CommonwealthForestry Review Volume 73(2), 1994

FORESTRY EDUCATION AT ABERDEEN

The University of Aberdeen, founded in 1495, has been awarding degrees in Forestry since 1914.

BSc (Forestry)
Firmly founded on a scientific base, this degree emphasises resource and business management aspects relevant to both temperate and tropical forests. The honours degree normally requires four years of study but students with diplomas or equivalent qualifications are usually admitteddirect into the second year.

MScIDiploma in a. Forest Management or b. Agroforestry

Designed primarily for upgrading practising foresters from the tropics and sub-tropics are Postgraduate Diploma (9 months) and MSc ( 1 2 months) programmes. Eight course modules are selected according to individual needs. Modules are also available from other University land-use departments and Agroforestry is taught in collaboration with the Macaulay Land Use Research Institute. The MSc programmes include a dissertation over 3 months. Course modules specific to the Forest Management MSc/Diploma include eg Forest policy; Forest business studies; Forest planning systems; Harvesting; Wood Science; Tropical forest ecology and management; Environmental remote sensing. Course modules specific to the Agroforestry MSc/ Diploma include eg Rural development; Agricultural project planning; Tropical crop systems; Tropical animal systems; Soil fertility and management; Soil erosion, conservation and sustainable land use. Common modules for both Forest Management and Agroforestry students include Forest mensuration and inventoty; Temperate silviculture; Statistics and experimental design; Tropical plantation forestty; Tree improvement; Rural environmental economics; Rural developmentforestry I and a g r o f o r e s t ~ (agrisilviculture); Agroforestty II (silvopastoralism). The Department also offers MSc and Postgraduate Diploma programmes in Arboriculture; information will be supplied on request.

Research Degrees
These are available at both Master's and Doctorate level: a wide ranging research programme is available encompassing both temperate and tropical forestry issues. Aberdeen and the North-East of Scotland contain a concentration of research establishments in Land Use and Environmental matters in Europe: in addition to the departments within the University there is the Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, the Rowett Research Institute and the Marine Research Laboratory; combining the interests of all of these is the Aberdeen Centre for Land Use. The University is also the base for CEMP, the international Centre for Environmental Management and Planning.

Writefor further details to Dr WH Parry Department of Forestry Te1+44 224 272667 University of Aberdeen Fax +44 224 272685 St Machar Drive Telex 73458 UNIABN 9 Aberdeen AB9 2UD United Kingdom

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 73(2), 1994

Contents
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
News from India Paradigms Performance guarantee bonds for commercial management of natural forests: early experience from the Philippines R. PARIS, I. RUZICKA, H. SPEECHLY Evaluating European black alder provenances for short rotation forestry O.U. ONOKPISE and R.B. HALL Seasonal growth zones in the wood of Acacia karroo Hayne: their definition and implications I.D. GOURLAY and R.D. BARNES Use of Melia volkensii in a semi-arid agroforestry system in Kenya M. STEWART and T. BLOMLEY

NEWS OF MEMBERS OBITUARIES

John Dickson E.S. Fellows Francis Calder Ford-Robertson C.J. Hadley A.V. Morrell

CFA HANDBOOK FORTHCOMING INTERNATIONAL EVENTS REPORTS OF MEETINGS

'New Markets for Old Woods', UK Forestry Field Weekend, Australia CFA Dinner, Zimbabwe World Wildlife Fund Timber Seminar, UK Forest Land Use Options in Ghana

BOOK REVIEWS
D'Silva, E. and Appanah. S. Forestry for sustainable management A.J. GRAYSON Eldridge, K G . , Davidson, J., Harwood, C.E. and van Wyk, G. Eucalypt domestication and breeding R.D. BARNES Lorrain-Smith, R. Computers in forestry: use of spreadsheets M.J. SPILSBURY Panayotou, T. and Ashton, P.S. Not by timber alone: economics and ecology for sustaining tropical forests F.C. HUMMEL Plotkin, M. and Farnolare, L. (eds.) Sustainable harvest and marketing of rain forest products M. RICHARDS Poole, L. and Johns, J. Tomorrow's trees T.R. CUTLER Querol, D. Genetic resources: a practical guide to their conservation D.A. ROOK Schulze, E-D. and Mooney, H.A. (eds.) Biodiversity and ecosystem function J. BURLEY

AROUND THE WORLD

Ghana Working together: lessons from a community forestry project Canada National Forest Strategy Resolution process at Clayoquot Sound European Forest Institute Long-term consequences of Chernobyl Indo-British International Workshop New Zealand Government, climate change and afforestation Dutch Elm Disease in Napier 'Situation Vacant'

ARTICLES
Changes to forestry education E.P. BACHELARD Status and prospects of development of non-timber forest products in Papua New Guinea S.M. SAULEI and J.A. ARUGA

SUMMARIES
French

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Spanish

140 141 inside front 112 inside back 138 132

CFA BRANCH COMMITTEES INDEX TO ADVERTISERS Aberdeen University Exitex Meyer International Nelspot Taylor & Francis

The Association does not hold itself responsible for any statements or views expressed by the authors of papers, reviews or other contributions. It holds the copyright of all original material.

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LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

NEWS FROM INDIA Dear Sir, Two important developments have taken place in the India Unit of the Commonwealth Forestry Association. Mr Kamalnath, Minister for Environment and Forests, Government of India, has acceded to the request to be the Patron of the CFA India Unit. This will be by designation. The Patron has desired that he should be kept informed of the achievements (and struggles) of the unit. The other development, on which the decision was taken in consultation with Mr. Anupam Mukherjee, Inspector General of Forests, Government of India, is that the IGF, by designation, should be the Chairman of the India Unit of the CFA. I have hence handed over the Chairmanship of the India UnittoMr Mukherjee (retaining,for the time being, Chairmanship of the CFA, Indian Subcontinent which is in an embryonic stage). Mr Mukherjee has already set up an office of the CFA Unit in Paryavaram Bhavan, on the premises of the IGF with Mr Dipak Sharma, DIG, as Joint Secretary. The other office bearers continue to be in Bangalore. A tail piece of forestry interest. Tanjore District is the rice bowl of India, irrigated by the river Cauvery. The late Mr V.S. Krishnaswamy, who was the Chief Conservator of Forests in Madras State in 1956, when all the good forest areas of the State were transferred to Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra due to reorganization of the States, initiated a plantation programme of teak on the flood banks of the Cauvery. There is no natural teak inTanjore district, which receives about 750mm of rainfall from the winter rains. The project was viewed pessimistically by many. Today, the teak trees average about 150 - 18Ocmgbh with heights of 20 - 25m. In some of the better sites, trees planted in 1970 have already attained these sizes. The high subsoil moisture for about 9 months in the year and the free draining sandy loam soil have produced these results. The sad part has been the heavy toll taken by the severe cyclone of November 1993. Over 100,000 sentinels amidst the vast stretches of paddy fields were uprooted. But the trees had attained the size when fanners who have taken to planting teak in the district normally harvest it. It fetches around Rs500 - 600 percubic foot (US$l =Rs3 l), while teakfrom the nearest natural forests (in Kerala State) fetches around Rs750. Information on Tanjore teak has mostly remained confined to Tanjore district, maybe because after three years of planting, the plantations are handed over to the Public Works Department (for maintenance or otherwise) as the land is vested in that department. The potential of teak with irrigation, as seen in the Tanjore district, has prompted 102 companies to come up in India which, with investors' money, propose not only to irrigate but also provide the plants with fertilizer. As against an investment of Rs10,OOO per hectare in the case of departmental plantations, some private companies have provided for an investment of Rs300,OOO. Why not? PARADIGMS Dear Sir Having spent most of the last ten years seeking to practise 'crosscultural' community forestry among the animistic mountain peoples of Asia, I was deeply troubled by D.J. Danbury's comments on paradigms (Vol. 72(3)). I am unsure, though, if the nature of his complaint is semantic or conceptual. I had always understood a paradigm to mean 'a set of domain assumptions' and to be a 'sub-set' of a 'worldview'. (A worldview being 'the basic ideas and values shared by members of a particular society, by which they order all their life experiences'.) I had always understood a paradigm shift to be 'the transfer from one set of domain assumptions to another'. Seemingly we are being asked to believe that the western worldview somehow 'transcends' all others and that a scientific forestry paradigm can be universally applied irrespective of its socio-cultural context?? I have found both the concept of aparadigm and a worldview to be an essential analytical tool to both understand and practise community forestry among the mountain peoples of Asia. In fact two 'low-tech' interventions - a smokeless stove programme and a check-dam programme - very nearly failed because we did not recognize the implications of the local worldview. (The benefits of smokeless stoves and check-dams were readily understood, but it was feared the intervention would upset their gods or they could not afford the sacrifice necessary to placate them.) The mountain peoples ofAsia have not been influenced by aworldview predicated on enlightenment philosophy (with its reductionism, functionalism, dualism and materialism). For them, the world is more integrated: every effect has its causation in the spiritual world: people are inseparable from nature; community, culture. religious belief and locale all help to define one people from another. Up until the late seventies the domain assumptions of foresters on a global basis were seemingly influenced by 14th century Germanic silvicultural systems andpractices. Seemingly this paradigm could be applied universally. With increasing pressure on natural resources, classical forest management began to become inoperable and as a result FAO and the World Bank embraced community forestry and encouraged foresters to do likewise. They also encouraged us to focus more on local beneficiaries than on the requirements of industry and suggested further training courses for foresters. Unfortunately, few took the next step in the analysis to explain why new training was needed. Implicit in this 'sea-change' was arequirement not only for a new set of forestry domain assumptions but for an attempt to interface with, and understand, a people with a very different worldview from their own. Some did take the analysis further. Westoby (1987) for example, stated that 'communityforesters needed to know as much aboutpeasants as trees', but very little empirical study has been done on either forester or peasant beliefs. To the best of my knowledge the first time 'paradigm' and 'paradigm shift' were applied to forestry was in a paper by Gilmour and King (1989). The conceptual basis for the term was drawn from Gilmour's many years' experience working in what is considered by many to be the most successful community forestry programme in Nepal. It was repeated in Gilmour and Fisher (1991), where they do define paradigm as 'a set of domain

S. Shyarn Sunder 2989/D, 12th Main HAL II Stage Bangalore 560 008

15 March 1994

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(Neil remained in British Honduras until 1944, then moved to Nigeria where he completed his service as Chief Conservator of Forests in one of the Regions.) In November 1928 Steve started the Forestry Department in Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), where he worked until 1934. He then moved tothe Gold Coast (Ghana), and retired as Chief Conservator of Forests in 1954. In 1933-34 he spent some time at Kew working on the flora of West Africa. Steve was a keen collector, and he insisted that young Assistant Conservators of Forests should collect 100 botanical specimens of indigenous trees or shrubs before they were confirmed in their appointment. On 1 January 1954he was awarded his well-earned OBE. He was on the Governing Council of the Commonwealth Forestry Association from 1952until he resigned in 1979. For the ten-year period from 1955-65 he was the forestry consultant to Hampshire County Council. Steve married Mae in 1928: and they have a daughter and son, seven grandchildren, and at present two great grandchildren. Mae was 92 years old in May and is still physically and mentally in very good shape. Steve's brother Neil and his sister Margaret, who married Dr Bill Fairbairn, late of the Nigerian Service and a forestry lecturer at Edinburgh, both died at the age of 86, but their father Thomas Stevenson lived to 96, so Steve has got to extend his rotation for a few more years to beat the family record. I know their remaining contemporaries willjoin me in wishing them a happy and peaceful eventide. R.M. LAWTON

assumptions'. They illustrate the term by comparing and contrasting a 'State Forestry' paradigm with a 'Community Forestry' paradigm. Later we find resonance in the work of others who seemingly began to address beliefs (foresters' and peasants'), due to the failure of some community forestry programmes. Chambers, for example, although addressing not only foresters, goes further; he argues that we, the experts, 'living in our hall of mirrors, secure in the potency of our knowledge' are often amajorpart of the problem. He encourages 'mass break-out of our ivory towers' and 'acceptance of diversity in a world that cannot be made uniform'. I arnsony,David,but excludingparadigmfrom my dictionary is a bit like giving me a camera but denying me the use of zoom. We need more 'levels of zoom', not less, to enable us to better understand the world's diversity and tailor a set of domain assumptions that will interface with peasant worldviews. Our knowledge of peasant and forester worldview needs to be as empirically grounded as our knowledge of trees. It behoves at least some of our forestry educationalinstitutions(and curriculum developers)to provide 'Community Foresters' with the necessary socio-silvicultural skills. John Studley 8 February 1994 Post Box 281 Southwest Institute for Nationalities 4th Section, Yihuan Road Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China 610041 CHAMBERS,Challenging the professions: frontiers for rural R. development. ITP, London. GILMOUR, FISHER, B. 1991.Villagers,forestsandforesters: D.A.
the philosophy, process and practice of community forestly in Nepal. Sahayogi Press, Kathmandu. GILMOUR, and KING, D.A. G.C. 1989. Management of forests for local use in the hills of Nepal I: changing forestry management paradigms.Journal of World Forest Resource Management 4:

The Duke of Buccleuch

Weoffer congratulations to our President, the Duke ofBuccleuch, on hiselection as President of the Royal Scottish Forestry Society in May.

93-1 10. WESTOBY, 1987. Forestry and underdevelopment revisited. J.C. Forestry for Development Lecture Series. Berkeley,University ofCalifomiaDepartment of Forestry andResource Management, Institute of International Studies and Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies.

Dr John Howard
Dr John Howard, a long-standing member, and Secretary of the Western Australia Branch of the Association, has been appointed an honorary professor of Curtin University, Western Australia. He is already an honorary professorat Beijing University,People's Republic of China.

