Structural Linguistics an approach to language and language study based on a concept of language as a system of signs that has such

clearly defined structural elements as linguistic units and their classes. Structural linguistics seeks to describe language with a precision approaching that of the exact sciences. The term structural linguistics became current owing to the focusing of some scholars on the structure of language, which is a system of relations (oppositions) between the elements of a linguistic system. These oppositions occur in an orderly, hierarchical dependence within fixed levels. The structural description of a language presupposes the analysis of an actual text. This analysis makes it possible to identify such generalized invariant units as sentence patterns, morphemes, and phonemes and to correlate them with speech segments according to strict rules. These rules determine the extent to which linguistic units in speech may vary while maintaining their identity; that is, the rules determine the number of permissible synonymous transformations of a linguistic unit. Depending on the desired level of analysis, these rules are formulated as rules of the positional distribution of the variants of a linguistic unit. An example is the functioning of the principle of complementary distribution in phonology and morphology. This principle is also applied to transformational analysis in the form of transformational syntactic rules, which regulate the transition from the invariant deep-seated structure of a sentence to the multiplicity of this structures possible forms (the surface representation). Structural linguistics was the source of generative grammar, and the ideas of structural linguistic analysis were instrumental in the formulation and resolution of many problems of machine translation. The combination of structural linguistics and typology gave rise to structural typology, which investigates the structural laws of the elements of linguistic systems and of language as a whole. Structural linguistics also facilitated the large-scale introduction of mathematical research methods into linguistics. Structural linguistics was established in the 1920s and 1930s as an approach distinct from that of the neogrammarian school, which predominated in the late 19th century and focused exclusively on the history of linguistic elements. Structural linguistics was also distinct from traditional descriptive grammar, with its flexible concepts and its bias in favor of describing all languages, whatever their structure, with the grammatical formulations of Latin and the European languages. Structural linguistics emerged from the quest for a more consistent system of linguistic concepts and for methods that could be as rigorously applied to the synchronic description of modern languages as the comparative method was applied to comparative linguistics. The first attempt to describe a language with exactitude was made by the ancient Indian scholar Panini (fifth-fourth centuries B.C). In the Middle Ages, similar attempts resulted in the formulation of a universal rational grammar, the Port-Royal grammar, and in the philosophical and linguistic works of Descartes and Leibniz. The development of structural linguistics was considerably influenced by I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, F. F. Fortuna-tov, E. Sapir, and L. Bloomfield and particularly by F. de Saussure and the work of the Linguistic Circle of Moscow, founded in 1915.

From the 1920s to the 1940s, the Prague, Copenhagen, and American schools further developed the concepts and methodology of structural linguistics. However, important contributions to structural linguistic theory were also made by such scholars as A. Martinet, E. Benveniste, A. W. de Groot, J. Kury owicz, and A. Sommerfelt, who did not belong to any school. The concepts of a structural approach to the description of language, first formulated as a theory based on phonological material, were developed by N. S. Trubetskoi, R. Jakobson, E. D. Polivanov, and the Czech members of the Linguistic Circle of Prague. During the first stage in the development of structural linguistics, which lasted approximately until the 1950s, the schools theoreticians devoted considerable, and sometimes exclusive, attention to the formal description of language. They ignored the content of language and asserted that a linguistic system should be mathematically precise and regular. As a consequence, structural linguistics came under attack by both its opponents and its adherents. During the 1950s, the investigation of linguistic meaning and the elaboration of such structural methods for describing meaning as componential analysis, generative semantics, and interpretative semantics developed intensively. The concepts and methodology of structural linguistics have been used in the comparative studies of Jakobson, Martinet, H. Hoenigswald, and P. Kiparsky on diachronic phonology. As of the 1970s, structural linguistics is apparently disappearing as a distinct school. The research methods developed for structural linguistics are used in conjunction with other methods in such linguistic disciplines as psycholinguistics and sociolinguis-tics. Structural linguistics has also influenced the development of structurally oriented research methods in such other areas of the humanities as literary theory and criticism, anthropology, ethnology, and sociology.

