. Generally any warm diesel engine will run on heated PPO. Nevertheless,forgenerationsdieselengineshavebeendesignedandoptimizedfordieselfuel. Since some fuel properties of PPO differ from diesel fuel, different conditions must be followed,andchanges(conversionsandmodifications)mustbemadetotheenginesinorder tohandlesomeofthesedifferentproperties.Thenecessarychangestotheenginearetypically namedconversionormodification. TherearetwoequallyimportantcriteriatofollowinordertosuccessfullyusePPOasfuelin dieselengines: The PPO fuel quality should meet criteria specified in PPO fuel quality standards. Such standards already exist in Germany for rapeseed PPO, DIN V 51 605. Similar standards shouldbemadeforotherkindsofPPO. ThedieselengineshouldbeselectedassuitableforPPOconversion,anditshouldbewell maintainedandinawelladjustedcondition.Inaddition,whenitsconverted,careshould be taken regarding the special challenges for that exact type of engine. And the engine shouldbeusedinasuitableway(loadpattern) BothconditionswillsecureefficientcombustionofthePPO,minimizingtheemissionsandfuel consumption,andguaranteeanormal,longlifetimeoftheengine.Undertheseconditions,the performanceandfuelconsumptionwhenrunningonPPOwillbecomparabletothatofdiesel. Ontheotherhand,ifthePPOiscombustedinefficiently,problemscanbeexpectedsooneror later.Typically,thisisbecauseofdepositsorotherwaysofaccumulatingunburnedfuelinthe engine.OritcouldbethePPOdamagestheinjectionsystembecauseofaggressiveproperties leadingtocorrosion. Allmeasures,bothontheenginesideandonthefuelside,aresimpleandeasytounderstand. Agood,practicalapproachisimportant,andmostimportantisnottounderestimatethevalue ofeachmeasureforfulfillingthecriteria. Inthefollowingchapterwetrytocoverthekeytopicsrelevantforrunningdieselengineson PPO in developing countries. This includes requirements pf the PPO fuel, selecting engines suitable for operation on PPO, and what has to be changed on these engines in order to operatesafelywithPPO.However,thisisonlyaguideline.Themainsourceforthischapteris basedonNielsAnssownpracticalexperienceswithDajolka[6](andatFolkecenter),made duringmorethan10years,drivingallowncarson100%PPO,andconductingmanypractical activitiesincludingconversionofseveralhundredsofengines,mainlypassengercarsandvans, but also diesel engines in other applications. Any attempt to follow the advice given in this chapterishoweveratonesownrisk. 5.2.2.2 PPOfuelproperties

OnthefuelsideitisessentialtocareaboutthequalityofthePPO.Thisstartsbyselectingthe right kind of crop/oilseed, cultivating and harvesting, transport, handling and storing the oilseedsandpressing,filtering,handlingandstoringthePPO(Seechapter4).

61

 ThePPOfuelqualitystandardspecifiestwogroupsofparameters(seealsoTable51) Characteristicproperties:occurringnaturallyandaregenerallyunchangedbyproduction, handlingandstoringtheoilseedsandPPO.Thesearelessimportantaslongasthekindof crop/oilseedisknown. Variable properties: influenced by harvest, transport, handling and storing seeds, and production,handlingandstoringthePPO.Theseareveryimportantforthestabilityofthe PPO during storing, for prevention of damage to injection systems, and for efficient combustionofthePPO. All parameters are important, but some are more critical than others. In Table 51 the variables in italics (which are invisible) can damage an engine fast if limits are exceeded considerably.ItmakessensetoanalysethePPOforthefourvariableparametersonaregular basis.
Table 51 DIN V 51605 norm for rapeseed, based on the earlier Weihenstephan or RK2000. This standard summarizes the criteria that determine the quality of SVO as an engine fuel [7]. FACT recommendsusingthisnormforjatrophaoilindieselenginesaswell.NBthepropertiesinitalicsare criticalfordieselenginesandshouldbemonitoredregularly(seealsosection5.2.2.2) Properties/constituents units Standards 3 Densityat15C: 900930km/m AccordingtoDINENISO3675/12185 220C Flashpoint:min. AccordingtoDINENISO2719 Kinematicviscosityat40C:max. AccordingtoDINENISO3104 36.0mm2/s Calorificvalue:min. 36,000MJ/kg AccordingtoDIN519001,2,3 Ignite:min. 39 Carbon:max. 0.40% AccordingtoDINENISO10370 Iodinevalue 95125g/100g AccordingtoDINEN14111 Sulphurcontent 10mg/kg AccordingtoDINENISO20846/20884 Variableproperties Totalcontamination 24mg/kg AccordingtoDINEN12662 Acidnumber 2.0mgKOH/g AccordingtoDINEN14104 Oxidationstabilityat110C:min. 6.0h AccordingtoDINEN14112 Phosphoruscontent:max. 12mg/kg AccordingtoDINEN14107 Totalmagnesiumandcalcium:max. 20mg/kg AccordingtoDINEN14538 Ashcontent(Oxidasche):max 0.01% AccordingtoDINENISO6245 Water:max. 0.08% AccordingtoDINENISO12937

5.2.2.3

Otherproperties

Another difference is the energy content, which is about 4%5% less per volume for PPO, comparedtofossildiesel.Thelowerenergycontentispartlycompensatedbymoreefficient combustioncausedbythenaturalcontentofoxygeninthemoleculestructureofPPO.
Table52DifferenceinconstantcharacteristicpropertiesofPPO(fromrapeseed)anddiesel

Property Density Energycontentperweight Energycontentpervolume Oxygencontent Flamepoint

Unit kg/m3 MJ/kg MJ/l % C

PPO 920 min36,0 (typically37,0) 33,1 1112 220

Diesel 830 42,3 35,1 0 6070

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 Considering the hydraulic and mechanical systems in a diesel engine, the main difference in propertiesbetweenPPOanddieselis,thattheviscosityofPPOismanytimeshigherthanfor dieselatambienttemperature.ThismakesitmoredifficultforthePPOtoflowfromthefuel tank to the engine and to atomize the cold PPO in the injectors. The high viscosity together withamuchhigherflashpointmakesitmorechallengingtostartacoldengineonPPOandget satisfactoryefficientcombustionuntiltheengineishot.

Figure54Viscosity

Figure 54 shows the kinematic viscosity of rapeseed oil and diesel as a function of the temperature.Thebluelineshowviscosityofdiesel,andtheredlineactually3linesontopof each other, shows the viscosity of rapeseed oil, respectively cold pressed, super degummed andfullyrefined.At0CthePPOis2030timesmoreviscousthandiesel,butat6070Cthe viscosityisneartodiesel,thecurvebecomesflatandthedifferencedisappears.

Figure55Solid/liquidphaseshift

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 PPO can solidify at low temperatures. Its a reversible process and is both a function of temperatureandthetime.Thefigureshowsthesolid/liquidphasepropertiesofrapeseedoil. It must be emphasized that for jatropha PPO, these numbers will be different since, compared to rapeseed oil, it has a different fatty acid composition with a higher share of saturatedfattyacids.Henceitsviscositycurve(Figure54)willbedifferentandsolidification pointwillbeathighertemperature. 5.2.2.4 Engineconversion/Enginetypes

To enable the engine to run safely on PPO the engine must be converted to handle the differentfuelpropertiesofPPOcomparedwithdiesel.Forexample,itsnecessarytoheatthe PPOinordertodecreasetheviscosity,andtomodifyinjectorsandglowplugstoenablethe enginetostartonPPO. Because of the large variety of engines combined with different manufactories and configuration of injection system, this chapter can only serve as a guide to the most basic thingsrelevantforconversion.Onlyengineswithmechanicalcontrolledinjectionsystemswill be discussed, since engines with electronically controlled injections are still not common in developingcountries,andbecausetheconversionrequiresmorespecializedtechnology,tools andmechanicstrainedinthesesystems. Asmentionedbefore,generallyanywarmdieselenginewillrunfineonheatedPPO.Themain challenge is to get the engine started and run it with satisfactory clean combustion until it reachesnormaloperatingtemperaturetypicallyabout8090Cforawatercooledengine. 1.Identificationoftheengine Dieselenginesexistinmanydifferenttypesandsizes.MostofthemcanbeconvertedtoPPO inoneortheotherway.Itsimportanttofirstidentifyandchooseasuitableengine,andthen decide how it should be converted. The main question is whether the engine has direct or indirect injection, and how the engine cooling system is designed. The cooling system is importantbecauseitcontrolstheengineoperatingtemperature,andtheexpendedheatfrom theengineisusedtoheatthePPO. GenerallyalldieselengineswithInDirectInjection(IDI)areverysuitableforconversiontoPPO. Engines with Direct Injection (DI) can also be converted, but they are more sensitive to the loadpatternandfuelquality,sotheyrequiremoreattentionandaretypicallyconvertedwitha dueltank(2tank)system. Itisnormallynotrecommendedtoconvertenginesequippedwithdistributorinjectionpumps manufacturedbyLucas/CAV/Delphi,StanadyneorRotoDiesel.Thisisbecausethereisahigh riskofdamagingthepump,typicallywhenthepumpandPPOarecold.Otherenginescanhave otherproblems,makingthemlesssuitableforconversion,e.g.DIengineswithabore/stroke ratio>1. Therefore,beforedecidingtoconvertanengine,itisimportanttoidentifytheengine,thetype andmanufactureroftheinjectionsystem,andthetypicalloadpatternfortheengine.Based onthesefactors,itspossibletodetermineifconversionofthatengineisfeasible. Initiallyitisimportanttodetermineiftheenginehasdirectorindirectinjection,identifywhich typeofpreheatingsystemisavailable(ifany),thekindofinjectionpumpandliftpump,andto

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 identify the kind of cooling system. It can often be helpful to make a drawing of the fuel system,showingallcomponentsandfuellines. For exact identification of the engine it is important to get the following information: Manufacturer, engine code, year of manufacture, number of cylinders, displacement (cm3), andpower(hp/kW).Fromtheenginecodeitisusuallypossibletogetalltechnicaldataforthe engine,butforsomeenginesitsalsonecessarytophysicallyidentifythemanufacturerofthe fuelinjectionpump,becausesomemodelscanbeequippedwithdifferentbrands. 2.Statusoftheengine Itsessentialthattheengineisadjustedcorrectlyandisinawellmaintainedcondition.Ifthe engineissmokingorinotherwaysisnotperformingwellondiesel,theproblemsshouldbe identified and corrected before the conversion. If the injectors are worn or the glow plugs burned out, these could be changed in connection with the conversion. The cooling system, including the thermostat, should work well so the engine will reach normal operating temperatureasfastaspossibleotherwise,ifthethermostatisdefect,theenginemightwork atatoolowtemperatureforefficientPPOcombustion.Ifnothermostatisinstalled,e.g.onair cooled engines, the engine might cool too much because the cooling system is designed for the worst case. The engine, therefore, may have problems to reach an acceptable temperature, especially at low loads. It might disqualify the engine as suitable for PPO operation. At the very least, the engine should be measured to increase the operating temperatureinasafeway. 3.DifferencesbetweenDIandIDIengines

A)

B)

A)

B) D) C)
C)

F)

End

E)

D)

Figure57CrosssectionofaDIcombustion chamber.A)multiholeInjector,B)glowplug,C) cylinderhead,D)piston,E)cylinderwall(photo: RobertBoschGmbH)

Figure56CrosssectionofanIDIcombustion chamber.A)singleholeInjector,B)glowplug,C) prechamber,D)cylinderhead,E)piston,F) cylinderwall(photo:RobertBoschGmbH)

Figure56andFigure57showthecrosssectionareaofenIDIandDIengine,respectively.The IDIengineisbetterforPPOcombustionbecausethefuelisinjectedintoarelativelysmalland hotprechamber,wherethecombustionstarts,beforeitcontinuesintothecylinder.OnaDI enginethefuelisinjecteddirectlyintothecylinder,whichisrelativelylargeandcoldcompared totheprechamber.Onbothfiguresanactivehotglowplugisshown,whichisimportantfor

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 thecoldstartandtoimprovethecombustionofthecoldengine.Theglowplugwillswitchoff afterstarting,butremainsactivatedforafewminutes. InDIengines,especially,theresahigherriskthatunburnedPPOwillreachthecoldercylinder wall, which can lead to deposits on the piston and piston rings, and cause increased flow of PPO along the cylinder wall down to the crankcase, which will dilute the lube oil. Due to its highboilingpoint,PPOinthelubeoilwillnotevaporateagainaswithdieselandgasoline,so theconcentrationwillalwaysincrease.Initiallydilutionofthelubeoilisnotaproblem.After time,withconcentrationsmorethan10%PPOinthelubeoil,thethermalloadofthemixture can cause polymerization, which leads to a sudden and dramatic increase of the viscosity of the lube oil, causing damages or total destruction of the engine. The phenomenon is connectedbothtothetypeandqualityofthelubeoilandthePPO[8]. Thephotoshowsalubeoilsamplefrom a DI engine where polymerization had happened.Toillustratehowviscousthe oilis,asmallamountwaspouredouton a piece of A4 paper, which was then lifted to vertical position. The photo shows the situation after 26 seconds the oil flowing very slowly. With such viscous oil there is naturally a high risk for damaging the engine due to insufficient lubrication and cooling. The operator might get a warning from the oilpressurewarninglampwhenstarting the engine, because oil pressure builds up slower than normal, but the best is to avoid this situation by frequently checking the level and consistency of Figure58Sampleofpolymerisedlubricationoil the lube oil and taking appropriate action. 5.2.2.5 Engineconversion

Theconversionshouldalwaysbedonebyskilledtechnicians,andtheresultoftheconversion shouldbeevaluatedbyapersonexperiencedindieselengines.Asmentionedbefore,generally anywarmdieselenginewillrunfineonheatedPPO.Themainchallengeistogettheengine started and run it with satisfactory clean combustion until it reaches normal operating temperature,typicallyabout8090Cforawatercooledengine. There are two ways to overcome the most challenging part, which is the cold start and operationoftheenginefrombeingstarteduntilithasreachednormaloperatingtemperature. Witha1tanksystem,theenginestartsdirectlyonPPO.Theoriginalfueltankcanbefilled withPPO,dieseloranymixtureofPPOanddiesel. Witha2tanksystem,theenginestartsondieselsuppliedfromaseparatefueltank,and operates on diesel until the engine reaches normal operating temperature. Then it is switchedtoheatedPPOsuppliedfromtheotherfueltank.Beforestoppingtheenginefor coolingdown,itshouldbeswitchedagaintodieselinordertopurgetheinjectionsystem. The diesel tank should always be filled with diesel, but the PPO tank can be filled with PPO,dieselandanymixturebetweenPPOanddiesel.

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 1.Realizingandoperating1tanksystems IDIenginescaneasilybeconvertedwithasingletank(1tank)system,enablingthemtostart promptlydirectlyonPPO.Thefirstconditionforrealizinga1tanksystemisthataglowplug must be present in the combustion chamber (see Figure 512), and it is necessary to install specialglowplugsandinjectors,andtoadjusttheinjectiontimingandinjectionpressure. Realizing a 1tank system requires special focus on the injectors, glow plugs and the adjustment of the engine. Using an engine converted with a 1tank system is very similar as usingtheoriginalenginewithdiesel.Theonlydifferenceisthecoldstart,wheretheoperator mustlearntostarttheengineonPPOusuallyitjustrequireslettingthepreheatingwork5 10secondslongerthanwhenstartingondiesel,eventuallycombinedwithadjustingthegasa littlewiththeaccelerator.Thebestistostarttheengineandletitheatupmoderately,rather thanlettingitheatupbyidlingorrunningtheengineatfullloadand/orathighRPMs.Most usersprefera1tanksystembecauseitiseasytouseanddoesnotrequirechangesinhabitsor giveanyinconveniences.Forthesereasonsitisoftenrecommended.

Figure59Typicalconfigurationof1tanksystem,includinglargerfuelpipes,heatexchanger, electricalfuelheater,injectors,glowplugsrelaysetc.

2.Realizingandoperating2tanksystems SomeDIenginescanalsobeconvertedwitha1tanksystem,butitismuchmorechallenging to get prompt start and clean combustion of a cold engine, so DI engines are typically converted by a 2tank system, which can relatively simple. A typical conversion for a car is demonstrated in Figure 510. For more basic engines, as used in Africa for example (Figure 516, left), with no battery for electric starting, preheating and electrical controlled fuel switching,theconversionsystemtypicallyconsistofthefollowing:anextrafuelfilter,fueltank andfuelheatingsystemforPPO,twoballvalves(oneforeachfueltank),andsomehosesand fittingstoconnectthetwofuellinesattheinjectionpump,andeventuallytorealizealoopof thereturnfuelfromtheinjectionsystem. Challengesaretodesignthesystemsothatpurgingtimeisminimized,andtoensurethatPPO is not mixed with diesel in the diesel tank during purging process. The purging time is minimized by decreasing the volume in the fuel system from the valve controlling the fuel flowingtotheengineandtheothervalvecontrollingthereturnflow.Thereforeitisbesttouse separatefuelfiltersfordieselandPPO.Itwillrequireanextracontrolvalveonengineswith externalliftpump,becauseitisusuallyplacedbeforethefuelfilter.

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 Realizingandoperatinga2tanksystemisusuallyrelativelysimple.Theenginestartsondiesel asusual,andisswitchedtoheatPPOwhentheenginehasreachedoperatingtemperature eithermanuallybytheoperatororautomaticallyviaacontrolsystem,e.g.usingathermostatic switchincombinationwith3waysolenoidvalves.Beforestoppingtheengineforcooling,the operatormustremembertoswitchbacktodieselinduetime,sotheinjectionsystemwillbe purgedwithdieselandbereadyforthenextstart.Thepurgingtimedependsonthespecific engineandthedesignofthe2tanksystem.ForDIenginesitisbesttoswitchtodieselifidling orrunningonverylowloadforlongtime.Iftheenginehasmanystarts/stops,idling/lowload oronlyrunningforashorttime,the2tanksystemisnotsuitablebecausetheenginewillrun most of the time on diesel. The 2tank system is a little more inconvenient for the user becauseitsnecessarytoswitchbacktodieselinduetimebeforestopping,andtokeepaneye onthefuellevelin2differenttanks.Theextratankfordieseltakesupspace,typicallyinside the cabin if its a passenger car or a van, where increases the risk of spilling when filling up (exceptifinstalledwithexternfillingsystem).

Figure510Typicalconfigurationof2tanksystemonengineswithliftpumpintegratedinthe injectionpump.Itincludeslargerfuelpipes,heatexchanger,extrafueltankandfuelfilterfordiesel, 3wayvalvesforswitchingbetweenPPOanddiesel,etc.

MixingPPOtothedieseltankcanbeavoidedbydelayingthereturnvalve,sothatthereturn fuelwillcontinuerunningtothePPOtankduringthepurgingprocess,butthiswillincreasethe dieselconsumption.Anotherwayistoloopthereturnfuelbacktotheinjectionpumpinstead ofthedieseltank,whenrunningondiesel.Thiswillminimizethedieselconsumptionbutwill increase the purging time considerably because the fuel in the injection system is replaced only as fast as the engine consumes fuel. With return flow to the fuel tank, the fuel in the injectionsystemischangedmuchfaster,becausethetotalamountoffueldisplacedbythelift pump over the supply and return lines can be up to 5 times as much as the actual consumption.

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Figure511Simple2tanksystemforengineswithout electricsystemandfuelliftpump.Theswitching betweendieselandPPOisdonemanuallyby2valves. Theheatsourcefortheheatexchangerdependsonthe optionsavailableforthespecificengine,e.g.coolant, lubeoil,hotairorexhaust.

Figure512Anothervariantofasimple2 tanksystemforengineswithoutelectric system,butwithoriginalfuelliftpump(1). Thissystemwasinstalledontheirrigation pumpshownonfigure5.11.Theoriginal fuelfilter(2)andaheatexchanger(3)was installedwithinaloopofthereturnfuel fromtheinjectionpump.Byloopingthe fuelthefuelheatingcouldberealisedbya fuelhoseturned1timeroundthecylinder oftheaircooledengine.Withonly1fuel filterintheloop,thepurgingtimebetween dieselandPPOislonger,butitisnot importantforanenginerunning permanentlyformanyhours.

3.RunningonPPODieselmixtures PPO and diesel mix very easily, and the diesel reduces the viscosity and flash point of the mixture.Ifamixtureisleftinatankforalongtimewithoutmovement,theconcentrationof PPOcanincreaseinthelowerlayersduetothehigherdensity,butinafrequentlyusedvehicle andwithcirculationofthefuel(returnflowtofueltank),itisnormallynotaproblem.Incold seasons,mixing1015%dieselintothePPOcanimprovethecoldstartoftheengine,butitis normallynotnecessarywithagood1tankconversion. Itmayseemattractivetorundieselenginesonmixtureswithoutconversion,andforsomeIDI enginesitseemstoworkforalongtimewithconcentrationsupto50%PPO.ButforDIengines itsmuchmorerisky,andtheconcentrationwhichwillworkismuchlower,e.g.max2030%. The main risk is that the engine over time will be contaminated with deposits of unburned PPO.Initiallyitmightseemtheengineworksfine,butwhendepositsincrease,itcansuddenly lead to more serious, irreversible problems. Therefore we can generally not recommend runningonmixtureswithoutarealconversion. 5.2.2.6 Importanttechnicalissues

1.Glowsystem A glow plug in the combustion chamber is used to preheat the combustion (pre) chamber beforethecoldstartoftheengine.Thisisanimportantdeviceforrealizinga1tanksystem. Typically glow plugs are a few mm longer than the original glow plugs that are installed, in ordertoaddmoreheattothecombustion(pre)chamberbeforethestart,andsothatthefuel spray from the injectors reaches the hot tip of the glow plug. It is also an advantage to combine longer glow plugs with a post glow system, which means that the glow plugs are activatedalsoafewminutesafterthecoldstart,andtherebyimprovethecombustionofthe

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 cold engine. It requires a special kind of glow plugs designed for post glow applications otherwisetheglowplugswillburnoutrapidly. There are other kinds ofglow systems, such as a glow coil placed in the air intake manifold, whichwilligniteasmallamountofdieselfuel.SuchasystemwillnotworkwithPPOasfuel, andcannotworkwithpostglow.Sothebestistoconvertsuchanenginewitha2tanksystem. Ifthereisnoglowsystem,theengineshouldalwaysbeconvertedwitha2tanksystem.Ifthe engine is equipped with a fuelbased pre heating system, typically placed in the air intake manifold,careshouldbetakenthatthissystemwillbesuppliedwithdiesel. 2.Injectors Thereexistmanydifferentinjectors,andtheremightbeseveralsuitablesolutionsforthesame engine.1tanksystemsrequirespecialinjectorsandincreasedinjectionpressure,butfora2 tanksystem,usuallytheoriginalinjectorsareused,andthereforenotreplacedunlesstheyare worn. Eventually the injection pressure is increased on 2tank system depending on the originalconfiguration.Changeofinjectorsmightseemcomplicatedandexpensive,butoftenit will improve the performance of a used engine, and even extend its lifetime due to cleaner combustion. A general rule is that higher injection pressure gives a better atomizing of the fuel and therefore a better cold start and a cleaner combustion. Therefore, the injection pressure should be increased, at least to the maximum within the range specified by the engine manufacturer, or slightly higher. If the injection pressure is increased much higher than the originalpressure,itcanresultinadelayoftheinjectionstartandadecreaseintheinjected fuel amount. So it might be necessary to compensate for this by advancing the timing and increasethefuelquantityrespectively. Anothergeneraladvantageistouseinjectorsthatinjectasmallpilotinjectionbeforethemain injection. That makes the combustion of the main injection faster and more complete. Pilot injection can be realized by the shape of the injector needle, or by a 2spring injector configuration.ThisrelationwasalsofoundbytheACREVOstudy[7]. 3.Timing Correctinjectiontimingiscriticaltotheperformanceoftheengine,especiallythecoldstart.In general,earlyinjectionincreasesthecombustiontemperatureandmakestheenginesound harder, and gives a better cold start, higher torque and more efficient combustion. Late injection can lead to bad cold start, high exhaust temperature and inefficient combustion, whichalsocanbenoticedbygreysmokewithanirritatingbadsmellofunburnedPPO. Whenadjustingthetimingitsgoodtoaimfortheearliestvalueintherangespecifiedbythe manufacturer,oreventoadvancethetimingabitmore,e.g.2crankshaftcomparedtothe originalsetting. Manyenginesareequippedwithanautomaticoramanuallyactivatedcoldstartadjustment, whichadvancesthetimingandincreasestheidlespeed,therebyimprovingthecoldstart.Its importantthatthisfunctionisworkingandadjustedcorrectly. 4.Fuelsystem Due to the higher viscosity and density of PPO compared to diesel, there will be higher resistance for the fuel flowing from the fuel tank to the engine. Therefore it is important to

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 minimizethepressuredrop,typicallybyincreasingthediameterofthefuellines,toeliminate critical restrictions in the fuel system, and/or to install an electrical lift pump. Usually increasing the diameter of the fuel lines and eliminating restrictions is enough. Critical restrictionscanbeprefilterinthefueltankoronthefuelline,ordifferentkindofjunctionsor connectionsofthefuelline,withreducedcrosssectionarea.Suctionofairintothefuelsystem isalsoacommontroublemaker,soitsessentialtobecarefulwiththeassemblyofalljunctions and connections of the whole fuel system, especially on the suction side of the injection pump/lift pump. For troubleshooting its a good idea to install a short piece of transparent fuelpipejustbeforetheinjection/liftpump,toseeifthereareanyairbubblesinthefuel. 5.Materials Thematerialsusedinthefuelsystemshouldbeselectedtopreventanyinteractionbetween thematerialandthePPO.CoppershouldbeavoidedduetoitscatalyticeffectonPPO,leading to decreased oxidation stability of the PPO. Zinccoated steel surfaces (except if electro coated)alsoreactswithPPO,whichformssolidfatwithahighmeltingpoint.Thefatformsa coatingwhichcanreleaseinsmallerpiecesandflowwiththePPOandblockfuelfilters.Use stainlessorcarbonsteelinstead.

Figure513Inlineprefilterwhichwaspartlyblockedbysmallparticlesofsolidfat,releasedfroma smallpieceofzinccoatedsteelinthePPOtank

Many modern fuel hoses are resistant to PPO. Typically PA12 hoses are used for hard hose connections,andfatresistantrubberhosesforthesoftflexibleconnections,e.g.NBRorVITON rubber.Specialhoseshavebeendevelopedtoresistbiodiesel,whicharealsosuitableforPPO. 6.Liftpump On most diesel engines a lift pump is used to suck the fuel from the tank and supply the correctfuelpressuretotheinjectionpump.Itstypicallymechanicalpumps,eitherintegrated in the injection pump or an external device attached to the engine or the injection pump. Some engines have no lift pump, so the fuel pressure is generated by gravity due to a lifted fuel tank. On several newer vehicles, an electrical lift pump integrated in the fuel tank generates the fuel pressure. When converting the engine to PPO, the system should ensure that both suction and fuel pressure are kept within the limits originally designed for that engine.

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 Avanetypeliftpumpintegratedintheinjectionpumpusuallyworkswithinarangeof0.20.3 barssuction.Ifthesuctionincreases,e.g.to0.40.5barormore,theinjectionpumpcanhave insufficientfuelpressureandfuelquantity,leadingtomalfunctionoftheinjectionandlossof power.Thereisalsoanincreasedriskofdamagingtheinjectionpump.Fortheconversionand for troubleshooting later on, it is useful to measure the vacuum in the fuel line before the injection/liftpump,usingavacuummeterwithscale01bars. External/mechanicalmembranetypeliftpumpsareusuallyinstalledbeforethefuelfilter,and shouldovercomethepressurelossthroughthefuelfilter,andstillmaintainapositivepressure attheinjectionpumptypically0.10.5baroverpressure.Themembranematerialmaynotbe suitableforPPO,andthereforerequiresbeingchangedmorefrequently.Somepumpscannot supply enough positive pressure with cold and high viscous PPO. This situation could be avoidedbya2tanksolution,ormodificationscouldbemadetotheliftpump,oranexternal electricalliftpumpcouldbeinstalledeithertoassistorreplacetheoriginalliftpump.Keepin mindthatthesupplypressureattheinjectionpumpshouldbewithintheoriginallyspecified limits. 7.Fuelheating HeatingthePPOiscommonlyusedtoreducetheviscosityandeventuallymeltsolidorsemi solidfatsflowingintheliquidpartofthecoldPPO.Theheatistypicallyintroducedbeforethe fuelfilterinordertoreducethepressuredropthroughthefuelfilter,andtopreventthefilter frombeingblockedwithsolidfatsinthePPO.Thereducedviscosityalsoenablestheinjection pump to handle the PPO, and it improves the performance of the injectors (atomizing). The PPO is typically heated with excess heat from the engine, which always is available from an internal combustion engine (6070% of the energy content of the fuel). Fuel temperatures around 6070C are typically reached by water cooled engines, using the coolant as a heat source,andisselflimitingduetothethermostatcontrolledcoolanttemperature.Iftheengine aftertheconversionismeanttorunondieselfromtimetotime,itswisenottoheatthefuel above70Cduetothelubricitypropertiesandlowerboilingpointofdiesel,whichcanleadto decreasedlubricityandfuelsteambubblesinthefuel,causingwearandmechanicalstressin theinjectionsystem,andmalfunctionofthefuelinjection.Ifthefueltemperaturecanexceed about 70C, e.g. using the lube oil or exhaust gas as heat source, the fuel heating system shouldbedisabledwhenrunningondiesel.AslongasthePPOisliquid,heatingthefueltank andthefuellinesisnotnecessaryanditisbetterforthestabilityofthePPOinthetank. Watercooledenginesusuallyreachoperatingtemperaturearound8090Crelativelyfast,and thecoolantisagoodheatcarrier.AneasyandgoodwaytoheatthePPOisbyacoolantPPO heat exchanger. It can be homemade, but there are many suitable plateheat exchangers already used in automobile industry that are designed for fuel cooling in modern diesel engines. These are made from aluminium, and typically have a heat transfer area of 300 600cm2 for passenger car engines. If a homemade heat exchanger is considered, it must be realizedthatitneedsquitesomecontactareaandhencemaynotbetoosmalltobeeffective. On aircooled engines the heat source can be the lube oil, the hot air stream and radiation from the engine or the exhaust gas. The lube oil heats slower than the coolant in a water cooledengine,andoilisalessefficientheatcarrierthanwater,butstillisitagoodsolutionto heat the PPO by a lube oilPPO heat exchanger. Due to lower flow and heat capacity of the lubeoilcomparedtoacoolantsystem,theheatexchangershouldhavealargerheattransfer areathaninacoolantbasedsystem.