NEWS OF MEMBERS
Duncan Stevenson OBE - our oldest member
Congratulations to Duncan (Steve) Stevenson, 95 years old on 12 July 1994, and believed to be our oldest member. Steve, as he is known by hiscontemporaries, is no longer too keen to walk in the forest, but mentally he is still very active. He saw military service in both world wars: in the first, with the Royal Engineers from 1917-19, with active service in France and Belgium; in the second, briefly in the Goldcoast Regiment, Royal West African Frontier Force, in 1939. Steve read forestry at Edinburgh and joined the Colonial Forest Service in January 1924. He was posted to British Honduras (Belize) to start the Forestry Department, where he served until 1928. Towards the end of 1924 Steve was joined by his youngerbrother Neil, who also read forestry at Edinburgh.

DECEASED
The Association regrets to report the death of the following members:

PeterStannardBaylis. Many readers will be sorry to learn of the death of Peter Baylis on Friday 8 April 1994. Peter was secretary to the Standing Committee for the Commonwealth Forestry Conference. Those who attended the 14th Conference at Kuala Lumpur will remember his enthusiasm for the success of b e conference and his friendliness and organizing ability. G.L. Gibson, of 12 Glenorchy Terrace, Edinburgh EH9 2DQ, on 25 February 1994 in a climbing accident.

R.H. Porter, of 38 Russell Street, Eastwood NSW 2122,

Australia, on 25 October 1993.

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questions and the religions of the people with whom he worked. Henry was much involved in the preparation of the military for the invasion of Burma in the Second World War, e.g. the training of troops for parachute drops and jungle warfare. He also took great care to ensure the smooth handover of the forests to the Indians at Partition, before leaving in 1947 for the UK. Here in that year, when he became Director of the Commonwealth Forestry Bureau, he found an institution in early adolescence which he nursed to maturity, helping to set forestry information science firmly on its feet. Foresters and forest scientists both at home and internationally have recognized his role in the expansion of Forestry abstracts with the increasing flood of literature, his fostering of the international developmentof the Oxford Decimal System for Forestry, and his work on international committees where he was able to do justice to tropical as well as temperate forestry. He was awarded the OBE in 1959 for his services. Henry's lively and creative imagination (in private he loved puns and mixed metaphors) was essential to the style of the abstracts and the development of the Bureau as an institution. When not at conferences he read every abstract produced and would discuss knotty points courteouslywith his assistants,aprocess not unlike a tutorial. We all owe him a debt. From his early days in India onward, Henry wasall for the proper use of the proper language: he always sought the mot juste. Sound internationally acceptable terminology was his constant concern in the Bureau's publications, a concern that was equally one of his prime interests on the world scene as a founder member of the FAOAUFRO Joint Committee on Bibliography and Terminology. This eventually led to his crowning achievement: the basic English text of the Multilingual dictionary of forest science, technology, practice andproducts. For the compilation of this work he resigned from the Bureau in 1964 to become Director-Editor of the Multilingual Forestry Terminology Project, working partly in Washington DC and partly in Oxford, but travelling widely in the world for material. The dictionary, a monument to his patient scholarship, was published in 1971 with the collaboration of the Society of American Foresters, and has been translated into French, Spanish, Italian and Chinese. A German version is in preparation. Henry finally retired to pursue other interests in 1971. He was a philanthropist and warm friend to many causes and people. He was a member of the Oxford Bach Choir and had strong interests in archaeology and local history, guiding many hundreds of visitors round Oxford for the British Council and the Victoria Lqague. He was a keen gardener and a strong Christian. He married Cynthia M a y Ireland in 1928 and had two sons, Charles and Julian. Afkr her death he married her sister, Nora Aline Chapman. P.G. BEAK

C.J. HADLEY Chris Hadley, who died at his home in Dorset, on 5 November 1993, was one of those foresters of the close of the colonial era who were required to 'work themselves out of a job'. He will be best remembered for his work in the Solomon Islands (1953-58) and in Tanzania (1958-64). Chris was born in the English midlands in 1929 and was educated at Rugby and St John's College, Oxford, where he read forestry under Sir Harry Champion, graduating (and marrying Claire, his wife) in 1953. I said goodbye to them in a thick November fog in South Parks Road just before they left by boat for the Solomon Islands. Their choice of country had been strongly influencedby Arthur Grimble's bookPpattern of islands, which Chris had read, and been fascinated by, the previous summer. They were posted to Vanikoro in the remote archipelago of Santa Cruz in the east of the Solomon Islands, where Chris was the first to introduce any form of forest management,and where two of their four children were born. Much detail of theirtime in Vanikoro appears inchris's book, A forester in the Solomonsl, which is still in print and available from his son, Mike. In Tanzania Chris worked on forest inventories and management planning at a time when the forests of the country were still very imperfectly known. On his return to Britain in -1964he continued to pursue outdoor jobs and held posts with the Forestry Commission in Somerset and with the Nature Conservancy as warden of Upper Teesdale and later as officer responsible for open spaces in Surrey. Chris was a good friend and a self-reliant man not afraid of solitude in wild places. He had a wide range of abilities and interests, which included painting, ornithology, and the taxonomy of non-vascular plants. In the latter field he did much valuable work for the Dorset Trust for Nature Conservation. He was also fascinated by the extra-terrestrial and paranormal and often spoke of the need to look beyond the immediately obvious scientific facts. His own book gives evidence of the reasons for the warm regard in which he was held by many of his contemporaries. Chris and Claire parted in 1968, and Chris took an early (and active) retirement in 1984, doing the things he most wanted to do from his house in Dorset. Shortly after he had led an expedition to examine the forests of Poland in 1991, it was discovered that Chris had motor neurone disease, from which he never recovered. He spent the final 18monthsof his life at his houseon the seafront at Swanage. He is survived by Claire and their four children, Mike, Jamie, Sally and Deborah, and grandchildren Elliot, Keiha and Sean. P.J. WOOD
I

Hadley, C J (l993)A forester in the Solomons. The Book Guild, .. rm Lewes. Available f o Mike Hadley, Dolphin House, Peveril Point, Swanage BH19 2AU, UK. 6.50 (postage free).

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FORTHCOMING INTERNATIONAL EVENTS

28/08/94-03/09/94 THAILAND. Measuring and Monitoring Biodiversity inTropical andTemperate Forests. Contact: Secretariat, Forest Biodivenity Symposium, c10 Royal Forest Department, Silvicultural Research Subdivision, 6 1Paholyothin Road, Bangkok, Thailand 10900. Fax 66 2 5794730 (RFD Thailand) or 1 819 997 8697 (Forestry Canada). 05/09/94-07/09/94 SOUTH AFRICA. Management of Forest Research: Emerging Trends (IUFRO Group S6.06 Symposium), Cape Town. Extensive pre- and post-symposium tours, 30108 - 041 09 and08109- 12/09. Contact IUFRO S6.06 Symposium Secretariat, PO Box 36782, Menlo Park, 0102 South Africa. Tel/Fax 27 12 460 170. 05/09/94-08/09/94 AUSTRIA. Alternative Methods for Purposes of Management. (IUFRO S 4.04) Topics include forest stand inventory, inventory by temporary and permanent sample plots, forest mapping based on aerial photographs, satellite scenes and GIS, managerial planning and controlling, comparative assessment andeconomic valuation. Contact Dr Wolfgang Sagl, Universitat fur Bodenkultur, Institut fiir forstliche Betriebswirtschaft, Gregor Mendel-strasse 33, A-1 180 Vienna, Austria. 18/09/94-21/09/94 USA. Inventory, Socio-economics and Management of the Boreal Forests. Contact: Mr Vernon J. LaBau, USDAForest Service, Forestry Sciences Lab., 201 E9th Ave., Suite 303, Anchorage, AK 99501, USA. Tel. 1 907 271 2585. 21/09/94-23/09/94 UK. APF International Forest Machinery Exhibition 1994. Thoresby Estate, Nottinghamshire. Contact Show Secretary, Ian Millward, 10 Warren Road, Reigate, Surrey RH2 OBN. Tel: 0737 245104; Fax: 0737 225619. 25/09/94-28/09/94 USA. 4th International Inorganic Bonded Wood and Fiber Composite Materials Conference. Contact Prof. AI Moslemi, College of Forestry, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83844-1 132, USA. Tel: 208 885 9402; Fax: 208 885 6226. 26/09/94-30/09/94 BRAZIL. International Symposium on Resource and Environmental Monitoring (International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing). Contact INPE, c/o, CRI. AV.dos Astronautas 1758,122227-010 Sao Jose dos Camps, SPBrazil. Fax 55 123 21 8543. 27/09/94-01/10/94 JAPAN. IUFRO International Symposium on Growth and Yield of Tropical Forests. Sponsored by IUFRO IV, Japan Society of Forest Planning, and International Society of Tropical Foresters. Purposes: 1 ) to bring together researches on growth, yield, management andenvironment of tropical-subtropical forests including natural and manmade; 2) to evaluate the state of knowledge achieved, 3) to exchange information on methodological tools such as programs, databases, models; 4) to define research needs and tourge further development; and 5) to provide growth and yield information t the Database of Tropical Forests which will be o developedb y t h e ~ s p e c i aprogramme fordeve~o~i~countries. l Contact: D Yukichi Konohira, Deputy Coordinator, Division 4. r Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwaicho Fuchu, Tokyo 183, J&pan. Fax 11 423 64 7812.
03/10/94-06/10/94

making. IUFRO 54.01-04 Symposium in Prague. Contact: Ivo Kupka, Forest and Game Management Research Institute, JilovisteStrnady, 156-04 Praha 516, Czech Republic. Tel: 422 591612; Fax: 422 591413. 05/10/94-07/10/94. UK. The Recognition, Impact and Management of Forest Insects. An introductory course to be held at the Forestry Authority Research Station, Alice Holt Lodge, Farnham. Contact: Mrs Wendy Groves, Alice Holt Lodge, Wrecclesham, Farnham, Surrey GUlO 4LH. Tel: 0420 22255; Fax: 0420 23653. 11/10/94-13/10/94 USA. Integrating Social and Ecological Perspectives to Sustain Forest Health. Contact: Richard Zabel, Western Forestry and Conservation Association, c/o College of Forestry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 9733 1, USA. Tel: 503 226 4562. 2111 1/94-2411 1/94 MALAYSIA. Multiple Resource Inventory and Monitoring of Tropical Rain Forests. The conference will be held at Seremban, Negeri Sembilan. Objectives: toreview thecurrent status of tropical rain forest resources; to identify mensurational, inventory and database issues associated with sustainable management of tropical rain forests; to discuss the application of new technologies and methodologies for inventorying and detecting changes for all forest resources; to discuss practical examples of multiple resource database development, maintenance and integration through GIS; to recommend cost-effective and practical inventory and monitoring methods for all resources in the tropical rain forests. Contact: Director, ASEAN Institute of Forest Management, Suite 903, IGB Plaza, 6 Jalan Kampar, 50400 Kuala Lumpur. Tel: 603 442925 1; Fax: 603 4425 115. 20/03/95-24/03/95 NEW ZEALAND. Stand Establishment and Inter-rotation Management: Second International Conference on Forest Vegetation and Management, Rotorua. Contact: IVFM #2, NZ Forest Research Institute, Private Bag 3020, Rotorua, New Zealand. Tel: 64 7 347 5899; Fax: 64 7 347 9380. 18104195-21/04/95 AUSTRALIA. 'Tools or Toys: Applications of New Technologies in Forestry'. 16th Biennial Conference of the Institute of Foresters of Australia. Absracts should be received by 30 August 1994, papers by 30 November 1994. The pre-conference tour will view commercial and conservation activities including oldgrowth hardwoods, ash eucalypt regrowth, and plantations of softwoods and hardwoods. The post-conference tour will be in conjunction with a LandCare tour looking at trees on farms, and agroforestry issues. Contact: Ray Spencer, Organizing Committee Chairman, School of Forestry, University of Melbourne, Creswick, Victoria 3363, Australia. Tel: 053 452 405; Fax: 053 45 1 094. 23/04/95 - 26/04/95 NETHERLANDS. Conference on Ungulates in Temperate Forest Ecosystems. Contact: Dr A.T. Kuiters, Institute for Forestry andNature Research, PO Box 23,6700 AA Wageningen, Netherlands. Tel: 3 1 85 452991; Fax 3 1 85 422 175. l2/O6/95- 14/06/95 THAILAND. International Symposium on 'Recent Advances in Tropical Tree Seed Technology and Planting StockProduction', Hadyai, Songkhla,Thailand. Contact: Symposium Secretariat, ASEAN Forest Tree Seed Centre Project, Muak Lek, Saraburi, Thailand 18180. Tel: 66 36 34130. Fax: 66 36 341859. 04/08/95 12/08/95 FINLAND. IUFROXX World Congress. 'Caring for the Forest: Research in a Changing World.' Contact Prof. R. Seppala, Forestry Department, Unioninkatu 40A, 00170 Helsinki, Finland. Tel. 358 0 857 051; Fax: 358 0 625 308.