The Theory SFL

Systemic-Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a theory of language centred around the notion of language function. While SFL accounts for the syntactic structure of language, it places the function of language as central (what language does, and how it does it), in preference to more structural approaches, which place the elements of language and their combinations as central. SFL starts at social context, and looks at how language both acts upon, and is constrained by, this social context. A central notion is 'stratification', such that language is analysed in terms of four strata: Context, Semantics, Lexico-Grammar and Phonology-Graphology. Context concerns the Field (what is going on), Tenor (the social roles and relationships between the participants), and the Mode (aspects of the channel of communication, e.g., monologic/dialogic, spoken/written, +/- visual-contact, etc.). Systemic semantics includes what is usually called 'pragmatics'. Semantics is divided into three components:
y

Ideational Semantics (the propositional content);

y y

Interpersonal Semantics (concerned with speech-function, exchange structure, expression of attitude, etc.); Textual Semantics (how the text is structured as a message, e.g., theme-structure, given/new, rhetorical structure etc.

The Lexico-Grammar concerns the syntactic organisation of words into utterances. Even here, a functional approach is taken, involving analysis of the utterance in terms of roles such as Actor, Agent/Medium, Theme, Mood, etc. (See Halliday 1994 for full description).

Behaviorism: Learning Theory

Education is what survives when what has been learned has been forgotten -B.F. Skinner Behaviorism is described as a developmental theory that measures observable behaviors produced by a learners response to stimuli. Responses to stimuli can be reinforced with positive or negative feedback to condition desired behaviors. Punishment is sometimes used in eliminating or reducing incorrect actions, followed by clarifying desired actions. Educational effects of behaviorism are key in developing basic skills and foundations of understanding in all subject areas and in classroom management. According to behaviorism, knowing is giving the correct response when exposed to a particular stimulus. The behaviorist is not concerned with how or why knowledge is obtained, but rather if the correct response is given. Yu Ching Chens web site on behaviorism states that, Learning is defined as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior. In terms of the concept of learning, the process tends to be passive with regard to the behaviorist theory. The learner uses low level processing skills to understand material and the material is often isolated from realworld contexts or situations. Little responsibility is placed on the learner concerning his/her own education. Typical classroom instruction consistent with the behaviorist theory includes; classroom management, rote memorization, and drill and practice. Several examples of behaviorism used in classroom management were highlighted in the reading section titled, Behavioral Views of Learning by

A. Woolfolk. One example, used by two of our own group members, is using a token system to reinforce positive academic performance and student behavior. A classroom application of using drill and practice includes computer software, such as Math Blasters. These types of software provide positive and negative reinforcements for answering math problems correctly or incorrectly. A final example highlighting the behaviorist theory is rote memorization. Rote memorization may include memorizing addition or multiplication facts or memorizing state capitals. The behaviorist approach to teaching has practical applications in education. In particular, understanding basic skills and core subject knowledge. The approach of using positive and negative reinforcements to elicit desired behaviors of students is also useful in establishing and maintaining classroom management.

Humanistic Theory (Maslow)

The focus of the humanistic perspective is on the self, which translates into "YOU", and "your" perception of "your" experiences. This veiw argues that you are free to choose your own behavior, rather than reacting to environmental stimuli and reinforcers. Issues dealing with selfesteem, self-fulfillment, and needs are paramount. The major focus is to facilitate personal development. Two major theorists associated with this view are Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Carl Rogers feels that each person operates from a unique frame of reference in terms of buliding Self Regard or their self concept. Self Concept is one's own belief about themselves. These beliefs stem, in part, from the notion of Unconditional Postive Regard and Conditional Positive Regard. Unconditional positive regard occurs when individuals, especially parents, demonstrate unconditional love. Conditioned positive regard is when that love seems to only come when certain condtions are met. Rogers theory states that psychologically healthy people enjoy life to the fullest, hence, they are seen as fully functioning people. I found this information on http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d46/psy/dev/Fall98/Theories/humanistic.html and if you need more info try the answers.com searching results for further info too. Abraham Maslow feels that indivduals have certain needs that must be met in an hierarchical fashion, from the lowest to highest. These include basic needs, safety needs, love and belonging needs, achievement needs, and ultimately, Self-Actualization. According to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, the needs must be achieved in order. For instance, one would be unable to fulfill their safety needs if their physiological needs have not been met.

Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_humanistic_theory#ixzz1fa3yv8ow Summary: Humanism is a paradigm/philosophy/pedagogical approach that believes learning is viewed as a personal act to fulfil ones potential. Key proponents: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Malcolm Knowles Key terms: self-actualization, teacher as facilitator, affect Humanism Humanism, a paradigm that emerged in the 1960s, focuses on the human freedom, dignity, and potential. A central assumption of humanism, according to Huitt (2001), is that people act with intentionality and values. This is in contrast to the behaviorist notion of operant conditioning (which argues that all behavior is the result of the application of consequences) and the cognitive psychologist belief that the discovering knowledge or constructing meaning is central to learning. Humanists also believe that it is necessary to study the person as a whole, especially as an individual grows and develops over the lifespan. It follows that the study of the self, motivation, and goals are areas of particular interest. Key proponents of humanism include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. A primary purpose of humanism could be described as the development of self-actualized, automomous people. In humanism, learning is student centered and personalized, and the educators role is that of a facilitator. Affective and cognitive needs are key, and the goal is to develop self-actualized people in a cooperative, supportive environment.

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers led the humanistic theory movement and it was Maslow who developed the pyramid of needs. Maslow believed that fulfilling the needs in the correct order would allow individuals to become self actualised, fully able persons. So only after the basic physiological needs such as food, shelter, warmth are met can individuals move on to the next stages; the need to feel secure, to be loved and accepted etc. Maslow developed his theory not by studying mentally ill patients, which is where much psychological knowledge had derived from up to that point, but by studying healthy, productive, creative individuals lives and careers. He concluded that there were common characteristics which were shared by successful individuals including self acceptance, openness and respect for other individuals. Carl Rogers felt that, in addition to Maslows hierarchical needs, in order for a person to develop fully that they needed to be in an environment which would provide them with genuineness, acceptance and empathy and that without such a nourishing environment healthy personalities and relationships would be unable to flourish. Humanistic theory is basically about the development of the individual. It was very popular in the 1970s but seems to be slightly out of favour today as Western nations have generally moved slightly towards the political right and there is more emphasis on conforming and contributing to, what is, a slightly more conservative society. Of course, whilst humanistic theory does have a very strong focus on the individual, it is based upon the belief that well developed, successful individuals are best placed to make a positive contribution to society. Humanistic theory suggests that the achievement of happiness is frequently dependent upon achieving, or giving yourself the licence to, investigate and pursue your own deepest interests and desires. There are a number of different ways in which the pursuits of your goals can be thwarted and you may need to overcome obstacles such as fear or duty before you can fully develop and become self actualised. Whether you agree with humanistic theory or feel that it is overly egocentric there are those who think it is free to be you and me, hug a tree crap there has to be some logic in the fact that in order to define what makes a healthy individual, its originators spent their time studying successful individuals who made great contributions to society.

What is contextual teaching and learning?

Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) helps us relate subject matter content to real world situations and motivate students to make connections between knowledge and its applications to their lives as family members, citizens, and workers and engage in the hard work that learning requires. Contextual teaching and learning strategies: Problem-based. CTL can begin with a simulated or real problem. Students use critical thinking skills and a systemic approach to inquiry to address the problem or issue. Students may also draw upon multiple content areas to solve these problems. Worthwhile problems that are relevant to students families, school experiences, workplaces, and communities hold greater personal meaning for students. Using multiple contexts. Theories of situated cognition suggest that knowledge can not be separated from the physical and social context in which it develops. How and where a person acquires and creates knowledge is therefore very important. CTL experiences are enriched when students learn skills in multiple contexts (i.e. school, community, workplace, family). Drawing upon student diversity. On the whole, our student population is becoming more diverse, and with increased diversity comes differences in values, social mores, and perspectives. These differences can be the impetus for learning and can add complexity to the CTL experience. Team collaboration and group learning activities respect students diverse histories, broaden perspectives, and build inter-personal skills. Supporting self-regulated learning. Ultimately, students must become lifelong learners. Lifelong learners are able to seek out, analyze, and use information with little to no supervision. To do so, students must become more aware how they process information, employ problem-solving strategies, and use background knowledge. CTL experiences should allow for trial and error; provide time and structure for reflection; and provide adequate support to assist students to move from dependent to independent learning. Using interdependent learning groups. Students will be influenced by and will contribute to the knowledge and beliefs of others. Learning groups, or learning communities, are established in workplaces and schools in an effort to share knowledge, focus on goals, and allow all to teach and learn from each other. When learning communities are established in schools, educators act as coaches, facilitators, and mentors. Employing authentic assessment. CTL is intended to build knowledge and skills in meaningful ways by engaging students in real life, or "authentic" contexts. Assessment of learning should align with the methods and purposes of instruction. Authentic assessments show (among other things) that learning has occurred; are blended into the

teaching/learning process; and provide students with opportunities and direction for improvement. Authentic assessment is used to monitor student progress and inform teaching practices. Many of these strategies are used in classrooms today. Activities such as team teaching, cooperative learning, integrated learning, work-based learning, service learning, problem-based learning, and others support CTL and are already occurring in many classrooms and schools. Many educators routinely use these activities to encourage inquiry, creative problem solving, and use of higher order thinking skills. These educators see these teaching/learning processes as methods to help all students meet state and local standards. For CTL to be effective, all strategies must be present in the teaching/learning experience. Implementation of CTL may not require drastic changes in practice for all educators. It may require enhancement of practice in one characteristic and not another. Continual use and reflection on CTL processes broadens and deepens educators knowledge and ability to facilitate learning. Similarly, implementation of CTL has ramifications for the school organization. According to some CTL advocates: "This approach differs from other ways to think about teaching and learning. Here, we are not attempting to raise achievement scores by teaching basic skills. Furthermore, a quiet, orderly classroom is not to be expected. Principals, school boards, parents, and other members of the community must support this approach to increase its probability of success" (Carr, M., et al., 1999, p.2). For CTL to be successful for all students, a school must value and support the approach. Newmann and Wehlage (1997) describe a system of support for authentic learning that has been adapted to describe supports for CTL.

In Newmann and Wehlages circles of support, the ultimate goal is to support high quality student learning. To do so, everyone in the school must agree on a definition of what students should learn and what strategies support learning. Next, teaching and learning strategies, (whether in the classroom, school, or community) require considerable support from the school

organization. Finally, external supports provide encouragement and resources to help students and educators create high quality teaching and learning environments. TeachNET has been designed to engage educators with a range of expertise in the use of CTL practices. TeachNET activities generate discussions and actions that help educators improve their abilities to facilitate CTL in their classrooms. Each educator will draw upon his/her expertise when considering means of enhancing CTL practices and making them work in their classrooms, schools, and communities. Because TeachNET participants, their schools, and communities are diverse, we have outlined an action planning process in which educators will identify, implement, reflect upon, and improve supports for CTL in their classrooms, schools, and communities.