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Figure514LubeoilcircuitonanaircooledDeutz910L03engine(Source:DeutzAG)

Iftheenginehasanexternaloilcooler,e.g.likeaDeutz910(seeFigure514),itispossibleto connecttheheatexchangertothehotlubricationoilflowingtotheoilcooler.Ortheengine might have plugs for connecting external devices to the lubrication system, e.g. external oil filter or cabin heater. It is necessary to get detailed technical documentation for the engine, showingthelubeoilcircuit,includingdataforoilpressureinordertostudyhowthelubeoil system is designed, and to figure out which maximum pressure can occur where the heat exchanger is connected to the lube system, to avoid blasting the heat exchanger. It is also importanttofittheheatexchangersothatitcannotdisturbthefunctionoftheoriginallube system. Engine Engine
C)

Engine
C)

A)

A)

A)

B)

Fuel

Lubeoil

Lubeoil

Lubeoil

Figure515Threevariantsofasimplifiedlubeoilcircuitofanaircooledengine.Left:theengineis preparedforconnectionofexternaloilcooler,oilfilterorcabinheater(C).Centre:Externaloilcooler isinstalled.Right:aheatexchanger(B)hasbeenconnectedtothelubeoilpipebetweenthelubeoil pump(A)andtheexternaloilcooler(C)

Usingtheexhaustasheatsourceisalsoanoption,whichmightseemattractive,butitalsohas disadvantages. There exists a technical risk that the PPO is overheated because of the high

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 temperature of the flue gas (up to 500C) leading to cracking of the fuel, and a fire risk, especiallyifdieselfuelisleakinginsideorneartheexhaustsystem.Duetoveryhighdifference between fuel and exhaust gas temperature, the system cannot be selflimiting. The fuel temperature should be controlled by precise design and control of the fuel flow. If the injectionsystemincludesareturnlinetothefueltank,thefuelflowwillbemuchhigherthan thefuelconsumption,andvaryalotdependingontheenginespeed,load,fueltemperature, conditionoffuelfilteretc. Fuelheatingcanalsoberealizedelectrically,orcombinedwithoneofthesolutionsdescribed above.Somecarbrandshaveelectricalfuelheaterfordiesel,andretrofitsolutionsexist,but many of these will switch off before the fuel has reached a temperature suitable for PPO. Therefore an electrical fuel heater should be well selected and eventually modified for PPO. HeatingPPOwithaglowplugmayseemattractive,butthereisahighriskthatthePPOwill crack/burn due to the concentrated heat transfer of high power and a very small area. GenerallyitisadvisednottouseelectricalPPOheatingalone(oratall)buttousecoolantor lubeoilasthemainsourceofheat. 5.2.2.7 Serviceandmaintenance

Aftertheconversion,theengineshouldgenerallybeservicedandmaintainedasifitwasstill runningondiesel. 1.Fuelfilter Justaftertheconversionofausedengine,thefuelfiltercanquicklybecomeblockedbecause thePPOcanreleasedirtanddepositsinthefueltank,andduetothehigherdensity,PPOcan liftandmovemoredirtthandieselfuel.IfthePPOfuelisclean,thefuelfilterscanlastaslong as with diesel. Nevertheless, a blocked fuel filter makes more problems with PPO than with diesel, so it is a good idea to change the fuel filter at least once a year, e.g. before a cold season. 2.Lubeoilandfilter Regardingchangeoflubeoilandfilter,itcanbekeptonthesameserviceintervalasfordiesel for IDI engines. For DI engines it is usually recommended to halve the change interval compared to operation on diesel (change the oil twice as often). That is because DI engines haveastrongertendencytogetPPOdilutedinthelubeoil,whichcanleadtopolymerization (seeFigure58).Topreventthisfromhappening,itsimportanttoregularlychecktheleveland consistency of the oil in the engine. If the level has increased its a clear indication that the lubeoilhasbeendilutedwithPPO.Theoilshouldbechangedandthereasonfortheincreased level should be found. Reasons could be the many starts on PPO or a lot of idling/low load operation, or it could be caused by inefficient combustion due to low temperature of the engine,wrongadjustment,badqualityPPOoradefectinjector.Onsomeenginestheinjection pumpisattachedtotheengineinawaythatenablesfuelfromadefectgaskettoleakintothe lubeoil. Iftheengineconsumessomelubeoil,itspossibletogetincreasedPPOconcentrationwithout an increase in oil level, so it is important also to view the consistency of the lube oil when checkingtheoillevelofthecoldengine.Iftheoilsuddenlyseemsmoreviscousandsticky,its asignofbeginningpolymerization,andtheoilandfiltershouldbechangedimmediatelyafter runningtheenginewarm.

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 3.Injectors Withagoodquality,cleanPPOtheInjectorswilllastatleastaslongaswithdiesele.g.150 200,000km,oracorrespondingamountofoperatinghours,e.g.35005000h. 4.Glowplugs Glow plugs in a 1tank application will typically last shorter because they are used more. Typicallyforapassengercar,goodglowplugslast24years.For2tanksystem,thewearon theglowplugsareunchanged. 5.2.2.8 Externalcomponentsattachedtotheengine

The engine can be equipped with different external components, which are relevant for the operationonPPO.Typicalequipmentliketurbochargersandcatalyticconvertersisattached to the exhaust gas system. The relevance to PPO operation is both for the function of the components,andforthehealthandlifetimeoftheengine. 1.ExhaustGasRecirculation Many modern engines are equipped with an EGR system (Exhaust Gas Recirculation), which leads a part of the exhaust gas back to the intake manifold under medium load, in order to reduce the emission of NOX. During idling and full load the valve should remain closed. The EGRcontrolvalvehasatendencytogetstuckbydepositsafteryearsofoperation.Sometimes thevalvewillhangpermanentlyinopenposition,andallowexhaustgastopassevenatidling, whichwillmaketheproblemwithdepositworse,andatfullload,willmaketheenginesmoke due to lack of oxygen. Therefore, it is important to observe if the EGR valve is working properly,andifnot,getitfixedandcleanthevalveandintakemanifoldfromdeposits. 2.Turbo ThereisusuallynospecialproblemtorunaturboengineonPPO.Neverthelessaturbocharger canbeaweakpointiftheengineisrunningwithbadandincompletecombustion,especiallyif thelubeoilgetsthickduetopolymerization. 3.Catalyticconverter Afluegascatalyst(catalyticconverter)worksfinewithPPOexhaust,andhelpstoreducethe smellofunburnedPPO.Highamountsofashbuildingcomponentsinthefuel(P,S,Ca,Mg)may inhibit the function of the catalyst. Generally the application of PPO in engines with particle filters is still not recommended because of this last reason, that particle filters are very sensitivetowardsash,andbecauseofspecialchallengesfortheregenerationprocess. 5.2.2.9 Emissions

WithgoodconversionofahealthyengineandgoodqualityPPOmeetingthefuelqualitylimits, theemissionsfromtheenginewillbeonthesamelevelaswithgoodqualitydiesel,orbetter. Ofcourse,theCO2reductionbyusingbiofuelsassubstituteforfossilfuelisthemostimportant advantage, but the emission of CO, HC and PM can also be reduced. Sulphur (S) related emissions (SO2 and PM) are reduced due to the naturally very low content of S in PPO. NOX emissionisnotconnecteddirectlytothenatureofthefuel,butisgeneratedbecauseofthe naturalexcessofcombustionair(withO2)inahotdieselengine,sofinallytheNOXemission canincreaseordecreasealittle.Iftheengineisadjustedforearlierinjection,thecombustion temperatureandtheNOXemissioncanincrease,butontheotherhandPMemissionandfuel consumptionwilldecrease,duetomoreefficientcombustion.Thenaturalcontentofoxygen (O2) in PPO improves the combustion efficiency and reduces the amount of black smoke, so typicallyaPPOengineemitsnoblacksmoke.ItisnormalthataDIenginesmokesafteridling

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 andaftercoldstart,butotherwiseaPPOengineshouldnotemitvisiblesmoke.Ifitdoes,itcan be a sign of incomplete combustion, and the probable causes of the problem should be investigated.Untilsolved,itsbettertoruntheengineondiesel. 5.2.2.10 Examplesofconvertedengines 1.Irrigationpump(Figure516,left) Materialsused:2m8mmrubberhose,2ballvalves,fittingsandhoseclamps.Totalcosts ofmaterialsabout20.Thefuelheatingwasrealizedbyloopingthereturnfuelandleadingit onetimearoundthehotcylinderandbacktotheliftpump.Aftereachsinglepassintheloop, the fuel heats a little, and after few minutes operating the engine, the fuel temperature reachedabout60C.

Figure516Twoexamplesofconvertedengines.Left:IrrigationpumpwithLombardini15LD440 (1cylinder442ccm,10.5hp)aircooledDIenginewithmanualstart.Convertedwithasimple2tank system,HondurasOctober2008(GotaVerdeProject).Right:ToyotaHilux2,8D(3L).IDIengine. ConvertedbyanELSBETT1tanksystem,HondurasOctober2008(GotaVerdeProject)

2.Carengine(Figure516,right) Materialused:ELSBETT1tankkitforthisspecificengine,includingwarrantyandallmaterials neededfortheconversion.Price790.Itisestimatedthatthepriceforasimilarconversionkit madelocallywouldcostabout300,excludingprofitandallocationsfordevelopment,testing, documentation,warrantyetc. A remark on prices: prices vary a lot depending on the exact engines to be converted, the quality of the conversion system, user wishes, and how and where the components for the conversionarepurchased. 5.2.3 Feedstockforsoapproduction

Author:TitusGalema In various countries in Africa, soap is made in villages and sometimes on a small industrial scale, as in Tanzania (Reinhard Henning, Jatropha curcas L. in Africa, Bagani). The process of soapmakingisrelativelyeasy,andrequiresonlysomecausticsodaandwaterasingredients.If desired,colorantandperfumescouldbeaddedtomakethesoapmoreattractivefordomestic use.Thesoapisoftenmadeinsimplemoulds(e.gfromplasticbottles)andafterhardening,it is cut into handsome pieces. The soap can then be sold at a good price, which makes soap makingaprofitablesmallscalebusiness.Thesoapismainlyusedforwashinghandsandsince

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 medicinalpropertiesareattributedtothejatrophasoap,thesoapcanbesoldatagoodprice inTanzania(R.Henning). Ingeneral,soapmakinginvolvesdissolvingcausticsodainwater(ca150gofcausticsodain 0.35 liter of water) and then mixing the oil (1 liter) with the solvent and letting it harden overnight.Addinglesswatergivesahardersoap,addingmorewaterrequiresadditionofflour orstarchtogetaconsistencythatissolidenough.Twomethodstoproducesoaparegivenin annexD.2. Care should be taken when handling caustic soda; Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide(KOH),sincebothareaggressivesubstances3. 5.2.4 Feedstockforbiodieselproduction

Author:ThijsAdriaans InsteadofadaptingtheenginetorunonPPO,theoilcanalsobechemicallytreatedtoproduce biodiesel.Propertiesofbiodieselareverysimilartothoseoffossildiesel,andhenceitcanbe usedinanydieselenginewithoutadaptations.Clean,wellproducedandrefinedbiodieselisat leastasgoodanenginefuelasregularfossildiesel.Itgivesbetterignitionandcombustionand emits fewer harmful components like smoke and sulphur. The disadvantages are its slightly lowerenergycontent,leadingtoanincreaseinfuelconsumptionofabout210%,andthefact thatitmayworkasasolvent.Biodieseltendstocleanthefuelsystem,takingthedirtthathas beengatheredduringpreviousdieseluse,whichmaycauseblockingofthefuelfiltershortly after switching. Furthermore its solvent nature may affect the integrity of the fuel lines and gasketsinthefuelsystem,dependingontheirmaterial. 5.2.4.1 Somechemistry

The production of biodiesel is essentially a simple chemical process. The vegetable oil molecules (triglycerides) are cut to pieces and connected to alcohol (methanol or ethanol) moleculestoformmethylorethylesters.Asabyproductglycerinisformed.Schematicallythe reactionlookslikethis:

fatty acid n i r e c y l g

fatty acid n i r e c y l g

fatty acid

fatty acid

fatty acid

fatty acid

Figure517Schematicrepresentationofthebiodieselproductionprocess

OntheleftisaPPOmolecule(triglyceride).Threemoleculesofmethanol(M)areadded.The triglyceridemoleculeisbrokenintoitsthreefattyacidsandthesefattyacidscombinewiththe methanol to form methyl esters. Glycerin combined with the lye or potassium FFA (soap)
3

Annex:safetysheetSodiumhydroxide(NaOH)andpotassiumhydroxide(KOH)

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 remainsasasideproduct.Thebiodieselmoleculesareeachalotsmallerthanthetriglyceride attheleft,themaincauseforitsmorefavorablepropertiesasafuel.Therequiredcatalystis not shown in the picture, as it appears unchanged on both sides. An excellent and more extensivedescriptioncanbefoundonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel. 5.2.4.2 Typeofalcohol

The type of alcohol used for the reaction is usually methanol, made from natural gas. Theoreticallyanyalcoholcouldbeused.Theadvantageofusingethanolisthatitcaneasilybe producedinabiologically,forexamplebyfermentation.However,theuseofethanolhasfour disadvantages: 1. Cost.Buyingethanolofsufficientqualityismoreexpensivethanbuyingmethanol. 2. Processing. The esterification process with ethanol is more complicated and less straightforwardthanwithmethanol.Oneoftheproblemsisthattheethanolmustbefree of water (anhydrous), which is not easily accomplished in a nonindustrial setting. The JourneytoForeverwebsitedocumentswhyethylesterproductionissuchahassle. 3. Properties. The properties of methyl esters are more favourable than those of ethyl esters.EspeciallythecoldrelatedpropertieslikeCFPPandviscositylagbehind.Although thesearenotofsuchimportanceintropicalclimates,itisadvisabletoconverttheengine to SVO instead of going through the hassle of producing ethyl ester since its gain in propertiesismarginal. 4. Energy.Forthereactiontoproceed,themixtureshouldbeheatedtoatemperaturenear the boiling point of the alcohol. The heavier the alcohol molecule (due to more carbon atoms)thehighertherequiredenergyinputduetoahigherboilingpoint. Forthesereasonsonlytheuseofmethanolisconsideredinthiscase. 5.2.4.3 PreparationofPPOfeedstock

PPO can be produced from other resources, but clean, fresh vegetable oil is the easiest and most straightforward feedstock. However, there are three kinds of properties can cause trouble:composition,chemicalimpuritiesandphysicalimpurities. Physical impurities (particles, sediment) are most easily removed first. These can be sludge/presscakefromtheoilseedsinfreshoil,andsand/dirt.Thoughtheoilcanbefiltered overcloth,thepreferredoptionistoleaveitaloneforsomeweekstosediment.Thentheoilis decantedfromthesludge.Boththesludgeandthewaterareremovedinthisway.Thewater iscleanenoughtostartmakingbiodieselifitremainsclearuponshaking. Chemicalimpuritiesneednotposeproblems.Iftheoilhasbeenpressedfreshfromoilseeds likejatrophaorrapeseedaccordingtotheguidelinesinchapter4ofthisbook,theoilshould be readily applicable as a feedstock. Unrefined sunflower oil should be dewaxed. If fresh oil hasbeenstandinglongerunderunfavourableconditions,itiswisetocheckthewatercontent andeventuallyacidity(FFA,freefattyacids). Finally the composition of the oil/fat is important (For more information about the contents seetablesinannexD.4).Thisprimarilyconcernsthetemperaturebelowwhichtheoilstartsto gethazyoreventogel/solidify.Freshoilfromjatropha,soy,sunflowerorrapeseedwillstay clearandliquiddownuntiltemperaturesaroundthefreezingpoint(0C)ormuchlower.Palm oil, coconut oil and animal fats usually solidify at about room temperature. This poses problems for their straight use in engines but also has consequences for the biodiesel produced. The biodiesel will exhibit the same behavior as the oil/fat but at lower

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 temperatures.Biodieselfromthelatterfeedstocksusuallyonlymakesasuitablesummerfuel, asthefuelmaygelinwinterconditions.Sincethispropertycannotbechangedwithoutlarge efforts, care must be taken to choose a suitable feedstock. The same may hold for used cookingoil,dependingontheoilthatwasusedoriginally.Storingsamplesoftheusedoilinthe fridgeorfreezerforatleastseveraldaysmaygivesomeinformationaboutthetemperature behavior. If the used oil is a mixture, it may solidify partly. If so, let this happen for about a weekandthendecanttheliquidportionontop.Thiscanbeusedaftertestingitsbehaviourin cold. 5.2.4.4 Biodieselproductionrecipe

GenerallythisrecipecanbefollowedtoproducebiodieselfromfreshPPOandmethanolina basecatalyzedenvironment.Therecipebelowisaverymuchsummarizedgeneralguideline. Many tips and tricks and safety recommendations have been left out for the sake of compactness.Itisgoodtoreadmoreaboutthisbeforestarting.Ifyouwouldliketoworkwith usedcookingoil,ethanoloranothercatalystinstead,manyInternetsitescanhelpyouadapt therecipe.Pleasenotethatthemethanolandlyeinvolvedarequitedangerouschemicals.Be suretoknowwhatyouaredoing,workinawellventilatedareaandwearprotectiveclothes andglasses! 1.Requiredmaterials Thefollowingresourcesarerequired(allquantitiesareexpressedperliterofPPO):1literof PPO,theyoungerthebetter;atleast3.5gramsoflye(causticsoda;NaOH(>95%));atleast 220mlofmethanol(>99%).EventuallyyoucoulduseKOH(>85%)insteadofNaOH;thenuse atleast5grams. 2.Requiredactions Firstdissolvethelyeintothemethanol.Shakeorswirluntilallthelyehasdissolved.Thismay take10minutes.Itisnormalthattemperaturerises.Thismixtureiscalledsodiummethoxide. NowmakesurethePPOisinavessellargeenough(atleast150%ofitsvolume),preferably with a valve at the bottom, and heat it to about 60C, then stop heating. Then add the methoxidemixtureandmakesureitismixedwellforatleast10minutes.Leavethevesseland let the different constituents separate by sedimentation. The glycerin will settle out at the bottom.After8to24hoursthesedimentationiscompleteandtheglycerinecanbedrained off.Itiswidelyadvisednottotrytospeeduptheprocessbyshortingthesettlingtimes!What remains is raw biodiesel. If water washing is considered difficult the biodiesel may be used straight, although its quality may be inferior because of impurities. In this case additional settlingforatleastaweekisadvisedtogetridofthemajorityofsoaps. 3.Magnesiumsilicate(bleachingearth) Magnesium silicate is used for the purification process of the biodiesel. It provokes the impuritiestosettleanditpermitsthemtobefilteredout.Settledmagnesiumsilicateshould behandledaschemicalwaste. 5.2.4.5 Biodieselrefining

Ifthebiodieselproducedisnotclear,waterwashingand/orbubblewashingwillremovemost of these impurities. Bubblewashing requires less water but needs compressed air and more time. Waterwashing can be applied one or more times. The first time its best to add a small amountofaceticacid(vinegar)beforeaddingthewater.TheaceticacidbringsthepHofthe

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 solution closer to neutral because it neutralizes and drops out any lye suspended in the biodiesel.Addthebiodieselontopofalayerofwaterandstirgently.Letsettleforatleasta day and separate the layers by either draining the water from the bottom or pouring the biodieseloutgently. Bubblewashing works with air bubbles formed by compressed air passing through an air stone,forinstancefromanaquariumshop.Addabout30millilitersofvinegar(aceticacid)per 100litersofbiodieselandthenabout50%water.Thendropintheairstoneandswitchonthe airpump.Theairbubblesrisethroughthebiodiesel,carryingafilmofwaterwhichwashesthe biodieselasitpassesthrough.Atthesurface,thebubblebursts,leavingasmalldropofwater whichsinksbackdownthroughthebiodiesel,washingagain.Ifthemixtureisstillcloudyafter a couple of hours, add a little more vinegar. Bubblewash for 12 hours or longer (up to 24), thendrainoffthewashingwater,skimoffanywaxfloatingon top.Repeatthebubblewash twomoretimes;keepthewaterfromthe2ndand3rdwashforwashingthenextbatch.For severesoapformations,firstheatthebiodiesel/soapmixtureto50C.Addenoughvinegarto bringthepHtoslightlybelow7.Stirforhalfanhour,coolandcontinuewithbubbledryingas usual. 5.2.4.6 Biodieselbyproducts

Themainbyproductofthebiodieselprocessisglycerine.Otherbyproductsofthebiodiesel reactionandpurificationprocessarewaterwithsoapresidues,magnesiumsilicatewithsoap residues, recuperated methanol or ethanol and free fatty acids (FFA). In the following paragraphsashortdescriptionfortheapplicabilityofthesebyproductsisgiven. 1.Glycerine Glycerine is the simplest 3fold alcohol and comes into existence when the vegetable oil moleculesaresplitintofattyacidsandglycerineduringthebiodieselprocess.Thefattyacids react with the methanol to biodiesel. Glycerine is a high viscosity liquid with a high density (1,26kg/l)[11].ThenamecomesfromtheGreekwordglykysmeaningsweet.Theamountof glycerinethatisformedinthereactiondependsontheFFAleveloftheoilused,butcanvary between10%and30%oftheamountofoilused.Biodieselfloatsonglycerinesinceitsdensity is lower. Separating the glycerine from the biodiesel can be easily done by draining off the bottomlayerofagravitydraineddecantationtankafterasedimentationtimeofeighthours afterthebiodieselreaction.Inacontinuousprocess,separationisdonebyacentrifugebased onthedensitydifference. Glycerinecanbeusedasresourceforotherproducts,includingsoap,organicmanure,biogas, fuel,andrecycledalcoholforthebiodieselprocess(Fordetails,seeannexD.5.3). 2.Waterwithsoapresidues Ifthebiodieseliswashedwithwater,itdissolvestheformedsoapsandresidualmethanol.If therewouldbenomethanolresiduepresentinthecrudebiodiesel,thewashwatercouldbe used directly as degreasant water for internal industrial purposes. In practice there will be methanolpresent,sothismustberemovedfirst.Awaytodothisisbyheatinganopendrum withthewashingwaterinawellventilatedarea(preferablyoutdoors)toabout50C.Dont inhalethevapors!Abetterwayistorecoverthemethanolforreusebydistillingorflashingit off.

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 3.Therecuperatedalcohol(methanol) Therecuperatedalcoholcanbeuseddirectlyinthetransesterificationprocessagain.Besure no water is present in the recuperated alcohol. It is recommended to mix small volumes of recuperatedmethanolwithfreshalcoholtoensurethequality. 4.FreeFattyAcids(FFA) TheresidualFFAnormallyaremixedwiththeglycerinewheretheycanbeconvertedintosoap (see paragraph on soap). They can also be neutralized and separated to be converted into biodiesel through an acid/base transesterification process. Large boilers can often handle biofuel with several percents of acid content, so the FFA could be mixed with (neutral) vegetableoilandfiredforenergygeneration,thoughthisisnotaverycommonapplicationin developingcountries. 5.2.4.7 Concludingremarks

Making biodiesel is something that needs to be practiced. with different feedstock and circumstances. The observations and procedures may show large variations. With more experience,onewillbeabletojudgetheeffectsandstreamlinetheprocesses.Usethissection asaguidelineandtrytouseliterature,forinstancetheexcellentJourneytoForeverwebsite, togathermoredetailinformation. 5.3 Applicationsofotherjatrophaproducts

Author:JanskevanEijck When the seeds are pressed to oil, about 20%30% of oil is gained. The rest remains as presscake. Not only are all the minerals still inside this cake (PPO contains virtually no minerals) but due to the oil content the presscake still contains a considerable amount of energy.Withits2025MJ/kgitsabouthalfasenergyrichastheoilthatcontains40MJ/kg but the fact that there is two to four times more presscake, compensates for this. Theoretically,thebestuseofthepresscakeisforenergypurposesfirst,andthenasafertilizer. Digestiontobiogasforenergyleavesthenutritionalvalueintact,anduseasafertilizerimplies thatthecalorificvalueislost.Directcombustionofthepresscake,bycontrast,willleavethe majority of the nutrients in the ashes, but the nitrogen will be lost with the flue gases. The processschemebelowwillclarifytheprocess. Thefollowingbyproductscanbedistinguished:presscake,woodenstemsandleaves. 5.3.1 Woodenstemsandleaves

Jatrophaleavescontains4.7%nitrogen,0.15%phosphorus,3.77%potassium,0.61%calcium, 0.49% magnesium and 0.25% sulphur. It also contains elements like zinc, boron, copper, manganese,boronandsodium.Theseelements,thoughfoundinsmallamounts,aregoodfor growth,productionanddroughttolerancelikepotassium.Whentheplantshedsoffitsleaves, thesemineralsgobacktothesoilwhentheleavesdecompose.Thewoodfromjatrophahasan energy content of 15.5 MJ per kilogram and nitrogen content of 3.3%, phosphorus 0.1%, potassium2.9%andcalcium0.3%andothertraceamountofnutrientswhichsuggeststhatit canbeusedforfiringinstovesbutalsousefulinincreasingsoilnutrientsafterdecomposition orasashfromcombustion[9].Thestemscontainamilkysubstance,whichmakesdirectfiring difficult,theyhavetobedriedfirst

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 5.3.2 5.3.2.1

Presscake Handling

Thepresscakestoringconditionstoavoidarethefollowing: Donotstoreathighhumidtemperature.Thepresscakeispronetofungalattack. Storeatorbelow6Cforoptimalconditions,howeverthisimpliesacoolingsystemwhich formostprojectswillbetooexpensive. Thecakeshouldbedriedtoobtainalowmoisturecontent(57%)andstoredinanairtight containerorotherwisestoredinadryandcoolplace. Keepthepresscakeawayfromoxidizingagentsandflammablematerials[15]. 5.3.2.2 Presscakeasabiogasgenerationfeedstock

Biogasproductionfromorganicmatter,likeanimalmanureandagriculturalwaste,isproduced by small units on large scale for households in countries like China, Nepal and Vietnam. The usual size for households is a 6 to 12 m3 holder for which 4 to 10 cows would produce sufficientmanure.Biogasisusedforcookingandlighting.Withalargerproductionitcanalso beusedforrunninggasengines.Biogas,isamixofmethane(CH4)andcarbondioxide(CO2)in aratioof6040,withanetcaloricvalueofapprox20MJ/m3 Jatropha presscake can be mixed with manure from animals as cow dung or from people. Results from lab test on behalf of FACT proved that jatropha presscake alone, when started with fermentation bacteria to start the process, showed a fairly good production of biogas. Basedonthesetestsapredictionforreallifeproductionswasmadeasfollows:CH4contentof ca50%60%andCH4yieldca0.50.6m3/kg.LHVbetween1822MJ/kg.[16] OnecasewhereitisproducedonalargerscaleiswithDiligentTanzania,seetheCasebelow. Water is the other input ingredient and after anaerobic fermentation in the digester two products are created, which are biogas and sludge. As with any biogas installation there is quiteabigamountofwaterneededforthefermentationprocess.If,forexample,toiletscan beconnected,therewillbeasteadywaterflowavailable.Oncethebiogasdigesterrunsoutof water,allbacteriadieandstartingupthesystemagaincantakeuptoamonth.Thismeansthe biogas system has to be monitored. The bigger the system, the easier it will become to maintain. For a 60 m3 size digester, for example, there is no problem if there would be no waterforadayortwo.Forsmallersystemsthewaterflowshouldbemoreconstant. IN
Presscake (60kg/day) Humanwaste (150people/day) Water (1.5m3/day) Biogas (12m3/day) Slurry (60kg/day)

OUT

DIGESTER

Figure518Processschemebiogasdigester60m3withcombinedfeedstockbasedonthebiogas digesterofDiligent(Tanzania).

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 The sludge which is left after the presscake is fermented can be used as a fertilizer. It has a highernutrientvolumethanthemanureandinadditionallpathogenshavebeenkilledduring fermentation,whichgivesaverycleannaturalfertilizer. Therearedifferentdesignsforabiogasdigester,mostfrequentlyusedarefixeddome,floating domeandplugflowdigester(Kerkhof,2007).ThedigesteroftheKerkhofcaseisafixeddome. Therearenospecialrequirementsforabiogassystemtobeabletorunonjatrophapresscake. However, there is little experience with a system running on cake alone. Biogas cannot be stored.Thismeanstheenduserhastobeclosetothebiogasdigester.Dependingonthesize ofthedigester(andthepressureunderwhichthebiogasistransported,0.2bar)amaximumof one kilometer between the enduser and the digester is advised. Besides using the gas in a kitchen,abiogasgeneratorcouldalsobeused.Howeverforthisalargedigesterisnecessary. Thedigesterdiscussedinthecase(60m3digesterwith12m3/dayofbiogas)coulddrivea2kW engineforabout11hours/day.

CasebiogasinstallationatDiligent(Tanzania) For a 60m3 digester which is fed by a combination of toilets (8 toilets for about 150 people) and Jatropha seedcake (as is the case for the digester at Diligent TanzaniainArusha)anamountof60kgofseedcakeisrequiredperday(and1500 litersofwater)toproducearound12m3ofgasperday(whichisabout20%ofthe sizeofthedigester).Thisamountofgasisenoughtofuelthreestovesinakitchen whichserves250people.

Figure520StoverunbybiogasatDiligent Tanzanialtd

Figure520The60m3digesterat DiligentTanzanialtd.(installedby Camartec,Arusha)

5.3.2.3 Presscakeasbriquettesforfuel

1.Presscakebriquettes Jatropha presscake has an energy content of around 25 MJ per kg. Although the presscake already is a pressed product, its energy content per liter can be considerably increased by compacting the material to increase its density. This process of compacting the biomass material to increase density (biomass densification) is traditionally called briquetting. A low pressure briquetting machine operates in a similar way as a screw press, the presscake is in principlecompressedagain.Thecohesionforcebetweenthepresscakeparticlesissmall,soa

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 binding material has to be added during the process of making briquettes. This enhances compactionforalowpressurecompactionsystem.Asuitablebindingmaterialcanforexample be starch. Also slightly burning the outer part of the briquette increases the strength of the briquette. Thedisadvantageofthesepresscakebriquettes(fromfreshpresscake)isthatalotofsmokeis emittedwhentheyareburned.Theenergycontenthoweverisveryhigh.

Figure521Presscakebriquetsandbriquettingpress(right)atDiligentTanzaniaLtd.