CZECHREPUBLIC.Growth models for policy

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REPORTS OF MEETINGS
NEW MARKETS FOR OLD WOODS
A New Markets for Old Woods Conference, organized by the Forestry Authority (England) was held at the University of Surrey on 19 and 20 April 1994. This highly successful event attractednearly 300delegatesfrom a widerangeof backgrounds and disciplines. The main purpose of the conference was to address many of the issues relevant to managing Britain's broadleaved timber resource. As well as covering central aspects of timber (and nontimber) supply and demand, the conference addressed such topics as regional initiatives, marketing opportunities, and environmentalbenefits of woodlandmanagement.Threemain needs were identified: - better information about the resource; - development of markets and products; - improved communication between owners, managers and buyers. Reports from a number of regional groups highlighted the considerable work already going on to promote a better future for Britain's resource of fragmented and all-too-oftenneglected broadleaved woodlands. He also pointed out that the CFA had NGO status, which gave it the oppominity to raise funds for special projects. An example was the 'Adopt a Village' project planned in India The Association was committed to help with fundraising to support national branch activities. At the same meeting Mr Wood presented a cheque for 6,000 to Mr David Gwaze, Manager of the Forest Research Centre, and MSLindaMunjache,ChiefPlanning Officer,a s Association's contribution to the CFAEimbabwe Forestry Commission joint conference on 'Experiences in Social Forestry' in May. This conferencewill be reported in a forthcomingissue of theReview. He thanked the CommonwealthFoundation for making these funds available as part of their grant to the Association.

'A FUTURE FOR FORESTS'

World Wildlife Fund Timber Seminar,London, 17 March 1994 The keynote address was by Prince Charles, who suggested that the timber trade was not rapacious, and the 'greens' were not unelected police; he proposedlogging only in secondary forest in the tropics; he had been pleased to meet the 1995 group. His speech was preceded by a welcome and introduction by Dr Robin Pellew, Director of WWF, and a speech by Mr Chris Smith, the Opposition spokesman on the environment, who advocated addressingeight points, includingmore coordinationbetween ministriesin the UK and international agencies globally; a green GATT; much more aid spending on forest management in the tropics; aUK national forest policy. Dr Jeff Burley was in the chair. Other speakers included: Martin Laing, on the 1995 group o companies who aimed to f pmhase sustainably grown and d e d timber by the end of 1995; Robin Cutler, who said t a the Forestry Commission's policy ht was to produce sustainably, and control was stricter in the UK than almost anywhere else; this was true also of Europe. Any certification should be by mutual agreement. Edward Cullinan, an architect, who described interesting non-wasteful methods of using wood in housing, illustrated by his own house; ChrisElliott,of FSC, who described FSC's role inmonitoring the certifiers, and the formation of the FSC Board based in Mexico. He advocated independent certification. Terence Mallinson, who supportedsustainablemanagement but suggested that FSC's checks were too detailed and complicated. Frank Miller, of SGS Silviconsult,whodescribed research into methods of tracing timber. The forest-to-primaryindustry sector was possible, but the next stage required further investigation. Discussion ranged over a variety of subject including methods of making certiiicationwcllk and tfie ampetem and w a l i t y d the certifiers which was queried by some.

FORESTRY FIELD WEEKEND, CANBERRA, AUSTRALIA

AForesbry Field Weekend was organizedjointlyby thehstitute of Foresters of Australia, the Australian Forest Growers' Association,and the Commonwealth Forestry Association,on 16 and 17 April 1994. The weekend included visits to inspect establishmenttechniques and clear fall areas, long term growth plot studies, non-commercially thinned and pruned areas, and a pruned stand close to being clear felled. The programme on the first day concluded with an address by Professor Eric Bachelard, which we reproduce in full later in this volume.

CFA DINNER, ZIMBABWE

A dinnerfor 20 CommonwealthForestry Associationmembers and guests was held at the Forest Research Centre, Harare, on 29 March 1994. Mr Peter Wood, CFA chairman,presented Dr Yemi Katerere, current holder of the Queen's Award for Forestry, with acheque for the award, which is given to enable the recipient to travel within the Commonwealthto further the dissemination of forestry expatise, with particular emphasis on developing countries. In presenting the award Mr Wood remhdedthe p p that the Association's mission was to foster: - the wise use of forests - excellence in forest management - influence on global forest policy - communications between foresters and the public - comradeship among foresters - south-south and north-south links.

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 73(2), 1994

81

FOREST LAND USE OPTIONS IN GHANA

A report on a five-day seminar held in Kumasi, 24-28 January 1994 JAMES OGILVIE Conservator,NorthumberlandandDurham,ForestryAuthority THE GHANAIAN SITUATION
A brief background

Deforestation pressures and impacts

Topographically Ghana is a gently undulating country with some marked escarpments but no great heights. Most of the land surface is less than 300 metres above sea level. Its climate is tropical, with high temperatures which rise with increasing distance from thecoast. Two rainy seasons a year occur within thesouthernhalf of the country, while the n h e m half experiences a rainy season and apronounceddry season.Relative humidity is high in the south (U%+) and variable in the north (15% 85%).Natural vegetation is closely related to climate. From north to south this vegetation comprises savanna woodland, high forest, coastal scrub and maritime vegetation.
Forestry statistics

Ghana's high forest zone covers about a third of the land area, or 8.2 million hectares. Within this zone, just under 2 million hectares of closed forest remain, including some 2 14 legally designatedforestReservescomprisingabout 1.8millionhectares. Closed forest is categorized into four broad ecological types: wet evergreen, moist evergreen, moist semi-deciduous and dry semi-deciduous.Ghana's forests make an extremely important contributionto thecountry's wellbeing. In terms of biodiversity, over 2,100 plant species have been recorded in the high forest zone, 23 of them endemic. Some 730 tree species have been similarly identified.Thespecies listgoeson:over 200mammals, over 200 birds, 74 bats and 37 rodents. Not surprisingly perhaps, many of these species are endangered. Economically, forestry has for many years tanked third most important foreign exchange earner after minerals and cocoa. Its 6% contribution to gross domestic product is estimated to provide employmentfor over two million workers. Non-timber forest products such as bush meat, seeds, fruits and so on, also play an important role economically. Socially, Ghana's forests make an important tangible contribution to the quality of community and individual life in providing building materials,medicines and household items. Intangiblecontributionsincludeawealthofculturaland spiritual benefits. Annual deforestation'is currently running at 0.9%, with replacement at 0. l %. To put this into an African context, on the one hand Ethiopia has an annual deforestation rate of 0.2%; on the other, Cote d'Ivoire experiences 7% annual deforestation reckoned by some to be the highest rate in the world. In just 17 years - between 1955 and 1972 - around a third of Ghana's fmsts disappeared altogether. Estimates have valued the loss in forest area through fire, agricultural encroachment, fuel @k&g and logging at 1. billion cedis per year, that is, a sum 08 approaching 1 million annually.

Bushfires account for a large part of this forest loss, particularly during dry years such as 198213. Although bushfires are a traditional Ghanaian land use practice, thein incidence has greatly increased recently due to increasing population pressure and a seriesofdry years. Attemptstocontrol these fires havenecessarily been superficial,given the lack of effective resources available. Mining - particularly the recent move towards strip mining also contributes to deforestation. For example, pre 1986,the total area of land under surface mining was estimated to be 35,300 hectares, while from 1986 to 1993,further land leased out for full-timemining amounted to double that area - 76,300 hectares. All of this leased area is for surface-basedmining and all of it lies within the country's tropical rain forest zone. Indeed, Ghana's e geology suggests that the entire tropical rain forest 7 ~ n may, to a greater or lesser extent, contain exploitable mineral wealth. The greatest cause of forest destruction is agricultural encroachment,however. During the 1940sthere was a phenomenal expansion of cocoa production in Ghana which saw widespread clearance of forests by small-scale farmers. More recently, fallow areas which traditionally provided for subsistence needs have become increasingly degraded. Taungya - or slash and bum shifting cultivation - also removes millions of cubic metres of timber and non timber forest products every year. Finally - althoughnotasdestructiveas fues andencroachment -logging has impacted on a selected number of Ghana's primary timber species. Thus, at current levels of exploitation, most of the counhy's primary timber species will have become 'economically extinct' within twenty years. As a result of all these forms of economic exploitation, only half of Ghana's 1.8 million hectares of reserved forest is in reasonable condition, the remainder being degraded to a greater or lesser extent.
Maintaining Ghana'sforest resource

As stated above, Ghana's forests comprise both permanent Reserves (1.8 million hectares) and patchy areas outside these Reserves. Boundariesof the 2 l4 Reserves are regularly maintained and patrolled by forest guards. Currently three quarters of the Reserved area is designatedasProductionWorking Circle, most of the remainder is designated ProtectionWorking Circle, while around 1% forms the National Parks. Outside these Reserves estimates of the extent of closed canopy forest vary from as little as 20,000 hectares to as much as 370,000 hectares. These areas comprise groves sacred to local communities, as well as small, scattered patches of forest often inaccessible economically andlor physically. Happily, the trend is not exclusivelytowards deforestation, however. Some abandonedfarmlandhas given rise to secondary forest and this regrowth has the potential for maturing into high forest if adequately managed. Moreover, further significant areas of farmland are now being dedicated to commercial plantations and agroforestry systems.
Forestry legislation

A variety of forestry-relatedlegislation h -

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over sixty years. bforcement of certain legislative aspects is vested in the Forestry Department at an operational level. Specifically,the Concessions Act 1962 made provision for all Forest Reserve timber and land to be vestedin trust by the State, forthecommunitywIlcemed Powersto grant timber concessions were vested in the Minister for Lands and Forestry. The Forest Protection and Trees and Timber Decrees (1974) prohibited a range of potentially desbuctive activities within Reserves. Further controls were introduced in 1986 (Forest Protection (Amendment) Law) and 1990 (Control of Bush Forest Law). Although Ghana's forestry-related legislation is robust on paper, it can only ever be as efficacious as the effectiveness of those implementing and enforcing it. Unfortunately, examples of legal abuse and ineffectiveness(due to a variety of causes) are not difficult to find. Forestry policy Forestry-related legislationpre-dated forestrypolicy in Ghana, the latter having its genesis in 1948. Its eightfold objectives which are still extant - comprise:creatingldesignating Forest Reserves managing these Reserves sustainably researching all aspects of forestry maximizing the utilization of non-Reserved forest resource training forestry staff and personnel educating the population on forestry matters providing technical advice co-operating in soil stabilization schemes and land use plans This 1948 policy is now recognized to have certain failings and inconsistencies.In particular,it failed to address implementation measures and resources, maintaining the biodiversity value of Ghana's forests, and local community participation.However, its biggest drawback was generally held to be theunconditional sanctioning of off-Reserve forest exploitation. Today a number of factors are seen as important in the to addressing these policy deficiencies, including:-

- increasing the emphasis on forest management for nontimber forest products

- implementing plantation programmes

Traditional forestry takes place on gazetted forest Reserves which are administeredby the Government onbehalf of customary landowners. These Reserves are managed by the Forestry Departmentof Ghana for multiplebenefits,both timber andnontimber. In contrast, non-traditional forestry is restricted to offreservecommunity (or 'stool') land. Managementis administered under well-established customary rules. Increasing emphasis is being placed on involvement and participation by local communities. A variety of approaches to the management of Ghana's tropical high forest have been adopted in the past, for example the Tropical Shelterwood System,Enrichrnentplanting,Modified Selection System and Girth Limit Sy stem. In addition around 16,500hectares of successfulplantations - half of which comprise teak (Tectona grandis) - have been established. Previous approachesto tropical high forest management have all suffered shortcomings to some degree or other. Current thinking now favoursamodifiedGirthLimit System. This is based on carefully controlled harvesting of aregulated yield using minimum girth limits over a prescribed felling cycle. It requires a 100% pre-felling stock survey of all commercial species above 50 cms dbh. Amongst the advantages of this modified Girth Limit System are: avoiding excessive canopy openings during harvesting; maintaining a good distribution of seed trees; distributing yield evenly throughout the forest; avoiding concentrated logging and environmental damage; and reducing yield on environmentally degraded or sensitive areas. These advantages can be summed up in the system's maintainance of the natural forest's regenemting capacity. Further checks and balances have been introduced in the form of a Handbook of Harvesting Rules (1991) dealing with legal, planning, operational, environmental and safety considerations. THE SEMINAR Background Hosted by the Govemment of Ghana, ODA and the British Council; and sponsored by the Association of Ghana Timber Industries, the Forest Products Inspectorate Bureau and the Ghana T i r Millers Organization, the seminar was based in and around Kumasi, Central Ghana. Around 115 delegates attended from a number of Africancountries (Ghana, Nigeria, Malawi, Sierra Leone and Zimbabwe) as well as from Europe (Denmark, the Netherlands and the UK). A wide variety of papers was presented (for a complete list of speakers and papers see Appendix). Although the majority of papers dealt with the Ghanaian situation, presentations included Nigerian and Malawian forest land use experience. Two field study tours formed part of the seminar: one dealt with general forestry issues and cases; the other dealt specifically with gold mining and its relation to forestry. Amongst te list o Ghanaian officials were the Regional h f Minister for Ashanti, Hon MrD.0. Aggekum; and Ministers for the Envirownent, Dr C. Arnoak~Nuamah; Ajpkdture, Mr I. Adam, and Lands and Forestry, Hon M D.C. Amankwah, MP. r

- the need to resettle and compensateadequately the original

occupants of land designated as Reserves - the need to reduce pressure on Reserves by immigrant farmers, and to establish forest buffer zones - the need to boost resources for patrolling and monitoring activities within Reserves Consideration is accordingly being given to producing an updated forestry policy in recognition of these deficiencies. Current management Four approaches are currentlybeing taken to maintain Ghana's forest resource. These address both traditional (classical) forestry,and non-traditional(community,rural and colla-ve) forestry systems, and comprise:-

introducingnew regulationsto monitor and control harvesting developing inventory/management systemsforforest areas outsidedesignated reserves