GENRE BASED APPROACH Education policy for English language teaching in Indonesia has undergone several changing. The changing aims at improving the outcomes of English language teaching itself . In 2004, the Ministry of National Education has decided to bring in a new curriculum in all subject areas, including English. The curriculum was known as Competence Based Curriculum or 2004 Curriculum which recommended a new approach that is the Genre Based Approach. This new approach has been implemented for four years, however many English teachers in Indonesia are still in doubt, or lack knowledge and not familiar with it. Because of this reason it is necessary to give explanation what Genre Based Approach is, and the procedures to implement it. 1. Nature of Genre The word genre itself comes from The French (originally Latin) word for kind or class. The term genre was first introduced in the area of English as specific purpose (ESP) in 1981, in an ESP journal article by Elaine Tarone and her colleagues on the language of scientific reports (Paltridge, 2001, p.2). In addition, Mahwah (2002) explains that genre as means for analyzing text has become a means for better pragmatic and linguistic understanding of texts It also supplies possible pedagogical applications. It devoted to genre pedagogy adds to pedagogical thinking because it stretches notions of what can be done in the reading and writing classroom. Further explanation from Chaldler ( 2005) that term genre is widely used in rhetoric, literary theory, media theory, and more recently linguistics, to refer a distinctive type of the texts. From the description above a conclusion that can be drawn is that genre has the strong relation with the text. What is text? Texts are made of words. Words are around us. When words are used to make meaning the text is created (Rajan, 2003: v). So the text that we use in this research refers to Encyclopedia Britanica (2008) which says that text is a unit of connected speech or writing , especially composed of more than one sentence, that form a cohesive form. There are thousands of texts around us. The text can be classified into genre through three characteristics, they are purpose of communication, organization structure and language features. The purpose of communication or social function is the reasons why we speak or write or create the text. Organization structure of the text or generic structure is the text organization or text arrangement.

Language features or lexical grammar that is such things as the grammar, vocabulary and connectors that we use. Further information from Lin (2006) says that genre refer to more specific classes of texts, such as newspaper reports or recipes. Furthermore Partridge (2001) genre describe types of activities such as personal letter, advertisement students essay and the term of text type represent group of text which are similar in linguistic form such as Procedure, anecdote, description. However, the term of genre in this proposal is means type of the text. This term has been widely used in the recent English curriculum in Indonesia. The definition of Genre or type of the text in this proposal refers to definition given by Martin , cited in Partridge (2001, p. 11) that is a staged, goal oriented, purposeful activity in which speakers engage as members of a culture. There are twelve genre or type of the texts should be taught at Senior High School, they are recount, report, discussion, explanation, Exposition analytical, exposition hortatory, news item, anecdote, narrative procedure description and review.(depdiknas, 2005) 2. Genre Based Approach To conduct the classroom activity in the process of teaching and learning based on genre, Genre Based approach is used. Yan (2005) says that this approach has become popular since the 1980s along with the notion that student writers could benefit from studying different types of written texts. According to Lin (2006) in Genre-based approach, teaching and learning focuses on the understanding and production of selected genres of texts. Teaching and learning around text genres has become increasingly influential in main stream ELT in a number of situations, including primary, secondary, tertiary, professional and community teaching contexts involving native speakers of English as well as ESL and EFL learners . Furthermore explanation from Gao (2007) says that genre approach shows a powerful response to the deficit of process models. To begin with, genre-based approaches start with the whole text as the unit in focus rather than the sentence. The focus on the whole texts implies that there is higher level of order and patterning in language than just in sentence-grammar at the level of discourse organization and meta-patterning of grammatical features. Genre based approaches emphasize that this higher order must be attended to for effective language use. The specification of genres to be taught is based on the classification used by many systemic functional linguists, especially in application to classroom teaching of English (Lin, 2006). The rational why genre based approach developed in Australia was Australian theorist, Halliday. Martin, concern about the exclusivity perpetuated by traditional approaches (Gee, 2005). Furthermore Gee adds that for the Australian theorists above, genre represented a stage or goal oriented social process: genre are referred to as social process because members of culture interact with each other to achieve them; as goal oriented, because they have evolved to get things done; as staged because it is usually takes more than one step for participants to achieved their goals . The other rational for adopting genre based approach is that, genre based approach facilitates clear links to the student purposes for writing beyond the writing classroom (Lin, 2006). To teach genres, the proponents of Genre Based Approach propose the framework of teaching, what they call as Curriculum cycle. 3. Curriculum cycle In the classroom, the activities of genre approach looks like a cycle or wheel, so that it is known as the