2.Charcoalbriquettes Asecondoptionistoturnthepresscakeintocharcoal.Thisincreasestheenergycontentasthe weightisreduced.Inprinciplecharcoalingmeansburningthepresscakewithoutoxygen.The smokeemissionfromburningthesecharcoalbriquettesismuchlowerthanfromthepresscake briquettes and they burn more easily. The presscake can be turned into charcoal before or after pressing into briquettes. If presscake is turned into charcoal (dust) a similar process as with presscake briquettes can make charcoal briquettes. Again, a binder is necessary. In an ovenoratraditionalwayofmakingcharcoal(coveringwithsoil)apresscakebriquettecanalso completely be turned into charcoal. About 60% of the weight of a presscake briquette will remainwhenprocessedintoacharcoalbriquette.

Figure522charcoalproductionatTEMDO, ArushaTanzania(photoJanskevEijck) Figure523charcoalbriquettesatDiligent TanzaniaLtd.(photoJanskevEijck)

5.3.2.4

Presscakeasafertilizer

Jatrophapresscakecontainshighamountsofnitrogen(3.86.4%bywt),phosphorus(0.92.8% bywt)andpotassium(0.91.8%bywt).Italsocontainstraceamountsofcalcium,magnesium, sulphur, zinc, iron, copper, manganese and sodium. One ton of presscake contains approximately51kgofnitrogen,18kgofphosphorusand13kgofpotassium.Itisequivalent

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 to 153 kg of NPK industrial fertilizer having the composition ratio of 15:15:15, based on nitrogen content in presscake [9]. Presscake has to be composted before it can be used as fertilizer.Thiscanbedonebyleavingthecakeforsometime(afewdays)outside.Especially whenpresscakewithahighoilcontentisputontheplantsdirectly,itwillnegativelyaffectthe plants,asitdecreasesthepermeabilityofthesoil. 5.3.2.5 Insecticidefromoiland/orpresscake

Jatrophaoilhasalsoproventobeaneffectivepesticide.Inonestudy1.4litersofjatrophaoil was mixed with 16 liters of water and sprayed on cotton and acted efficiently [10]. An organization in Tanzania promotes the following process for obtaining insecticide out of jatrophaseeds:grindsomejatrophaseeds,soaktheminwaterfor24hours,filtertheparticles fromthismixture,dilutethemixtureina1:10ratiowithwater. 5.3.3 Whatisnotrecommended

Whenjatrophapresscakeispresseddirectlyintobriquettes,thesebriquettesproducealotof smoke when burned. Use of these briquettes indoor without proper ventilation is not recommended. However if they are used in, for example, industrial boilers or in ovens with chimneys,thesmokewillnotbeinhaled. Unlikemanyotheroilseeds,thejatrophapresscakecannotbeusedasanimalfeed,asitistoxic due to the presence of several components (phorbol esters, curcins, trypsin inhibitors and others). 5.4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. References www.jatropha.de www.jatropha.de/lamps/protzen2.html www.jatropha.de/zimbabwe/binga.htm http://www.fierna.com/English/UB16.htm www.jatropha.de DAJOLKAPPOcars:http://dajolka.dk/en/our_ppo_cars_overv.htm FAIRCT950627AdvancedCombustionResearchforEnergyfromVegetableOils(ACREVO) http://www.biomatnet.org/secure/Fair/F484.htm UntersuchungderWechselwirkungenzwischenRapslalsKraftstoffunddemMotorenl inpflanzenltauglichenMotoren http://www.tfz.bayern.de/sonstiges/15951/bericht_7.pdf

9. http://www.bshgroup.com/index.php?page=109906 10. R.E.E. Jongschaap et al. (2007) Claims and Facts on Jatropha curcas L.,Global Jatropha curcas evaluation, breeding and propagation programme, Plant Research International, WageningenUR

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 11. Milaflor L. Morales a safe and effective pesticide, Cotton Research and Development Institute,Batac,2906IlocosNorte,Philippines 12. Binas1998,NVONcommissie,tabel11 13. Wikipedia 14. Source:infopop.biodiesel.ccandjouneytoforever 15. Source:http://www.biofuelreview.com/content/view/1793/ 16. Groeneveldetal. 17. T. Adriaans et al. Anearobic digestion of jatropha curcas presscake, FACT publication, January2007. Othersources http://www.journeytoforever.org ManualD23:Construction,installationandmaintenanceofasmallbiodieselplant,Gota Verde(2009) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel BegleitforschungzurStandardisierungvonRapslalsKraftstofffrpflanzenltaugliche DieselmotoreninFahrzeugenundBHKW http://www.tfz.bayern.de/sonstiges/16411/gelbesheft69.pdf http://w1.siemens.com/responsibility/en/sustainable/Protos.htm Henning(2001)ManualforJatrophacurcasLinZambia E. Kerkhof, (2007) Jatropha presscake, waste or valuable? An investigation into possibilitiesofusingJatrophapresscakeinTanzania,EindhovenTechnicalUniversity

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PROJECTIMPLEMENTATION

Mainauthor:PeterMoers 6.1 Introduction

Once the feasibility of a jatropha project has been established, the actual project can be realized.Thiscanbedoneinmanywaysanditinvolvesmanydecisions.Aprojectdesignerwill have to take important decisions on the ownership model (who owns the plantations? who owns the processing plant?), on the production model (how will the production chain look like?)andonthefinancingmodel(howareplantations,processingplantetc.financed?).This chapterprovidesanoverviewoftheoptionsandindicateswhichoptionismoreappropriate, givenacertaincontext.Finally,thischapteroffersinsightintothemaincriteriathathavetobe takenintoaccountifthepromoterintendstodesignasustainablejatrophaproject. 6.2 Ownership,ProductionandFinancemodels

Jatropha project designers focusing on the implementation phase will have to make several strategic decisions about who will own the production facilities, what products to include in the chain and how to finance the different components of the enterprise. These decisions determinetoalargedegreethesocialimpactandsustainabilityoftheproductionchaintobe promoted. This chapter aims to describe the most important options, with the respective advantagesanddisadvantages. As stated before, this manual will only focus on small and mediumscale initiatives (up to a total of 1000 ha, in smaller parcels) whose main objective is to improve living conditions of smallfarmersandtheirfamilies.Thisexcludesmodelsbasedonthepurchaseoflargeareasof land for jatropha monocultures, in which the role of the local population is reduced to the supplyofcheaplabour. 6.2.1 Ownership

Participation of the small producer in the jatropha production chain varies widely among jatropha projects worldwide. Ownership is in this section defined as the economic participation of small farmers in the different stages of the production chain. Ownership matters,becauseitcanbethedifferencebetweenreceivingafairpriceorbeingexploited.But if conditions are not right, ownership may lead also to corruption, inefficiency and entrepreneurialfailure. This section first gives an overview of the different ownership models, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Recommendations about choosing the most appropriate model are also given, based on the opportunities and constraints that the local context presents. 6.2.1.1 Ownershipmodels

When describing the role of small farmers in the production chain, three pure ownership modelsandtwohybridmodelscanbedistinguished,basedontwocriteria:theownershipof

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 the plantations and he ownership of the processing plant. The following table gives an overviewoftheownershipoptions. Table61Overviewofownershipmodels Model Plantationsownedby Processingownedby Processing Farmers Farmers Thirdparty enterprise Puremodels: A.Pureplantation X X C.Pureoutgrowers X X E.Purefarmerowned X X Hybridmodels: B.Plantationwithoutgrowers X X X D.Farmerparticipationin X (X) X X processingplant 1.Pureplantationmodel(modelA) In the pure plantation model, a single (often foreign) company buys large areas of land (thousandsofhaarenotuncommon)andestablishesjatrophaplantationsmanageddirectlyby thesamecompany.ThismodelisparticularlyusedinLatinAmerica,where44%ofalljatropha initiativesaremanagedaslarge,singleownedplantations[1].Giventheextremelyhighstart up costs for land purchase, most promoters negotiate longterm concessions or lease agreementswith(local)governmentsorformerlandowners.Asmentionedabove,thismodel willnotbefurtherdiscussed,becauseitdoesnotinvolvesmall,independentfarmers. 2.Pureoutgrowermodel(modelC) Inthepureoutgrowermodel,aprivate(nationalorforeign)biofuelprocessingandmarketing enterprisesignscontractswithfarmersfortheproductionandsupplyofjatrophaseeds.The central enterprise generally prefinances part of the plantation investment of outgrowing farmersinexchangefortheexclusiverighttobuyseedsfromthesefarmers.Someprocessing enterprisescreatefundsforsocialprojectsinthecommunitiesoftheiroutgrowers. The processing enterprise is not necessarily an external or capitalintensive enterprise. An example of a pure outgrower model that is communityowned are the MultiFunctional Platforms(MFP)inWesternAfrica.Theplatformsaregenerallyownedandoperatedbyalocal entrepreneurialgroup(oftenwomen).Farmersbringtheirjatrophafruitstothedehullerand press of the platform, pay for the service but remain owner of the oil and presscake. The processingenterprisemayormaynotbeengagedinthemarketingoftheoilandpresscake.In thiswayaserviceisprovidedtothecommunityandlocalemploymentandincomeiscreated. Theseplatformsmayalsocoexistwithacentralprocessingfacility,inwhichtheplatformsplay theroleoflocalcollectioncentres.Whenreferringtothesustainabilityoftheseplatforms,the importance of organizational capacity and technical skills at community level cannot be overemphasized. More information on Multi Functional energy Platforms can be found at: http://www.mfrfp.com/. 3.Purefarmerownedenterprise(modelE) Pure(100%)farmerownedprocessingenterprisesareextremelyrare.Inthismodel,jatropha producingfarmersare100%ownersofboththeprocessingandmarketingfacilities.Thiscan be in the form of a cooperative (in which the surplus is distributed according to the

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 production supplied by each member) or as a private enterprise (in which profits are distributed according to the value of shares held by each owner). The latter is especially appropriate in countries where the term cooperative has a connotation of corruption and inefficiency.Toavoidadominanceofoneormorelargefarmersintheprivateenterprise,BYSA inHondurashasoptedtoincludeintheirstatutesanarticlethatmakesitimpossibleforone singlepersontoownmorethan5%ofallshares. Themainreasonforrelativelyfewfarmerownedjatrophaenterprisesisthelackofconfidence ofinvestors(includingbanks)injatrophaventures.Itisexpectedthatinthenearfuture,once more field evidence about the crops yields becomes available, more memberbased enterprises,suchascooperatives,willinvestinjatrophaventures. 4.Plantationwithoutgrowers4(modelB) The central plantation with outgrowers is an intermediate model between model A (pure plantation) and model C (pure outgrowers). It is the most common model worldwide. According to a survey conducted in 2008 by GEXSI among 240 jatropha projects in 55 countries,twothirdsofalljatrophaprojectsinvolvesmallfarmers,mostlyincombinationwith alargerplantationmanagedbythepromotersthemselves[1]. Thepopularityofthismodelisduetothecombinationoflowcostandreducedrisks.Working withoutgrowersreducesstartupcostssignificantly(nolandpurchaserequired).Ontheother hand, depending completely on outgrowers is considered a high risk by external investors because of the lack of control over the feedstock. The combination of operating an own plantation to secure a minimum of feedstock, and contracting outgrowers to increase the occupancyrateoftheprocessingequipment,isconsideredbymanyexternalinvestorstobean attractivecombination. 5.Partialfarmerparticipationinprocessingplant(modelD) Jatrophainitiativesinwhichfarmersarecoowneroftheprocessingenterprisearerarebutdo exist. One example is the BYSA enterprise in Honduras [2], which is set up as a private enterprise with 49% of its shares owned by jatrophaproducing farmers and the remaining shares by a local development NGO [3], who will sell the shares gradually to farmers as the enterprise matures (transition to model E). BYSA is according the above mentioned GEXSI study the only initiative in Latin America that does not follow model A or B [4]. Another example is Mali Biocarburant, which is 20% owned by a farmers association [5]. In order to facilitate the purchase of shares by poor farmers, part of the payment for seeds to farmers maytakeplaceintheformofshares. 6.2.1.2 Appropriateownershipmodels

As explained in the previous sections, the economic participation (in terms of ownership) of jatrophafarmersinthebiofuelproductionchainisthelowestinmodelA,andthehighestin modelE.WhilemodelE.maybethemostpreferablefromthesocialpointofview(maximum distribution of added value among the final target group, farmers), the sustainability may sufferifthereisnolocalcapacityinkeytechnicalandmanagementareas. The following table gives an overview of the main factors influencing the choice of the ownership model. Obviously, these factors are context indicators, not absolute conditions. A
Outgrowersaredefinedinthisdocumentasindependent(oftensmall)farmersthatsupplyjatropha seedstoanexternalprocessingfacility,mostlyoncontractbasis.

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 distinction is made between more centralised ownership models (A, B, C) and models with moreparticipationofsmallfarmers(modelDandE).
Table62Overviewofmainfactorsdeterminingthechoiceofownershipmodel

Factor Localmanagementcapacity Localtechnicalcapacity Market Landdistribution Previousexperienceswithfarmer ownedenterprises(e.g.coops) Localinvestmentcapital Grantsforcapacitybuildingforsmall farmersandprocessingenterprise

FavoursABCmodel Poor Poor Mainlyoverseas Unequal Bad Unavailable Unavailable

FavoursDEmodel Good Good Local Equal Good Available Available

1.OwnershipmodelsBandC ItisclearthattheBandCmodelstendtobelessriskyoptionsinacontextwithlowtechnical, managerial,organizationalandmarketingcapacities(alltypicalfeaturesofadevelopingarea context). The participation of a wellreputed commercial party who has these qualities can compensateforcapacitydeficienciesatthelocallevel.TheparticipationintheBandCmodels of nonprofit parties5 and social venture capital6, with a clear and genuine vision of poverty alleviation,canincreasechancesofpositivesocialimpact. Incasethejatrophainitiativeisfinancedfrom(semi)commercialsources,BandCareprobably the most acceptable models to start with for all parties involved, especially in capacity deficientareassuchassubSaharanAfrica.ThechallengeintheseBandCmodelsistoensure fair conditions for the (small farmer) outgrowers. SNV is active in developing the Inclusive BusinessconceptinLatinAmerica,AfricaandAsia,andcanbeaninterestingpartytoensurea fairdistributionofbenefitsbetweentheinvestorandsmall,outgrowingfarmers7. Inalowcapacitycontext,FACTconsidersmodelsBandCtobeacceptabletransitionalmodels, to bridge the period in which local capacities are built or strengthened as a necessary conditiontocreateaviableprocessingenterprise.However,FACTrecommendsinthelonger runtostriveforownershipmodelsthatintegratesmallfarmers,notonlyassuppliers,butalso asshareholdersintheenterprise.
TheparticipationofdevelopmentNGOsinjatrophaprojectsinvolvingsmallfarmersisquitecommon: DED,GTZ(bothGerman),SNV,HIVOS,FACT,KIT,STRO(allNetherlands)arejustafewofthemanynon profitorganizationsactiveinthisfield.Therearealsovariousreportsofcommercialenterprisesmaking useoffieldstructuresofNGOsintheirpromotionalnetwork(seeZambiapag.62).Inthesecases,NGOs usecommercialcapitaltoprovideloanstotheirtargetgroupandfinancepartoftheirownactivities.In fact,thesocialandphysicalassetsofruraldevelopmentNGOs,suchastheirdetailedknowledgeofthe local context, their experience with rural credit, their existing field structures (offices, extension workers,vehiclesetc.),theconfidencebuiltamongfarmersandabilitytocallforwellattendedmeetings can become of increasing commercial interest, paving the path for more and more mixed (profit nonprofit)alliancesinthenearfuture. 6 Socialventurecapitalisaformofventurecapitalinvestingthatprovidescapitaltobusinessesdeemed socially and environmentally responsible. These investments are intended to both provide attractive returnstoinvestorsandtoprovidemarketbasedsolutionstosocialandenvironmentalissues. 7 For more information on SNVs inclusive business approach, see e.g. http://www.inclusivebusiness.org/

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 The transition of outgrowing farmers from a B or C model to a D or E model, may occur naturallyoncelocalcapacitieshavedevelopedsufficiently.Farmersmayseeopportunitiesto engage in processing activities (independent from the central processing enterprise), thus increasing their incomes. It has to be ensured that farmers (outgrowers) are not tied into stranglingcontractswiththepromoter(centralprocessingenterprise)aimedatmaintaininga relationship of dependency and exploitation. Exploitative conditions in contracts are mainly relatedtoduration(e.g.30yearexclusivepurchasingrights)andprice(determinedarbitrarily and exclusively by the promoter). These conditions make it difficult for farmers to organize theirownenterpriseinordertoincreasetheirearnings. 2.OwnershipmodelsDandE In a more developed situation, where basic technological, managerial, organizational and marketingcapacitiesarelocallyavailable,thefarmerownedmodels(DandE)tendtobemore appropriate because they offer more guarantees for a fair distribution of the benefits generatedintheproductionchain. Alternatively, in case this context does not exist, but the initiative has access to grants, especiallyforcapacitybuildinginterventionsatboththeenterprise(technical,managerial)and farmer (agricultural) level, one may opt for model D or (in case of a strong existing farmer owned organization) model E. In this case it is important to ensure that the project has sufficientdurationtoreachthebreakevenpointoftheprocessingenterprise(atleast5years). 6.2.2 Productionmodels:thejatrophavaluechain

Inabsenceofsignificanteconomiesofscale,smallbiofuelinitiativesfacethechallengetotake fulladvantageofall(sub)productsintheirproductionchain.Thedifferentproductionoptions arerevisedinthefollowingsections,startingwiththemostbasicchain(producingjatrophaoil andpresscake),followedbyanoverviewoftheextendedproduction chain,includingalarge varietyofendandintermediateproducts(includingbiogas,soap,electricity,biodiesel,edible oils, and others). In each section the minimum conditions are discussed that determine the viabilityofeachchainextension. 6.2.2.1 Thebasicjatrophabiofuelproductionchain

Thebasicjatrophaproductionchainhastwoendproducts:oilandpresscake.

crudeoil

filter

Farmer

Seeds

Presscake

Oilpress

Figure61Jatrophabiofuelproductionchain

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 Mainproductsofthebasicbiofuelchain: Jatrophapureoil(JPO) Inthe most basicproductionchain,JPOcanbeusedinablend with fossil diesel fuel in conventional (non adapted) stationary dieselengines(seesection5.2.2).Otherlowtechapplicationsof JPOincludeartisansoapproductionandtheuseasasubstitute for kerosene in oil lamps (as in the FACT project in Mozambique).Inalesslowtechcontext,100%JPOcanbeused in adapted diesel engines. See section 5.2.2 for more informationonthetechnicaldetails. Presscake Although it may be optimal from the nutrient balance point of view to recycle the presscake back to the jatropha fields, from thebusinesspointofviewtheremaybemoreprofitableoptions. Thereisno(ornotyet)apricepremiumfororganicallyproduced jatropha oil8, while there are significant price premiums for certified organic crops such, as coffee. The sale of presscake to certified organic producers (which may be present among the veryjatrophafarmers)shouldthereforebestudiedasanoption. Itisunlikelythatsmallscalebiodieselproduction(lessthanafewhundredlitresperday)will become a feasible activity to be added to this basic chain. For that to happen diesel prices need to be very high or there need to be cheap and large feed stock sources (e.g. used vegetableoil)andapremiummarketfororganicfertilisermustbefound. 6.2.2.2 Mainfactorsdeterminingfeasibilityofthebasicbiofuelchain

The economic and technical feasibility of the basic jatropha chain depends mainly on three factors: 1. Highcompetingdiesel/keroseneprices; 2. Presenceofonelargefuelconsumer9ormanysmallones10; 3. Accesstoa(premium)marketfororganicfertiliser. At least two of these three conditions should exist in order for the basic biofuel chain to be viable.Inisolatedareas,wherefossildieselsupplyisunreliableorexpensive,thebasicchain canbeprofitableevenatasmallscale[6].JPOcanbeusedindieselenginesdrivingelectricity generators, water pumps or agroindustrial equipment (such as grain mills). The advantage is that with relatively modest investments, significant impact can be achieved. Small islands or very isolated areas that cannot be reached by road or with a reasonable population may complywiththeseconditions.
The exceptions always confirm the rule: e.g. Diligent Tanzania sells at a premium price JPO to Tanzaniansafaricompaniestodrivetheirmodifiedvehicles.Theuseofthisbiofuelcontributesthesafari companiesimageofagreenandsociallyresponsibleenterprise. 9 Example of one large consumer is a stationary diesel engine for electricity generation that can be adapted(oruseadiesel/PPOmix(seeFACTsdemonstrationprojectinGaralo,Mali). 10 AnexampleofmanysmallconsumersistheuseofJPOinoillamps.Thesimplestfunctionaldesignis theJatrophaBingaLamp.ItwasdemonstratedduringtheFACTorganisedworkshopofNovember2008 in Chimoio, Mozambique, by Chrispen Zana of GTZAMES. See: http://www.jatropha.org/lamps/princ burning.htmforadescriptionofthefunctioningofthelamp.

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 Areaswithreasonableaccessandnormaldieselpricesdonotenjoythenaturalprotectionof anisolatedarea.Itisthereforerecommendedtolookforadditionalwaystotakeadvantageof allproductsandsubproductsoftheproductionchain,oftheinfrastructureestablishedandof intercrops produced by jatropha farmers. The following section will give a fairly complete overviewoftheoptionstoextendthebasicbiofuelchain. 6.2.2.3 Theextendedproductionchain

Thebasicproductionchaindescribedintheprevioussectioncanbeexpandedalmostinfinitely with a large number of linked activities, which increase the value added in the chain. It is impossible to give a precise indication of the minimum production level required to make theseadditionalcomponentsprofitable.Localconditionssuchasdieselprice,marketfor(sub) products,availabilityofrepairandmaintenanceservices,investmentcostsetc.areoftenmore importantfactorsthanthesizeoftheplantations. However, as a rule of thumb, one has to think of a minimal production level of 250 ha of mature jatropha plantations in order to make extensions of the basic chain economically feasible, together with a reasonable technical capacity and potential consumers within the targetregion. As for location of the processing site, it is recommended to look for locations that are both closetofarmers(reducetransportcosts),closetopotentiallargerconsumers(heavytransport, grain drying installations, sawmill) and close to a certain basic technical capacity (car mechanics,repairofagriculturalmachinery).Sitesnearsmallcitiesthatplayaroleasservice centreforthesurroundingruralareas,oftencomplywiththeseconditions. 1.Biogas Thefirstcandidatetoexpandtheproductionchainisabiogasinstallation.Biogasisamixture of 2535% CO2 (carbon dioxide) and 6575% CH4 (methane) which can be burned directly to generate heat or combusted in engines to generate mechanical energy or electricity. The presscakeleftafterpressingjatrophaseedsstillcontainsasignificantamountofoil11,whichis a favourite feedstock of the methane producing bacteria. Other sources for biogas production, such as waste plant materials, cattle manure and animal remains, are generally alsoavailableinruralareas.Fastgrowinggrasses(iftheclimateissuitable)maybecultivated tocomplementthebiodigesterfeedstock,incasethefreefeedstocksupplyisirregularand/or unreliable. An important question to answer before investing in a biodigester, is: what to do with the biogas produced? One important limitation is that the transport of biogas to clients outside the production facility is technically difficult and expensive [7]. In the context of smallscale production, the biogas should therefore be used on site. In spite of this limitation, many options remain. The viability of these options depends to a large degree on the existing demandofboththeprocessingenterpriseandotherenterprisesinthesameregion.Themore industriallydevelopedtheareais,theeasieritwillbetousethegasinaprofitableway.Some optionstousetheenergyproducedfrombiogas,are:
Mechanical smallscale oil extraction has in general an efficiency of 70% or less, which means that evenifthetheoreticalmaximumoilcontentoftheseedsis38%,themechanicalpresswillnotbeableto extractmorethansome2025%.

11

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Table63Optionstousetheenergyproducedfrombiogas Energyform Forinternaluse Forexternaluse Heat Drying installations (e.g. drying Heatintensive local industries that are jatrophafruitsbeforedehulling) willing to relocate to the processing site Biodiesel processing (e.g. boiling (e.g. grain drying installations, soap water out of WVO, distillation of making,baking,etc.). methanol, heating oil before chemicalreaction) Cooking(onsiterestaurant) Mechanical Oilextraction Mechanical energy intensive local Power industriesthatarewillingtorelocatetothe Dehulling processingsite(e.g.sawing,). Movingbeltconveyer,etc. Electricity Officesuppliesandlightning Electricity intensive local industries that are willing to relocate to the processing site(e.g.milkcollectionpointwithcooling equipment,icecubemaking,etc.). Most heat and mechanical energy Selling to the grid (national or local using equipment mentioned above electricitydistributioncompany) canalsoberunonelectricity12.

N.B.TheflowchartinFigure66givesseveralotherideasonhowtousebiogasenergy. In general, one should first try to satisfy the internal energy needs of the processing facility, andsecondlytrytoattractindustriesthatarewillingtorelocatetothesite.Sellingelectricity tothegridisineconomictermsgenerallytheleastinterestingoptionandmayalsoinvolve substantialbureaucracy.Ifattractingotherenergyefficientbusinesstothebiogasproduction siteformspartofthebusinessplan,thisshouldbetakenintoaccountintheacquisitionphase ofthesiteandthedesignofthefacilities. Factorsthatcontributetotheviabilityofthebiogascomponentare: Standardenergysources(electricity,fuel)areexpensiveornotavailable Cheaperalternativeenergysolutions(e.g.hydropower)arenotfeasible Yearroundavailabilityoffeedstock(humid,littlefibre,concentrated) Feedstockisavailableatnoorverylowcost13 Sufficientwaterisavailable14 Sufficientenergydemandoflocalindustriesandthepopulationingeneral Government policy and legislation favours the entrance of new suppliers of electric energy(marketforexcessenergyproduction)
Althoughusingelectricityisalwayslessefficientthanusingdirectheatandmechanicalenergy,inthe shortruntheuseofelectricityisoftenmorepracticalandcheaper(requiringlessinvestments). Replacingelectricenergybydirectheatandmechanicalenergymayformpartofalaterexercise,once theprocessingfacilityisupandrunning. 13 Thisgenerallymeansthatthereisnoalternativeuseforthefeedstock,e.gasanimalfodder,andthat transportcostsareminimal.Itisalsoimportanttolookatpossibleprofitableusesoftheforeseen feedstockinthefuture,sincethismayaffectavailability.Finally,thereshouldbesufficientmargintopay thesuppliersofthefeedstocksomeminimumamount,sincetheywillstartchargingforthefeedstock onceitbecomesclearthatitisusedproductively.Havingaccesstovarioussourcesoffeedstockin sufficientamountwillkeepthiseffectmanageable. 14 E.g.a160kWbiogasinstallationwillneedsome30m3waterperday.Onlyasmallpartofthewateris consumedintheprocess.Wastewaterfromabiogasinstallationisanexcellentfertilizerwhenusedfor irrigation.Itmayevenbesoldasaliquidfertilizer.

12

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 2.Biodiesel A second logical extension of the jatropha biofuel chain is biodiesel production (also called transesterification).Foratechnicaldescriptionofthebiodieselproductionprocess,pleasesee section5.2.4. Inmanycountries,theproductionandmarketingofbiodieselisregulated.Thequalityhasto comply with certain standard quality norms15 and its marketing has to follow certain predeterminedchannels. Although theseregulationsarecomprehensiblefromtheconsumer protectionpointofview,theyoftenimpedesmallbiodieselproducersfromsellingthroughthe regularmarket.Thisisbecausetheequipmentneededtoproducethisqualityistooexpensive and because marketing through the existing network of fuelmixing installations and fuel stationsabsorbsanimportantpartofthemargin. Moreover,theproductionofbiodieselismoreexpensivethantheproductionofpureplantoil (PPO). This meansthatabiodieselproduceris moresensible tochangesin feedstockorfuel prices,thanaPPOproducer.Giventhehighlyunstableworldmarketpricesforfossiloil16,this isaveryimportantargumentinfavourofPPO,especiallyforsmallproducers,whogenerally havesmallermarginsthanlargebiofuelproducers. FACTthereforerecommendsbiodieselproductiononlyintwocases: 1. if the production has reached sufficient scale to justify the investment in a hightech biodieselequipmentthatguaranteesfuelqualitystandardsaremet17 2. iftheinternaldemandofbiodieselissufficientlylargeandtheinternaluser(s)acceptthat thefueldoesnotalwayscomplywithstandardnorms. Inthelattercase,cheaperequipmentisavailableorcanbebuiltonsite18.

GenerallyadaptationsorcopiesoftheAmericanASTMD675107ortheEuropeanEN14214:2003 norms. 16 Oilpricessurgedfrom35US$perbarrelin2003to146US$inJuly2008,fallingbackagainto37US$ inDecember2008. 17 Asanindication:thesmallestbiodieselequipmentofAGERATEC(Swedishmanufacturerof professionalbiodieselequipments)hasacapacityof1000ltrperdayandcostsabout80000EUR.If working250daysayearthatwouldrequireaninputof250000ltrperyearofoil.Thisisequivalentto 250hamaturejatrophaplantationsproducing4000kgperyearperhawithanoilextractionrateof 25%. 18 Awealthofinformationonlowtechbiofuelproductioncanbefoundon http://www.journeytoforever.org/biodiesel.html.TheequipmentsusedinheFACTprojectinHonduras werebuiltaccordingtotheinstructionspublishedinamanualelaboratedbyWhitmanDirectAction: http://www.whitmandirectaction.org/downloads/documents/biodieselguide(espanol).pdf

15

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Figure62Images(drawingsandpictures)oflocallybuiltbiodieselequipmentinYoro,Honduras

Factorsthatcontributetotheviabilityofsmallscalebiodieselproductionare: Fossildieselfuelisexpensive. Availabilityofcheapsourcesofwastevegetableoilorevenanimalfats19. Presenceofalocaltechnicalcapacitytoensurerepairandmaintenance. ReliableavailabilityofmethanolandKOHorNaOHatreasonableprices. Legislationpermitsthelocalproductionandinternaluseofbiofuels(e.g.atthelevelofa cooperative, an association etc.), thus avoiding the marketing through regular gas stations. Governmenttaxpolicythatstabilizesfuelprices. 3.Soap Athirdextensionofthejatrophabiofuelchaintobeconsideredissoapproduction.Soapcan be produced both from virgin jatropha oil (JPO) and from glycerine (a byproduct of the biodiesel process). Soap is traditionally made from jatropha oil in many regions in Latin America,AfricaandAsia.Womenareespeciallyactiveinthisactivity.Thesoapisbelievedto havemedicalpropertiesagainstskindiseases.