Forest land use options in Ghana British officials included the British High Commissioner for Ghana, Mr D.C. Walker, and the DirectorGeneral of the British Council Mr John Hanson CBE. As well as informing,educating and enlighteningdelegates, the gathering proved to be a success for the Commonwealth Forestry Association, resulting in severalnew recruits as well as the renewing of old friendships. Rationale and theme Forest legislation and policy shortcomings,combined with implementation difficulties, revealed that by the 1980s one of the key problems affecting tropical high forest in Ghana was unsustainableexploitationof the forestresoue. Environmental, economic and sociologicalconflicts arose - and still continue to arise -when other land use options such as mining, agriculture and uncontrolled exploitation of timber and non-timber forest products were and are in direct competition with forested land. The theme of the seminar was 'Forest Land Use Options: Conflicts and Solutions' and its obiectives were to:identify the main forest land uses and conflict between useq explore ways of improving communication and relations between different forest land users devise means of resolving conflicts in forest land use make recommendationsforappropriatepolicy and legislative provision develop and maintain a sustainable regional network of sector professionals. Output At the conclusionof the seminar, participantswere divided into five maingroups,namely agriculture,industry,mining, forestry and rural forestry. Each group was asked to examine the main conflicts with respect to land use options, and to provide recommendationsfor solving these conflicts. The main conflicts identified by these groups were:Encroachment on forests and forest land by rural pressures such as farming, grazing and other local users, resulting from:a. diminishing land fertility and increasing population b. insecurity of land tenure c. failures in forest policy, legislation and management, exacerbatedby noninvolvementof - andnoncooperation with - local communities d. inadequate regulations and ineffective controls e. inadequatecompensationto owners of land acquired by , Government Encroachmenton forests by urban pressm and infrastructure such as road, rail and building construction. Destructive and inefficient agricultural practices and programmessuch as shiftingcultivation, slash and burn and the use of fire, made worse by inadequate knowledge of sustainable forest management. Inappropriate and/or illegal logging and mining practices resultingfromlackof professionalexpertise,inappropriate

83

equipment, muiequate supervision and ineffective monitoring and evaluation. Unsustainable use of the forest resource for wildlife. Unclearland use policiesas aresultof political andeconomic pressures. Recommendations The seminar working parties identified a number of technical and policy recommendations aimed at helping toresolvethe conflicts arising from forest land use competition. A. Technical Recommendations Technologies adopted for land use practices should be compatible with the local environment. Alternative and rnmefficienttechnologiesandworking methodsshouldbe developed and promoted, as should additional income sourcesandeconomicventures. Moreefficient utiliition of wood is required. Domesticationof essential forest resources such as wildlife should be promoted. Forest management and research development plans shouldbeformulated. These shouldincludedesignation of buffer zones, social forestry programmes and establishment of commercial plantations by logging concessionaires. There should be an environmental and biodiversity strategy to include ecological restoration needs. There should be effective communication between and amongst all interested parties (e.g. agencies, chiefs, communities, departments, firms, ministries, NGOs) through regular meetings, networking and the media. B. Policy Recommendations
1. A review is needed of all government legislation and policies to seekcommonality. Policies and regulations shouldbe 'community friendly' and shouldbeformulated in consultation with relevant-communities,institutions, agencies and other organizations.

2. Forest regulations should support legal enforcement systems. There should be prompt enforcement of the law. Tree tenure legislation should be formulated. Collaborativeforest managementand protectionmethods should be developed.
3. An integrated land use policy and plan should be formulated and published seeking to increase the area under forest and encourage such things as enrichment planting and wildlife management.

4. Effective child and adult education is required. This should includeextension services to inform and educate the public about sustainable use and management of forest resources aimed at ensuring multiple benefits and minimal conflicts with other land uses.

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5. Ministries, departments, institutions, agencies and furns (such as mining and logging) should engage more professional and competent staff who should be wellrecognized, supported financially and morally, and enabled to undertake appropriate logging, mining, monitoring, evaluation and protection measures. BURLEY, Biodiversity in development and conservation. J. KASANGA, K. Land tenure systems and forest resources management: Tenurial conflicts and forest conservation in Ghana. GBOLOO, Bushfires, sustainable development and land use in A.T. Ghana. MERKI, Forest land use options: conflicts and solutions (from the K. point of view of the GFPA). MJOJO, D.P.K. Malawi Case. J.C. OKAFOR, Forest management strategies for sustainable timber production: Nigerian experience. BARIMA GYAMFI A W . Different perspectives on land use POKU NANA options and conflicts from around the region. PRAH, Resolving conflicts on outside forest reserve lands: the joint E. management alternative. K. SMITH, Forestry as a land use issue in Ghana. SRAKU-LARTEY, K. Minerals exploitation and the environment:conflicts and solutions. TUFUOR, , a n d D w u ~ ~ o u ~ , E . K. Integrationof wildlife intomultiple forest land-use planning in Ghana.

6 Appropriate incentives should be available for miners and loggers adopting such efficient and appropriate methods andcomplying with legislation. Appropriate stumpage fees and taxes should be paid by loggers and miners and appropriate compensation paid to owners of land acquired by the government, mining or logging firms.
7. There should be equitable sharing of benefits and responsibilities of forest resources between government, communities and concessionaires.

8. An interministerial committee should be established to determine all conflicting issues relating to forest land use.

Conclusions
This seminar demonstrated that there is a high degree of awareness and a degree of useful information about what causes conflicts in forest land use in Ghana. In many instances there is also an awareness about how these conflicts might be resolved. A variety of both technical and policy solutions emerging from the seminar, point the way to future progress. The key to tangible results will be in just how effectively these recommendations can be implemented. As a means to this end, improved communications, improvedrelations and improved networking amongst all issue 'stakeholders'are fundamental first steps.

CHURCHILL TRAVELLING FELLOWSHIPS

Each year the Winston Churchill Memorial Trust offers opportunities for British citizens to travel overseas to undertake study projects related to their trade, profession or particular interest. The average length of stay overseas is eight weeks, with all expenses paid. Awards are offered in different categories each year; those for 1995 include 'The Rural Economy: Agriculture, Forestry and Conservation', and 'Projects in China'. No educational or professional qualifications are needed, but applicants must be able to show that they can make effective use on their return to this country of the knowledge and experience they have gained abroad. Application forms may be obtained from: The Winston Churchill Memorial Trust 15 Queen's Gate Terrace London SW7 5PR Completed application forms must be received no

Acknowledgements
I wish to thank Eddie Prah and Tim Nolan for Ghanaian forest knowledge, Ghanaian hospitality, and input to this paper.

APPENDIX
Papers presented at the seminar and drawn upon for this report.
Asu, A., Dzom~u, E.,andDm~o. Involvementof local communities E.

in the management of natural resources. ADAM, FOLI, A.R., E.G., ando~osu-ASEDU, Logging intensity and A. its effect on the maintenance of forest values for sustained growth of the timber industry. A. AKINS, Dredging and theenvironment (in the DunkwaGoldfields Ltd concessions). ANTWI, Mobilising Rural Communities for Tree Planting: A S. Collaborative Experience. BLAY, and ADU-ANN~G,The contribution of non-timber forest D., C. products (NTFPs)to forestresourceconservationandeconomic development in Ghana. BOACHIE-DAPAAH, Sustainableforest management - Ghana's A.S.K. success.

later than 24 October 1994.

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 73(2), 1994

85

AROUND THE WORLD

GHANA
Working together: lessons from a community forestry project
BRUCE B. BURWELL, WlLLlAM H. HELIN, and STEVEN D. JOYCE1

Although the concept of community forestry had been discussed in 1982, the impetus for CCFI came out of a 1987 Africa regional workshop held in Mombasa, Kenya (US Peace Corps/USAID, 1987). At this workshop the participants representingGhana worked out the frameworkfor a community forestry project in northern Ghana. In the final workshop session, country teams developed action plans for the team's post-workshopactivities. TheGhana team's action plan included a schedule for an in-country team meeting as well as aproject identificationworkshop which wouldinvolveotherorganizations not represented at the Mombasa workshop. Thus, the Ghana team laid the foundation for initiating a project development process. THE CCFI CONCEPTUAL MODEL Ideas for the conceptual model of the CCFI project came from many sources and throughout its development many people have hadahand in moulding it into final form. Initiallythe model was the outgrowth of a seven country assessment conducted by the US Peace Corps in 1985. One outcome of this assessment was a publication that documented case studies and provided guidelineson how to structurenatural resource projects that use food aid resources (Joyce and Burwell, 1985). This background information provided a starting point for informal discussions and the raising of key questions during all workshops, especially those that dealt with project design and planning and project start-up. After considerable discussion and revision the participants finally agreed on a CCFI model which includes the following entities: National CCFI Committee: The National CCFl Committee is the collaborating body responsible for overall project direction and represents the highest level of decision making within the CCFI project. It is composed of the directors of Ghana's Forestry Department, Peace Corps, and the Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA). ADRA was selected by participating agencies as the 'lead' implementing agency responsible for carrying out management decisions and handling finances and accounting. CCFI Regional Committee: The Regional CCFI Committee is responsible for overseeing field activities related to the day to day running of the project. This committee includes the Regional Forestry Officers, the CCFI Coordinator, an Amasachina representative,and the AssociatePeace Corps Director(APCD). (Arnasachiia is an NGO active in community development in northern Ghana.)

The key ingredientto the successand sustainabilityof any social forestry endeavour is collaboration, or working together with the people. Also, for the programmeto beeffective it must continue to keep its focus on those people who most need assistance. Located in northern Ghana, the Collaborative Community Forestry Initiative (CCFI)is an initiative that attempts to do just that. It involves local people, national and international organizations,with representationfrom both governmentaland non-governmental organizations (NGOs). How this project formed and evolved should be of interest to those involved in, o r considering, collaborative forestry ventures. This initiativebeganwith thecollaboratorsdiscussing project planning. They developed the project design through a participatory workshop process which proved to be an exciting and fruitful task. Besides producing the project design, the participatory process was instrumental in developinga strong sense of commitment by all thoseconnected with the project. This process continues to be used and is perhaps most observable in the annual review workshops in which all collaborators participate. This project has its initial focus on tree nurseries. There are two reasons for this: the first is to produce seedlings for use in reforestingenvironmentallydegraded sites and the second is to facilitate forming a community infrastructure. Though the project has a natural resource focus its long term goal is to assist in developing community self reliance. This paper traces CCFI's origins and development and examines the conceptual model that forms the project's foundation. It also examines the project's key components, participationandcollaboration, and discusses lessons learned and current issues still facing the project. BACKGROUND There was highlevelgovernmentsupportin Ghanafor initiating community forestry activities long before the CCFI project began. On June4,1982,theHeadof State,Flt.Lt. J.J. Rawlings, launched a National Tree Planting Week in Accra by stating, 'I recommend to all local PDCs (People's Defense Councils) including those in the Northern and Upper Regions to consider this matter (of communityforestry) seriouslyso that near all our townsandvillagestlmecanbeestablishedfuelwoodplantations' (US Peace CO-&, 1982).

'

Bruce B. Burwell, independentconsultant,served as facilitator and technical adviser to the CCFI Project during and after the project development stage. William H. Helin, the Peace Corps/ NGO Coordinator with USDA Forest Service, Office of International F o ~ t r ywas a member of t e CCFI evaluation team. , h Steven D. Joyce, a trainer and facilitator with the Training and Resources Group, has been involved with the CCFI project since its inception. he entire project evaluationreport is availablefrom the Peace Corps/OTAPS/Environment Sector, Washington,DC.

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B.B. Bumell, W.H. Hellin and S.D. Joyce

each level within the community. The CCFI Community Committee receives training in management and business techniques that will assist them in managing their own nursery. Workers get training in business and technical matters related to the activity in which they are involved. Managers receive training on how to manage a nursery. Training could also be in such areas as bookkeeping, literacy, management of resources, and extension. Training can be specifically geared to develop a certain set of technical skills, such as tree grafting or record keeping. In this stage thePCVgradually moves intoan advisory role.

CCFI Coordinator: The CCFI Coordinator, an ADRA employee, is responsible for managing the CCFl project's field activities. Together with the Regional Committee the Coordinator also participates in the selection and preparation of the new CCFI sites. Once the sites are established the Coordinator 'services' them by distributing supplies and materials when they are needed. The Coordinator is given direction by the National CCFI Committeeonoverall project management and by ADRA on matters related to day to day management. CCFlCommuni~Committees: Thecommunity Committee's role is to act like a board of directors, providing advice and giving direction to CCFI village level activities. The members of these committees are selected by thecommunity toassuregrassroots advice. At each site a Committee is established which is composed of respected community members. This Committee is also the mechanism through which a sense of ownership will instilled in the community. Participants at the project development workshop agreed that the process of selecting members would be determined by each village since most have different cultural norms for selecting representatives. The CCFI Community Committeescurrently vary in size, but wereoriginally envisioned as being composed of three to five community leaders. Nursery Managers: The Nursery Managers permanently reside in the community and are responsible for setting up the nursery. Initially Peace Corps Volunteers (PCVs) are the managers, however, this role is eventually taken over by a community member. Once nurseries are established, the PCV nursery managers train nursery workers and along with the CCFI community committee assist in the selection of a community nursery manager. Managers are expected to work closely with the CCFI Community Committee. Workers: Workers are either temporary or permanent. Temporary workers help during 'peak' work periods and are not necessarily skilled laborers. Permanent workers are trained specifically to work throughout the year in the nursery. In the project start-up workshop and again in an annual review workshop, participants agreed that fifty percent of the nursery workers would be women.