curriculum cycle, (Gee, 2005). The cycle consists of a number of stages. Each stages has special objectives and activities, such as the cycle described by Martin and colleagues in Chappell (2004) is as follows: 1. The field- building activities: that is the aimed at immersing the learners in the context of culture and social purpose of spoken text, their temporal and spatial context, the roles and relationships of the related components, and the role of the language within the activity, as well as medium chosen. 2. The text modeling and a deconstruction of the text. This involves analysis of the rhetorical staging on the spoken text, the lexical and grammatical resources used. 3. The joint production of similar spoken text is carried out by the teachers and learners 4. The independent construction of the text by the learners themselves. One widely accepted classroom application of teaching English using the genre-based approach is the teaching and learning cycle or also referred to as the curriculum cycle . This cycle consists of four main stages; they are building knowledge of field, modelling of text, join construction of text and independent construction of text. It aims to provide support for learners as they go through each stage of the cycle. The following elaboration of the teaching and learning cycle is adapted from Paltridge (2001). 1. Building knowledge of field This stage focuses on building up a shared experience and cultural context about the topic of text. The interactions mostly happen between teacher and class, and students and students. The focus is on the content information and the language of the genre of the text that is going to be used. It particularly focuses on controlling relevant vocabularies and grammatical patterns of the particular genre. 2. Modelling of text This stage focuses on introducing particular genre though a model of text that deals with the field that the students have already explored in the stage of building knowledge of field. Through the model text, teacher and class work together exploring the cultural context, social function, schematic structure, and linguistics features of the text using spoken language to focus on written text. 3. Join construction of text In this stage, when students are already familiar with all of the features of a particular genre, teacher and students work together to construct texts that are similar to the text that have already being learnt in the previous stage. In constructing the text, attention should be paid to the schematic structure, linguistic features and knowledge of the field of the text. 4. Independent construction of text In this final stage, students are ready to work independently to produce their own text within the

choosen genre. Teacher can let students to work on their own. In other words, teacher should minimize their support, scaffolding and interference on students learning process. It will provides students with the opportunity to show their ability to create a text that has schematic structure, linguistic features and knowledge of the field in accordance with the genre that is being studied. Derewianka, cited in Lin (2006) describes that each lesson unit or cycle has its central focus a chosen text type or genre, and consists of a fixed sequence of stages. The descriptions of the cycle vary in minor ways, but four phases essential for developing control of a genre may be identified, namely: 1. Context Exploration Cycle begins with context exploration, referring to the possible contexts of situation in which the chosen text- type or genre may be used. The function is like pre-listening/reading/speaking/writing phase that has come to be typical in communicative language teaching. From the teacher s point of view, the function of this stage is to establish the learners actual development or starting point. 2. Text Exploration based on Model Texts The aims of this stages are to familiarize the learners with the target text-type or genre, and to draw attention to organizational and linguistic features commonly found in texts belong to it. The activities can be communicative activities, such as the re-assembling of jigsaw texts or information gap Figure 1: The Curriculum Cycle 3. Joint Construction of a Text In this stage the model text is exposed, and making use of the knowledge and awareness gained from the exploration of the text. The student work with the teacher to construct their own texts (spoken or written) in the text-type or genre. In the case of writing, the texts may go through a few rounds of drafting, editing, and re-drafting. The model texts continue to provide object-regulation, while othersregulation come not only from the teacher but also from other students, as more expert peers guide others, or as students refer each other to features in the models, and to ideas raised in the text exploration stage. If the objective of teaching to develop speaking, there should be much oral interaction, its nature and intention is different from that of most forms of communicative language teaching. Where the interactive activities in the latter are often designed to simulate real life interaction, directed at providing opportunities for talking in the language, the talk here is about using language, and is focused on a collaborative effort to learn to accomplish a purpose in the language. 4. Individual Application The last stage in the Cycle, individual application, as the name suggests, requires learners to work individually and independently, for example, in the case of writing, to produce individual essays. Ideally, this is carried out only after the students have successfully produced a jointly constructed text or understanding of the text. Both Martin and Partridge agree that the teaching and learning activities at the first stage of the curriculum cycle, Building Knowledge of the Field, aimed at immersing students in the context of culture, social purpose of the target text, controlling relevant vocabularies and grammatical pattern. However