19

Some professional biodiesel equipment manufacturers do not guarantee quality norms if other feedstocks are used than virgin vegetable oil.

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 Soapmaking is a relatively easy process (see section 5.2.3): it involves heating the oil and a reactionwithNaOH(incasehardsoapisdesired)orKOH(softsoap).Colorantsandperfumes canimprovemarketacceptation. Whenusing glycerinetomakesoap,beforestartingtheprocessitisimportanttoboiloffall remainingmethanol.Methanolistoxicforhumansandhighlyinflammable,soboilingshould takeplaceoutsideinasafeplaceandnofumesshouldbeinhaled. When using crude glycerine to make soap, it important to know that getting rid of the unattractive(brownish)colourandtypicalsmellofglycerineisquitedifficult,especiallyincase itcomesfromabatchofusedvegetableoil.SoapmadefromVWOglycerinecanbestbesold as a cheap and effective cleaning product to car mechanics and other workshops that work withgrease.Theygenerallydonotmindtheunattractivecolourandsmell,butappreciatethe strong degreasing properties of the soap. Another possibility is to supply to the bottomend clotheswashingsoapmarketsegment.Inthatcasethesoaphastobecheaperthananyofthe existingbrands.Thepurificationofglycerineforpharmaceuticalorcosmeticpurposesisnota viableoptionatsmallscale. Soapmadefrompurejatrophaoilcanbemarketedthroughnichemarketsfornaturalhealth and beauty products, or even the fair trade (export) market. If accompanied with the right marketingeffort,thisactivitycanbehighlyrewarding. 4.Diversificationwithedibleoils Complementingtheabovedescribedbiofuelchainwiththeproductionandprocessingof edibleoilscanbeanimportantstrategytostabilisetheincomeoftheprocessingenterprise andoffershorttermalternativestofarmers. Whyedibleoils? The presscake of edible oilseeds is often easy to sell locally (to cattle, pork or chicken farms),ishighlynutritiousandhasthereforeagoodvalue20. Moreover,edibleoilprocessingrequireslargelythesameinfrastructureandskillsasthe biofuel seeds processing21: this leads to efficiency gains when contracting technical personal(samepersoncanoperate,maintainandrepairedibleoilandjatrophapress)and whensharingcertainequipment(e.g. usejatrophabiogasindryinginstallationforgrain andedibleoilseeds). Thirdly, jatropha farmers need short cycle crops to stay motivated to maintain the jatropha plantations. Instead of paying farmers to weed their jatropha plantations, investing in an edible oil crop may be more attractive for both the promoter and the farmer. Inanenvironmentofunstablepetroloilprices,thediversificationofabiofuelprocessing enterprisetowardsedibleoilstendtoincreasethestabilityofthebusiness.Thereasonis thatthelowerpricelimitofedibleoilsaredeterminedbyproductioncostsoflargescale intensiveoilcropfarming,whichishigherthantheaverageproductioncostsofdieselfuel production(seeFigure63below).Inotherwords,thepricebottomforbiofuelsislower thanthatofedibleoils.Edibleoilproducers,likebiofuelproducers,benefitfromtheups ofthepetroloilprice,butdonotsufferasmuchfromthedownsofthepetroloilmarket. Edibleoilproducerscanswitchtobiofuelincasepetroloilpricesrisesharplyandtheycan switch back to edible oil if fuel prices fall beneath their production costs. It is this
20 21

Inthecaseofsomeedibleoils,likesoya,thepresscakeiseventhemainproduct. Althoughproductionlinesofbiofuelandedibleoilsneedtobeseparatedforobviousreasons.

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 flexibilitythatgivesmorestabilitytoamixededibleoil/biofuelbusiness,ascomparedtoa 100% biofuel business. To compensate for the lower efficiency levels of small farmers comparedtolargescale,highlymechanisedoilcropfarmingine.g.ArgentinaandBrazil,it isimportanttoensurethattheprocessingenterprisecanselltheedibleoilandpresscake directly to endusers (e.g. oil to restaurants or agroindustries: presscake to dairy farm cooperatives, chicken and pig farms). In this way, the shorter marketing channels can compensate for the lower efficiency levels of the small farmers. This is especially necessaryintimeswhentheedibleoilmarkethitsthepricebottom(b). Finally,almostalloilyieldingshortcyclecropscanbeplantedtowardstheendoftherainy season. They generally need sufficient water in the beginning of their production cycle, butpreferdryconditionstowardstheendofthecycle.Itcanthereforebeplantedonthe same land as the staple crop and would not require additional land to cultivate. Moreover, crops like sunflower tend to draw nutrients from deeper soil layers to the surface,thuspreparingthesoilforthenextstaplecrop.

US$perlitre (c) Highend market price dieselfuel Edibleoilprice (b)Productioncostintensive edibleoilcultivation

Dieselfuelprice

(a)Productioncostdieselfuel Time

Figure63(Fictitious)visualisationofdifferentpricebandwidthsofedibleandpetroloilprices.

Thefollowingtablegivesexampleofamixedcroppingschemeincludingjatropha,abasicgrain (e.g.corn)andashortcycleedibleoilcrop(e.g.sunflower,sesame,etc.).
Table64Exampleofamixedjatrophaedibleoilcroppingscheme Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Season(rainy/dry) D D D D D R R R R R R Jatropha(permanent) X X X X X X X X X X X Basicgraincrop X X X X X X Shortcycleoilcrop X 12 R/D X X 1 D X X 2 3 4 5 6 Etc. D D D D R X X X X X X X

Caution!Whenchangingfrompressingnonedibleoils(suchasjatropha)toedibleoils,great careshouldbetakentocleanthepressthoroughlyandnottousethefirstbatchesofpressed edibleoilforhumanconsumption,becauseofthetoxicityofthejatropha.

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 Whichediblecropstouse? The main edible oils that grow in the same climate conditions as jatropha are: sunflower, groundnut, soy, sesame, groundnut and cotton. However, many local species may also grow well.Rapeseedgenerallygrowsinthetropicsataltitudes(>1000m)thatarenotoptimalfor jatropha. The choice of the crop depends mainly on soil suitability, climatic conditions and localmarketdemand.

Figure64WeedcontrolandpostharvestactivitiesinsoybeanproductioninYoro,Honduras

Figure65Landpreparation,sowingandharvestofsesameseed

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 Figure66belowgivesanoverviewofthedifferentpossibilitiestoextendthejatrophabiofuel chain. The easiest way to read the figure to start with the basic jatropha biofuel chain (in green), followed by an expansion with a biodiesel processor (in yellow), an expansion with edible oil crops and cattle fodder (in red), the expansion with a biogas installation (in blue), and finally the addition of a graindrying installation (in black). Obviously, the expansion process can follow another order and can only include a few of the expansions mentioned here.

Figure66Theintegratedbiofuelchain

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 6.2.3 6.2.3.1

Financingmodels Howtofinancefarmersplantations

1.Introduction The agricultural component is the backbone of the jatropha biofuel chain. Within this component, the financial scheme offered to farmers is one of the most important factors determiningthesuccessoftheundertaking. Designing viable and acceptable financing schemes for jatropha is a challenge for several reasons. In the first place, it is a new (cash) crop for many regions. Second, it is a perennial crop that takes several years to become fully productive. Finally, its price development is uncertainbecauseitfollowsthehighlyvolatileoilmarket.Forthesereasons,specialattention needstobegiventothewaythejatrophaintroductionisfinanced. Promotingjatrophaamongsmallfarmersrequiresdiligentplanning,awelldesignedfinancial scheme, good knowledge of local customs and production patterns, and most of all patience.Experiencesofoutgrowerpromotionschemesshowthatmassivepromotionamong farmers, promising large profits, but only contributing seeds and occasional visits by promoters,donotwork[8].Smallfarmersexpectseedmaterial,fertilizer,supportinpestand weedcontrol,anacceptableloanagreement,astablemarketandcloseguidance. In this section, three standard schemes to finance the jatropha introduction among farmers willbedescribed.Thethreemodelsare: 1. Outgrowerfinancescheme 2. Jointventurebetweenpromoterandfarmer 3. Conventionalloanscheme It is not the purpose of this section to give an exhaustive overview of possible finance schemes.However,itishopedthatbydescribingthesethreeschemes,thereaderwillbeable tochoosetheschemethatbestfitsthecontextandadaptittolocalconditions.Inpracticeone willfindmanyvariationsandhybridsofthementionedschemes. Inordertobeabletocomparethemodels,thefollowingassumptionshavebeenmadeforall models: Thejatrophaplantstartsproducingfromyear3onwards Thepromoterofthesystemisalso(co)owneroftheoilprocessingfacility(press) Promoterhassufficientdemandtosellalloilproduced Technicalassistanceisprovidedtothefarmerswithoutcost Duringtheintroductionphase(inwhichmanyuncertaintiesstillexist),itisrecommendedthat the technical assistance be provided free of charge. In the expansion phase, technical assistance may be included in the promoters contribution, especially in the case of commercial(nonsubsistence)farmers. 2.Outgrowerfinancescheme Inthismodelfarmerscontributetheirlandandlabour,whilethepromotercontributesseeds, initial fertilizer and technical assistance. This finance model is common in (but not exclusive for)outgrower(BandCownershipmodels)schemes.Technicalassistanceisprovidedforfree, whileplantingmaterialandfertilizerisprovidedintheformofaloan.Allcontributionsarein

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 kind,sonomoneyflowstakeplacebetweenthepromoterandthefarmeruntilyear3,when theoutgrowingfarmersselltheirfirstjatrophaseedstothepromoter.Typicalinthisschemeis thattheloanisrepaidwiththeseedsproducedbythefarmers.Thismeansthattherepayment timeoftheloanisnotfixed:itdependsontheproductivityoftheoutgrowersplantations.

Table65ExampleOutgrowerFinancingscheme

Year1 Year2 Year3 Contributionof Contributionof Contribution Promoter Farmer Promoter Farmer Promoter Farmer X X X Land X X X Labour X Seed X X X Fertilizer X X X Techn.ass. Output Year1 Year2 Year3 Incomefor Incomefor Incomefor Promoter Farmer Promoter Farmer Promoter Farmer Seeds X(1) Oil X Presscake X(2) X(2) Notes: 1. Preferablythepromotersignsanagreementwiththefarmersinwhich: Thefarmeragreestosellallproductiontothepromoter;and Thepromoteragreestobuyalltheproductionofthefarmersatafixedpriceperkg oratapricedirectlylinkedtothefuelprice. Inordertomaintainthemotivationofthefarmersitisrecommendedtonotretain100% ofthevalueoftheseedsasaloanrepayment,bute.g.30%andpaytheremaining70%to thefarmer. 2. See section 6.2.2 (basic jatropha biofuel production chain) on the use of jatropha presscake.Dependingonthemarketsituation,thepresscakecanbesoldtothirdparties (resultinginhigherpriceperkgforfarmers)orreturnedtothefarmers(resultinginlower costsforfarmers). Thefollowingflowstakeplaceduringthefirstthreeyears.

Input

Figure67Product,serviceandmoneyflowsintheoutgrowerfinancescheme

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 Theadvantagesofthismodelare: Itssimplicity:nofinancialflowstakeplaceuntilyear3.Thisisusefulwhenworkingwitha largenumberofsmallfarmers. Subsistencefarmers,whoareoftenresistanttoloans,mayfindthisanacceptablemodel. Riskforthefarmerissmall:thepromoterguaranteestobuyatafixedpriceanyquantity produced. Thebuyingandpriceguaranteescanonlybegivenifthereisaneconomicallyviableprocessing facilityoperating.Thisisonlypossibleifsufficientproductionvolumeissupplied. Thedisadvantagesare: Riskliesmainlywiththepromoter. Farmersmaynothaveaclearideaofthemarketpriceoftheirproduct. Thereisnocompensationfortheworkofthefarmersduringthefirst2years. Factorsthatmaycontributetothesuccessofoutgrowerfinancingschemesare: Clear, enforceable contracts: farmers know that intentional incompliance will have consequences Financecoversanintegratedjatrophacultivationsystem(jatrophaandintercrops) Promoteristheonlybuyerofjatrophaseedsintheregion Significantandwellbalancedcontributionofallpartiesinvolved 3.Jointventure This model is implicit in the farmerowned (models D and E) business models described in section6.2.1.2.Farmersshareinprofits(orincaseofacooperative,inthesurplus)according to the share value they possess (in case of a capitalistic enterprise) or the amount of seeds theyhavecontributed(incaseofacooperativeenterprise).
Table66Exampleofjointventureinvestmentplan Input Year1 Year2 Contributionof Contribution Promoter Farmer Promoter Farmer 1 Land 1 Labour 10 5 Seed 1 Fertilizer 3 7 3 7 TA donated donated Processor Total 4 18 3 13 Output Year1 Incomefor Promoter Farmer Year2 Incomefor Promoter Farmer Year3 Contribution Promoter Farmer 1 5 3 8 donated 15 30 33 29 Year3 Incomefor Promoter Farmer 30 45 10 15 40 60 Total Promoter 1 9 30 40 Total Promoter 30 10 40

Farmer 3 20 22 15 60

Oil Presscake Total

Farmer 45 15 60

ButalsointheBandC(outgrower)models,theremayberoomfornegotiatingajointventure. Inthiscase,thepromoterandfarmersagreetodistributetheresultsoftheinvestment(seeds, oil,presscakeandtheincomegeneratedwiththeirsale),accordingtothecontributionofeach

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 investor.Inordertodothis,thecontributionofeachpartyhastobevalued.Inthefollowinga numericexamplewillbepresented(numbersarefictitious). Theadvantagesofthismodelare: Riskismoreequallysharedbetweenfarmersandpromoter. More interesting for farmers with entrepreneurial spirit because potential rewards are higher. Thedisadvantagesare: Moreintensiveinfieldfollowupisnecessaryinordertopreventfarmersfromreporting lessharvestthantheyactuallyhave.Thisriskislessthreateningifthepromoteristheonly buyerofjatrophaseedsintheregion. Administrationismorecomplexthanmodel1. Thereisnocompensationfortheworkofthefarmersduringthefirst2years. Factorsthatmaycontributetothesuccessofjatrophajointventures: Clearandenforceablecontracts. Strictfollowupduringthegrowingprocess. Significantandwellbalancedcontributionofallpartiesinvolved. 4.Conventionalloanscheme Inthismodel,afinancialinstitution(possiblysubcontractedbythepromoter)issuesloansto thefarmers.Theloansshouldpreferablybelimitedtoinputs(seedsandfertilizer),while farmerscontributelandandlabour.Alsoagraceperiodofatleast2yearsshouldbe considered,untiltheplantationbecomesproductive.Inthesetwocasesloansforlabourmay beconsidered: Subsistence farmers who replace other (less rewarding nonedible) crops for jatropha. This transition may result in a temporary decrease in their income until the jatropha plantationbecomesfullyproductive. Commercialfarmerswhocontractexternallabour. Themaindifferencebetweenthefirst(outgrower)financeschemeandtheloanschemeisthat in the first scheme there is not an agreed fixed repayment per year (payment takes place accordingtoproductionlevels).Moreover,repaymentinthefirstmodeltakesplaceexclusively in kind (jatropha seeds), while in the conventional loan scheme, payment is probably in money.Intheconventionalloanschemeaninterestrateischargedtocovertheadministrative and financial costs. In the outgrower finance scheme, the credit administration costs will probablybetakenintoaccountbythepromoterwhendeterminingthepurchasepriceofthe seeds. Another important difference is that in case of an unintentional complete loss (e.g. a flooding)inthefirsttwoschemes,thefarmerwillprobablyonlylosethelabourinvested,while in conventional loan scheme the farmer will have to pay, on top of this loss, his (seed and fertilizer)debt. Another important aspect of the conventional loan scheme is the repayment conditions. To avoid that farmers lose interest in the crop, it is important to leave a significant part of the incometothefarmerduringthefirstproductionyears,evenifhestillhastopayalargedebt. This implies a risksharing agreement between the promoter and the farmer. That is, if productionislowerthanexpected,thefarmerreceiveslessincomeandthepromoterrecovers hisloanataslowerrate.Thisdoes,ofcourse,notexcludetakingactionagainstfarmersthat

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 deliberately eliminateplantations.Supportingthefarmerinestablishinganintercropnext to thejatrophaisanotherimportantstrategytomaintaintheinterestofthefarmer. Theadvantagesoftheloanmodelare: Morepricetransparency:farmersreceivemarketpricefortheirproduct. Noneedforintensivemonitoringinthefield. Possibilitytogivetransitionalconsumptiveloansduringthefirst2years. Lessfinancialriskforthepromoter. Thedisadvantagesare: Administrativecapacitytoadministrateloansmustbecreated,ifnotalreadyexisting. The loan administration (especially if a financial institution is involved) has a high cost, whichintheendtranslatestolowerpricespaidtothefarmers. Subsistencefarmersmayberesistanttoloans. Higherlossforfarmersincaseofbadharvest. Importantfactorsthatmayinfluencepositivelytherepaymentrateofloans: Feasibilitystudiesarebasedonrealisticyields. Goodcreditadministrationcapacity(withpromoterorfinancialinstitution). Loansareissuedinkind(seeds,fertilizer). Repaymentinkind(seeds)isaccepted. Goodqualityseedisprovided. Producerswithexperienceincashcropsareselected. Technicalassistanceisprovided. Regions are selected in which there are no other jatropha seed buyers (avoids the deviationofreturns). Farmersintroducejatrophaasanadditionalcrop,ontopofother,moretraditional(cash) crops. 5.Conclusionsonfarmerfinancing Thechoiceforafinancescheme1,2or3isbasicallydeterminedbytheattitudeofthefarmers and the promoter (or financial institutions) towards the risks. The attitude of the farmer towardsriskcanoftenbeestimatedbysuchfactorsasa)accesstoalternativeincomesources (themorealternativeincomesourcesthefarmerhas,theeasierthefarmerwillacceptriskof engaginginanewcrop),b)theeconomicpositionofthefarmers(moreincomemeansmore capacitytocopewithrisk)andc)thegrowthofthefarmersoperations(subsistencefarmers tendtoconsidersecurityzeroriskasmoreimportantthanincomegrowth). In general terms, one can expect subsistence farmers to be riskaversive and inclined to scheme 1 (outgrower). More commercial farmers (small, medium or large), with several income sources and with an entrepreneurial spirit, may be attracted to model 2 (joint venture).Possibly,thesefarmersarealsowillingtocoinvestintheprocessingfacility.Manyof thesefarmerswillalsobeusingdieselpoweredequipment.Ifthisisthecase,farmersnotonly generateextraincomebutalsomakeimportantsavingsontheirfuelbill. Scheme 3 (conventional loans) seems to be an appropriate option in the expansion phase when good seeds are available, yield predictions are reliable and appropriate agricultural practiceshavebeendeterminedandadaptedtothelocalcontext.

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 As mentioned before, within one project different financing schemes may be applied, depending on the characteristics of the target groups. For example, in order to assure that thereisaminimumproductiontomakeapressfacilityviable,amixedmodelmaybeapplied inwhichonelargerfarmerworksinajointventurewiththepromoter(scheme2)andalarge numberofsmallfarmers(outgrowers)haveabuyingagreementaccordingtoscheme1. All finance models face the difficulty of how to bridge the first two years of the plantation, whennosignificantproductioncanbeexpected.Practiceshowsthatfarmersaretemptedto clearplantationswhentheyseebetteropportunities,orsimplyneglectplantationsinabsence ofanimmediatestimulus22.Asimplesolutionistoprovidecredit(orcontractalaboursquad) forweedingtheplantations.Abetterandmoreproductivesolutionisintercropping:usingthe empty space between the jatropha rows to cultivate shortcycle crops. The weeding and fertilizingoftheintercropalsobenefitsthejatrophaplantation.Thisrequiresmoreinvestment thanjustweeding,butontheotherhanditgeneratesanimmediateincome(andthusaloan repayment capacity). The investment may also be financed from conventional sources of financeifitconcernscropswithatrackrecordintheregion.Anyofthesestrategiesrequires additionalinvestments.However,thecostofnotimplementinganyoftheabovestrategiesis likelytoresultinamuchhighercapitallossintheformoflossofplantations. TheGotaVerdeprojecthasdevelopedanumberofcreditadministrationdocumentsandtools thatareavailableuponrequestthroughFACT. 6.2.3.2 Howtofinancetheprocessingenterprise

Manyjatrophaprojectsinvesttooearlyandtoomuchintheprocessingfacility.Thisislargely due to overoptimistic crop yield projections, although the short time horizon of project funders, and their preference for visible physical field structures and the lack of field informationalsoplayarole. Asexplainedinchapter2,plantationsenterincommercialproductionfromyear34onwards. Duringthefirst23yearsasmallscalejatrophainitiative(plantingupto150haperyear),can operate with a very small processing unit, consisting of one or two small presses, several manual dehullers, a filter unit and some storage facilities. Two or three engines may be adapted(seenextsection)fordemonstrationpurposesthathelpmarketintroductioninlater years. In chapters 3, 4 and 5 an overview is given of the technical options for each piece of equipment. Total cost can be limited to less than US$ 20,000. This excludes the technical assistanceneededtoinstallequipmentandtrainpersonnel.Iftheinitiativehasanownership structurewithfarmerparticipation(modelD.orE.),thistechnicalassistancemaybeobtained intheformofagrantfromdevelopmentorganizations(seeannexE.4). Furthermore, it is recommended to look first for abandoned agroindustrial installations that canberefurbishedandrented.Alternatively,oneoftheparticipatingfarmersmaybewillingto contributetothesocialcapitaloftheenterpriseintheformofatemporaryorpermanentsite withexistingbuildings.
Thisproblemcannotbeunderestimated.E.g.intheFACTprojectinHonduras(GotaVerde),morethan 40%oftheplantationsestablishedduringyear1and2werelostbyyear3,ofwhichatleasthalfcanbe attributedtotheneglectoffarmers(floodingsandwaterloggingwereotherimportantfactors).
22

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 It is not recommended to buy land and build installations from year 0 onwards, unless the projectisfundedbyinvestorswithalongterm(10yearsormore)vision.Eventhen,itismore prudentinthefirstyearstoinvestintheestablishmentoftheplantationsandgiveincentives tofarmerstomaintainthem,thaninbuildingprocessingfacilitieswithanovercapacity. Once commercial operations take off (from year 4 onwards), the processing enterprise will have accumulated sufficient information and experience to write a convincing business plan thatsupportsthepurchaseofitsownsiteandmorepowerfulprocessingequipment. Forpotentialfundingsources,pleaseseeannexE. 6.2.3.3 Howtofinanceengineadaptations

As explained in the previous sections, the use of PPO as a diesel substitute reduces considerably the complexity and the cost of biofuel production. Moreover, most of the technical problems with PPO technology are related to low outside temperatures, which is obviously less of a problem in tropical regions that are apt for jatropha cultivation. PPO technologyisthereforeconsideredappropriateforsmallscalebiofuelinitiativesindeveloping countries.However,theuseofPPOasadieselsubstituterequiresanengineadaptation(see section 5.2.2 for more technical details). Therefore, the introduction of PPO technology encounterstwoimportantbarriers:(a)lackofconfidenceand(b)theupfrontcostfortheuser. Ad(a)Howtoovercometheinitiallackofuserconfidence? The recommended market introduction strategy is to start early in the project development (before commercial production takes off in year 4) with adapting engines that are 100% controlledbythepromoteroftheproject(projectorenterprisecars,tractors,trucks,irrigation pumps, etc.). This allows the enterprise (and/or local technicians) to gain experience in the functioning of the PPO technology, in solving the most common problems and to start investigating the possibility to assemble local adaptation kits. If insufficient oil is locally available for these internal experiments, one can look for local oil sources, such as refined palm oil. The import of industrial quantity vegetable oil is another possibility to gain experience. Waste vegetable oil of good quality (low acid degree) may also serve the purpose23. This period of internal experimentation and capacity building may take 23 years (the same periodtheplantationtakestobecomeproductive),becausesometechnicalproblemspresent themselves only after prolonged use of PPO. If no PPOdiesel expertise exists locally, the enterprisewillneedtohire(expensive)foreignexpertisetobuilditlocally.Again,thisexpertise (possibly together with the experimental kits) may be negotiated without costs from developmentorganizationsforenterprisesfollowingtheDandEownershipmodels(seeannex E for organizations with expertise in this area). During the experimentation phase, local car mechanics need to be trained in the installation, maintenance and repair of adapted diesel engines. Once the enterprise has built sufficient local capacity in these areas, it can start commercialmarketintroduction(seepoint(b)below).
SomemanufacturersofPPOadaptationkitsdonotrecommendtheuseofwastevegetableoil(WVO) becauseittendstohaveahigheracidvalue.Theacidvaluedependsmainlyonhowlongtheoilhas beenusedandatwhattemperatures.Theacidvaluecanbedeterminedbyusingthesametitration methodusedinbiodieselproduction.Thefollowingarticlegivesafairlycompleteoverviewoftheissues totakeintoaccountwhenusingWVOasadieselsubstitute http://journeytoforever.org/biodiesel_svo.html.

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Figure68ImagesoftheOctober2008workshopforcarmechanicsinYoro,Honduras,carriedoutby NielsAnsoftheDanishPPOspecializedenterpriseDajolka(www.dajolka.dk).

Ad(b)Howtoovercomethehighupfrontcostofadaptationkitsforusers? CommercialadaptationkitsmaycostasmuchasUS$1000$1500forsmallcars.However,with sufficient local demand kits may be assembled for $250$300 from locally available spare parts.Evenatthiscost,theinitialinvestmentisanobstacleformanypotentialusers.Inorder to overcome this obstacle, the BPE may consider a lease construction in which the BPE pre finances the engine adaptation and sells the PPO fuel at a guaranteed price that is slightly lower than local fossil diesel prices. The time needed to recover the investment depends largelyonthequantityoffuelconsumedandthedieselpricelevel.Itisrecommendedtostart with large industrial users, such as agroindustrial equipment (grain dryers, sawmills, etc.), busses, trucks, tractors, electricity generators etc. because they use large quantities of fuel, resulting in relatively low marketing and distribution costs per litre of oil sold. As the oil production increases, so too can the number and type of clients (private, industrial, heavy transport). In the longer run (especially if fossil fuel prices rise significantly), it is expected that diesel enginemanufacturerswilloffermodelsthataredirectlycompatiblewithPPOfuel. 6.2.3.4 ProjectFundingSources

From the previous sections, it has become clear that building a profitable biofuel chain demands considerable investment in the establishment of plantations, the installation of equipmentandthetechnicalcapacityoflocalpersonnelandsupportservices.Findingsources offinancefortheseinvestmentsisachallengingtask. The first place to look for investment funding is among the (future) owners of the BPE. Contributionsdonotnecessarilyhavetobeintheformofcash.Underusedassetssuchasland, buildings, vehicles, machinery etc. can be meaningful contributions to the enterprise. The more the future owners are willing and able to contribute to the total investment, the less difficultitwillbetofindthecorrespondingcofinancing.Thecofundersneedtobeconvinced thatthepromotersbelieveintheirundertaking.Thewillingnesstorisktheirowncapitalisthe strongestindicatorofthatbelief. Whenlookingatexternalsources,theaccessdependsfirstofallontheownershipmodelthat ischosen.Table67givesanoverviewofwhichsourcesaremoreaccessible,accordingtothe

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 ownership model. In all cases it is presumed that the promoters present a good quality, optimisticbusinessplan.
Table 67 Potential to obtain access to funding sources, per ownership model (1 = most difficult access,5=bestaccess,incomparisonwithotherownershipmodels) Ownershipmodel ModelA ModelB ModelC ModelD ModelE Fundingsource Grants24 1 2 3 4 5 Loans 3 3 3 1 1 Venturecapital: - Conventional 5 5 3 2 1 - Social 1 2 3 4 5

NB1.IncomegeneratedfromCO2reductionmechanismsisnotconsideredgrants.Sourcesfor CO2reductioncanbefoundonhttp://www.sefdirectory.net/. NB2.Thevaluationreflectsanorder,incomparisonwithotherownershipmodels.Theydonot pretendtogiveabsoluteorproportionaterelativedifferencesbetweenthemodels. Thereasonsforthesevaluationshavebeenexplainedlargelyinthesectionaboutownership models.Socialventurecapitalandgrantgiversgivehighimportancetothesocialbenefitsof modelsDandE(incomegenerationforsmallfarmers).Conventionalfinancesourcessuchas banks (loans) and profit maximizing investors seek the best possible combination of limited riskandhighefficiency. Thedestinyofthefundingalsovarieshighlyaccordingtointheownershipmodel,asreflected byTable68:
Table68Comparisonofdestinyofinvestments,perownershipmodel(1=leastinvestment,5=most investment,incomparisonwithotherownershipmodels) Ownershipmodel ModelA ModelB ModelC ModelD ModelE Fundingdestiny Landpurchase 5 4 0 0 0 Technicalassistancefarmers 0 3 5 5 5 Techn.ass.Enterprisedevt 1 1 1 4 5 Plantations25 5 4 3 2 1 26 Processingequipment 5 5 5 3 3

Conventionalcapitalsources(bankloansandconventionalventurecapital)arenotconsidered inthismanualbecausetheyaremoreappropriateforModelsAandB,whichdonotoronly

Includingtechnicaladvisory. The funding needs per ha of plantation tends to be lower in the case of model D and E because farmers generally contribute their own labour. On the other hand, the risk of plantations being abandonedishigherinthecaseofmodelsDandE.Intheend,theinvestmentperhathatreachesfull productionmaybesimilarforallmodels. 26 InvestmentsinequipmenttendtobelowerforModelsDandEbecausetheirmarketsaregenerally localoreveninternal,whilemodelsA,BandCgenerallyproduceforexportmarketswithhighquality standards.
25 24

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 scarcely involve small farmers. Of course, this does not mean that these sources are not feasibleformodelsC,DandE.Pleaseconsultyourlocalbankbranchformoreinformation. 6.2.3.5 Alternativefinancingschemes

In this section, two alternative finance schemes will be described that are considered appropriatetodevelopincombinationwithaprojectthatbuildsajatrophaproductionchain. Thefirstschemeshowsthatbiofuelproductioncanactuallyincreasefoodproductionusingthe productioncapacityofthejatrophaplantationsasaguarantee.Thesecondschemedescribes howtheprocessingenterprisecancreateadditional,cheapworkingcapitalthatalsohelpsto boostsales. 1.UsingJatrophatoincreaseaccesstocreditforfoodcrops In the foodfuel debate, fuel crops are often blamed for affecting food production. In this section an example will be given of how an integrated financing model for biofuel and food cropscanactuallystimulatefoodproduction.Themodeldescribedbelowisespeciallyrelevant forenterprisemodelsDandE(farmer(co)ownedprocessingenterprise)andinacontextof underutilizationofarableland. Many farmers only cultivate part of the arable land they possess. When one asks a small farmer why he does not plant all of the land with food crops, one of the main obstacles mentionedisgenerallythelackofaccesstocredit.Financialinstitutionsareveryreluctantto financebasicgrainproduction,especiallytosmallfarmerswhotendtoconsume(andnotsell) alargepartoftheirproduction.Asaresult,manyfarmerssowwithaminimalofinputs27orare forcedintodealswithmiddlemenorloansharksthatrakeinalargeproportionofthefarmers margin. Jatropha can provide a stable financial basis to make small farmers independent from (unwilling) financial institutions or (exploitive) loan sharks and middlemen, although initially externalsupportremainsnecessary.PivotaltothestrategyistheBiofuelProcessingEnterprise (BPE).ExternalfundingmaycomefromprivateinvestorsorbankloanscontractedbytheBPE, whichinturnadministerstheloanstosmallfarmers.Thestrategyinvolves:
Table69Usingjatrophaplantationstoincreaseaccesstocreditforfoodcrops:strategydescriptionof peractor Year BPE Farmers 13 BPEgivesinkindsupportforthe Farmersarestimulatedtogrowfoodcropsin establishmentandmaintenanceof betweenthejatropharows28. jatrophaplantations(landpreparation, seeds,fertilizer,). 450 BPEgivesloansinkindformaintenanceof Farmersrepaytheloanintheformof jatrophaplantationandforfood jatrophaseedsand(ifthefarmerswishesso) production29. basicgrains.