Stage Three - SelfRe1iunc.e:The goal of the third and final stage of the project is to develop self reliance. Only minimal project inputs are anticipated in this stage and mostly in the form of technical assistance. The main feature of stage three is that all participating organizations gradually withdraw support as the community becomes capable of operating and sustaining its own business enterprise. The CCFI Community Committee and the Nursery Manager will play a key role in overseeing this withdrawal. At this stage the project might also be involved in several activities other than growing seedlings. Thus, the Nursery Manager might evolve into a 'community project manager' who would be responsible for managing all the community's C C R activities. A PCV might be involved as an advisor during this stage, but only during the initial phase.

PARTICIPATION AND COLLABORATION The participatory workshop process developed a project design that is being successfully implemented and there is no doubt that, with the CCFl project, this process has contributed to a project which has a highly motivated and dedicated staff. Some previous sceptics of the process are now the most committed to the project. During the initial phases of the participatory process, the partners identified themselves as part of a collaborative team. Also, each team member identifiedtheir organization as fulfilling adefinite and required role within the project. With this clear definition, it was possible to r e a m g e , and even replace, team members. Another interesting dynamic of the CCFi collaborative effort has been the relatively small impact that individual personality has had in the project. The strong sense of commitment discourages actions that have personal motivation and fosters those activities that are for the 'good of the whole'. This has helped to establish and maintain a balance of power within the project. CCFI has incorporated several of the key ingredients that contribute enormously to collaboration and the ongoing effectiveness of the project. These ingredients include:

STAGES OF THE MODEL Three unique stages in the CCFI model are: l) infrastructure establishment, 2) training, and 3) development of self reliance.

Stage One - Infrashuchm Establishment: The initial objective is to establish an infrastructure through which the project can effectively function. The main feature of stage one is the establishment of a tree nursery capableof producing adesignated number of seedlings - a predetermined production target. It was alwaysassumedthat asthevarioustreenurserieswereestablished, they woulddevelop at their own rate. As stage one is completed, one nursery worker will be appointed as the nursery manager. The PCV will continue to provide technical and training assistance. Stage Two - Training: During this stage training takes place at

Development of a common vision for the project. example, the annual project review workshops. Regular meetings at various levels of project management, that is, the National and Regional C C R Committees.

- Joint activities between the collaborative partners, for

Lessonsfrom a communiryforestry project

87

- Designated functions of the CCFI organizational entities and

their relationship to each other. The early establishmentof clear roles and responsibilitiesof all the collaborating partners at all stages of project development. Establishment of a good project monitoring system, for example, the PCV monthly reports, the Coordinator's visits and the annual project review workshop.

was television coverage at two sites. The Ghanaian Times printed general articles on the CCFI project and there were specific articles concerning three individual sites.

LESSONS 'Ihe following are among the lessons that can be learned from the CCFI project experience: Participatory Project Design: The participatory process not only results in a strong sense of personal commitment but also in a strong sense of ownership and team spirit. Although this method of project design develops a strong commitmentamong the collaborating entities, it is diffcult to actually design a project using this method because:

Thus, the CCFI project not only provides a framework for an effectivecommunity based initiative,but alsoalegitimatemodelfor other collaborative efforts that seek to operate on several levels and with a variety of partners.

PROJECT ACCOMPLISHMENTS The CCFI project has not only accomplished its goal of broad based participation, but has also been impressive in the area of seedlingproduction and outplanting. Eleven community nurseries have beenestablished to date and in 1991 the total production almost reached 700,000seedlings. Additionally,the project has initiated extension activities in all the sites, and has developed specific extension materials for the CCFI project. Currently seedling production at many of the sites exceeds demand and it will probably take more time and more extension until local demand and supply are in balance. All of the nurseries have produced a wide variety of tree seedlings. Severalhaveproducedovertwenty different species, some of which are native varieties. For the most part the communities themselves have determined the species planted in the nurseries. Every site has successful outplantings,some with l survival rates in excess of ninety percent. At al sites planting was undertaken by individualfarmers as well as community groups. Planting configurations vary considerably from site to site. However, agroforestry plantings and small block plantations were most commonly used. Demand for types of speciesvaries from site to site. At some locationsthe people have preferred Aziderachta indica (neem), whereas in other sites demand for this species has been low. As a generalrule, Tectona grandis(teak) has been a highly regarded species. This is because of its resistance to fire damage, low palatability for animals and good market value for the poles. Fruit and nuts, especially Mangifera indica (mangoes) and Anacardium occidentale (cashews),have been in highdemand and have beenplanted both by community groups and individuals. All CCFI sites have been involved in extension. At one site the first session that was held under some mango trees and 'kicked off' the extension programme was attended by 650 people who came to listen to speeches, hear music anddance. Another site's extension programme involved forty villages and those persons attending sessions were much more prone to planting trees. Visual aids were developed for the CCEI project and have proved useful in introducinga wide variety of subjects. Drama was tried and proved to be a good medium for mass extension. At one site Ghana Broadcasting Corporation(GBC) radio aired extension messages in the local language and there

- Funding is needed to carry out the workshop process and donors are reluctant to fund workshops in which there is no guarantee that a viable project will actually result. The process is criticized by some as being too long and time consuming. However, it should be asked as compared to what other types of project designmodels. The workshops took place over a one year period and it is common to take this long when design teams are used.

Collaboration: Successful collaborationcan only be established with trust and opencommunicationamong the entities involved. There are many lessonsthat have been learned in developingthe collaboration to the level that currently exists within the CCFI project. These are:

- Teamwork in planning activities improves the satisfaction of

all the parties involved in the p m s . An example of this is the annual project review workshop where all the wllabomtive entities have their key decision makers and other representatives present. - Successful collaboration can start spontaneously when all the collaborative entities share a common concern about a particular issue, in this case todeal with theenvironmental degradation and lack of fuelwood in northern Ghana. - Early joint planning, development of a common vision, clear role identification, and close collaboration with the host government greatly improves the chances of success. - Continuous communication throughout the project development and implementation process is essential to success. In particular, the annualreview workshopsprovided a forum for revisiting the project vision and for resolution of problems. - A variety of funding mechanisms can be combined to get a project started, for example, money and food aid. Funding: Requests for funding should not be limited to just one donor. Project proposals should be submitted to several organizations even if funding looks almost certain from one donor. For examde. World Bank fundine for the CCFI ~roiect

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Around the world

was almost certain and no thought was given to submit the proposal to other potential donors. After more than two years o f effort this funding proved impossible to obtain and time could have been saved by simultaneouslypresenting the pmject proposal to other donors. The project continues to have one major donor, that is, the US Agency forInternationa1Development (USAID), while the various collaborating agencies pay for their respective staff support. CONCLUSION The CCFI project provides a valuable on-going case study of a collaborative venture (Burwell et al., 1992). The way its conceptual model was designed, implemented and modified provides insight for those inside and outside the project. The commitment and dedication demonstrated by the participating organizations, communities, and individuals is impressive. By 1992the project had establishedelevencommunity nurseries, producing almost 700,000 seedlings per year. Extension has reached out to communities that surround the nurseries and local people are planting seedlings. If survival rates of these seedlings continue to be high these trees will be able to provide the communities with many benefits. A number of changes are envisaged to make the project more effective. The primary mechanism for change is the annual review workshop. Using this participatory process the project successfully addresses and resolves problems. With continued commitment of project staff, CCFI will have an even greater impact in the future. REFERENCES

CANADA

National 'Forest Strategy

The National Forest Strategy, entitled Sustainable forest: a Canadian commitment, was developed in 1991192 and was broadly endorsed by most players in the forest sector as reflected in the signing of Canada's Forest Accord in Marhc 1992 by a variety of governments, industry and non-governmental organizations. In the fall of 1992,the Canadian Council of Forest Ministers approved the creation of the National Forest Strategy Coalition, mandated to oversee the implementationof the Strategy, from planning to evaluation. While annual highlights of achievements will be published each year, an independent evaluation will becamiedoutmid-tennandattheendof the fiveyear Strategy. Formoreinformation andcopies of the Coalition's reports, contact: AndrC Rousseau Secretary National Forest Strategy Coalition Hull, QuCbec K1A 1G5 Canada

1982. US PEACECORPS Proceedings ofthe Anglophone AfricaForestry/ Natural Resources Workshop, Officeof Program Development, Washington, D.C., May. US PEACE CORPS US AGENCY INTERNATIONAL and FOR DEVELOPMENTThe Resolution Process at 1987. Proc&ings,Food Aid and Natural Resources Programming Workshop held in Mombasa, Kenya, May 25-29,1987. Office of Clayoquot Sound Training and Program Support, Peace Corps, Washington, D.C. B. JOYCE, and BURWELL, 1985. Community-level forestry S. B. WILSON development: options and guidelines for collaboration in PL 480 Pacific Forestry Centre, Canadian Forest Service programs. Peace Corps, January, 1985. The field assessmentwas PAUL PASHNIK conducted in the following seven countries: Ghana, Senegal, Port Alberni Forest District, BC Ministry of Forests Niger, Rwanda, Kenya, Somalia, and Lesotho.

Over the past year, the Association has received correspondence expressing concern at the level of logging in Clayoquot Sound, some of it inspired by negative reports in the British media. Clearly this is an emotive issue which has led to some dramatic and newsworthy incidents. The piece below has been received from the Canadian Forest Service; the authors state that they are pleased to have an opportunity to provide a brief description of the resolution process used to move forward on this highly contentious land use decision.

BURWELL,HELIN, and ROBINSON, B., W. J. 1992. A shared vision: evaluation of the CCFl Project for Northern Ghana. Peace Corps, Office of Training and Program Support. Washington D.C. 38 pp + APP.

THE ISSUE The Clayoquot Sound area is located approximately 200 km northwest of Victoria, British Columbia, on the west coast of Vancouver Island. The area includes Clayoquot Sound, a complex of watersheds that drain into the Sound, and part of BritishColumbia's StrathconaParkandthePacificRirnNational Park. The area totals 350,000 ha. Becauseof its proximity tomajor urban centres, relatively good accessibility, commercial forest availability, and natural west coast beauty, the C l a y o q w Sound area has, over the past three decades, become a focus for preservation of temperate rainforest and the adoption of sustainable forest practices.

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The 'Clayoquot Sound SustainableDevelopment Steering Committee' was established as a consensus-building,land use negotiationprocess, and was a prototype for the subsequentBC Commissionon Resources and Environment (CORE) regional negotiatingtables in the VancouvaIsland,CaribooandKootenay regions of BC.

THE OUTCOME Given the failure of the SteeringCommitteeto reach unanimous agreement on land use recommendations,the BC government developeda seriesof land use options- includingthose presented in the 'majority report' - for Cabinet consideration. After five months of deliberationthe BC Cabinet released the Clayoquot Sound Land Use Decision in April, 1993. The Clayoquot decision, which was a compromise from among the various positions provided, increased the protected land use area to 33.4% of the total within theclayoquot Soundarea(anadditional 48,500 ha); established special management zones, totalling 17.6% of the land areas, in which the primary land use will be scenic comdors, wildlife or recreation (forest harvesting would be confined to areas where it will not interfere significantlywith those other primary uses); and established integratedresource management areas totalling 44.7% of the area, where forest harvesting will be the primary land use. In June, 1993, in response to the CORE recommendations to clarify and outline specific implementation measures in the Clayoquot decision, the BC government stressed that forest practices within the integrated resource management areas would be subject to stringent standards, that these standards would be under the review and definition of an independent scientificpanel, and that a major monitoring programme would be establishedtoensure compliance. The 19-memberScientific Panel for Sustainable Forest Practices in Clayoquot Sound includesrepresentativesfromtheNuuchah-nulthTribal Council, scientists from BC and Washington State,and an observertothe process from CORE. The panel's final recommendations on area forest management practices are due in June, 1994. The Clayoquot Sound area is included in the Nuuchah-nulth Tribal Councilcomprehensiveland claim and has been accepted for negotiationsby both the federal and provincial governments. As an interim measure covering the time required to negotiate a comprehensive treaty, BC has signed an Interim Measures Agreement with Nuu-chah-nulth First Nations on land use and resource management in the Clayoquot Sound area. This Agreement will provide for joint management of the area resources and special access to economic development opportunities. The agreement was ratified on March 19, 1994. Treaty negotiations,which have not yet begun, will proceed under the treaty negotiations process to be facilitated by the BC Treaty Commission. The Nuu-chah-nulth Tribal Council filed a Statement of Intent to Negotiation with the Commission in December, 1993. This filing is the first step in a six-step h-eaty negotiation process. EPILOGUE Despitethebroad base of participationandthearduous Clayoquot Sound area process, industry efforts to initiate logging pursuant to the April, 1993decision have contributed to both domestic and international protests. In BC, over 800 protesters were arrested for blocking access to the logging area and the international criticism on forestry practices has profiled Clayoquot. Protesters have beenconvictedoncriminalcontempt with sentences including jail terns and fines.