each of them put different emphasis on their view of the Building Knowledge of the Text stage. According to Derewianka, the activities involved at this first stage are functioned as the pre activities such as pre-listening, reading, speaking and writing. He urges that the first step which he calls Context exploration, functioned as actual development, or as the starting point. For Partridge the core idea of all activities at this is the interaction between teacher and class or students and students. For the second stage, modeling of the text, both Partridge and Derewianka share similar opinion that this stage focuses on introducing the target text through a model of text by exploring the text s social function, text organization and linguistic features. Martin points out that the activities involve analysis of rhetorical staging on the text, the lexical and grammatical resources used. Derewianka proposes the use communicative activities such as re-assembling of jigsaw text or information gap. At the third stage, Martin, Partridge and Derewianka agree that teacher and students work together to construct the text of the focused genre. Partridge stresses that in constructing the text, attention should be paid to the schematic structure, linguistic features and knowledge of the field of the text. Derewianka adds that In the case of writing, the texts may go through a few rounds of drafting, editing, and redrafting. If the objective of teaching to develop speaking, there should be much oral interaction, its nature and intention is different from that of most forms of communicative language teaching. Where the interactive activities in the latter are often designed to simulate real life interaction, directed at providing opportunities for talking in the language, the talk here is about using language, and is focused on a collaborative effort to learn to accomplish a purpose in the language. At the last stage, referred as Independent Construction (Martin and Partridge) or Individual Application (Derewianka), students work independently and individually to produce the chosen genre. In the other word, at this stage, each student produces the text, as addition, derewianka stresses, it can be done ideally if the students have successfully produced a jointly constructed text or understanding of the text. The stages of curriculum cycles explained by Martin, Partridge and Derewinka above present the material of teaching integratedly, therefore there is no explanation in which stages skills reading and listening developed. Because of this reason it is necessary to explain the stages which are suitable to be applied at Senior High School in Indonesia. The stages are implemented in two cycle, spoken cycle and written cycle. Spoken cycle especially to develop listening and speaking, and written cycle to develop reading and writing. The stages of each cycle is as follow: 1. Building Knowledge of the field This stage is the preparation stage. So, the first activity is to prepare student to get into the new topic of the text. Suppose that the focus genre is narrative, students should identify the topic of the text, whether the text is about Lancang Kuning or Malin Kundang. The next step is to give students the experience about the content of the text. The activities can be in form of questions and answers about the narrative texts which have been read by students. Because this is the preparation stage, teachers should enlarge the students vocabulary as well as to make students interested in reading the text. 2. Modeling of text In this stage teachers give example of the text. For spoken cycle this stage is used to develop listening, so the activities are listening comprehension. In written cycle the activities are reading comprehension. Procedural knowledge or text organization are

introduced in this stage. 3. Joint construction of the text Self confidence is very important in developing language skills, so in this stage the teachers build students self confidence in productive skills either speaking or writing. For this purpose, the teachers give opportunity to students to cooperate in pair or in group. So that they can o learn from others. The example activities for spoken cycle are role play, games, interview, discussion and debate. For written cycle can be collaborative writing (Brain storming, organizing idea, drafting, revising, editing) 4. Independent Construction At the end of the process of teaching and learning the individual achievement should be measured. So one of the purpose of this stage is to know haw far the students master the lesson individually and students must have the responsibility for their own learning. The teachers also have to try to encourage students creativity in this stage, because in this stage for spoken cycle each student should have monologue in focused genre and in the written cycle students should produce the text of focused genre.