Infact,thisexplainslargepartofthelowlandproductivityinmanydevelopingcountries. ThepresenceofaruraldevelopmentNGOorstateentitythatiswillingtoprovideloansforbasicgrain production,wouldbeagreathelp. 29 Thevalueofthefoodproductionloanisdeterminedonthebasisoftheexpectedvalueofthe jatrophaharvestforthesameyear.

28 27

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 This approach is still in its design stage in Yoro, Honduras. It will be implemented when jatrophaplantationshavebecomefullyproductiveandnewinvestmentsfundsareavailable. Themodelhasvariousadvantages: 1. Administration of the loan by the BPE instead of a financial institution reduces financial risksinseveralways: Theriskofselfconsumptionofgrains(andthuslackofcashatthemomentofpaying theirdebt)iseliminated.Farmerscanconsume(orselltothirdparties)asmuchcorn as they want because the value of the jatropha harvest is sufficient to cover the entirevalueoftheloan. Theriskofloandeviationorrobberyisreducedbecausealltransactionstakeplacein kind(orlocallycirculatingvouchers). Theriskoffarmerssellingjatrophatothirdpartiesissmallbecauseatleastforthe momentthesethirdpartiesdonotexists. Fewerriskscanbetranslatedintolowerfinancialcostsforthefarmers.Inordertolimit thecreditriskfurther,thevalueoftheloancanbelimitedtoforexample50%ofthe valueoftheexpectedjatrophaharvestofthatyear. 2. The model gives loan access to farmers that normally are not considered by financial institutions.TheBPEoffersacollectiveguarantee(productioncapacity,buildings,awell foundedbusinessplan,assuredmarkets)thatindividualfarmerscannotoffer. 3. TheBPEcanobtaindiscountsforbuyinginputsatwholesaleprices.ThecostsofBYSAfor administratingtheloanstofarmerscanbecoveredlargelybythisdiscount. 4. The BPE can also act as a trader for grain for the farmers as an additional task, it only requiresmoreinvestmentinastoragefacilityforgrainattheBPE 5. IncasetheBPEalsoproducesanimalfodder,basicgrainsareanimportantingredient(as well as edible oil presscake of possible other crops promoted by the BPE). The added valuethatderivesfromthistransformation,putsBYSAinapositiontoofferhigherprices forbasicgrainsthanmostmiddlemen. Avouchersystem,asdescribedinthefollowingsection,mayfacilitatethesetransactions.The BPEissuesloansintheformofvoucherstofarmers,whocangotopredetermineddistribution points to withdraw their agricultural inputs. This reduces the BPEs need for (cash) working capitalandthusdecreasesitsfinancialcosts. 2.Vouchersforlocaleconomicdevelopment AninnovativewayforaBPEtoraiseworkingcapitalistheissuingofbiofuelbackedvouchers. ThesevouchersarebasicallydebtoftheBPEtothebearerofthevoucher.Thevouchergives thebearertherighttobuybiofuelsfromtheBPEfortheamountmentionedonthevoucher. TheBPEcanissuethevouchersintwoways: 1. PurchasesoftheBPE:e.g.buyingseedsfromfarmers,payingtransportservices,payment ofpersonnel. 2. LoansoftheBPEtofarmers(orotherlocaleconomicplayers). Inpracticetheissuancewillbeamixtureofvouchersandnationalcurrency.Theproportionof vouchers that is acceptable for the receiver depends on the expenditure pattern and on incentives given by the BPE (e.g. bonus payment, lower interest rate on loans etc.). The introductionofvouchersisonlyfeasiblewhentheproductionhasreachedcommerciallevels andtheBPEhasgainedasignificantleveloftrustandconfidenceamongthelocal(economic) players.

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Figure69ExampleofthelocalcurrencyissuedbytheBYSAprocessingcompanyinYoro,Honduras

TheadvantagesofthisvouchersystemfortheBPEaremultiple: 1. Increaseoftheworkingcapitalatzerocost(theemissionofavoucherisinfinancialterms equivalenttoreceivingaloanat0%interest). 2. Increaseofsales:eachvoucherspentintoemissionisasecuredsaleinthefuture. 3. More security: vouchers are not very popular targets for thieves and assaulters. The voucherscanonlybespentlocally,whichincreaseschancesofbeingdetected30ifstolen. 4. Moreinstitutionalimage building. Thevouchers drawtheattentionofusers andmedia, resultinginfreepublicityandpositiveimagebuilding. ThefinancialadvantagefortheBPEandtheimpactonthelocaleconomycanbeenhancedby promoting a wider local trade network (shops, transport services, hairdressers etc.) that acceptsthevouchers.Inthatsense,thevouchersystemcanalsobeconsideredtobeatoolto maximizetheimpactonthelocaleconomyofthewealthcreatedbythebiofuelchain. For examples of working voucher systems in developing countries, please go to www.stro ca.org 6.3 SustainabilityofJatrophacurcasactivities

Mainauthor:WinfriedRijssenbeek 6.3.1 Introduction

Thesustainabilityofbiofuelshasbecomeagreatissuesinceinterestinandtheproductionof biofuelshasincreasedsignificantlyduringrecentyears,becauseofsoaringoilpricesin2007 2008andstimulusprogramsofgovernments.Thereasonsforencouragingtheproductionand use of biofuels by the government are threefold: mitigation of climatechange, support for domesticfarmersandmaintenanceofenergysecurity[1]. Unfortunately not all impacts can be qualified as positive. Due to the rapid growth of the sector, attention to biofuels was intensified and the impacts became more visible.
In fact several counterpart organizations of STRO in Central America have been victim of theft and armedassaults.Inallcasesthevouchershavebeenleftorthrownaway.

30

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 Government and governmental organisations fear that unsustainable production of biofuels willleadtonegativeimpactsonthelivesofthepoorestbecausetheywillexperiencelackof water,lossofland,reducedfoodsecurityandlessbiodiversity[2].Becauseofthis,production of biofuels should meet a set of requirements leading to sustainable production, transformation and use. The requirements set out as guidelines, criteria and indicators are currentlystillbeingimproved. Many southern countries with low fossil fuel reserves have high expectations of biofuels. Biofuel is often seen as a panacea, as it offers a good opportunity for these developing countriesorregionstohaveanindependentenergyproductionandtospendlessonforeign exchange.Furthermore,thedevelopmentofbiofuelsasasectorpromisesemploymentinrural areas. Currently, it seems that the attitude towards biofuels has become less positive in the richer northern countries. Whether southern countries will arrive at the same conclusion is doubtful, simply because the promise of being less dependent on fossil fuel imports, generatingemployment,andincreasingexportopportunitiesstillremains. ItshouldbeclearthatFACThasincludedthischapterinthemanual,withtwoobjectives: 1. Sustainabilityisamustforallstakeholders,whetheritconcernssmallorbigprojects.The aimisthatjatrophaactivitiescanbesustainedinthelongtermandthatthebenefitsto thoseinvolvedwillbeequitableandsustained. 2. For different players different sustainability criteria should be applied: a larger export scheme of jatropha has to adhere to different criteria than that of a small holder, producingononeha.AsFACT,werealisethatthecriteriathatwillbediscussedaremost ofthefirstsort:applicableforlargerscale. FACTrecommendsonlytakingthosethatalsoapplyforsmallerscale,astheycanbehandyand usefulaswell. 6.3.2 Sustainabilitycriteriaandinitiatives

There are a number of initiatives led by different parties that have seen first drafts and concept notes. Some have moved further to more detailed indicators. Some are biomass specific, others only include the production part of biofuels. Some focus only on one plant species,whileothersaredirectedonlyatexporttypeofprojects.Oftentheseinitiativeswere started in OECD countries, as their governments demand sustainability as a condition of initiativesbeingfinancedorsupportedthroughtheirenvironmentclimatechangefunding. It is not possible to discuss all of these drafts and notes. The most important ones the roundtable discussion on biofuels and the Cramer Criteria are discussed in annex E.5. As a result of this ongoing discussion, the international expert workshop on jatropha, FACT preparedapositionpaperonhowbusinessshouldbestmoveinthefieldofjatropha.Inthis position paper the People Planet and Profit criteria were translated to the production of jatropha[3]. FACT follows the 3P principle People, Profit, Planet in its work, emphasizing the need for foodsecurity,positiveimpactontheenvironmentandincomegenerationbylocalproducers. AstartingpointwastheestablishmentofsustainabilitycriteriadevelopedfortheGovernment oftheNetherlands(thesocalledCramerCriteria).Underitsprogramme,FACTwillmonitor the applicability of these criteria and work towards the further improvement thereof, taking into account other sustainability criteria under development, such as from RSB and more elaboratedNEN8080criteria.

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 6.3.3

Tentativecriteriaforsustainabledevelopmentoflargescalejatrophaproduction

People: Nodestructionofruralcommunitiesandvillagesorsocialstructures. Noinfringementofcommonlandsortraditionaluserrights. Nodisplacementofpeople. Enhancementoflocalemploymentorincomegenerationoflocalpeople. Decentwagestobepaid. Preferablynodependencyofasoleincomesourceofpeople(riskavoidance). Respect for the local peoples livelihoods, resources use, their points of view and traditional rights is a must. Projects should improve local peoples welfare and wellbeing. Ideally, they shouldincludelocalownershiporpartnershipintheproductchain.Risksofmonocultureand only one income opportunity should be avoided, for both the involved population and the projectmanagement. Planet: Takecareonwhatisrealwasteoridleland. Minimal and no lasting environmental pollution in production by agrochemicals and fertilizers. Greenhousegasbalance;netemissionreductioncomparedwithfossilreference,inclusive thatoftheapplication. Nomonoculture. Noselectionoflandswithhighbiodiversityimportance. Intercroppingpreferable,especiallyintheearlieryears. Acarefulanalysisshouldbemadeonthelanduse,thenutrientsandwaterusesforalarge scale project. In many instances, project implementers only find out later that the land plannedforcultivationwasalreadyinuse,e.g.inshiftingcultivationasfreepastureland,etc. Theproductionofbiofuelscanlearnalotfromfoodproduction:nomonoculture,correctand timely application of plant nutrients, existing land use and soil classification maps, intercropping,alleycropping,etc.Biodiversityandconservationareasoftodayandlikelyofthe futureshouldofcoursebeavoided. Profit: Prepareclearbusinessplans,basedonconservative/provendata. Companyprofitspreferablyshouldbereinvestedinthecountry. Jatropha should be, in the first instance, used to supply internal markets. Local use is moreenergyefficientandthereisalwaysenoughinternaldemand. Companyprofitssharingwithfarmers,andfarmersreceivingdecentpayment. Noexcessivecompanyprofits. Incomestabilityisasimportantasincomeheight:diversificationofthebiofuelchain(e.g. intercroppingedibleoils)canhelptheenterprisetosurvivetimesoflowfuelprices. All the plans should be viable to all stakeholders concerned: a net profit for all stakeholders can be differently defined for each one. Some will see the profit in employment generation, whereas others might see the benefits of rural affordable modern energy. Such sustainable viabilitymightrequireasoundlegislativeframeworkforfoodandfuelcropsthatmightinclude minimum prices (safety net prices), accessible savings and credit schemes and training and extension.

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 Sustainabilityofincomecanalsobeforatarget,byturningproducersintostakeholdersinthe processingchainofthebiofuelcroptoacommercialfuel. Theissuesarerelevantforjatropha,butcanalsobeappliedtootherbiomass.Biomassoptions when applied on a large scale can have serious drawbacks. To mitigate their negative effects, a long set of criteria need to be established. FACT argues, therefore, that it is more effective to design a biomass operation in developing countries straightaway for the developmentofthelocaleconomyandadheretothesustainabledevelopmentgoals: Povertyalleviation Biodiversity Environment Socioeconomicdevelopment Participationoflocalstakeholders Thiswillmoreeasilycreateanoperationthatissustainableand,ifsuccessful,canbescaledup andcheckedregularlyforsustainabilityusingtheCramerCriteriaorRSBandothers. 6.3.4. Conclusion FACTcontributestothediscussiononsustainabilityfromthemultifacettedpractiseofitspilot projects. What becomes clear is that THE sustainability problem does not exist, nor does THEsolutionexist.Ineachcontextbiofuelinitiativesresultinchangesinmanyareas,some positive,somenegative.ManyfarmersandlocalNGOsfeelthatinsmallscaleinitiativeswith farmers the positive effects seem to outweigh the negative effects, although further investigationisnecessarytoprovethispoint. General discussions on whether biofueldriven development is good or bad have limited relevance without specific information on the regions land and labour availability, the ownershipstructureoftheinitiative,marketsituationetc. Ingeneral,itcanbeconcludedthatentrepreneursoflargescaleplantationsshouldbemuch moreawareofthepossibleimpactsoftheirprojectduringthedevelopmentphase.Largescale projectscanmoreeasilydoharmtotheenvironmentand,onalongerterm,thecontribution to social and economic development will not exist unless its an objective of the project developers. When considering starting with jatropha production, feasibility studies based on sufficient, conservative and reliable data are important. Jatropha under current oil prices is likely to offer minimal margins. Furthermore, yields are often very context dependent. It is therefore recommended to start small scale to build up the required knowledge for a viable production and market development of jatropha end products, taking into account the sustainabilitycriteria.Presently,therearepractitionersthatstatethattheirjatrophaprojector businessissustainable.However,independentverificationoftheseprojectssustainabilityhas yettoemerge.Theverificationbringssomecomplexity,assustainabilitycriteriaarestillunder developmentbyvariousplayersandhavenotbeentestedsufficientlyyet. FACT supports sustainable development of biofuel production placing income generation for small farmers and the rural population as the highest priority. FACT supports initiatives for localuseandapplications.Whenthemarketisnotforexportandonlyforlocaluse,itshould beunderstoodthatitwouldveryhardforthesesmallfarmersandlocalworkshopstofulfilthe westernISObasedstandardsforqualitythatarenowbeingdevelopedfortheCramerCriteria (e.g.NTA8080). Thisgrouphasavery largepotential,sinceabout70%of populationsin Sub

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 Sahel Africa live in rural areas for example. FACT, therefore, strongly recommends that the criteriadevelopedforexportorientedcompanies,willnotbeappliedtothefarmers.Thatis,in anoutgrowersschemeitshouldbetheaggregatororbuyerandprocessorwhowillhaveto complywiththesustainabilitycriteria.Iftheserefertotheoutgrowingscheme,theaggregator willhavetosupportthefarmerswiththenecessaryconditionstoadheretothosestandards Furthermore, FACT recommends national governments in developing countries should not apply these exportoriented sustainability standards for local producers under pressure of international bodies. Of course national governments can set their own standards and FACT recommendsthesestandardstobefeasibleforruralpeople,smallfarmersandworkshops,not imposingthemwithalltypeofconditionsthatonlybringbureaucracy,andnooutput.Toset up projects by local organisations that are socially, economically, environmentally and technically viable already requires major efforts. FACT recommends setting standards in the planning phase as some of the standards can be relatively simply addressed without consequences. 6.4 1. 2. 3. 4. References GEXSI,http://www.jatrophaplatform.org/documents/GEXSI_GlobalJatropha Study_ABSTRACT.pdf(p.14). BiocombustiblesYoroSociedadAnnima,abiofuelprocessingenterprisepromotedby theFACTGotaVerdeproject.Seewww.gotaverde.organdwww.factfoundation.com FUNDER(FoundationfortheDevelopmentofRuralEntrepreneurship).See: www.funder.hn. GEXSI(2008),GlobalMarketStudyonJatropha,FinalReportAbstract,p.28. http://www.jatrophaplatform.org/documents/GEXSI_GlobalJatropha Study_ABSTRACT.pdf Seehttp://www.malibiocarburant.com/ See:http://www.factfoundation.com/media_en/Major_findings_seminar_Chimoiofora reportonthemajorfindingsofChimoioWorkshop,Nov2008. Althoughsomeliteraturesuggestssmallscalebiogasbottlingisnotimpossible.See: www.idosi.org/wasj/wasj1(2)/12.pdfforafeasibilitystudyonafacilityinPakistan. SeeforexampletheexperienceinZambia: http://www.umb.no/statisk/noragric/publications/master/2008_lars_olav_freim.pdf(p. 30) Perspective:Jatrophabiodieselfuelingsustainability,WMJAchtenandothers,Biofuels, bioproducts&biorefining,ISSN:1932104X,2007

5. 6. 7. 8.

9.

10. SmallscaleProductionandUseofLiquidbiofuelsinSubSaharanAfrica:Perspectivesfor Sustainabledevelopment,Backgroundpaperno.2,UNDESA,CommissiononSustainable Development,NewYork,2007

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 11. Jatropha literature and perspectives review: Main potential social and environmental impactsarisingfromlargescaleplantations,May2008,Proforestltd. 12. FACTpositionpaper Recommendedliteratureforsustainability 1 Beleidsnotitiemilieuenhernieuwbareenergieinontwikkelingssamenwerking,Ministryof ForeignAffairs,November2008 2 FACT reactie op Heldergroene Biomassa, Stichting Natuur en Milieu, www.fact foundation.com,30januari2008 3 Empowering rural communities by planting energy, Roundtable on bioenergy enterprise indevelopingregions,backgroundpaper,UNEP,2008 4 RoundtableonSustainableBiofuels,Globalprinciplesandcriteriaforsustainablebiofuels production,versionzero,colepolytechniquefdraledeLausanne,EnergyCenter,2008. Title: Version Zero Principles for sustainable biofuels Version 0.0 (August 2008) RSB SteeringBoard(http://cgse.epfl.ch/Jahia/site/cgse/op/edit/lang/en/pid/70341) 5 Thestateoffoodandagriculture,biofuels:prospects,risksandopportunities,FAO,2008, ISSN00814539 6 DiscussionNote:SustainableBiomassforPovertyReductionetc,19/07/07tbvFoodand EnergyWorkshopWR 7. 2productphilosophyprof.KeesDaeyOuwens

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A.

PLANTATIONESTABLISHMENTANDMANAGEMENT

TableA1withdrawalofnutrientsofonetonofdryseedofJatrophacomparedwithoilseedcrops. Source:firstthreecropsPlantnutritionforfoodsecurity,FAOchapter8 Oilseedrape Sunflower Groundnuts Jatropha Seeds Seeds pods dryseeds Production kg/ha/yr 1000 1000 1000 1000 N kg 93 37 55 33 P2O5 kg 37 25 14 4 K2O kg 100 110 23 27 Ca kg 0 7 Mg kg 11 20 11 5 S kg 26 0 8 2

TableA2Yieldsincaseof:Optimalwatersupply(rainfall12001500mm) Wet Fruit Power Shells Output Soil DrySeeds Oil Presscake (kg/ha/yr) (kg/ha/yr) (kg/ha/yr) (kWh/ha/yr) Fertility Bioenergy (kg/ha/yr) High yield(kg) 6000 18000 1200 4800 n.a. biogas(m3) n.a. 600 n.a. 2400 n.a. electricity(kWh) n.a. 1200 4998 4800 10998 Medium yield(kg) 2500 7500 500 2000 n.a. biogas(m3) n.a. 250 n.a. 1000 n.a. electricity(kWh) n.a. 500 2083 2000 4583 Low yield(kg) 750 2250 150 600 n.a. biogas(m3) n.a. 75 n.a. 300 n.a. electricity(kWh) n.a. 150 625 600 1375 TableA3YieldsincaseofNormalwatersupply(rainfall7001200mmor15002500mm). Soil Bioenergy Dry Seeds Wet Fruit Oil (kg/ Presscake Power Fertility (kg/ha/yr) Shells ha/yr) (kg/ha/yr) Output (kg/ha/yr) (kWh/ha/yr) High yield(kg) 3500 10500 700 2800 n.a. biogas(m3) n.a. 350 n.a. 1400 n.a. electricity(kWh) n.a. 700 2916 2800 6416 Medium yield(kg) 1500 4500 300 1200 n.a. biogas(m3) n.a. 150 n.a. 600 n.a. electricity(kWh) n.a. 300 1250 1200 2750 Low yield(kg) 500 1500 100 400 n.a. biogas(m3) n.a. 50 n.a. 200 n.a. electricity(kWh) n.a. 100 417 400 917

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TabelA4Incaseofsuboptimalwatersupply(rainfall500700mmor>2500mm) Wet Fruit Soil Dry Seeds Shells Oil (kg/ Presscake Fertility Bioenergy (kg/ha/yr) (kg/ha/yr) ha/yr) (kg/ha/yr) High yield(kg) 1500 4500 300 1200 biogas(m3) n.a. 150 n.a. 600 electricity(kWh) n.a. 300 1250 1200 Medium yield(kg) 750 2250 150 600 biogas(m3) n.a. 75 n.a. 300 electricity(kWh) n.a. 150 625 600 Low yield(kg) 250 750 50 200 biogas(m3) n.a. 25 n.a. 100 electricity(kWh) n.a. 50 208 200 Power Output (kWh/ha/yr) n.a. n.a. 2750 n.a. n.a. 1375 n.a. n.a. 458

TabelA5PestandDiseasesinJatrophacurcas Name Aphthonaspp.(goldenfleabeetle) AphthonadilutipesJacoby(yellowfleabeetle) Phytophthoraspp.,Pythiumspp.,Fusarium spp.,etc. Fusariummoniliforme Helminthosporiumtetramera Pestalotiopsisparaguarensis Pestalotiopsisversicolor Cercosporajatrophaecurces Julussp.(millipede) Oedaleussenegalensis(locust) Lepidopteraelarvae Pinnaspisstrachani(cushionscale) Ferrisiavirgata(woollyaphid) Calideadregei(bluebug) Nezaraviridula(greenstinkbug) Spodopteralitura Indarbelaspp. Clitocybetabescens Colletotrichumgloeosporioides Phakopsorajatrophicola Macrophominaphaseolina Rhizoctoniabataticola PachycorisklugiiBurmeister(Scutelleridae) Leptoglossuszonatus(Coreidae) Achaeajanata Stomphastisthraustica(blisterminer)

Damageandsymptoms leafdamage,larvaedamageroots severeleaf&rootdamage,dieoff dampingoff,rootrot leafspots leafspots leafspots leafspots leafspots totallossofseedlings leaves,seedlings galleriesinleaves diebackofbranches diebackofbranches suckingonfruits,prematurefruit abortionandmalformedseeds suckingonfruits,prematurefruit abortionandmalformedseeds larvalfeedingonleaves barkdamage rootrot leafspot rust collarrot collarrot suckingonfruits,prematurefruit abortionandmalformedseeds suckingonfruits,prematurefruit abortionandmalformedseeds leafdamage

Source

[1]&[2] [1]&[2] [3] [4] [5] [5] [6] [7] [3] [3] [3] [8] [8] [8] [8] [9] [10] [10] [10] [10] [11]&[4] [11] [12] [12] [13] [13]

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B.

HARVESTING

B.1 Rulesofthumb TherulesofThumbfortheharvestingprocessinpracticeare: Measure on spot in existing plantations the yield of dry seed picking per hour, asking a numberofpeopletopick; LookatexistingJatrophafieldswhichareinproduction,topredicttheyieldcurveoverthe year.Thiscangiveagoodunderstandingforthepredictionofyourownfieldsyieldand storageneeds; DonotenterinJatrophaproductioninanareawherelaborcostsexceedUS$4,/day; Mostlikelyitwouldbemoreattractiveforafarmertopaylaborbytheseedcollectedas byhourorday; Jatropha in high yielding fields will require approximately 8 hours/ person for the collectionofca60kg; Provide the pickers with proper tools and baskets and train them on how to pick most effectively; wherelaboriscostly,experimentingwithlineplantingswithtractorpassagespacingand pickingcartsisworthwhile; BulkdensityofJatrophaseedsisapprox400kg/m; Onehacanyield0to6MTofseedperha/ainthefourthyearofestablishment,butthe high value is only under optimal nutrient/soil and climate and water conditions and selected high yielding seed. So it is all about inputs and costs, and balancing the economicsofreturnoninvestment! B.2 Tipsandtricks Sometipsaregivenhereunderwithrelationtopostharvest: CarefulplanningisamusttomakeJatrophagrowsuccessfully; Optimize yields of Jatropha: very high nutrient gifts might not be worthwhile; however when no nutrients will be given depletion will take place, and yields will gradually go down; Looking at experiences in the region with Jatropha, interviewing the farmers and press ownerswillgiveinsightinbothpositiveandnegativefactorsingrowingJatropha.Much canbelearnttopreventthesameerrors.

B1

B2

C.

OILPRESSINGANDPURIFICATION

C.1 Practicalexperiencewithpressesandjatropha Researchinstitutes,small&mediumEnterprisesandprivatepartieshavegainedexperiencein mechanical pressing of Jatropha Curcas seeds over the last years. A short overview of the findingsfromsomeactivitiesispresentedbelow[1,5,8]: C.1.1 Mali:FACTjatrophaprojectsinBamakoandGaralo,January2008 In a progress report Mara Wijnker, M.Sc., FACT Team member reports: Currently for tests a smallpresswithcapacityof14litres/hourisavailable.Thiswaslocallyproducedbythemilitary workshopinBamako.Thepresshasdifficultywithpressingtheseedswhentheyareolder(and dryer)andbecauseoftheirhardness. C.1.2 Honduras:GotaVerdeprojectupdateJanuary2008 ATaby40ApresswasimportedfromSwedeninOctober2007.Thepresshasbeentestedin the CEVER: the press capacity is about 20 kg of dry Jatropha seed per hour. The oil yield obtainedwasrelativelylow(20%).Moreinvestigationisnecessarytodetermineifthisisdue tothelowoilcontentoftheseedsortheefficiencyofthepress.Moreover,thepressheaddid notholdthepressureandbrokeintotwoparts.Theexactreasonforthisdamageisstillunder investigation. C.1.3.Honduras:GotaVerdeproject JoostFokkinkfromBiofuelsBVsetuplocalproductionanduseofacylinderholetypeoilpress inHondurasfortheGotaVerdeproject.ThepressisbasedontheTbyandBTdesigns.The processing capacity is 8.5 kg/hr at 23% oil yield. Some adaptations have to be made for jatrophaasthefirstprototypewasdamagedafterpressingasmallamountofjatrophaseeds. C.1.4 Denmark:Dajolka NielsAnshasonbehalfofDajolkabeeninvolvedinbiofuelactivitiesformanyyears.Nielsdid someexperimentswithJatrophaseedsinaBT50screwpress.Hismainfindingswerethatthe pressoperatesbetterwhenseedsarecrushedbeforetheyarefedtothepress.Furthermore hereportedlargequantitiesofsedimentsintheoilthatcamefromthepressmakingfurther treatmentoftheoilmoredifficult. C.1.5 Netherlands:EindhovenUniversityofTechnology In2007PeterBeerensdidhisMScthesisonscrewpressingofJatrophaCurcasforapplication in developing countries. From practical tests at Eindhoven University of Technology and at DiligentEnergyTanzaniasomesignificantinsightsinthisprocesswereobtained.Jatrophatests wereconductedwiththefollowingpresses: BTBioPressType50(cylinderholepress),withacapacityof12kgJatropha/hr Sayariexpeller(strainerpress),withacapacityof70kgJatropha/hr KEKKellerP0101(strainerpress),withacapacityof70kgJatropha/hr ReinartzAP08(strainerpress),withacapacityof300kgJatropha/hr Themostimportantfindingsofthepresstestswhere: Thestrainerpresshassuperiorcharacteristicsfromanoperationalpointofview.Thebig sizeoftheJatrophaseedsandtherelativelyhighamountofhullcausethecylinderhole

C1

 press to yam more frequent. In case of jamming the strainer press is also more easily cleanedthanthecylinderholepress. With proper press settings an oil recovery of around 85% can be achieved. This means that85%oftheoilpresentintheseedsisremoved,whichcomesdownto35litersofraw oilfrom100kg.Afterfiltering2528litersofreadytousecleanoilremains.Thisnumber isequalforbothstrainerpressesandcylinderholepresses. All tests revealed a high amount of sediments varying between 2060%. This sediment contains approximately 50% of oil. Either a reduction in the amount of sediment or a filteringmethodsuitedtosuchhighamountsofsolidmaterialwouldinpotentialincrease theamountofcleanoilby1015percentpoints. Bestefficiencieswereachievedatlowrevolutions(3040RPMfortheBT50).Offcourse thismeanslowerthroughputinkg/hr.Optimizingthenozzlesizeleadstoanincreaseinoil recovery of around 10% for a cylinder hole press and up to 6% for a strainer press. In addition to the press settings seed conditioning will also affect the oil recovery. Oil recovery appeared highest for low seed moisture level (24%) and whole seeds without dehulling. No consistent results were found on the effect of moisture level and pressing temperatureonoilquality. Itisexpectedthatoiltemperaturesabove70Cincreasetheamountofphosphorintheoil andfurthertestsareneededtoconfirmthis.