THE PROCESS The Steering Committee started with: representatives from all land use interests in the area, the Nuu-chah-nulth Tribal Council (the area is within a First Nations land claim), City of Port Albemi, Tofino District, Ucluelet Village, Regional District of Albemi-Clayoquot; representatives of the general interests of aquaculture, environment, fishing, labour, mining, small business, large and small forest companies,and tourism; and six provincial ministries and two federal departments. The mandate for the Steering Committee was to develop a strategythat wouldachievesustainablelanduseintheclayoquot Sound area. Specifically,the Steering Committee was charged with producing a consensus document that defined: a land use zonation prescription, resource management practices (particularly forestry and habitat protection), a sustainable economic development plan which would serve to maintain heritage values, natural diversity and environmental quality, and an implementation strategy. The process involved an extensive time commitment, with the Steering Committee meeting at least once a month. Subcommittees researched specific issues and an extensive information base was completed. An early challenge was the location of ongoing logging activity during the Committee deliberations. The consensus referred this question to a panel involving the BC Forest Service and other provincial environmentalministries. The environmental interestgroups did not support the resulting decision and withdrew from the Steering Committee in May, 1991. However, an environmental perspective was provided throughout the process by different communities, govemment representatives,and by other membersof the Committee. The mandate for the Steering Committee was reaffirmed after the 1991 change in BC governmentandtheJanuary 1992creationofthe BC Commission on Resources and Environment. An initial draft strategy was released for public discussion in January, 1992,andaseconddraftin August, 1992. Inattempting to finalize alanduse strategy, agreement was achieved by the remaining interests at the Steering Committee on sustainable development principles. and many aspects of resource management. However, major disagreementremained on land use in several intact or undeveloped watersheds and on logging practices. Unable to reach consensuson these two major issues, the Steering Committee disbanded in October, 1992. The Strategy Director and Steering Committee Chair completed a joint report for the government describing the varioussub-gmplandusepositions.Amajorityreporiwasfiled by the fopest interests, labour and t e Regional District participants h of the SteeringCommittee. In addition, various interest groups and citizens provided government with their views.

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Environmental groups continue to press for complete preservation of the area, including an expansion of the Pacific Rim National Park, and to pressure forest product consumersto purchase from other sources. The First Nations claim to the area mmins. Logging activity remains hampered and companies are concerned about the impact of harvest practice dictates on operations costs. Although severalopinion polls have indicatedthatamajority of British Columbians support the Clayoquot Sound Land Use Decision, full international acceptance remains to be achieved. ClayoquotSound does not stand alone as a focus for conflicting values. All along western North America, from California to Alaska, there are numerous places like it - each the subject of intense debate among advocates with diverse and frequently incompatible views. Reaching a consensus in those areas may prove as elusive as it did in Clayoquot Sound, yet the effort should be made. Even unsuccessful negotiations yield benefits and lessons. And, in a democratic society, getting together and seeking agreement on how we want to manage our land and resources is really 'the only game in town.'

LONG-TERM CONSEQUENCES OF CHERNOBYL

The Chemobyl nuclear plant accident of 26 April 1986released a considerablequantityof radioactivesubstances,comprising iodine, caesium, barium, strontium and plutonium into the environment. By 1991,it wasestablished that over 13.1 million ha of territory was contaminated with radionuclides, of which 4.7 million ha in Russia, 4.6 million ha in Belms and 3.7 million ha in Ukraine. The total area of contaminated forests in the three countriesisover4millionha, which is equal toall of Switzerland and more than all forests in Austria or Bulgaria. The radioactivecontarninationofforestshas severelyh m e d the forest sector in the three countries, mainly because of reductions in all types of economic and recreational use of forests, increases in forest management costs, and the expense of compensating for social damage (wage supplements, resettlement costs etc.) Huge abandonedforest areas contaminated with radionuclides create a lot of problems, including the risk of forest fires. Prevention, detection and extinguishing forest firest on such territoriesis an extremely difficulttask. Apart from economic and ecological damage, forest firest can cause secondary contamination of the neighbouring territories through radionuclidesreleased into the atmosphere(smoke, ash, cinder, soot) and surface water run-off. The problems of those contaminated forest areas which have not been abandonedinclude, besides enormous economic damage and health hazards, such urgent needs as protection of forest workers, local inhabitants and consumers of forest products against radiation, social protection measures (job preservation, resettlement, creation of new jobs etc.) and the need to solve ecological problems (maintenance of the requisite level of forest protection and introduction of optimal monitoring schemes) and many others. Seven years of research work (1986-93) have shown that forest ecosystems have accumulated more radionuclides than non-forest territories. Radioecological monitoring of forests reveals that the process of redistributionof radionuclidesvaried dependingon the type of forest and the weather conditions. The most radioactive parts of a tree are bark, foliage (needles), and branches. In the mineral layerof the soilthere were corresponding increases in radionuclide content as a result of migration from litter.

EUROPEAN FOREST lNSTITUTE

An independent,non-governmentalresearch body, the European Forest Institute (EFI) conducts problem-oriented and multidisciplinary forest research at the European level in order to serve the needs of policy-making and decision-making bodies in Europe. The Act of Constitution of the EFI Association was signed in September 1993by 12founding members - forestry institutes and universities from ten European countries. A further 12membershipapplicationswere accepted in December. The Director of EFI, Dr Birger Solberg, states: 'Generally speaking, EFI'sresearch topics can be divided into four main domains: forest policy, forest resources, forest ecology and analyses of demand and supply of forest production,including environmental benefits. At the moment, projects have been launched on the development of European forest resources, growth trends, and carbon balance of European forests, as well as on the biodiversity of untouched forests in Europe. EFI has also established a European forestry data bank, which is a permanent project. A few otherprojects are under preparation. Among important future research topics are the health of European forests,forests and climate change, forest policy for small private forest o m , biodiversity and forests, and analyses of demand and supply of forest products. All of them meet the requirement of a panEuropean approach, the idea of networking and using the existing information from a new point of view. In this context I would also like to emphasize the multi-disciplinary aspect EFI has in its research.'

INDO-BRITISH INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP

India and the UK are CO-hosting InternationalWorkshop, in an cooperation with FAO, on 25-27 July in New Delhi, entitled 'Towards Sustainable Forestry: Preparing for CSD 1995'. Senior forestry officials and policy makers frwn 46 countries have been invited to attend along with observers from international organizations and NGOs. The main objective of the Workshopis todevelop formats for national reporting to the UN Commission on Sustainable

Taken from EFI News, which is available free of charge from the following address:European Forest Institute, Torikatu 34, FIN-801W Joensuu, Finland. Tel: 358 73 124 395; Fax:358 73 124 393; email: efidat@joyl.joensuu.fi.

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Development (CSD)on forestryissues inorder to allowprogress to be assessed on the implementation of the UNCED Forest Principles and the forestry aspects of Agenda 21 and other UNCED agreements. It is expected that the Workshop's conclusions will be used by countries to prepare their reports during the second half of this year for consideration in the CSD's review of forestry at its 1995 meeting. Four papers are being prepared for the Workshop: An overview setting out the framework of reporting requirements, based on the CSD's existing seven questions for Agenda 2 1 reporting, the particular requirements of the Forest Principles, and the forestry issues raised in the Biodiversity and Climate Change Conventions. Two papers by India and the UK describingtheir individual experiences of post-UNCED planning, the development of guidelines and implementation in the forestry sector, related respectively to the Forestry Forum for Developing Countries (FFDC) and the Helsinki and Montreal processes on nontropical forest management. A proposed framework for country reporting to the CSD. Workshop participants are invited to come to Delhi prepared to contribute to the development of ideas contained in this paper. Malaysia and Canada have also jointly initiated action to promote preparation for the effective review of forestry at the 1995CSD. An internationalmeeting in Kuala Lumpur in April, attended by representatives from 15 countries, discussed a number of the key issues involved. There was widespread support for the objectives of the Indo-British International Workshop, to be held in July. In the April 1994edition ofMTIDC News, the Malaysian Timber Industry Development Council stresses Malaysia's commitment to achieve forest sustainability at home. It states that, while Malaysia, with 7 9 0forest cover, is one of the world's 05 most heavily forested countries, 40% of the natural forest is maintained as virgin forest, logging has been reduced, and sustainability provisions are stringently enforced. At a recent meeting of the International Tropical Timber Organization in Geneva, Malaysia gained approval of a statement urging all temperate producing countries to adopt similar forestry preservation rules to those of the tropical timber producers.

forestry, for instance)would receive carbon 'credits'. a methodology for measuring carbon emissions and the contributionof carbon sinksis the taskof the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). A number of signatories to FCCC and some non-governmental organizations,however, are opposed to the idea of carbon sinks being taken into account. Carbon sequestrationby brees isjust one part of an international 'polluter pays' proposal which aims to penalize companies or cuuntries which emit carbon dioxide. Some opponents argue te h effect of such a tax wouldbe to raise prices, and possibly CO, levels, producing a sort of vicious carbon circle where higher prices further disadvantage developing nations (some of the worst offenders in terms of carbon dioxide emissions), making it even harder for them to clean up their eco-acts. On the positive side, t o e who absorb carbon would receive hs 'carbon credits'. They might be tradeable commodities in their own right, and would be used by corporates to offset carbon tax liability for their other less eco-friendly activities. Since young trees are efficient carbon absorbers, plantation forest owners could be recipients of valuable carbon credits. Unfortunately, as forests mature they tend to become carbonneutral, emitting and absorbing about the same amount of CO,. Worse still, when wood is processed, the ultimate effect can be a significant emission of CO, into the atmosphere. Thus the carbon sequestration equation is a very complex one. The New M a n d Forest Owners Association points out that if companies invest in New Zealand merely to take advantage of carbon credits for forestry plantations, the industry could be portrayed as irresponsible and opportunistic, particularly if the investor was an international polluter,guilty of environmentallydamagingactivitieselsewhere. The forest industrymust carefully work through its collectiveresponse to govemment on the issue. Being drawn in on apiecemealbasis would be unwise. Forestry could become a convenient scapegoat for government to meet its obligations under the FCCC - always provided the carbon credit system is ever adopted.
Adapted from the New Zealand Forestry Bulletin March 1994.

Dutch Elm Disease in Napier

NEW ZEALAND
Government,climatechangeand afforestation
In September 1993 the New Zealand Government ratified the Framework Convention mClimateChange(FCCC) first signed by 154 nations at Rio in 1992. Now, committed to a policy of reducing emissionsof 'greenhouse' gases, Governmenthas set itself a target of stabilizing net CO, emissions at 1990 levels by the year 2000, through a mix of policy measures, including emission reduction, and afforestation impved energy efficiency, (creating carbon 'sinks'). One of the proposals being considered by the Intergovernmental NegotiatingCommittee is that an international carbon tax be introducedas a means of reducingCO, emissions. Cartxwr polluters would be taxed.Those who absorbit (through

Dutch Elm Diseasewas first discovered in New Zealand in l989 in Auckland and has been confined to five suburbs. So far this year, the location of infected trees in Auckland represents a reduction in thea m with infection, and it is hopedthateradication can be achieved. However, a routine survey of Napier port environsin December 1993 discovered symptomstypical of the disease at one location. This was confiied by sample culture. To prevent the movement of possible infected elm, Napier City was declared infected for Dutch Elm Disease. New Zealand Forest Research Institute tests suggest that the fungus is t e same h as that present in Auckland, and samples have been sent to the UK for confirmation by clonal testing. At present the evidence suggests that the infection is an isolated one, but surveys and trapping will continue for the remaining summer and autumn.
Adapted from New Zealand Forestry, February 1994.

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CornmonweaEthForestry Review Volume 73(2), 1994

Situation Vacant TROPICAL FOREST MANAGER

Applications are invited for the post of Tropical Forest Manager in an unspecified tropical country.

I I
I

Job Description*
1. HeJshe is required to be a competent manager, capable of setting objectives of management, determining methods of carrying them out and ensuring that they are achieved.

2. The forest is to be so managed as to sustain it indefinitely as mixed natural forest providing the benefits
of: biodiversity, protection against environmental deterioration, high quality timber and non-timber forest products, protection of the rights of forest dwellers and supply, where possible, of traditionally used forest products, at minimal cost, to agricultural populations living near the forest.

3. Boundaries of the forest are to be maintained intact and illegal encroachment prevented.
4. Inventories should be carried out where necessary, to determine the quantities of different species and products available in the forest in different size classes.

5. Rates of growth of the different species in the forest should be determined or estimated and a silvicultural system operated to utilize expected growth to give sustainable production of timber and other products using as many species as can be marketed economically.
6 . The felling cycle must be determined and the allowable cut of each species should be calculated together with minimum diameter limits, below which trees may not be cut, for different species or species groups. Felling must be controlled and must be located in strictly defined areas; seed trees must be retained and other procedures introduced to obtain adequate natural or artificial regeneration.

7. The utilization of both timber and non-timber products should be investigated, in terms of quantities currently used and projections made for future requirements; harvesting plans should be drawn up for different forest areas to give optimum harvesting and utilization of products from the forests to supply current and future needs. Provisions for binding and legally enforceable contracts with concessionnaires should be included, with strict conditions which will ensure sustainability of management combined with adequate incentives for concessionnaires.
8. Forest management plans, incorporating the harvesting plans, should be drawn up for different forest areas, in consultation with interested parties, including all these findings and requirements. The potential of ecotourism should be considered in drawing up these plans.

9. Based on the harvesting plans a forest industries development plan should be drawn up for the whole cwntry to promote the development of forest based industries and encourage the utilization of forest resources to supply the needs of the country for forest products and revenue from the resource. This plan should provide for optimum income to Government from forest and industry, optimum forest plus industry employment, particularly in rural areas and, finally, maximum foreign exchange earning capacity consistent with the adequate supply of local needs first.

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10.Reliable methods of financing and implementing these plans must be determined. The plans must then be put into operation and their operation monitored and controlled to ensure that production is sustainable. The 'creaming' of valuable species and the undemtilization of other species must be avoided.
It is recognized that certain operational and sociological obstacles may have to be overcome in the process of establishing successful management of which the following are some: 1. There may be resistance, sometimes at the highest political level, to the imposition of control over which species and products are removed from which forests in what quantities. There may also be an erroneous notion that politicians can or should decide on the granting of licences to cut in this type of forest without taking the advice of forest managers and in contravention of the prescriptions of management plans. This resistance would have to be overcome by the successful candidate.