C.1.6 Netherlands: Wageningen University and Research centre, Department Food TechnologyCentre TheWURhasstartedaresearchprogramforJatrophapressingattheendof2007.Theirchoice touseastrainerpressfromDeSmetRosedowns(MINI200)supportsthesuggestionbyPeter BeerensthatastrainerpressispreferredforpressingJatrophaCurcasseeds.CurrentlyWUR commencedpracticaltestingwiththeMINI200andaimstomakeanimprovedJatrophapress design. C.1.7.Germany:MaschinenfabrikReinartzGmbH&Co.KG In June 2006 Maschinenfabrik Reinartz GmbH & Co. KG conducted test runs on Jatropha togetherwithPeterBeerens.Resultsshowedanoilrecoveryof90%underimprovedsettings. C.1.8 Germany:EgonKellerGMBH&CoKG InJune2006EgonKeller GMBHCO KG conductedtestrunsonJatrophatogether withPeter Beerens.Resultsshowedanoilrecoveryof80%undernormalsettings.Testsshowinghigher oil yield were also done, however Keller advised not to use these settings as machine wear woulddrasticallyincreaseduetothehighpressuresandfriction. C.1.9 Honduras:FACTpilotprojectGotaVerde InApril2008,apresswasconstructedlocallyinHonduras,allbasedondrawingsprovidedby JoostFokkink(www.biofuels.nl).ThedesignwasbasedonaTabyType70,cylinderholepress. Duringthefirstteststhepressranat50%ratedspeed,approximately25Hz.Atthatspeedthe presshadacapacityof8.5kgJatropaperhour.Atanefficiencyof22.8%cleanoil.Usingcastor acapacityof13kg/hrwasachievedwithanefficiencyof28%. C.1.10 Mozambique:FACTpilotprojectMozambiquewithPrivatefarmEVRETZinChimoio BrendonEvansonbehalfofEVRETZ,pressescottonseedswithtwo6YL95pressestypeDouble Elephants,madeinChina.OneofthemwasboughtviaATAinZimbabweandtheotheronein South Africa. The one from Zimbabwe is performing best. His experience with these strainer

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 pressesisthattheoilyieldisquitelow(nospecificnumberavailable).Crushingtheseeds(e.g. withahammermill)appearedtoimprovetheoilrecovery.Afterashorttimeofoperationthe bearingswerewornoutandBrendonreplacedthebearingsforSKFones.Hereportedin2008 thatthepressesperformquitewell.Maintenanceisrestrictedtoreplacingthecompleteworm (whichisinparts)withinoneyear. He knows about 10 of these presses with various owners in the region, who are also quite satisfiedaboutthepresses.

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 C.2Overviewpressmanufacturers

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D.
D.1.

APPLICATIONSOFJATROPHAPRODUCTS
Stovefactsheets

D.1.1 Protosplantoilburner Source: Report: Plant oil cooking stove for developing countries, ElmarStumpf andWerner Mhlhausen,Institute for Agricultural Engineering in the Tropics and Subtropics, HohenheimUniversity,Stuttgart,Germany. http://w1.siemens.com/responsibility/en/sustainable/Prot os.htm http://www.bshgroup.com/index.php?page=109906 Introduction ThePROTOSplantoilstovewasdevelopedbyBSH(BoschandSiemensHausgerteGmbH) in 2004. This unusual stove can be fueled by unrefined and refined vegetable oils such as coconutoil,sunfloweroil,rapeseedoil,jatrophaoil,castoroil,cottonseedoilandpeanutoil. Except for the burner, this stove can be produced locally thereby creating labor. Over 500 ProtosstoveshavebeentestedinthePhilippines,India,Indonesia,GuatemalaandTanzania. Thewaythe plantoilstoveworksisquitesimple.Anairpumpbuildspressurewithinatank filled with oil. As a result, the oil is forced into a stainless steel vaporizer tube, where it is vaporizedbytheapplicationofheat.Anethanolpreheaterisinstalledbelowthenozzleascan also be found in most small burners used by hikers. The nowvaporized fuel is channeled through a nozzle, mixes with ambient air in the combustion chamber and produces a blue flame.Theoilairmixturehastobepreheatedto180260Cbeforeignitionoccurs.Theflame strengthcanberegulatedbymeansofavalveintheoilline.DisadvantageoftheProtosstove is the high noise level when burning (Pflanzenlkocher sollen den Regenwald retten, Handelsblatt,8juni,2006) Specifications Suppliersdata:BSH(BoschandSiemensHausgerteGmbH) Dealers in countries: The Protos has been tested in the Philippines, India, Indonesia, SouthAfricaandTanzania. Capacity:1.63.8kW,fuelefficiency4050% Howisqualityofoutputmeasuredand/orchecked?Researchbysupplier. Requiredinputpower:2litersoilperweekforafamilyof45>100litersperyear Operationalrequirements:1personduringcooking. Required maintenance and spare parts: frequent cleaning of the burner each time the burnerisused. Downtimeformaintenance:unknown Overalldimensions:approx30x30x30cm Costs:intendedsellingpriceof30(ElmarStumpf,BSHBosch) Emissions:tentimeslowerthanwithhighqualitykerosene Questions Howmanyinstalled?>500,testedin>100householdsinPhilippines Howmanyareoperational?unknown Whoissupplyingthisequipment?BSHBoschandSiemensHausgerteGmbH

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Ease, speed and reliability of supply chain, for new equipment and for spare parts? Cooking time reduced 3040% compared to wood fired stoves (Protos. The plant oil stove,BSHBoschandSiemensHausgerteGmbH). Training of operators possible? Given by whom? BSH Bosch and Siemens Hausgerte GmbH Userexperiences?AccordingtoBSHBoschtheintroductioninTanzaniawassuccessfulas peoplewerepositiveabouttheProtos.

D.1.2 Kakutestove Source:http://www.bioenergylists.org/kakutestove Introduction TheKakutestovehasbeendevelopedbyKakutein collaborationwithTirdo(TanzaniaIndustrialResearchand DevelopmentOrganization).Thereisnoclearinformation astowhetherthestoveshavebeencommerciallysold. GTZtestedtheKakutestovesinMadagascarwithGreenMad.Thestovewasprovidedby SOLTECandtheoilbyERIlocatedinFianarantsoa.Themaingoalofthetestwastofindwicks thataresuitableforjatropha.Thebestresultswereobtainedwithwicksfrompetroleum lampsandcrpe.Evenwiththesewickstheflamedimsafter1525minutes.Thewater temperatureinmostcasesdoesnotincreasebeyond80C(ErikJanRodenhuis,Werkgroep Ontwikkelingstechnieken). Specifications Suppliersdata:KakutetogetherwithTirdo Dealersincountries:Tanzania. Capacity:unknown Howisqualityofoutputmeasuredand/orchecked?unknown Requiredinputpower:unknown Operationalrequirements:1personduringcooking. Requiredmaintenanceandspareparts:unknown Downtimeformaintenance:unknown Overalldimensions:approx30x30x30cm Costs:unknown Questions Howmanyinstalled?none Howmanyareoperational?none Whoissupplyingthisequipment?KakutetogetherwithTirdo Ease,speedandreliabilityofsupplychain,fornewequipmentandforspareparts?unknown Trainingofoperatorspossible?Givenbywhom?Unknown,probablybyKakute Userexperiences?unknown

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 D.1.3 UB16JatrophacurcasLseedsstove Source:http://www.fierna.com/English/UB16.htm Introduction: ThisstoveisfiredwithJatrophaseedsinsteadofitsoil.Theseed hullhastoberemovedforbetterburningastheenergycontent perunitmassishigherfortheseedkernel. Specifications: Suppliersdata:unknown Dealersincountries:unknown Capacity:maximum300grseeds Howisqualityofoutputmeasuredand/orchecked?Itneeds8minutestoboil1500mlof water.Energyefficiencyhasbeencalculatedat58%basedontheheatingtimefor1literof water. Requiredinputpower:200gofpeeledseedsareabletofire60minutes.Basedon1015liter water boiling per day per family the total energy can be supplied by 100150 kg of Jatropha CurcasLseedsperfamilyyear. Operationalrequirements:1personduringcooking. Requiredmaintenanceandspareparts:unknown Downtimeformaintenance:unknown Weight:12kg Overalldimensions:27x27x27cm Costs:unknown Questions Howmanyinstalled?none Howmanyareoperational?none Whoissupplyingthisequipment?unknown Ease,speedandreliabilityofsupplychain,fornewequipmentandforspareparts?unknown Trainingofoperatorspossible?Givenbywhom?unknown Userexperiences?unknown Inadditiontothethreestovesmentionedabovesomeinformationwasfoundonotherstove designs.Asthedetailleveloftheinformationwasverylimited,imagesofthestovesare representedbelowinfigure5inordertoprovidethereaderwithcreativeideas.

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NaturStove HanjuangstoveJava

Stove on Jatropha paste StovefromITB WestNusaTenggara www.jatropha.de

Butterflybrandstoves www.jatropha.de TheKakutestove,Tanzania

Aristo stove from Grupo Ari SA, SantoDomingo,DominicanRepublic (Erik Jan Rodenhuis, Werkgroep OntwikkelingsTechnieken).

D.2 Recipeforsoap Theoutlineoftherecipeisasfollows: Prepare a solution of the caustic soda by dissolving the soda into the water (never mix thesecomponentstheotherwayaroundriskofburning!) Stir until everything has dissolved. The bowl will get hot, cool it using cold water at the outside,orjustletitcooldownforawhile. Pour the oil into a bowl and put it beside the bowl of caustic soda solution. Pour the causticsodasolutionslowlyintotheoil,stirringallthetime. Immediately the mixture will go white and soon it becomes creamy. Continue stirring until the mixture is like mayonnaise. This is the moment to add additives like glycerine, perfumeetc. If the mixture is still creamy, pour it into a mould, where it can harden overnight. The mouldscanbemadefromawoodentrayoracardboardbox,linedwithaplasticsheet. Alternatively,considerusingconvenientandattractiveshapeslikesmallplasticbowls. Themixturehardensovernightintropicaltemperatures,orinseveraldaysintemperate regions.Thenitcanbereleasedfromthemouldandcutifnecessary.Forgoodsaleand usethepiecesofsoapshouldnotbelargerthan150gramor6to8to2cm. Evenafterthisfirsthardeningthesoapcontinuestomatureforsometime.Itshouldbe storedforsometwoweeksonshelfbeforesale. Wrappingthesoapintoanicepaperorclearplasticwilladdgreatlytoitssalesvalue! Lastbutnot least,dontforgetto cleanall the usedutensilsproperly,ascausticsodais ratheraggressiveandJatrophaPPOistoxic.

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 D.2.1 RuralSoap Another,moreruralandworldwideapplicablerecipeforsoapmakingisasfollows1: Youwouldneedthefollowingingredients:(amountintheindicatedratios) MilledJatrophakernel(100) Nicedryash(50) Water(20) Threepans(onewithaholeinthebottom) Acloth Fireplace Optional:otheroilsoranimalfats Theactionsareaccordingthefollowingprocess: 1. Heatupapotwithwater;itisnotnecessarytoboilit,butitshouldbequitehot. 2. Placeaclothontopoftheopeningofanotherpanandfilltheclothwithash(Similarto fillingacoffeefilterwithcoffee). 3. Slowlypourthehotwaterontheclothwiththeashtomakeastrongabstractofash water. It is important that the abstract is quite strong. This can be checked simply by tastingthespicinessoftheabstractbyputtingasmalldroponthetipofyourtongue. (Becarefull,dontswallow) 4. Putthemilledjatrophakernelinapanandputitonalowfire 5. Ifdesiredothertypesoffatscanbeaddtothejatrophakernel. 6. Slowlyaddtheashabstracttothejatrophakernel 7. Mixslowly 8. Thejatrophakernelwillslowlyabsorbtheashliquid.Keeponaddingtheashliquiduntil thefatsaretotallyconverted.Thisisapatientprocesswhichshouldbedoneonlowfire. 9. Afteritgetsamoresolidform,ballscanbemade. 10. Afterthreedaysthesesoapballsarereadytouse. The soap balls are famous for their dandruff curing effect and their general cleaning properties. D2.2 Watercontenttestandacidtest 1. Totestforwatercontent,heatabout0,5litreoftheoilinasaucepanonthestoveand monitor the temperature with a thermometer. With more than 30% water in it, it will starttomakecracklingsoundsfromabout50C.Ifitsstillnotcracklingby6065Cthere should be no need to dewater it. To remove the water, keep the oil at 60 C for 15 minutes and then pour the oil into a settling tank. Let it settle for at least 24 hours, allowing the water to sink to the bottom. Then pour or drain the oil from above. Make sureyouneveremptythesettlingvesselmorethan90%. 2. Totesttheacid(FFA)contentyouneedtoperformatitrationoftheoilwithlyeandan indicator.Thismeansyoucarefullyaddsmalldropsoflyetopreparedoiluntilalltheacid inthetestmixturehasbeenneutralized.Thenyoucancalculatehowmuchextralyewill beneededtoneutralizetheFFAintheconversion.Youllneedsomebasickitchenwareas well as a syringe with ml indication and some basic chemicals: deionized water, NaOH, isopropanol and phenolphthalein. Heres how to test: Dissolve 1 gram of pure sodium hydroxidelye(NaOH)in1litreofdistilledordeionizedwater(0,1%w/vNaOHsolution) (weighttovolume).Inasmallerbeaker,dissolve1mlofdewateredoilin10mlofpure isopropylalcohol(isopropanol).Warmthebeakergentlybystandingitinsomehotwater,
1

ThisrecipeisbasedoncollectedinformationinruralzoneofHonduras:Yorodepartment

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 stir until all the oil dissolves in the alcohol and the mixture turns clear. Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein solution (acidity indicator). Using a graduated syringe, add the 0,1% NaOH solution drop by drop to the oilalcoholphenolphthalein solution, stirring all the time. It might turn a bit cloudy, keep stirring. Keep on carefully adding the lye solution until the solution stays pink (actually magenta) for 15 seconds. Take the number of millilitresof0,1%lyesolutionyouusedandadd3,5(thebasicamountoflyeneededfor freshoil).Thisisthenumberofgramsoflyeyou'llneedperlitreofoiltoprocesstheoil. For used oil these same precautions and preparations hold, usually used oils quality is worse than fresh oils, leading to frequent need for dewatering and determination of acidity. D.3 PracticalexperienceandpotentialproblemswithPPOinengines Fuelfordieselengineshastocomplywithacertainqualitytopreventoperationalproblems. Withoutproperoilcleaningthefollowingcanoccurinadieselengine[1]: Erosionofpistonheadandinletport; Increasedwearofpistonrings; Polymerisationoflubricationoil; Cavitationsandcorrosionintheinjectorsduetotoomuchwaterintheoil; Incompletecombustionwithexcessnoise,smellandemissionsduetohighviscosity; FailureofinjectorsduetohighFFAcontent; Abrasiveeffectonfuelinjectorsandcombustionchambersduetophosphor; Frequentcloggingofenginefuelfilterduetophosphorandsolids; Somespecificexperienceshavebeenoutlinedbelow[5]: Netherlands/Mozambique:FACTproject At the end of 2008 Ger Groeneveld from PPO Groeneveld conducted several tests for oil cleaningandenginetesting.HehasadjustedtwoenginestorunonPPO;a17kWListerST3 andan18kWFeidong295GJ.Endurancetestswereperformedwithbothengines.A500hour testwiththeListeronmainlysunfloweroilshowednofuelrelatedproblems.Theviscosityof sunflower(17.1cSat38C)issomewhatlowerthanthatofjatropha(3754cSat30C). ThehighviscosityofJatrophaoilcancauseenginestorunshortonfuel.Dieselengineshave beendesignedforviscositiesof1.72.4cS.Whentheenginerunsshortoffuelthiscandamage thepistonseninjectornozzleswillnotsprayproperlyorevenclog.Theviscosityofvegetable oilscanbereducedbyheating.Viscositiesbelow5cSareacceptableformostdieselengines [5]. If the level of FFA is above 3%, there is a risk of engine damage by corrosion. Corrosion problemsarerelevantforenginesthatrunintermittent.Oxygenthenhasachangetocatalyze corrosion.TheacidinthePPOwilletchoffanyprotectivelayersthatnormallypreventerosion. MichaelAllan(2002) ConductedendurancetestswithaKabotadieselonpalmoil.Onrefinedpalmoiltheengine ran perfectly for over 2000 hours. Refining included deguming and neutralization. On crude palmoilhowever,theenginebrokedownafter300hoursandagainafter550.Boththeinlet portandpistonheadappearedbadlyeroded,thepistonringswerewornandthelubrication oilhadpolymerized.Theseareclearlyeffectsofpoorfuelquality[5].

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 Colombia,Aprotec Mauricio Gnecco found much carbon on the indirect injection prechamber when using well filteredpalmoil. Usersofanother10HPListerenginereported aburnedheatsealwhen the engine broke down. Analysis by Mauricio again showed high carbon deposits on the indirect injectionprechamberthroat. D.4 Propertiesofoilandfats Allvegetableoilsandanimalfatsdocontaindifferentmixturesofthefollowingbasicoil components:
TableD1contentofcommonvegetableoils2 Acid ElementaryFormula ConstitutionalFormula Lauric C12H24O2 CH3(CH2)10COOH Myristic C14H28O2 CH3(CH2)12COOH Palmitic C16H32O2 CH3(CH2)14COOH Stearic C18H36O2 CH3(CH2)16COOH Oleic C18H34O2 CH3(CH2)14(CH)2COOH Linoleic C18H32O2 CH3(CH2)12(CH)4COOH Linolenic C18H30O2 CH3(CH2)10(CH)6COOH Systematicname C12:0 C14:0 C16:0 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3

TableD2Percentagesofthemoreimportantfattyacidsincommonlyusedfatsandoils3,4. Fatoroil Lauric Myristic Palmitic Stearic Oleic Linoleic Linolenic Jatropha 1020 510 3050 3050 Coconut 45 20 5 3 6 Palmkernel 55 12 6 4 10 Tallow(beef) 2 29.0 24.5 44.5 Tallow(mutton) 2 27.2 25.0 43.1 2.7 Lard 24.6 15.0 50.4 10.0 Olive 14.6 75.4 10.0 Arachis(peanut) 8.5 6.00 51.6 26.0 Cottonseed 23.4 31.6 45.0 Maize 6.0 2.0 44.0 48.0 Linseed 3 6.0 74.0 17.0 Soybean 11.0 2.0 20.0 64.0 3.0

D.5 Propertiesofbiodiesel Thefollowingtablegivesasummaryofbiodieselpropertiesfordifferentfeedstock.Whenfats andoilsareconvertedtobiodiesel(FAMEorFAEE),itspropertiesdochange.Thepropertiesin thetablearemoreorlessgeneralforaspecificfeedstock.Otherfeatureslikeacidnumberand content of ash, sludge and water are highly variable per batch, season or geography. All parameters have their relevance for shelf life, handling and use, engine power and lifetime, fuelconsumption,etc.ThetableshowsCN(cetanenumber)thatdeterminesignitionquality, LHV (lower heating value) that states the energy content, viscosity, cold plug point (CP) and pourpoint(PP)thatarerelevantforcoldweatheruse,andflashpoint(FP)thatisrelatedto safety.
2 CRC55theditionofHandbookofchemistryandphysics.
3 E.T.Webb,OilsandFatsinSoapManufacture,SoapGazetteandPerfumer,October1,1926,xxviii,302 4 Heller(1996):PhysicNut

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TableD3Fuelrelatedphysicalpropertiesofestersofoilsandfats5 CP Feedstock CN LHV Viscosity (degC) (MJ/kg) (mm2/s) Cottonseed7 Rapeseed8 Safflower9 Soybean10 Sunflower11 Tallow12 Palm13 Soybean Tallow14 51.2 54.4 49.8 46.2 46.6 56.2 48.2 40,4 40,0 39,8 39,8 39,9 39,1 40,0 Methylesters 6.8(21C) 6.7(40C) 4.08(40C) 4.22(C) 4.11(40C) Ethylesters 4.5(37.8C) 4.41(40C) 2 2 0 12 8 1 15 PP (degC) 4 9 6 1 4 9 6 4 12
6

FP (degC) 110 84 180 171 96 190 174

Many parameters of fossil diesel fuel are about the same. Its viscosity is a bit lower (easier flowing)soheatingupofbiodieselwillbeadvantageoustoreduceitsviscosity.Thecoldplug point, the point a fuel filter will be blocked by solid fat or wax, is higher for biodiesel, so a heated fuel filter will be advantageous as well. But given the figures of biodiesel compared withdailyoutsidetemperaturesinforexampleHonduras,noproblemsregardingcoldweather propertiesofbiodieselaretobeexpected.

5 G.Knothe,R.O.Dunn,andM.O.Bagby,inFuelsandChemicalsfromBiomass.Washington,D.C.:American ChemicalSociety. 6 Someflashpointsareverylow.Thesemaybetypographicalerrorsinthereferencesorthematerialsmayhave containedresidualalcohols. 7 Geyer,S.M.;Jacobus,M.J.;Lestz,S.S.Trans.ASAE1984,27,375381. 8 Peterson,C.L.;Korus,R.A;Mora,P.G.;Madsen,J.P.Trans.ASAE,1987,30,2835. 9 Isiigr,A.;Karaosmanolu,F.;Aksoy,H.A.;Hamdallahpur,F.;Glder,.L.Appl.Biochem.Biotechnol.1994,4546, 93102. 10 Bagby,M.O.InProc.9thInt.Conf.JojobaUses,3rdInt.Conf.NewIndustr.CropsProd.;Princen,L.H.,Rossi,C., Eds.;Assoc.Advancem.Industr.Crops.publ.1996;pp.220224. 11 Kaufman,K.R.;Ziejewski,M.Trans.ASAE1984,27,16261633. 12 Ali,Y.;Hanna,M.A.;Cuppett,S.L.J.Am.OilChem.Soc.1995,72,15571564. 13 Avella,F.;Galtieri,A.;Fiumara,A.Riv.Combust.1992,46,181188. 14 Nelson,L.A.;Foglia,T.A.;Dunn,R.O.;Marmer,W.N.submittedforpublication.

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 D.5.1 MaterialSafetyDataSheetMethylAlcohol,ReagentACS,99.8%(GC) ACC#95294 Section1ChemicalProductandCompanyIdentification MSDSName:MethylAlcohol,ReagentACS,99.8%(GC) Catalog Numbers: AC423950000, AC423950010, AC423950020, AC423955000, AC9541632, AC423952 Synonyms: Carbinol; Methanol; Methyl hydroxide; Monohydroxymethane; Pyroxylic spirit; Woodalcohol;Woodnaptha;Woodspirit;Monohydroxymethane;Methylhydrate. CompanyIdentification: AcrosOrganicsN.V. OneReagentLane FairLawn,NJ07410 ForinformationinNorthAmerica,call:800ACROS01 ForemergenciesintheUS,callCHEMTREC:8004249300 Section2Composition,InformationonIngredients CAS# 67561 ChemicalName Methylalcohol Percent 99+ EINECS/ELINCS 2006596

HazardSymbols:TF RiskPhrases:1123/24/2539/23/24/25 Section3HazardsIdentification EMERGENCYOVERVIEW Appearance: clear, colorless. Flash Point: 11 deg C. Poison! Cannot be made nonpoisonous. Causeseyeandskinirritation.Maybeabsorbedthroughintactskin.Thissubstancehascaused adverse reproductive and fetal effects in animals. Danger! Flammable liquid and vapor. Harmfulifinhaled.Maybefatalorcauseblindnessifswallowed.Maycausecentralnervous system depression. May cause digestive tract irritation with nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Causesrespiratorytractirritation.Maycauseliver,kidneyandheartdamage. TargetOrgans:Kidneys,heart,centralnervoussystem,liver,eyes. PotentialHealthEffects Eye:Producesirritation,characterizedbyaburningsensation,redness,tearing,inflammation, andpossiblecornealinjury.Maycausepainfulsensitizationtolight. Skin:Causesmoderateskinirritation.Maybeabsorbedthroughtheskininharmfulamounts. Prolongedand/orrepeatedcontactmaycausedefattingoftheskinanddermatitis. Ingestion:Maybefatalorcauseblindnessifswallowed.Maycausegastrointestinalirritation with nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. May cause systemic toxicity with acidosis. May cause central nervous system depression, characterized by excitement, followed by headache, dizziness, drowsiness, and nausea. Advanced stages may cause collapse, unconsciousness, coma and possible death due to respiratory failure. May cause cardiopulmonary system effects.

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 Inhalation: Harmful if inhaled. May cause adverse central nervous system effects including headache, convulsions, and possible death. May cause visual impairment and possible permanentblindness.Causesirritationofthemucousmembrane. Chronic: Prolonged or repeated skin contact may cause dermatitis. Chronic inhalation and ingestion may cause effects similar to those of acute inhalation and ingestion. Chronic exposure may cause reproductive disorders and teratogenic effects. Laboratory experiments have resulted in mutagenic effects. Prolonged exposure may cause liver, kidney, and heart damage. Section4FirstAidMeasures Eyes:Immediatelyflusheyeswithplentyofwaterforatleast15minutes,occasionallylifting theupperandlowereyelids.Getmedicalaidimmediately. Skin: Immediately flush skin with plenty of soap and water for at least 15 minutes while removingcontaminated clothingandshoes.Get medicalaidifirritationdevelopsorpersists. Washclothingbeforereuse. Ingestion:Ifvictimisconsciousandalert,give24cupfulsofmilkorwater.Nevergiveanything bymouthtoanunconsciousperson.Getmedicalaidimmediately.Inducevomitingbygiving oneteaspoonofSyrupofIpecac. Inhalation: Get medical aid immediately. Remove from exposure to fresh air immediately. If breathingisdifficult,giveoxygen.DoNOTusemouthtomouthresuscitation.Ifbreathinghas ceasedapplyartificialrespirationusingoxygenandasuitablemechanicaldevicesuchasabag andamask. NotestoPhysician:Effectsmaybedelayed.Ethanolmayinhibitmethanolmetabolism. Section5FireFightingMeasures GeneralInformation:Containerscanbuilduppressureifexposedtoheatand/orfire.Asinany fire,wearaselfcontainedbreathingapparatusinpressuredemand,MSHA/NIOSH(approved orequivalent),andfullprotectivegear.Waterrunoffcancauseenvironmentaldamage.Dike and collect water used to fight fire. Vapors can travel to a source of ignition and flash back. Duringafire,irritatingandhighlytoxicgasesmaybegeneratedbythermaldecompositionor combustion. Flammable Liquid. Can release vapors that form explosive mixtures at temperatures above the flashpoint. Use water spray to keep fireexposed containers cool. Watermaybeineffective.Materialislighterthanwaterandafiremaybespreadbytheuseof water.Vaporsmaybeheavierthanair.Theycanspreadalongthegroundandcollectinlowor confinedareas.Maybeignitedbyheat,sparks,andflame. ExtinguishingMedia:Forsmallfires,usedrychemical,carbondioxide,watersprayoralcohol resistantfoam.Usewaterspraytocoolfireexposedcontainers.Watermaybeineffective.For large fires, use water spray, fog or alcoholresistant foam. Do NOT use straight streams of water. Section6AccidentalReleaseMeasures General Information: Use proper personal protective equipment as indicated in Section 8. Spills/Leaks: Scoop up with a nonsparking tool, then place into a suitable container for

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 disposal. Use water spray to disperse the gas/vapor. Remove all sources of ignition. Absorb spillusinganabsorbent,noncombustiblematerialsuchasearth,sand,orvermiculite.Donot use combustible materials such as saw dust. Provide ventilation. A vapor suppressing foam maybeusedtoreducevapors.Waterspraymayreducevaporbutmaynotpreventignitionin closedspaces. Section7HandlingandStorage Handling: Wash thoroughly after handling. Remove contaminated clothing and wash before reuse. Ground and bond containers when transferring material. Do not breathe dust, vapor, mist, or gas. Do not get in eyes, on skin, or on clothing. Empty containers retain product residue, (liquid and/or vapor), and can be dangerous. Keep container tightly closed. Avoid contactwithheat,sparksandflame.Donotingestorinhale.Useonlyinachemicalfumehood. Do not pressurize, cut, weld, braze, solder, drill, grind, or expose empty containers to heat, sparksoropenflames. Storage:Keepawayfromheat,sparks,andflame.Keepawayfromsourcesofignition.Storein a cool, dry, wellventilated area away from incompatible substances. Flammablesarea. Keep containerstightlyclosed.Donotstoreinaluminumorleadcontainers. Section8ExposureControls,PersonalProtection EngineeringControls:Useexplosionproofventilationequipment.Facilitiesstoringorutilizing thismaterialshouldbeequippedwithaneyewashfacilityandasafetyshower.Useadequate general or local exhaust ventilation to keep airborne concentrations below the permissible exposurelimits.Useonlyunderachemicalfumehood. ExposureLimits ChemicalName ACGIH NIOSH OSHAFinalPELs Methylalcohol 200 ppm TWA; 250 200ppmTWA;260 ppm STEL; skin mg/m3TWA6000 potential for ppmIDLH cutaneousabsorption 200ppmTWA;260 mg/m3TWA

OSHA Vacated PELs: Methyl alcohol: 200 ppm TWA; 260 mg/m3 TWA; 250 ppm STEL; 325 mg/m3STEL PersonalProtectiveEquipment Eyes:Wearchemicalgoggles. Skin:Wearappropriateprotectiveglovestopreventskinexposure. Clothing:Wearappropriateprotectiveclothingtopreventskinexposure. Respirators:ArespiratoryprotectionprogramthatmeetsOSHA's29CFR 1910.134andANSI Z88.2 requirements or European Standard EN 149 must be followed whenever workplace conditionswarrantarespirator'suse. Section9PhysicalandChemicalProperties PhysicalState:Liquid