2. There may be pressure from primary forest industries such as saw or plymills, or sometimes pitsawyers, to fell more than the forest can produce sustainably. Industries are often prepared to back this pressure with lucrative offers of one kind or another. This pressure must be resisted at all levels of forest management. The successful applicant would have to ensure this was done not only personally but also by subordinates.
3. It is possible that there will be pressure from an environmental lobby more interested in protecting the environment than in supplying forest products necessary for the normal life of the people of the country; this lobby may not take account of the dangers to the forest inherent in failing to supply adequate quantities of these products. The successful candidate would have to ensure that a balance is achieved between the needs for conservation and for forest products.
4. The capability of the country to fund effective forest management is severely limited. The Government has many immediate and pressing demands on its funds such as Health, Education and Agriculture which are currently accorded, by both Government and the population at large, more importance than forests and forest products. Initially, therefore, funding must be sought from external aid or generated from the sale of forest products together with revenue from taxes on forest industries and trade in forest products. The applicant will have to address this matter and ensure that there are funds for forest management, having persuaded Government of the importance of adequate funding. 5. Local civil service salaries are payable for this post; these are inadequate to provide a living wage but can be supplemented by travel and subsistence allowances. It is regretted, however, that the successful candidate will have to supplement this remuneration with lawful earnings from outside this employment.
In order to carry out this demanding task successfully the candidate will require a thorough grounding in tropical forest management and ecology, economics, sociology and forest industry operation and promotion. Helshe must possess exceptional determination, political acumen and powers of persuasion. Only candidates with the highest motivation and the purest principles should apply; ideally the candidate would be endowed with the hide of a rhinoceros, the sensitivity of Mimosa pudica and a combination of the best qualities exhibited by St. Francis of Assisi, Mahatma Gandhi and George Ludwig Hartig.

*Note: This job description has been written not to criticize but to to remind people of some of the problems facing tropical forest managers at 'the sharp end'. Management of this type of forest for production is totally different from managing any form of plantation crop; it begins with the tailoring of harvesting and utilization of the forest products to give sustainability to forest management while providing maximum benefit from the products (forest productivity in terms of timber volume is bound to be low in comparison with most plantationsbut can be relatively high in value of both finished wood products and nonwood outputs). The restraint needed to achieve this requires a very firm grip on management including the ability legally to enforce any conditions imposed on harvesting. It must be possible to say 'NO' to anyone. This is not likely to be achievable until it is appreciated by politicians, forest industries and economists that 'you can't have your cake and eat too much of it'. It is pointless to blame forest managers for not managing if the support from the top is not there for the necessary tight control of harvesting.
R.A.PLuM~E

OFI, Oxford

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CommonwealthForestry Review Volume 73(2), 1994

ARTICLES Changes to Forestry Education*

E.P. BACHELARD Department of Forestv, Australian National University, Canberra ACT 0200, Australia

INTRODUCTION In recent years two major factors have impacted on forestry education at the Australian National University. The first of these is changes to all Australian universities, while the second has affected forestry education worldwide. In this talk I want to outline the nature of these changes and the way in which the Department of Forestry at ANU has responded to them. I shall not address in any detail changes in course structure but will be happy to respond to any questions concerning these. the Australian National University with the Canberra College of Advanced Education (CCAE). However in July 1989, the Council of the ANU, after much and increasingly acrimonious debate within andbetween the two institutions,decided not to amalgamate with CCAE. The University recognized it had made a 'courageous' decision. It had rejected a Govemment desire, and since the funding of institutions in the UNS depended at least in part upon their size and disciplinarybase, the ANU as a small tomedium sized institution was vulnerable. To protect itself as best it could the university encouraged faculties anddepartmentsto developnew initiatives to increase enrolments and to broaden the university's academic disciplinary base. These requests gave an impetus to discussions already taking place between the Departments of Forestry and Geography, and the Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies (CRES), to promote and expand opportunities for teaching and research in resource and environmental management, an area of increasing student demand. These discussions resulted in the introduction of a new three year degree course in resource and environmental management in which studentscould include existing units in the Departments of Forestry and Geography and new units introduced by both Departments and CRES under the umbrella of a School of Resource and Environmental Management. This development has resulted in some misconceptions which appear to have gained some currency within the profession that the Department of Forestry has gone soft on forestry. This is very far from the case. The integrity of the department has been maintained and the professionally oriented B.Sc.(For.) has in no way been diluted. However, the overwhelming success of the new degree (more students are now enrolled in B.Sc.(REM) than in B.Sc.(For.) and B.Sc.(REM) has a higher entry requirement), the extent to which non-forestry studentstakecourseswithin the department, and the relevance of some of the new courses to forestry are vital to the continuing health of the Department of Forestry. Even without the impetus of the 'Dawkins reforms', it is more than likely we would have had to move in this direction, as evidenced by ForestryDepamnents overseas,e.g. Yale, where in 1992 three quarters of Masters students in its Forestry School were pursuing the Master of Environmental Studies *Address to the Forestry Field Weekend, Canberra, 16-17 April
1994

CHANGES AFFECTING TERTIARY EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA Changes to higher education institutions in Australia commenced in late 1987when the then Minister for Education, Mr Dawkins, initiated a process which revolutionized the nature of tertiary education in this country. The major objectives of these changes were:
1. to reduce the number and increase the size of tertiary

education institutions, and 2. to demolish the so-called 'binary system' under which universities and the then colleges of advanced education were funded differently to accomplish their different missions. Specifically, the universities were funded for research, the colleges were not. This is not the place to discuss the rationales underlying these objectives. Suffice to say that as a result of government demands, fuelled by financial imperatives,the 74 institutions which existed in 1987 were very rapidly reduced to 35 by amalgamationsbetweenuniversities andcolleges,andcolleges with colleges, some of which were widely separated geographically. The net result was that colleges of advanced educationceasedtoexistand all of thenewly formed institutions became universitiesunder the umbrella of the Unified National System of higher education. This had important implications for funding since the erstwhile college sector was anxious to receive the level of funding for both teaching and research previously confined to universities. In addition, the number of students enrolled in higher education increased from 390,000 in 1987 to 560,000 in 199 1, and the funding per student unit dropped by 16%. During the course of the amalgamation debate it became apparent that the Govemment desired the amalgamation of

Changes to forestry education degree, and the University of British Columbia which introduced a new B.Sc. programme in Natural Resource Conservation in 1992. In addition to these institutional changes, an even more important force for change was changes within the profession of forestry itself.

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them has gone too far for the best interests of our community. If so, we have a responsibility to put our views and supporting evidence as cogently and constructively as possible without being vilified as reactionary rednecks. Ultimately, however, wemust work within the social/cultural frameworkexpressed by society.

FORESTRY AS A PROFESSION Worldwide the nature of forestry as a profession, the role of foresters, and the continuing need for a specialized training in forestry is under increasingly critical scrutiny (e.g. SAF, 1991; Leslie, 1993). The primary reason for this is the perceived emphasis of forestry on wood production at the expense of the current global emphasis on the environment and ecological sustainability. Leslie, writing in his capacity as President of the International Union of Foresters (1993), questioned whether forestry is on the way to losing its identity as a profession and he cites, as evidence that it might, the disappearance or downgrading of forest services in a number of States and the fact that the title 'forester' has been deleted from the list of governmental employment classifications. A recent (March 1994) example of this is an advertisement placed by the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources in Victoria for a Hardwood Timber Assessment Officer to carry out duties clearly requiring forestry expertise. However, the classification of the position was Scientist Class SCI-1 and the required qualifications were 'a degree or postgraduate degree in science or an appropriate diploma with major subjects in science or other such qualifications as approved by the Department'. Not one mention of forestry. How can we reverse this trend to ensure that forestry continues to be recognized as an honourable profession? According to Leslie (1993) 'the crux of the matter is whether there really is anything unique about forestry and education in forestry which makes it still a relevant discipline?' I believe there is. In response to the many trenchant criticisms of forestry there are calls to redefine forestry and the role of foresters. In my view, however, longstanding definitions of forestry such as 'a profession required to manage the forest resources to provide a satisfactory amount and mix of social values for clients living, while protecting these values and use options for future generations' (Kennedy, 1985) are as relevant now as they have ever been. The problem is not therefore of definition; it is one of implementation and this is where we have run into trouble. Implementation of these professional aims is an extremely complex task requiring the integration of many different disciplines and understandings (see Figure 1). All of us, in whatever capacity we work, must conform to the social/cultural environment in which we operate. In terms of forest values, this environment has changed dramatically over the last two decades due to a vastly increased concern by society on non-wood values of the forests including aesthetic, spiritual and symbolic values. We may not like all of these changes, and we may believe the extent of at least some of

Social / Cultural System

Economic System

Political / Legal System

Environmental / Natural Resource System

FIGLIRESystems originating and express in^ forest ~~alrtes 1. Ifi.orn Kennedy, 1985)

Society's wishes gain expression in the political/legal system and we are only too familiar with the dramatic increase in State and Commonwealth legislation to which all forest management agencies must conform. In responding to these community pressures, forest managers must seek to optimize the economic benefits from all the values of the forests whilst ensuring that the environmental and sustainable values, including the non-wood values, of the forest are maintained. Forestry, more than any other profession of which I am aware, is subject to pressures, some of which are conflicting, from all four of these systems. Clearly no one individual or profession can possess all the required knowledge and skills to meet the demands, and increasingly, modem-day forest managers must work as members of teams which include specialists from other disciplines. However, in developing such teams Westoby (1987) contrasts the establishment of multidisciplinary and metadisciplinary teams. He quotes Coombs (1 97 1) who cautioned against the development of multidisciplinary teams as follows: 'Look at what happens when a collection of specialists of virtually any brand is put together in an operational agency - such as a bilateral aid agency, a specialized international agency or a national ministry. In short order each subgroup of specialists creates its own box on the chart, spawns its own sacred doctrines and begins displaying aggressive tribal tendencies of the most unscientific sort.' The metadisciplinary approach in contrast is described as training an expert with a solid grounding in a given area of expertise and with a general knowledge of a problem area. The expert thus becomes a specialist in terms of his expert knowledge, and a generalist in terms of a set of problems to which he becomes committed. In the metadisciplinary approach, it is the common problems to which the team

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E.P. Bachelard
meet changing community demands, and a greater ability to communicate with the public they serve. Increasingly forestry education at ANU is being placed in this context andculminates in the final year of the course when students are given the time and space to focus on the preparation of management plans for forests currently experiencing public controversy, e.g. TallagandaDadja State Forest; Coolangubra/Tantawangelo forests. In preparing these plans the students are required to integrate the knowledge and skills they have obtained in the earlier years of their course, to use modem day computer technology including geographical information systems, and to pay due regard to all the competing pressures being placed on these forests. They are thus exposed to professional requirements in real-life forestry situations. In spite of the extent to which the Department goes toinstil in students the required knowledge and skills which underlie forest practices, and an appreciation of the need tomanage the forests for all the values required by the community, it is important to appreciate that the most important function of university is to prepare graduates for a continuing process of self-education and re-education. The rapidity of change in modem socieyt has made this process of continuing education even more essential for all professions, not least the forestry profession.

members are committed, that help them bridge the barriers of expert knowledge. I believe this to be a most applicable framework in which to consider the training of forest managers. The 'expert knowledge' required of forest managers is, expertise in management of a complex natural resource, the forest. They need to be 'generalists' in a range of disciplines pertaining to forest management. The primary role of forest managers is tointegrate a broad range of relevant information so that they can produce and implement practical management plans within an approved policy to best meet the needs of the community. Depending on circumstances, the forest policy may require the forests to be managed for wood, for water, for recreation, for preservation, or a combination of these and it is the forest manager'sresponsibility to fulfil these government and community requirements as economically, and with as little impact on the environment, as possible. Uses of the forests may vary widely at different places and at different times but it is important to appreciate that, for any use, including wilderness, forests must be managed. Traditionally foresters have been trained to have an appreciation of the basic physical and biological sciences pertaining to forest ecosystems, a knowledge of the sciences, technologies and economies which underpin both wood production andenvironmental management, and aprofessional experience of forest policies and economic and management systems. Forest managers need not be expert in all these different fields but they must have sufficient understanding of them to formulate and supervise the implementation of appropriate management plans; to be able to communicate meaningfully with experts in other disciplines as the need arises; and to be able to determine when that expert advice is required. Thus the basic nature of forestry education has changed but little. What has changed is the need for foresters to have a greater appreciation of the social and cultural environment in which they work, a willingness to modify their practices to

REFERENCES
KENNEDY, 1985. Conceiving forest management as providing for J.J. current and future social value. Forest Ecol. and Mgr. 13:12 1-

132.
LESLIE, 1993.The discipline of forestry.IUSF Newsletter 34: 1A.J. 2. SAF 1991. Forest resource management in the 21st century: will

forestry education meet the challenge? Symp. Proc., Denver, Colorado, 30 October - 2 November 1991.Soc. Amer. Foresters,
Md. WESTOBY, 1987. The purpose o forests. Blackwell, Oxford. J.C. f