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 Appearance:clear,colorless Odor:alcohollikeweakodor pH:Notavailable. VaporPressure:128mmHg@20degC VaporDensity:1.11(Air=1) EvaporationRate:5.2(Ether=1) Viscosity:0.55cP20degC BoilingPoint:64.7degC@760.00mmHg Freezing/MeltingPoint:98degC AutoignitionTemperature:464degC(867.20degF) FlashPoint:11degC(51.80degF) DecompositionTemperature:Notavailable. NFPARating:(estimated)Health:1;Flammability:3;Reactivity:0 ExplosionLimits,Lower:6.0vol% Upper:36.00vol% Solubility:miscible SpecificGravity/Density:.7910g/cm3 MolecularFormula:CH4O MolecularWeight:32.04 Section10StabilityandReactivity ChemicalStability:Stableundernormaltemperaturesandpressures. ConditionstoAvoid:Hightemperatures,incompatiblematerials,ignitionsources,oxidizers. Incompatibilities with Other Materials: Acids (mineral, nonoxidizing, e.g. hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid,muriaticacid,phosphoricacid),acids (mineral,oxidizing,e.g.chromicacid, hypochlorousacid,nitricacid,sulfuricacid),acids(organic,e.g.aceticacid,benzoicacid,formic acid, methanoic acid, oxalic acid), azo, diazo, and hydrazines (e.g. dimethyl hydrazine, hydrazine, methyl hydrazine), isocyanates (e.g. methyl isocyanate), nitrides (e.g. potassium nitride,sodiumnitride),peroxidesandhydroperoxides(organic,e.g.acetylperoxide,benzoyl peroxide, butyl peroxide, methyl ethyl ketone peroxide), epoxides (e.g. butyl glycidyl ether), Oxidants(suchasbariumperchlorate,bromine,chlorine,hydrogenperoxide,leadperchlorate, perchloric acid, sodium hypochlorite)., Active metals (such as potassium and magnesium)., acetyl bromide, alkyl aluminum salts, beryllium dihydride, carbontetrachloride, carbon tetrachloride+metals,chloroform+heat,chloroform+sodiumhydroxide,cyanuricchloride, diethyl zinc, nitric acid, potassiumtertbutoxide, chloroform + hydroxide, water reactive substances (e.g. acetic anyhdride, alkyl aluminum chloride, calcium carbide, ethyl dichlorosilane). Hazardous Decomposition Products: Carbon monoxide, irritating and toxic fumes and gases, carbondioxide,formaldehyde. HazardousPolymerization:Willnotoccur. Section11ToxicologicalInformation RTECS#: CAS#67561:PC1400000 LD50/LC50:

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 CAS#67561: Draizetest,rabbit,eye:40mgModerate; Draizetest,rabbit,eye:100mg/24HModerate; Draizetest,rabbit,skin:20mg/24HModerate; Inhalation,rat:LC50=64000ppm/4H; Oral,mouse:LD50=7300mg/kg; Oral,rabbit:LD50=14200mg/kg; Oral,rat:LD50=5628mg/kg; Skin,rabbit:LD50=15800mg/kg; arcinogenicity: CAS#67561:NotlistedbyACGIH,IARC,NIOSH,NTP,orOSHA. Epidemiology: Methanol has been shown to produce fetotoxicity in the embr yo or fetus of laboratory animals. Specific developmenta l abnormalities include cardiovascular, musculoskeletal,andurogenitalsystems. Teratogenicity: Effects on Newborn: Behaviorial, Oral, rat: TDLo=7500 mg/kg (female 1719 days after conception). Effects on Embryo or Fetus: Fetotoxicity, Inhalation, rat: TCLo=10000 ppm/7H (female 715 days after conception). Specific Developmental Abnormalities: Cardiovascular, Musculoskeletal, Urogenital, Inhalation, rat: TCLo=20000 ppm/7H (714 days afterconception). ReproductiveEffects:PaternalEffects:Spermatogenesis:Intraperitoneal,mouseTDLo=5g/kg( male 5 days premating). Fertility: Oral, rat: TDLo = 35295 mg/kg (female 115 days after conception).PaternalEffects:Testes,Epididymis,Spermduct:Oral,rat:TDLo=200ppm/20H (male78weekspremating). Neurotoxicity:Noinformationavailable. Mutagenicity:DNAinhibition:HumanLymphocyte=300mmol/L.DNAdamage:Oral,rat=10 umol/kg.Mutationinmicroorganisms:MouseLymphocyte=7900mg/L.Cytogeneticanalysis: Oral,mouse=1gm/kg. Other Studies: Standard Draize Test(Skin, rabbit) = 20 mg/24H (Moderate) S tandard Draize Test: Administration into the eye (rabbit) = 40 mg (Moderate). Standard Draize test: Administrationintotheeye(rabbit)=100mg/24H(Moderate). Section12EcologicalInformation Ecotoxicity:Fish:FatheadMinnow:29.4g/L;96Hr;LC50(unspecified)Goldfish:250ppm;11 Hr;resultedindeathRainbowtrout:8000mg/L;48Hr;LC50(unspecified)Rainbowtrout:LC50 =1368mg/L;96Hr.;12degreesCFatheadMinnow:LC50=29400mg/L;96Hr.;25degreesC, pH 7.63 Rainbow trout: LC50 = 8000 mg/L; 48 Hr.; Unspecified ria: Phytobacterium phosphoreum:EC50=51,000320,000mg/L;30minutes;MicrotoxtestNodataavailable. Environmental:Dangeroustoaquaticlifeinhighconcentrations.Aquatictoxicityrating:TLm 96>1000 ppm. May be dangerous if it enters water intakes. Methyl alcohol is expected to biodegradeinsoilandwaterveryrapidly.Thisproductwillshowhighsoilmobilityandwillbe degraded from the ambient atmosphere by the reaction with photochemically produced hyroxyl radicals with an estimated halflife of 17.8 days. Bioconcentration factor for fish (goldenide)<10.BasedonalogKowof0.77,theBCFvalueformethanolcanbeestimatedto be0.2. Physical:Noinformationavailable. Other:None.

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 Section13DisposalConsiderations Chemical waste generators must determine whether a discarded chemical is classified as a hazardous waste. US EPA guidelines for the classification determination are listed in 40 CFR Parts 261.3. Additionally, waste generators must consult state and local hazardous waste regulationstoensurecompleteandaccurateclassification. RCRAPSeries:Nonelisted. RCRAUSeries:CAS#67561:wastenumberU154;(Ignitablewaste). Section14TransportInformation HazardClass: 3 UNNumber: UN1230 PackingGroup: II AdditionalInfo: Section15RegulatoryInformation USFEDERAL TSCA CAS#67561islistedontheTSCAinventory. Health&SafetyReportingList NoneofthechemicalsareontheHealth&SafetyReportingList. ChemicalTestRules NoneofthechemicalsinthisproductareunderaChemicalTestRule. Section12b NoneofthechemicalsarelistedunderTSCASection12b. TSCASignificantNewUseRule NoneofthechemicalsinthismaterialhaveaSNURunderTSCA. SARA Section302(RQ) CAS#67561:finalRQ=5000pounds(2270kg) Section302(TPQ) NoneofthechemicalsinthisproducthaveaTPQ. SARACodes CAS#67561:acute,flammable. Section313 This material contains Methyl alcohol (CAS# 67561, 99%),which is subject to the reporting requirementsofSection313ofSARATitleIIIand40CFRPart373. CleanAirAct:

USDOT

IATA

RID/ADR

IMO

CanadaTDG METHANOL 3(6.1) UN1230 II FLASHPOINT 11C

ShippingName: METHANOL

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 CAS#67561islistedasahazardousairpollutant (HAP). Thismaterialdoes notcontainany Class1Ozonedepletors.ThismaterialdoesnotcontainanyClass2Ozonedepletors. CleanWaterAct: None of the chemicals in this product are listed as Hazardous Substances under the CWA. NoneofthechemicalsinthisproductarelistedasPriorityPollutantsundertheCWA.Noneof thechemicalsinthisproductarelistedasToxicPollutantsundertheCWA. OSHA: NoneofthechemicalsinthisproductareconsideredhighlyhazardousbyOSHA. STATE CAS#67561canbefoundonthefollowingstaterighttoknowlists:California,NewJersey, Florida,Pennsylvania,Minnesota,Massachusetts. California No Significant Risk Level: None of the chemicals in this product are listed. European/InternationalRegulations EuropeanLabelinginAccordancewithECDirectives HazardSymbols: TF RiskPhrases: R11Highlyflammable. R23/24/25Toxicbyinhalation,incontactwithskinandifswallowed. R39/23/24/25Toxic:dangerofveryserious irreversibleeffectsthroughinhalation,incontactwithskinandifswallowed. SafetyPhrases: S16KeepawayfromsourcesofignitionNosmoking. S36/37Wearsuitableprotectiveclothingandgloves. S45Incaseofaccidentorifyoufeelunwell,seekmedicaladviceimmediately(showthelabel wherepossible). S7Keepcontainertightlyclosed. WGK(WaterDanger/Protection) CAS#67561:1 Canada CAS#67561islistedonCanada'sDSLList.CAS#67561islistedonCanada'sDSLList. ThisproducthasaWHMISclassificationofB2,D1A,D2B. CAS#67561islistedonCanada'sIngredientDisclosureList. ExposureLimits CAS# 67561: OELARAB Republic of Egypt:TWA 200 ppm (260 mg/m3);Ski n OEL AUSTRALIA:TWA200ppm(260mg/m3);STEL250ppm;SkinOELBELGIUM:TWA200ppm(262 mg/m3);STEL 250 ppm;Skin OELCZECHOSLOVAKIA:TWA 10 0 mg/m3;STEL 500 mg/m3 OEL DENMARK:TWA 200 ppm (260 mg/m3);Skin OELFINLAND:TWA 200 ppm (260 mg/m3);STEL 250 ppm;Skin OELFRANCE:TWA 200 ppm (260 mg/m3);STEL 1000 ppm (1300 mg/m3) OEL GERMANY:TWA 200 ppm (260 mg/m3);Skin OELHUNGARY:TWA 50 mg/m3;STEL 100 mg/m3;Skin JAN9 OELJAPAN:TWA 200 ppm (260 mg/m3);Skin OELTHE NETHERLANDS:TWA 200 ppm (260 mg/m3);Skin OELTHE PHILIPPINES:TWA 200 ppm (260 mg/m3) OEL POLAND:TWA 100 mg/m3 OELRUSSIA:TWA 200 ppm;STEL 5 mg/m3;Skin OELSWEDEN:TWA 200ppm(250mg/m3);STEL250ppm(350mg/m3);SkinOELSWITZERLAND:TWA200ppm(260 mg/m3);STEL400ppm;SkinOELTHAILAND:TWA200ppm(260mg/m3)OELTURKEY:TWA200 ppm(260mg/m3)OELUNITEDKINGDOM:TWA200ppm(260mg/m3);STEL250ppm;SkinOEL IN BULGARIA, COLOMBIA, JORDAN, KOREA check ACGIH TLV OEL IN NEW ZEALAND, SINGAPORE,VIETNAMcheckACGITLV

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 Section16AdditionalInformation MSDSCreationDate:7/21/1999 Revision#4Date:3/14/2001 Theinformationaboveisbelievedtobeaccurateandrepresentsthebestinformationcurrently available to us. However, we make no warranty of merchantability or any other warranty, expressorimplied,withrespecttosuchinformation,andweassumenoliabilityresultingfrom its use. Users should make their own investigations to determine the suitability of the information for their particular purposes. In no event shall Fisher be liable for any claims, losses, or damages of any third party or for lost profits or any special, indirect, incidental, consequentialorexemplarydamages,howsoeverarising,evenifFisherhasbeenadvisedofthe possibilityofsuchdamages.

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 D.5.2 MaterialSafetyDataSheetPotassiumHydroxide ACC#19431 Section1ChemicalProductandCompanyIdentification MSDSName:PotassiumHydroxide Catalog Numbers: S71978, S71979, S719791, S719792, P2463, P2501, P25010, P2503, P25050, P250500, P25050LC, P2513, P25150, P251500, P25150KG, P25812, P258212, P25850,P25850LC,PFP25050LC,S71977,S72221D Synonyms:Causticpotash,Lye,Potassiumhydrate CompanyIdentification: FisherScientific 1ReagentLane FairLawn,NJ07410 Forinformation,call:2017967100 EmergencyNumber:2017967100 ForCHEMTRECassistance,call:8004249300 ForInternationalCHEMTRECassistance,call:7035273887 Section2Composition,InformationonIngredients CAS# 1310583 HazardSymbols:C RiskPhrases:2235 Section3HazardsIdentification EMERGENCYOVERVIEW Appearance:whiteoryellow.Danger!Corrosive.WaterReactive.Harmfulifswallowed. Causessevereeyeandskinburns.Causesseveredigestiveandrespiratorytractburns. TargetOrgans:None. PotentialHealthEffects Eye:Causessevereeyeburns.Maycauseirreversibleeyeinjury.Contactmaycauseulceration oftheconjunctivaandcornea.Eyedamagemaybedelayed. Skin:Causesskinburns.Maycausedeep,penetratingulcersoftheskin. Ingestion:Harmfulifswallowed.Maycausecirculatorysystemfailure.Maycauseperforation ofthedigestivetract.Causesseveredigestivetractburnswithabdominalpain,vomiting,and possibledeath. Inhalation:Harmfulifinhaled.Irritationmayleadtochemicalpneumonitisandpulmonary edema.Causessevereirritationofupperrespiratorytractwithcoughing,burns,breathing difficulty,andpossiblecoma. Chronic:Prolongedorrepeatedskincontactmaycausedermatitis.Prolongedorrepeatedeye contactmaycauseconjunctivitis.

ChemicalName Potassiumhydroxide(KOH)

Percent 100.0

EINECS/ELINCS 2151813

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 Section4FirstAidMeasures Eyes:Immediatelyflusheyeswithplentyofwaterforatleast15minutes,occasionallylifting theupperandlowereyelids.Getmedicalaidimmediately. Skin:Getmedicalaidimmediately.Immediatelyflushskinwithplentyofsoapandwaterforat least15minuteswhileremovingcontaminatedclothingandshoes.Discardcontaminated clothinginamannerwhichlimitsfurtherexposure. Ingestion:DoNOTinducevomiting.Ifvictimisconsciousandalert,give24cupfulsofmilkor water.Nevergiveanythingbymouthtoanunconsciousperson.Getmedicalaidimmediately. Inhalation:Getmedicalaidimmediately.Removefromexposuretofreshairimmediately.If breathingisdifficult,giveoxygen.Ifbreathinghasceasedapplyartificialrespirationusing oxygenandasuitablemechanicaldevicesuchasabagandamask. NotestoPhysician:Treatsymptomaticallyandsupportively. Section5FireFightingMeasures GeneralInformation:Asinanyfire,wearaselfcontainedbreathingapparatusinpressure demand,MSHA/NIOSH(approvedorequivalent),andfullprotectivegear.Usewaterwith cautionandinfloodingamounts.Contactwithmoistureorwatermaygeneratesufficientheat toignitenearbycombustiblematerials. ExtinguishingMedia:Forsmallfires,usedrychemical,carbondioxide,watersprayoralcohol resistantfoam. Section6AccidentalReleaseMeasures GeneralInformation:UseproperpersonalprotectiveequipmentasindicatedinSection8. Spills/Leaks:Vacuumorsweepupmaterialandplaceintoasuitabledisposalcontainer.Avoid generatingdustyconditions. Section7HandlingandStorage Handling:Washthoroughlyafterhandling.Usewithadequateventilation.Donotallowwater togetintothecontainerbecauseofviolentreaction.Donotgetineyes,onskin,oron clothing.Donotingestorinhale. Storage:Storeinatightlyclosedcontainer.Storeinacool,dry,wellventilatedareaawayfrom incompatible substances. Keep away from strong acids. Keep away from water. Keep away frommetals.Keepawayfromflammableliquids.Keepawayfromorganichalogens. Section8ExposureControls,PersonalProtection EngineeringControls:Useadequategeneralorlocalexhaustventilationtokeepairborne concentrationsbelowthepermissibleexposurelimits. ExposureLimits

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 ChemicalName ACGIH NIOSH nonelisted OSHAFinalPELs nonelisted Potassiumhydroxide C2mg/m3 (KOH)

OSHAVacatedPELs:Potassiumhydroxide(KOH):C2mg/m3 PersonalProtectiveEquipment Eyes:Wearsafetyglassesandchemicalgogglesorfaceshieldifhandlingliquids. Skin:Wearappropriateglovestopreventskinexposure. Clothing:Wearappropriateprotectiveclothingtopreventskinexposure. Respirators: Follow the OSHA respirator regulations found in 29CFR 1910.134 or European StandardEN149.AlwaysuseaNIOSHorEuropeanStandardEN149approvedrespiratorwhen necessary. Section9PhysicalandChemicalProperties PhysicalState:Solid Appearance:whiteoryellow Odor:odorless pH:13.5(0.1Msolution) VaporPressure:Notavailable. VaporDensity:Notavailable. EvaporationRate:Notavailable. Viscosity:Notavailable. BoilingPoint:2408degF Freezing/MeltingPoint:680degF AutoignitionTemperature:Notapplicable. FlashPoint:Notapplicable. DecompositionTemperature:Notavailable. NFPARating:(estimated)Health:3;Flammability:0;Reactivity:1 ExplosionLimits,Lower:Notavailable. Upper:Notavailable. Solubility:Solubleinwater SpecificGravity/Density:2.04 MolecularFormula:KOH MolecularWeight:56.1047 Section10StabilityandReactivity ChemicalStability:Stable.Readilyabsorbscarbondioxideandmoisturefromtheairand deliquesces. ConditionstoAvoid:Incompatiblematerials,moisture,contactwithwater,acids,metals. IncompatibilitieswithOtherMaterials:Generateslargeamountsofheatwhenincontactwith waterandmaysteamandsplatter.Reactswithchlorinedioxide,nitrobenzene,nitromethane, nitrogentrichloride,peroxidizedtetrahydrofuran,2,4,6trinitrotoluene,bromoform+crown ethers,acidsalcohols,sugars,germaniumcyclopentadiene,maleicdicarbide.Corrosiveto metalssuchasaluminum,tin,andzinctocauseformationofflammablehydrogengas. HazardousDecompositionProducts:Oxidesofpotassium.

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 HazardousPolymerization:Hasnotbeenreported. Section11ToxicologicalInformation RTECS#: CAS#1310583:TT2100000 LD50/LC50: CAS#1310583: Draizetest,rabbit,skin:50mg/24HSevere; Oral,rat:LD50=273mg/kg; Carcinogenicity: CAS#1310583:NotlistedbyACGIH,IARC,NIOSH,NTP,orOSHA. Epidemiology:Nodataavailable. Teratogenicity:Noinformationreported. ReproductiveEffects:Nodataavailable. Neurotoxicity:Nodataavailable. Mutagenicity:Nodataavailable. OtherStudies:Nodataavailable. Section12EcologicalInformation Ecotoxicity:Fish:MosquitoFish:LC50=80.0mg/L;24Hr.;UnspecifiedNodataavailable. Environmental:Noinformationfound. Physical:Noinformationfound. Other:Noinformationavailable. Section13DisposalConsiderations Chemicalwastegeneratorsmustdeterminewhetheradiscardedchemicalisclassifiedasa hazardouswaste.USEPAguidelinesfortheclassificationdeterminationarelistedin40CFR Parts261.3.Additionally,wastegeneratorsmustconsultstateandlocalhazardouswaste regulationstoensurecompleteandaccurateclassification. RCRAPSeries:Nonelisted. RCRAUSeries:Nonelisted. Section14TransportInformation USDOT IATA RID/ADR IMO Canada TDG POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE 8(9.2)

POTASSIUM ShippingName: HYDROXIDE, SOLID HazardClass: 8

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 UNNumber: UN1813 PackingGroup: II Section15RegulatoryInformation USFEDERAL TSCA CAS#1310583islistedontheTSCAinventory. Health&SafetyReportingList NoneofthechemicalsareontheHealth&SafetyReportingList. ChemicalTestRules NoneofthechemicalsinthisproductareunderaChemicalTestRule. Section12b NoneofthechemicalsarelistedunderTSCASection12b. TSCASignificantNewUseRule NoneofthechemicalsinthismaterialhaveaSNURunderTSCA. SARA Section302(RQ) CAS#1310583:finalRQ=1000pounds(454kg) Section302(TPQ) NoneofthechemicalsinthisproducthaveaTPQ. SARACodes CAS#1310583:acute,reactive. Section313 NochemicalsarereportableunderSection313. CleanAirAct: Thismaterialdoesnotcontainanyhazardousairpollutants.Thismaterialdoesnotcontainany Class1Ozonedepletors.ThismaterialdoesnotcontainanyClass2Ozonedepletors. CleanWaterAct: CAS#1310583islistedasaHazardousSubstanceundertheCWA.Noneofthechemicalsin thisproductarelistedasPriorityPollutantsundertheCWA.Noneofthechemicalsinthis productarelistedasToxicPollutantsundertheCWA. OSHA: NoneofthechemicalsinthisproductareconsideredhighlyhazardousbyOSHA. STATE CAS#1310583canbefoundonthefollowingstaterighttoknowlists:California,NewJersey, Florida,Pennsylvania,Minnesota,Massachusetts. CaliforniaNoSignificantRiskLevel:Noneofthechemicalsinthisproductarelisted. European/InternationalRegulations EuropeanLabelinginAccordancewithECDirectives HazardSymbols: C RiskPhrases: R22Harmfulifswallowed. R35Causessevereburns.

UN1813 II

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 SafetyPhrases: S26Incaseofcontactwitheyes,rinseimmediatelywithplentyofwaterandseekmedical advice. S36/37/39Wearsuitableprotectiveclothing,glovesandeye/faceprotection. S45Incaseofaccidentorifyoufeelunwell,seekmedicaladviceimmediately(showthelabel wherepossible). WGK(WaterDanger/Protection) CAS#1310583:1 Canada CAS#1310583islistedonCanada'sDSLList.CAS#1310583islistedonCanada'sDSLList. ThisproducthasaWHMISclassificationofD1B,E. CAS#1310583islistedonCanada'sIngredientDisclosureList. ExposureLimits CAS#1310583:OELAUSTRALIA:TWA2mg/m3OELBELGIUM:STEL2mg/m3OEL DENMARK:TWA2mg/m3OELFINLAND:TWA2mg/m3OELFRANCE:STEL2mg/m3OEL JAPAN:STEL2mg/m3OELTHENETHERLANDS:TWA2mg/m3OELSWITZERLAND:TWA2 mg/m3OELUNITEDKINGDOM:TWA2mg/m3;STEL2mg/m3OELINBULGARIA,COLOMBIA, JORDAN,KOREAcheckACGIHTLVOELINNEWZEALAND,SINGAPORE,VIETNAMcheckACGI TLV Section16AdditionalInformation MSDSCreationDate:6/21/1999 Revision#3Date:10/06/2000 Theinformationaboveisbelievedtobeaccurateandrepresentsthebestinformationcurrently available to us. However, we make no warranty of merchantability or any other warranty, expressorimplied,withrespecttosuchinformation,andweassumenoliabilityresultingfrom its use. Users should make their own investigations to determine the suitability of the information for their particular purposes. In no event shall Fisher be liable for any claims, losses, or damages of any third party or for lost profits or any special, indirect, incidental, consequentialorexemplarydamages,howsoeverarising,evenifFisherhasbeenadvisedofthe possibilityofsuchdamages.

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 D.5.3 Purificationofglycerine Glycerine in its pure form is colourless, odourless and it tastes sweet [12]. Avoid tasting glycerinefromthebiodieselprocessthough,becauseitisneverpure.Especiallynotwhenthe biodieselandglycerineareproducedfromJatrophaoilwithhighfreefattyacidlevels.Thenit contains methanol or ethanol, lye (potassium hydroxide KOH or sodium hydroxide NaOH), water, soap residues, biodiesel, free fatty acids and nonreacted mono, di or triglicerides. Mostoftheseresiduesaredissolvedinthemethanolandcanbefilteredoutoftheglycerine, oncethemethanolhasbeendistilledoff.Othershavetobeneutralizedwithacidsandwillbe separatedbygravity. To get 100% pure Glycerine it should be distilled, nevertheless this is a very costly process since the boiling point of glycerine is 290C [11]. This cost usually doesnt make up for the profitunlessatlargeindustrialscale. D.5.4 Practicalapplicationsofbiodieselglycerine Applications ofpureglycerinearemainlyinchemistryandpharmacy.Crude Glycerine canbe usedinmorepracticalapplicationswhichwillbedescribedbelow. 1.Soap Soapcaneitherbemadebysaponificationoffatsandlyeorwithfattyacidsandalye.Thefinal productistobeusedwithwatertogainitscleaningeffect.GlycerinecontainsFFAwhichcan beconvertedintosoap.Thepresenceofglycerinemakesthesoapfeelsoftandhydratesthe skin while using it. For the saponification process the same lye as used during the transesterificationprocessshouldbeused.Sodiumhydroxide(NaOH)willgiveasolidbarsoap, potassiumhydroxide(KOH)makesliquidsoap.Beforemakingsoapoutofglycerinethealcohol (methanolorethanol)shouldbedistilledoff.Inthecaseofmethanolitisimportantthatall the methanol is removed since it is a highly toxic and combustible chemical that has an extremelylowflashpoint,whichmakesitveryeasytoinhalebyaccident15.Then,depending ontheFFAlevel,theamountoflyeistobedetermined(normallybetween40gramsand80 grams per litre of glycerine). The amount of water to be added is about 40% of the original amount of glycerine. More water makes a more liquid soap. More lye makes the soap feel morecorrosive.Thenthelyeandthewateraremixeduntilthelyeissolvedtotally.Becareful: Sodiumhydroxide(NaOH)andpotassiumhydroxide(KOH)arecorrosivesubstances16.Addthe mixturetotheglycerineandmixfor20minutes.Leaveitforthreeweeks,shakingitdaily.In case you are using purified glycerine, colorant and odours can be added for domestic use. Industrialquantitiesofglycerinesoapcanbeusedforcarwashesormechanicworkshops. 2.Organicmanure Glycerineisclaimedtobeanexcellentfertilizer.Butisthistrue? Thechemicalcompositionoftheglycerinedependsindirectontheoilqualityandtheamount ofchemicalsaddedinthetransesterficationprocess.Thealcoholresidues,ifmethanol,should be distilled off before using glycerine as an organic fertilizer to prevent human health problems. Nevertheless in the environment methanol is biodegradable. Methyl alcohol is expectedto evaporateandbiodegradeinsoiland waterveryrapidly.Thisproductwillshow high soil mobility and will be degraded from the ambient atmosphere by the reaction with photochemicallyproducedhyroxylradicalswithan estimatedhalflifeof17.8days.It can be
Annex1:safetysheetmethanol Annex2:safetysheetSodiumhydroxide(NaOH)andpotassiumhydroxide(KOH)

15 16

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 dangeroustoaquaticlifeinhighconcentrations17AlsothepureglycerineandtheFFAacidsare biodegradable. Potash (K) is one of the main elements for plant growth and sodium(Na) is neededtocontrolhumidityincells,inasmallerquantity. Sincethenutrient compositionisnot inbalancewithplantrequirements,biodieselglycerine could only serve as an additional fertilizer. Moreover, more economically valuable products can be made out of the glycerine which makes the use of the glycerine as a fertilizer less interesting. 3.Biogas Glycerine can also be used as an additional ingredient for biogas production. Biogas is producedwithinananaerobicdigestionunit.Togetherwithjatrophapresscakeandfreshcow manure it has shown to be an effective digestible ingredient in the composition of 5% glycerine, 10% jatropha press cake, 35% cow manure and 50% water. More investigation is neededtooptimizethisanaerobicdigestionprocess.Becarefulwiththeadditionofgrassasit onlydigestsslowlyandcanplugthereactor. 4.Burning The simplest way to get rid of the bioglycerine is by burning it. Though, successful burning devices for direct burning of crude glycerine are not available. The high viscosity makes it a difficultfuelforsprayburningandforwicks.Mixedwithsawdust(16MJ/kg)itcanbepressed intobriquettesbutwelldesignedfurnacesareneededbecauselowcombustiontemperatures maygeneratetoxicgaseslikeacrolein[13].AtalargerscaleCombinedHeatandPower(CHP) generators can be considered to generate electricity[14]. Although a PPO converted diesel enginecouldbeabletousesomecleanglycerineinafuelmixturewithPPOor(bio)diesel,care must be taken that unrefined glycerine is unsuitable for engines because of its high ash content. In large marine diesel engines or steam boilers it would be possible to use it to producebothelectricityandhotwaterorsteam. 5.Applicationsinbiodieselprocess Consideringthefactthattheglycerinecontainshighcontentsofalcohol(methanolorethanol) it can be used as a partial replacer of the alcohol for the transesterification process. The methanol content in glycerine can go up to 35%. Replacing 30% percent of the alcohol by glycerinemayresultina20%methanolsaving[15].Anotherapplicationofcrudeglycerinein thebiodieselprocessisusingitasaliquidtoexecuteaprewashofthebiodiesel.Soapresidues willdissolveinthecrudeglycerinewhichresultsinlessuseofwaterofsolidpurifiers 6.Industrialapplications Pure glycerine is used for applications in medicines, personal healthcare, toys, food and chemicalindustryforthemakingofforexampledynamite.

17

Source:Safetysheetmethylalcohol

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E. PROJECTIMPLEMENTATION
E.1 Multilateralfundingagencies Thefollowingmultilateralagenciesprovideprogramstoaccelerateandfacilitateinvestments inrenewableenergyprograms.Thesupportcanconsistofgrants,loansorguarantees.
Agency European Commission(EC) NameProgram ENRTP18 Website http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/where /worldwide/environment/working documents_en.htm http://ec.europa.eu/environment/jrec /energy_fund_en.htm Focus/conditions Environmentalprotection

GEEREF

Global Environ Small Grant ment Facility Program(SGP) (GEF) MediumSized Projects(MSPs) FullSized Projects(FSPs) WorldBank Climate Investment Funds(CIF) GlobalVillageEn. Prog.(GVEP) AfDB (African FINESSE Development Bank) CleanEnergyIn vestmentFram ework(CEIF) ADB (Asian Devt Clean Eergy Bank) Program IADB (Inter FOMIN American Development Bank) SECCI BCIE ARECA

http://sgp.undp.org/ http://www.gefweb.org/interior_right. Projectsupto1millionUS$ aspx?id=16674 http://www.gefweb.org/interior_right. Projectsover1millionUS$ aspx?id=16674 www.worldbank.org/cif http://go.worldbank.org/58OVAGT860 http://www.gvepinternational.org/fun ding/ http://finesseafrica.org/ Seewebsite

Renewable energy; fund of funds: no direct project funding Projectsupto50000US$

http://www.afdb.org/en/topics sectors/sectors/environment/climate changemitigation/ http://www.adb.org/Clean Energy/fundspartnerships.asp http://www.iadb.org/mif/We_fund.cf m?lang=en http://www.iadb.org//secci/ http://www.bcie.org/spanish/banca inversiondesarrollo/desarrollo competitividad/areca.php http://www.sica.int/energia http://www.sefi.unep.org/

FINancingEnergyServices for Small ScaleEnergyUsers Seewebsite

Variousfunds,seewebsite Latin America, enterprise development, mixed grants/loanspossible LatinAmerica Central America, AcelerandolasInversiones enEnerga Renovableen Centroamrica Central America, grants up to50000EUR Organises funders; no directprojectfunding Seewebsite

SICA UNEP UNIDO

AEA SEFI

Renewable and http://www.unido.org/index.php?id=o RuralEnergy 24839

ThematicProgrammeforEnvironmentandSustainableManagementofNaturalResources,including Energy.

18

E1

 E.2 Developmentorganisations The following list gives an overview of development organizations (both private and public) thathavefundinglinesforrenewableenergyprojectsinparticular.Developmentorganizations generally provide grants. The project must have clear social objectives and innovative elements (pilot project or demonstration project) in order to be successful. For large scale replication, social venture capital may be a more appropriate source. The following gives an overviewofsomeofthemanyfundingsources.
Agency REEEP UNFoundation Senternovem(The Netherlands) DutchMinistryof ForeignAffairs ShellFoundation EnergyFoundation BlueMoonFund Rockefeller BrothersFund NameProgram CleanEnergy Development DaeyOuwensFund Website http://www.reeep.org/ http://www.unfoundation.org http://www.senternovem.nl/daeyo uwensfund/index.asp http://www.evd.nl Focus/conditions Seewebsite Seewebsite SmallscaleREprojectsin LDCs.100,0002,500 000.Max50%ofcosts Investmentsubsidy(50 60%)forinvestmentsin developingcountries Seewebsite OnlyChina(andUSA). AsiaandLatinAmerica OnlySouthAfricaand China(andUSA)

PrivateSector InvestmentProgram (PSI) RethinkingConsumption andEnergy CrossProgrammatic Initiative:Energy

http://www.shellfoundation.org http://www.ef.org http://www.bluemoonfund.org http://www.rbf.org

Many development organizations that do not have a particular focus on renewable energy projects,havefundedsuchprojectsinthepast. E.3 SocialVentureCapital Thepastyearthenumberofprivatefundinginstitutionsthatinvestinsustainableandsocially responsible enterprises in developing countries has increased. Some focus specifically on renewable energy, such as E+Co, Triodos Renewable Energy for Development Fund and the African BioEnergy Fund. Other finance a broader range of entrepreneurial activities. Large energy companies, pension funds etc. are also known to have coinvested in Jatropha undertakings in developing countries, as part of their Corporate Social Responsibility. These institutions do generally not provide grants but shareholder capital or loans. The list of organizations providing social venture capital is long and growing. For an updated list of organizations with a special focus on sustainable energy, see the Sustainable Energy Finance Directory(http://www.sefdirectory.net/).ForamemberlistoftheEuropeanEuropeanSocial InvestmentForum(Eurosif),see: http://www.eurosif.org/member_affiliates/list_of_member_affiliates. UsefulLinks: TheSustainableEnergyFinance Directoryisafreeofchargeonlinedatabaseoflendersand investors who actively provide finance to the sustainable energy (renewable energy and energyefficiency)sectorworldwide.Freeregistrationisrequired. http://www.sefdirectory.net/ For a list of bilateral development banks and agencies that deal with Renewable Energy projects,see:http://go.worldbank.org/X33QHLOH70

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 ForalistofEthicalBanksthatmaybeinterestedininvestmentsinecologicallysustainableand sociallyjustenterprises:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Investment_Forum TheWorldBankRenewableEnergyToolkit(REToolkit)providesabroadsetoftoolstoimprove thedesignandimplementationofrenewableenergy(RE)projects. http://go.worldbank.org/Y20OGSRGH0 Natural Resources Canada provides theRETScreen Clean Energy Project Analysis Software. This free software that can be used to evaluate the energy production and savings, costs, emission reductions, financial viability and risk for various types of Renewableenergy and EnergyefficientTechnologies(RETs).Freeregistrationisrequired. http://www.retscreen.net/ang/home.php PresentationofFundraisingforrenewableenergyprojectsbyJudySiegel,President,Energy& SecurityGroup,April19,2006. http://www.abanet.org/environ/committees/renewableenergy/teleconarchives/041906/Siege l_Presentation.pdf OverviewofexistingfundingschemesforrenewableenergiesbyDr.ChristineWrlen,Head ofRenewableEnergyDepartment,GermanEnergyAgency(DENA).ConferenceonRenewable EnergiesforEmbassiesinGermany,Berlin,June26,2007. http://www.dena.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Download/Veranstaltungen/2007/07/2.3._Overvi ew_of_existing_funding_schemes_dena_Dr._Ch_Woerlen.pdf InnovativeFinancingMechanismsforRenewableEnergySystemsinDevelopingCountries, NorberthWolgemuth,UNEPCollaboratingCentreonEnergyandEnvironment,Denmark http://www.earthscape.org/r2/ES14477/won01.pdf E.4 TechnicalAssistance Wehopethatthismanualcontributestothedisseminationofrealisticandreliableinformation onhowtodesignandrunaJatrophaproject.Ifyouwishmoreinformationonspecificsubjects, the FACT website (www.factfoundation.com) contains a large and wellselected literature sectiononmanyspecificsubjectsrelatedtothejatrophaproductionchain.Thewiderinternet isofcoursealsoapowerfulinformationsource,butbewarefor(oftencommercial)websites thatstateunrealisticyieldsandoversimplifieddescriptionsofthebiofuelchain.However,even withallthisinformationavailable,thestepfromknowingtodoingisoftenbigtomakealone. Commercialenterprisesengagedinestablishmentofjatrophaplantationsmaybeinteresting asasourceofinformation,marketforseedsorsourceoffinance(especiallyownershipmodels BandC).Thefivelargestare19:
Enterprise D1BPFuelcrops MissionBiofuels Sunbiofuels ESVBioAfricaLda GEMBiofuels Website

www.d1bpfuelcrops.com www.missionnewenergy.com www.sunbiofuels.co.uk www.esvgroup.com www.gembiofuels.com

Geographicalfocus AsiaandAfrica Asia Ethiopia,Tanzania Mozambique Madagascar

19

Source:http://www.jatrophaplatform.org/documents/GEXSI_GlobalJatrophaStudy_FULLREPORT.pdf

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 The following development organizations may be able to provide free or lowcost technical assistancetoinitiativeswhichinvolvesmallfarmers.Formoreinformation,pleaseconsulttheir websitesand,ifexisting,theirrepresentativeinyourcountry.
Areaofexpertise Jatrophacultivation, PPOtechnology GTZ(Germany) Jatrophacultivation, PPOtechnology Engineers Soapmaking,engine withoutborders adaptation,oilfiltration (Intl) FullBelly ManualJatropha project(USA) dehullers STRO(The Allstagesfromproject Netherlands) formulationto evaluation PracticalAction Technicaladvisory Organization DED(Germany) Website www.ded.de www.gtz.de www.ewbinternational.org/ Jatrophapilotprojects Honduras,Peru,Sudan AfricaandLat.Am. Mali,Uganda,Tanzania,

www.fullbellyproject.org www.strocaorg www.gotaverde.org http://practicalaction.org/practic alanswers/technical_enquiry_ser vice.php

Honduras,Mali CentralAmerica

Freeonlinetechnical enquiryservice

GovernmentpromotedNationalJatrophaPrograms The largest jatropha initiatives at this moment are actually government promoted poverty reduction schemes that generally promote outgrowing schemes target among small farmers selling to regional (public or privately owned) processing firms. The Indian and Chinese schemesare,duetothesizeoftheirpopulation,thelargestinabsoluteterms.Someofthese schemes are highly controversial due to the foodfuel conflict that rises when planting vast areaswithJatrophaasamonocrop.Someprogramsalsohaveverylittlefundingincomparison to their ambitious targets and have to be considered rather as political statement than as a realdrivingforce.PleaseinformwithyourMinistryofAgricultureorMinistryofEnergyifsuch ajatrophaprogramexistsinyourcountryandwhatfacilitiesitoffers. E.5 SustainabilityofJatrophaprojects

MainauthorMaraWijnker WhenlookingatthesustainabilityofJatrophaprojects,mostoftheissuesmentionedwithin thesustainabilitycriteriaoftheCramercommissionandRSBareimportant.Theissuescanalso be arranged according to the fields that are most commonly used to define sustainability, namelyenvironmental,socialandeconomicissues.Someoftheissuesbelongtotwooreven threeofthe fields,butarementionedinonlyone. Insteadofaconceptualisationascriteria, theissuesareherediscussedinviewofthepotentialimpactonJatrophaprojects. Environmental Social Economic Biodiversity Workersrights Wages GHGemission Workingrelationships Improvementofincome Landuse Communityinvolvement Commercialinterests Impactonsoil,water,air Landrights Foodvs.Fuel/Transport Table:sustainabilityaspectsofJatrophaprojects

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 Jatrophaprojectsneedtobeexplainedbetter.Whenconsideringsustainability,adistinction between small scale (up to for ex. 1500 hectares of Jatropha plantations) and large scale, monoculture plantations should be made. Large scale plantations imply making use of economiesofscalewithhigherlevelofmechanisationandthereforeemployingfewerpeople, actingoutofcommercialinterest. As the impacts of large scale, monoculture plantations are much larger, these are discussed here.Attheendacomparisonismadebetweentheimpactscausedbylargeandsmallscale plantations Nexttotheareaoftheplantations,therearemanyothercharacteristicsthatshouldbetaken intoaccountwhenlookingintodetailatJatrophaprojects,likethetechnologiesused,number of(local)peopleinvolved,organisationalsystem(ownplantation,outgrowersorcooperation) etc. This paragraph will give a brief overview of general applicable sustainability aspects of Jatrophaprojects,asmentionedinthetableabove. E.5.1 Environmentalaspects 1.Biodiversityandconservationareas Biodiversityisanimportantissueinallplantationsmadeforproductionofbiofuelsasusually this is done in monoculture and after clearing of the land. Therefore, the impact on the biodiversity depends on previous land use and intensity of production. If the land was previously covered with primary natural vegetation it is different as when it was recently cropped before or left some time as bad land. The impact on biodiversity can for most countries be mapped out. In most countries all sort of maps have been prepared with areas with high biodiversity potential. Often this coincides with the countries protection of areas withspecialnatureconservationvalues,thatcannotbeused.Infact,oftenitrequiresallthese highvalueandprotectedareastobeprojectedononemap.Asaresultthezonesleftoutof thebiodiversity/conservation/protectionareasmightbeconsideredforproduction. In some cases some of the protected areas however allow for planting of trees for the local population,foranimalprotectionandsoon.AcaseofTanzaniaprojectingalltheclaimedareas showedthatmostareaofthecountrywasnotavailableforJatrophaplantations. A good example is the study of Pro Forest ltd. that looked at savannah woodland, miombo woodland,mopanewoodlandordrylandforestbiodiversity[3]. Biodiversity can be changed positively or negatively when wasteland only covered with little vegetationisreplacedbyJatropha.(RefKumaronJatrophaworkshopofFACT).TheJatropha plants might improve soil structure over time providing a habitat for some species, reducing some others. Biodiversity is about the variety of species in a habitat. In some cases it is difficulttoassessthebalance. 2.GHGemissions GHGemissionsofJatrophacanbeintheplantproductionarea,intheconversiontoafuel,in the distribution to the end user in the form of electricity, soap, biofertilizer , or other end products.SomeoftheendproductsresultonmoreGHGemissionsasothers.Eg.90%ofthe lifecycleGHGemissionsofJatrophabiodieselarearesultoftheenduse.

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 Ineachoftheseproductionpartsofthechain,differentconditionscanruleperproject.Itis therefore not possible to refer to one Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) outcome for Jatropha. Each project will have to be done using the typical conditions of the project. In order to compare the different effects of different Jatropha planting projects it is important that one LCA methodology is arrived at over time. This will help the Jatropha practitioners community to choosethebestoptionsbalancingeconomicsandGHGemissionreductions.AnumberofLCAs andCO2emissionestimationmethodshavebeendevelopedbydifferentresearchinstitutions. Such as University of Leuven, Belgium, EMPA20, which is an interdisciplinary research and servicesinstitutionformaterialsciencesandtechnology,Switzerland,ChiangMaiUniversity21, Thailand,etc..

WhenlookingattheLCAssomefactorsseemtobemoreprominentasothers.Herundersome willbediscussed. GHGemissionsofchanginglanduseforJatrophaproductionshouldalsobetakeninto account,asthesiteisclearedofitsoriginalgrowth.Magnitudeofcontributiontothe carbonemissionsdependsverysharplyonthekindoforiginalland.Itcanbeexpected thatwhenchangingwasteland,thecarbonsequestrationinthesoilwillbeimproved, whilechangingwoodlandintoJatrophaplantations,GHGemissionsarecaused. Plantnutrientsneedstobeusedinsomeamountasthesoilwillbecomepoorerfrom productionofJatrophaplants.ItispossibletousetheJatrophapresscakeasanorganic fertilizer,butthenthecakewillhavetobebroughtbackfromtheprocessingunittothe landwhereJatrophawasproduced.Dependingontheorganisationoftheproject,thisis possibleornot,withtransportationcostsasanimportantparameter.Froma sustainabilitypointofviewthisisagoodoption.Iforganicfertilizercanbeused,or fertilizationwithNfixingleguminouscovercropscanbeapplied,thisistobepreferred abovechemicalfertilizer,asespeciallytheproductionofchemicalNfertilizerrequiresa lotofenergy,whichtodayismostfossilbased. BiodieselproductionincreasestheamountofGHGemissionscomparedtotheproduction ofoilasanadditionalstepisadded,inwhichchemicalsandmoreenergyisused. Furthermore,thisisalsoanexpensivestepintheprocessandslightlycomplicatedas someprocessingequipmentneedstobeused.Forthesereasonssmallscaleprojectsin ruralareasusuallyproduceonlybiooil.Whenlookingattheenergybalance,the productionofbiodieseldoesnotgainasmuchinenergyasisusedduringitsproduction. So,fromtheenergybalancepointofview,itslessbeneficialtoaddthisstep. 3.Impactonsoil,water,air In marginal land Jatropha will have a positive influence on the state of the soil as it will improve the vegetative structure and biodiversity and the roots will provide a structure protecting against soil erosion. The reverse can be expected when woodlands or savannah landsarechangedintoJatrophaplantationsthough. Furthermore,whennonutrientsarebroughtbacktotheplantationsafterharvesting,thesoil will become poorer. So Jatrophas impact on the soil will be depending on what was the previousvegetation,whatarethecultivationtechniquesofJatropha,etc.
20

SimonGmnder(EMPA)M.Classen,R.ZahP.Mukherjee,S.Bhattacharjee(WinrockIndia)LifeCycleAssessment Life Cycle Management of Jatropha BioDiesel Production in Thailand, Sate Sampattagul1, Chonticha Suttibut,

(LCA)ofJatrophabasedRuralElectrificationCaseStudy:VillageRanidhera,Chhattisgarh
21

SadamichiYuchoandTanongkiatKiatsiriroat,FacultyofEngineering,ChiangMaiUniversity ThermalSystemLaboratory,DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,FacultyofEngineering,ChiangMaiUniversity, Thailand50200CorrespondingAuthor:sate@eng.cmu.ac.th

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 Jatrophacansurviveinclimateswithasteadyrainfallofatleast600..Tobearfruitsmorerain isneededthough.Dependingontheclimatenoirrigationmightbenecessaryalthoughyields can be improved much through sufficient water supply. Use of water can be limited for Jatropha,itwillthensheditsleaves,andcanresistdrought.Howeverwithnoleavesnoserious photosynthesistakesplace. Jatrophaplantationscanbeusedtointroducewatercatchmentmethodsaswell,suchasearth boundaries and small dams on sloping terrain, contributing to a raise in ground water level withallbeneficialresults.ThiswasacommonuseofJatrophainsomeSahelcountries. Most important impact on air has been discussed in previous the section, but here there relationistobemadewithnotonlytheemissionsoftheagriculturalandtransportactivities forJatrophaestablishmentandoperation,butalsointheareaofcombustionofJatrophaPPO in engines and the processing in Biodiesel and its use as well as in the biogas use from the Jatrophapresscake. E.5.2 Socialaspects Because of the labourintensive way of harvesting Jatropha, jobs can be created for communities. Large scale plantations create work for local inhabitants. When harvesting will bedonemechanicallythough,inthenearfuture,lessemploymentcreationcanbeexpected, buthigherwages.Inthelongerrunmechanisedharvestingisaconditionforsocialprogress. Harvestinglabourcostisthesingle mostimportant costiteminjatrophaoilproduction.The low labour productivity in harvesting makes that profitable jatropha production is currently onlyfeasibleinverylowincomecountries(<2,50US$perday).Thisisinsufficienttoprovide decentlivingstandards.Moreover,labourshortagesaretobeforeseenifplantationsexpand andother(moreproductive)economicsectorsdevelop. Job creation does of course not necessarily imply that working conditions are good. If the numberofpeoplewithintheareawillingtoworkwithintheplantationsexceedsthenecessary number of people, management of the plantation will have a strong position and doesnt necessarily have to take care well of his/her personnel in terms of wages, labour conditions etc. Settingup processing facilities by investors, local or foreign, also can create jobs for communities, and if there is a long term involvement of communities it would ensure long termstability. FACTs project in Mali is a good example of this as production of Jatropha, production of oil andelectricityproductionanduseareintegratedinthevillageareaofGaralo,wherebyproject ownershiphasbeenestablishedinthevillage.AnotherexampleisBYSA,theHonduranbiofuel processingenterprisethatisowned49%bysupplyingfarmersand51%byanonprofitrural enterprise development institution (FUNDER). Within small scale projects community ownership and continuous involvement is necessary to make a project sustainable. In large scale projects, the relations with farmers might be less tight, e.g. in the case of seasonal contractingofworkersinvolvementofthecommunitymightbeminimal. Landrights Because of the large commercial interests of foreign companies influencing governments of Southerncountries,sometimesrightsofpeoplelivinginremoteareasareignored.Oftenthe governmentownsthelandandrentsitouttoforeigncompanieswhomightbepayingmore

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 than sufficiently. People originally living or working at these lands might then evicted. Thereforemostsustainabilitycriteriaaddthelandrightissue,statingthatthelocallandrights andownership(formalandinformal)shouldberespected. E.5.3 Economicissues MostimportantisthefinancialsusatainablityofaJatrophaproject.Thisdependsonanumber of issues as the worldmarket price of petrol oil, government policy (e.g. fuel subsidies), the localwageleveltobepaidtoeitherfarmersorseedpickers,costsoftransportforseedsand oil/diesel, investment costs of equipment and their efficiency, whether land needs to be cleared, whether irrigation is necessary etc. Furthermore, a reliable and not overoptimistic prediction of the yield is important. Further reference is made to Chapter Economic and Financialaspects(peter) WagescannotbehighasmarginstomakeaprofitoutofJatrophaoilaresmall.Smallfarmers areusuallypaidperkilogramofdeliveredseed.IffarmersdecidetocultivateJatrophanextto their normal crops an increase in income can be expected, creating possibilities for development.Iflocalpeopleareworkingforlargescaleplantations,theirbenefitwillmostly likelybereducedtotheirdailywage. BecauseofthelargeinterestforuseofbiofuelsingeneralandJatrophacurcasL.specifically,it is likely that politics will be influenced. Furthermore, if large commercial investors are interested in using for example areas that can be used for foodcrops as well, commercial interestscanbecomemoreimportantthansocial/environmentalimpacts. 1.FoodvsFuel For farmers it is a decision based on economic reasoning whether they will produce food or fuels.Foracountryasawhole,oreventheworlditcanbecomeanissuetostimulatefarmers togrowfoodinsteadoffuelsifalackoffoodcropsexists,seeref[9] Onthecontroversyoffuelandfood,itiscleartheissuecanplayinwronglydesignedprojects that are focussing on large scale production of biofuels which are often geared to export. However, if in projects of biofuels production and use the local population is served, and attention is paid on combining food and fuels including intercropping, improved food seeds, recycling of nutrients, improved agricultural practices, the same acre can deliver more food and also biofuels as in most current low productivity conditions. In e.g. the FACT projects in Honduras, Mozambique and Mali; the Gota Verde, ADDP Mozambique, and with Mali biocarburantcompanyandMFCagriculturalextensionistsarepromotingthisapproach. Wheresuccessfulintercroppingcanbedeveloped,Jatrophaproductionwillbeabletogohand inhandwithfoodproduction.Furthermore,Jatrophacangrowonmarginallandwhichisnot used for food production. Often there are other, more important barriers to (efficient) food production,thanjusttheavailabilityofland.Accesstocreditisknowntobesuchabarrierin the case of small farmers. In chapter 6 an example is given of how jatropha plantations of small farmers can be used as a collateral in a staple crop financing scheme, even without involvementoffinancialinstitutions. Thefoodversusfueldiscussionisnotveryrelevantwhenfarmersdecidetouselandthatwas not in use before for food production and specifically if this is land that cannot be used properly for food production because of its poor soil. Very small scale plantations as well as useofJatrophainhedgesdoesnotconfinetothisdiscussionaswell.

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 The discussion becomes relevant when a large amount of fertile land is used and especially whenthislandusedtobecultivatedforfoodproduction. IntheviewofFACTitshouldbelefttothefarmerstodecidewhattofarm,basedoninformed choices and their balancing of returns and risks. In some cases farmers might use even a strategytoproduceacropthatcanbeusedforboth 2.Transport In general more transport during each of the steps in the production phase contributes to moreGHGemissionsaswellastoadditionalcosts.Itdependsverymuchonthemagnitudeof the area that is covered within a project and whether seeds are processed solely central or also decentralised/mobile. For large scale production careful planning on the logistics is needed. For smaller plantation activities small, manual dehullers (separating the seeds form therestofthefruit)arecheapandhavealargecapacity(seesection3).Theypermitfarmers to add extra value to their product, while at the same time reducing transport costs. Here againabalanceistobefound. 3.Impactscompared The Table above provides in short an overview of the impact of small scale and large scale plantationsonthedifferentfieldsthatdefinesustainability.Normallybiglargescaleprojects have proportional big impacts, but many small activities might also have a big impact when countingalltogether.Asclearfromtheabove,itisnoteasytomakegeneraljudgementson effectsofonebigprojectormanysmallprojectsthatareproducingthesame.Normallyone largescaleproductionofJatrophashouldhavepositivescaleeffects,butthismightbelostdue tolessmotivatedstaff,bureaucraticinefficiencies,etc.. Many smallprojectswithmotivated small entrepreneurs might also gain benefits of scale effects when buying through e.g. a producersassociation. ThelargescaleprojectsthatwanttobedeliveringbiofuelstotheEUmarket,willhavetoabide bythesustainabilitycriteria.Thiswillmoreorlessaimtobringthemunderstrict Frame work similar to EU. The extra costs might be compensated by the higher price for sustainanblebiofuel.Producersforothermarkets,localorotherregionalmarkets,mightnot have to abide. Also small farmers might also understand less of the criteria and take wrong decisions,likecuttingdownforestsorenterinconservationareas,tocultivateJatrophaasis wassuggestedaprofitcrop. The Round Table on Sustainable Biofuels: This initiative is initiated by the EPFL (cole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne and has both businesses as R&D and practitioners amongst its participants. The principles tough the following aspects of activities in biomass legality, Consultation, Planning and Monitoring, Climate Change and Greenhouse Gas, Rural and social development, Food security, Conservation, Soil, Water, Air, Economic efficiency/ technology/ and continuous improvement, and Land Rights. Details of the criteria can be foundintheannex. TheWNFhasaspartoftheRSBaimedtosetupaworkinggrouponJatropha.In2008afirst workshop was held in Brussels on this special Jatropha production and convesion sustainability.Reportsthatarestronglyrecommendedtolookatare:Sustainabilitystandards forbioenergyofWWF.

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 RoundtableonSustainableBiomass:CcriteriaonSustainableBiomass,sourceWIKK,2008 Legality 1. Biofuelproductionshallfollowallapplicablelawsofthecountryinwhichtheyoccur,and shallendeavortofollowallinternationaltreatiesrelevanttobiofuelsproductiontowhich therelevantcountryisaparty. Key guidance: Includes laws and treaties relating to air quality, water resources, soil conservation, protected areas, biodiversity, labor conditions, agricultural practices, and land rights, including for instance ILO, CBD, UNFCCC, and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This standard can go beyond national law, but cannot contradict or contravenenationallaw. Consultation,PlanningandMonitoring 2. Biofuels projects shall be designed and operated under appropriate, comprehensive, transparent, consultative, and participatory processes that involve all relevant stakeholders. Key guidance: Biofuel projects refers to farms and factories producing biofuels. The intent of this principle is to diffuse conflict situations through an open, transparent process of stakeholder consultation and acceptance, with the scale of consultation proportionate to the scale, scope, and stage of the project, and any potential conflicts. TheRSBwilldevelopascopingprocesstohelpdeterminetheextentofthestakeholder consultationbasedonkeycriteria.Wheremanyfarmersareengaginginthesameactivity inthesamearea,thereshouldbeflexibilityforagroupoffarmerstocombinetheirwork. ClimateChangeandGreenhouseGas 3. Biofuels shall contribute to climate change mitigation by significantly reducing GHG emissionsascomparedtofossilfuels. Key guidance: The aim of this principle is to establish an acceptable standard methodology for comparing the GHG benefits of different biofuels in a way that can be written into regulations and enforced in standards. The overriding requirement is therefore a methodology that is not susceptible to subjective assumptions or manipulation.Thefossilfuelreferenceshallbeglobal,basedonIEAprojectionsoffossil fuelmixes. Humanandlaborrights 4. Biofuelproductionshallnotviolatehumanrightsorlaborrights,andshallensuredecent workandthewellbeingofworkers. 5. Keyguidance:KeyinternationalconventionssuchastheILOscorelaborconventionsand the UN Declaration on Human Rights shall form the basis for this principle. Employees, contractedlabour,smalloutgrowers,andemployeesofoutgrowersshallallbeaccorded therightsdescribedbelow.Decentwork,asdefinedbytheILO,willbetheaspirational goalforthisprinciple. Ruralandsocialdevelopment 6. Biofuelproductionshallcontributetothesocialandeconomicdevelopmentoflocal,rural andindigenouspeoplesandcommunities. Foodsecurity 7. Biofuelproductionshallnotimpairfoodsecurity. Conservation 8. Biofuelproductionshallavoidnegativeimpactsonbiodiversity,ecosystems,andareasof HighConservationValue. Keyguidance:HCVareas, nativeecosystems,ecologicalcorridors andpublicandprivate biologicalconservationareascanonlybeexploitedasfarasconservationvaluesareleft intactandcaninnocasebeconverted.Definitionsofthesetermsandanappropriatecut offdatewillbedevelopedbytheRSB.

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 Soil 9. Biofuelproductionshallpromotepracticesthatseektoimprovesoilhealthandminimize degradation. Water 10. Biofuel production shall optimize surface and groundwater resource use, including minimizing contamination or depletion of these resources, and shall not violate existing formalandcustomarywaterrights. Air 11. Airpollutionfrombiofuelproductionandprocessingshallbeminimizedalongthesupply chain. Economicefficiency,technology,andcontinuousimprovement 12. Biofuels shall be produced in the most costeffective way. The use of technology must improveproductionefficiencyandsocialandenvironmentalperformanceinallstagesof thebiofuelvaluechain. LandRights 13. Biofuelproductionshallnotviolatelandrights. TheCramercommissionhasin2007producedareportonthetopicofbiomasssustainability thatatthetimewasconsideredstateoftheart.[ref;;;;;]Theirreporthasusedsustainability criteriapreparedfordifferentbiomasssources.Forthediscussionsomeessentialpartsofthe reportcanbehighlighted,itbecomesclearthat: The commission has searched to link to existing criteria for sustainable development, ratherthaninventingthewheelagain. Manyofthecriteriastillneedtobeelaboratedtooperationalindicators. Greenhousegasbalance;netemissionreductioncomparedwithfossilreference,inclusive ofapplication,isatleast30%fornow,andupo50%from2011. In the competition with food and other basic needs, the commission assumes that the biomass will be exported rather than used locally. There should be insight into the availabilityofbiomassforfood,localenergysupply,buildingmaterialsormedicine. Biodiversity is now focussed on plantations not being located close to protected areas; otheraspectsstilltobeelaborated. Economicprosperitycriteriaarelimitedtoensurethatnonegativeeffectsaregenerated bybiomassproductionbusiness,buttheyarenotfocusedonthecontributiontothelocal economy. Wellbeingismuchmoreelaboratedin5subpoints, o Aspectsonworkingconditions, o Humanrights, o Propertyrights, o Socialeffectsofthebiomasscultivation, o Integrityiscounteringbribery. Theenvironmentpointsrelatetotheinputs(integratedcropmanagement)appropriateuseof fertilizers,soilconservationandconservationofwater(groundandsurfacewater). SotheCramercommissioncriteriaareapplicabletolargescalecroppingsystems,butnoton the processing, and not on the effects of market changes or applications due to such large scale biomass production. These points should be included if one wants to consider a chain concept.i.efromabiomasscroptoaendproductwithamarket.

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 Based on the Cramer criteria a workgroup of parties in the netherlands including Standards institutes, Power comapnies, Environmental and Development NGOs have produced a NTA 8080whichisamorespecificelaborationoftheCramercriteria.Amazinglythedocumentisin Dutch language. It is well defined but in some cases presumes the existence of data and institutes that are not commonly found in developing countries. http://www2.nen.nl/nen/servlet/dispatcher.Dispatcher?id=274031&parentid=000009 References 14. Perspective:Jatrophabiodieselfuelingsustainability,WMJAchtenandothers,Biofuels, bioproducts&biorefining,ISSN:1932104X,2007 15. Smallscale Production and Use of Liquid biofuels in SubSharan Africa: Perspectives for Sustainabledevelopment,Backgroundpaperno.2,UNDESA,CommissiononSustainable Development,NewYork,2007 16. Jatropha literature and perspectives review: Main potential social and environmental impactsarisingfromlargescaleplantations,May2008,Proforestltd. 17. Beleidsnotitiemilieuenhernieuwbareenergieinontwikkelingssamenwerking,Ministryof ForeignAffairs,November2008 18. FACT reactie op Heldergroene Biomassa, Stichting Natuur en Milieu, www.fact fuels.org,30januari2008 19. Empowering rural communities by planting energy, Roundtable on bioenergy enterprise indevelopingregions,backgroundpaper,UNEP,2008 20. RoundtableonSustainableBiofuels,Globalprinciplesandcriteriaforsustainablebiofuels production,versionzero,colepolytechniquefdraledeLausanne,EnergyCenter,2008. Title: Version Zero Principles for sustainable biofuels Version 0.0 (August 2008) RSB SteeringBoard(http://cgse.epfl.ch/Jahia/site/cgse/op/edit/lang/en/pid/70341) 21. Thestateoffoodandagriculture,biofuels:prospects,risksandopportunities,FAO,2008, ISSN00814539 22. Discussion Note: Sustainable Biomass for Poverty Reduction etc, 19/07/07 tbv Food en EnergyWorkshopWR 23. 2productphilosofyprof.KeesDaeyOuwens 24. FACTpositioningpaper

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