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 73(2), 1994

97

The status and prospects of non-timber forest products development in Papua New Guinea
SlMON M. SAULEI and JOHN A. ARUGA The Herbarium, Biology Department, University of Papua New Guinea, Papua New Guinea
SUMMARY For centuries the forest resources in Papua New Guinea have provided communitieswith a multiplicity of products, a source of cultural values and identity. The current utilization of the forests is essentially for timber, while the Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) are largely being ignored. This paper presents a review of the status of the NTFP and their future potential in Papua New Guinea. Their importance in generating additional foreign exchange earnings for the Government and the resource owners is noted. More needs to be done to develop and promote these products at both national and international level. The attitudes of both the government and traditional landowners towards forests as a 'free resource' must be fundamentally changed if the forests and ttieir multiplicity of products are to be developed sustainably into the future. Keywords: Non-timber forest products; Papua New Guinea INTRODUCTION In Papua New Guinea the forest resources play a vital role in sustaining the livelihood of its 3.7 million people. 85% of the population depend very much on the forests for their supplies of various products directly or indirectly derived from forest plants and animals. The country is fortunate that over 80% of the total land area is still covered by forests of one kind or another (Saulei, 1990), from the tidal mangrove and lowland rain forests of the coastal plains to themossy or subalpine forests of the highlands (Paijmans, 1976; Figure 1). The forests and other vegetation types in the country support some of the most unusual and diverse flora and fauna in the world (Saulei, 199 1). However, with economic and population growth, increasing pressure will be exerted on the forests. To date, forests have been seen as a 'free resource' which must be utilized to generate revenue, offset foreign debt, provide raw materials for industry, create employment and small business opportunities (Saulei, 1991). Fundamental changes in the attitude of Government and customary resource owners are essential for any substantial reforms towards sustainable development of the forest resources. Economically, socially and ecologically accepted systems of managing the natural forests have to be devised; sound reforestation andrehabilitationprogrammes have to be developed and implemented in those areas already degraded. Further, the establishment of protected areas such as parks and reserves, and the development of non-destructive timber harvesting techniques, need to be encouraged in order to preserve the forest resources throughout the country. The utilization of non-timber forest products (NTFP) has a great potential but is much neglected. The challenge today is to assess and quantify the value of these products, and to transform the use of as many of them as are commercially, socially and ecologically viable from one of subsistence to oneof development: that is, to bring them into the mainstream of forest products planning and policy making, alongside the already well established timber products of national and international commerce, while at the same time ensuring that local people benefit. These efforts must form an integral part of acomprehensive and realistic approach to realizing the full potential of forestry for sustainable development. TRADITIONAL UTILlZATlON OF NTFP The use of a multiplicity of forest products can be dated many centuries back from archaeological evidence of human habitation. It is acknowledged that man has been in the highlands of Papua New Guinea for at least 11,000 years, in marginal areas of the highlands for some 26,000 years, and along the coastal areas for some 50,000 years (Bulmer, 1966; White er al., 1970; White, 1972; Golson, 1981). The first arrivals were mostly hunters and gatherers who became agriculturalists only recently. Today the majority of the people are subsistence agriculturalists, growing mainly food and tree crops that are of value for their traditional uses. For instance, Powell(1976) listed some 25 1 species of food plants in the country. 63% or 157 species were gathered from the forests, savannas and grasslands. Another 5 1 species (20%) were both cultivated and harvested from the wild, and 43 (17%) comprised those that were always cultivated. Brief summaries of the more commonly used food plants and other species follow. Tuberslcorms Staple foods in Papua New Guinea are predominantly starch, comprising tubers such as yams (Dioscorea spp.), sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lamk.), cassava (Manihot esculenta Pohl.); corms such as tar0 (Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott) and the related Araceae (Crytosperma chamissinis (Schott) Merr.) as well as the recently introducedXanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott. In addition, a non-tuber/corm plant, sago (Metroxylon sagu Rott.), is also utilized as a staple food source in many coastal areas, most prominently in Gulf and Sepik Provinces.

98 Fruits

S.M. Saulei and JA. Aruga

Vegetables Many of the food supplements mentioned above are usually prepared with a combination of vegetables. PoweH (1976), for example, listed 76 species of plants as supplementary vegetables, of which the most commonly used are: Gnetum gnemon, Amaranthus spp., Colocasia esculents, Setaria palmifolia (Koenig) Stapt., Cucumis spp., and ferns (Asplenium, Athyrium, Ctenitis, Cyathea and Dryopteris). Wildlife Traditionally, wildlife has symbolic significance, and plays an important role in villagers' everyday life. Legends are full of animal and bird characters. Different clans have special relationships with particular species which serve as their totems. For many rural communities, the different birds (cassowaries,pigeons, parrots, scrubfowls) and animals(wild pigs, wallabies,cuscus,bandicoots)they hunt form animportant part of their diet, providing much of the protein requirement which would otherwise be absent. Hides and feathers of many of these animals are extensively used for clothing and decoration and are also highly valuedin traditionalexchanges. For example, cassowaries are highly prized in the Highlands for bride price exchanges,traditional compensationpayments, and singsing decorations. With the advent of the modem monetary economy, wildlife has become an important source of cash income for many villagers; a live cassowary is valued at about US$1,620. In its various forms, wildlife has contributed a great deal both in terms of dietary requirements and cultural identity. From the utilitarian point of view, its conservation makes good practical sense. However, for most villagers the value of wildlife extends further: it is something that gives life its identity, richness and diversity. Medicinal plants Throughout the country, almost all cases of sickness, injury and death are, one way or another, attributed to supernatural powers. Even minoraccidents, cuts, bruises andgeneralbody pains are considered to be influenced by outside forces. Glick (1972) distinguished between ailments which are socially insignificant and are usually treated in a simple practical way, and serious illnesses requiring explanation in terms of witchcraft. Treatment of these involves rituals in which both plants and animals from the forest are used. Medicinal plants have played an important role in the lives of villagers for many centuries. Treatments of ailments are quite varied, ranging from treatment of cuts and wounds, insect and snake bites, skin diseases and sores, general body pains and swellings,ear and eye infections, coughs and colds, respiratory complaints, dysentery and diarrhoea, aids to birth control, fertility, ritual and magic. Literature on medicinal plants in the country is well documented (FJloyd, 1954; Stopp, 1963; Panoff, 1970; Straatmans, 1971; Womersley, 1973; Powell, 1976; Holdsworth, 1977; Peekel, 1983; Woodley, 1991). An additional list of medicinal plants recorded from various parts of the country from recent surveys is provided iue in Appendix 1, with locations shown in Fgr 1.

According to Powel1(1976), 48 species of plants served as fruits in Papua New Guinea. With increased interest in ethnobotanical studies, this figure will be altered in future. Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis (Park.) Fosb.) is an important fruit tree which is widely used in the coastal areas as a supplementary food source. Others include Syzygium malaccense L., S. aqueum (Burm.f.) Alston., Paratocarpus venenosa (Zoll. & Mor.) Becc., Berckella spp., Diospyros spp., Garcinia spp., Gnetum gnemon L., Magnfera minor Bl.,Morinda citrifoliaL. ,SpondiasdulcisForst., andPangium edule Reinw. In addition, there. are a number of recently introduced fruit plants such as Mangfera indica L., Citrus spp.,Ammona spp.,Ananas spp., Caricapapaya L., Psidium spp., andcucumis spp., which are now cultivated and utilized by the local people. Many species undoubtedly still remain unidentified in some remote areas of the country. Nuts Anumber of nut tree species are used as a supplementaryfood source in both the coastal and highland areas of the country. Some are important to villagers in specific areas and in many cases these are individually owned in the forest with seeds often being transplanted around the villages and in gardens. Canarium indicum L. andC. salomonense B.L. Burtt, are widespread along the coasts and the major islands, forming an important seasonal supplement in these areas. Other nuts of importance are collected fromCocos nucifera L., Terminalia catappa L., T. kaernbachii Warb., T. coplandii Elm., T. impendiensCoode and T. solomonensis Exell. Some of the nuts which are commonly used as seasonal supplementary foods in the country are presented in Table 1 below.
TABLE. Some of the common nuts utilized by villagers in Papua 1 New Guinea
Species Aleurites moluccana Barringtonia procera B. novae-hiberniae Canarium indicum Canarium solomonensis Castanopsis acuminatissima Chisocheton sp. Cocos nucifera Elaeocarpus spp. Inocarpus edulis Inocarpus fagifer Pandanus brosimos Pandanus foveolatus Pandanus julianeti Sloanea arrhiboldiana Sterculia spp. Terminalia catappa Terminalia kaernbachii Terminalia impendiens Tenninalia solomonensis Psophocarpus tetragonolobus Phaseolus Iunatus Phaseolus vulgaris Pittosporwn pullifolinrn Nypa fruticans Species Jimi, Chimbu (Highlands) Widespread (Coastal) Coastal, New Britain Coastal Jimi, Tari Chimbu (Highlands) Jimi (Highlands) Widespread (Coastal) Highlands J.R. & G . Forst. Coastal Coastal (Park.) Fosb. Widespread (Highlands) Men. & Peny Jimi (Highlands) Kanehira Mart. Widespread (Highlands) Highlands A.C. Sm. Highlands L. Widespread (Coastal) Widespread (Coastal) Warb. Coode Widespread (Coastal) Exell. Widespread (Coastal) Authority (L.) Wild. (Miers) Knuth Laut. L. B.L. Burtt. (B 1 .) A.DC

n.) DC L. L. Burk. Wurmb.

Widespread Highlands Highlands Highlands coastal

NTFP development in Papua New Guinea

99

P -

;
....a:

Q
NEW IRELAND

I.............................. I WTSEPIK j
i

EASTSEPIK

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... 0

MANUS

....

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-............
WESTNEW BRITAIN

.....

..............

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EASTNEW BRITAIN

.............

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NORTHERN

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,
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SAMARAI
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TAGULA IS.

FIGURE . Locations ofrecenr ethnobolanical survey sites (8): l distribution of copal gum (W),Vatica gum (O), massoy ( X ) : and location of insecr ranches (S)

CURRENT STATUS AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NTFP INDUSTRY Commonly referred to as the 'Minor Forest Product Industry', the NTFP industry started in the early 1900s during the German and British colonial era. On a small scale, it involved such products as copal gum, vatica gum, sandalwood,tannins, massoy bark, rattan and sales of butterflies and orchids. It is now somewhat in decline, due perhaps to the departure of expatriate officers and the absence of qualified national officers to continue the industry. The only NTFP which has become a big industry in the country in recent years is the rattan cane. Copal gum Copal gum is an alcohol-solubleresin obtained by tapping the bark of Kauri trees (Agathis spp.). Kauri trees are found in natural stands in both East and West Sepik Provinces with about two dozen stands containing an estimated 200,000 trees (Zieck, 1975a; 1977). Other stands have also been located in the Central, Morobe, upper Madang and New Britain Provinces (Figure 2). The copal industry initially started in the western part of New Guinea (Irian Jaya) in the early 1900s and was later introduced to West Sepik Province. The Kauri resource is also found in other parts of the country, particularly along the river valleys of the mainland, the islands of Milne Bay, and Ambunti (East Sepik Province).

Varica The most extensive stands of Varica are found in the Western Province (Figure 2). The Kiunga area has been estimated to have a density of about 5 Vatica trees / h a (Zieck, 1975b), while Milne Bay Province, especially around Tagula Island (Pere Plains), is estimated to contain 400,000 trees, averaging 15-17treeslha (Zieck, 1978). From official statistics, export of Vaticapapuana Dyer from Tagula Island started in 1887. Over a 50 year period from 1925-1975 total exports via Samarai amounted to 2,383 tonnes (or 47.64 tonnes p.a.), with a value of between $281 and $5,626 p.a. (Zieck, 1975b). Massoy bark Massoy (Cryptocarya spp.) bark trade in Southeast Asia started as early as 1603 in Indonesia, with the establishment of the Dutch East India Company. However, there are no accurate figures for export of massoy from Papua New Guinea, although the trade goes on. Massoy bark resources are widely distributed in the following areas: East and West Sepik Provinces, Kiunga and Bosavi (Western Province), Kikori, Mt. Karimui, Aseki, Kokoda, Afore, Baniara, Ramu and the Finisterre areas. Tannins Traditionally, tannins were extracted from bark, roots or leaves for decoration of the body or personal effects. For

100

S.M. Saulei and JA. Aruga

many coastal villagers, mangroves provide the ingredients for body decoration, while in the highlands red clay mixed with Bixa is used. Rhizophora spp. are the best producers of tannin, while appreciable amounts could be extracted from Ceriops, Bruguiera, Lumnitzera and Xylocarpus. A tannin industry was established at Aird Hills, Gulf Provincein 1954(Zieck, 1970). Chopped bark was treated by continuous counter-current extraction with cold, then warm, water, to produce an extract called 'cutch'. After only three years, the factory was closed down because: there was strong competitionfromPEV (polythene vinyl) in the fishing net preservation market; mangrove tannins were unsuitable as an ingredient for adhesives; mangrove tannin tended to give the finished leather a red colour; high fixation tended to produce 'empty' leather products. At present, tannins are used mainly for the production of local taps cloth, especially in the ~orthern-and Morobe Provinces. Future research and development into tannin production could rejuvenate the industry.
Rattan

5. determination of physical and mechanical properties of

various rattan species; 6. adoption of tissue culture techniques in rattan. The Forestry Department has almost completed the task of collecting and identifyingrattan species in the country (Johns and Taurereko, l989a,b; ,Johns and Zibe, 1989). Sandalwood Sandalwood (Santalummagregorii F. Muell.) export started in the early 1900s (Zieck, 1970). In 1978 the export value of sandalwood was equivalent to about $1 2,000 (for 6.8 tonnes) and in 1984the value of exportexceeded$48,000(Department of Forests, 1986,cited in Paul, 1990). Although sandalwood continues to be exported, accurate figures for the volume exported are not readily available. Insect ranching Papua New Guinea has one of the richest insect fauna in the Asia-Pacific region, but insect farming has not been well developed, except for butterfly farming. The insect export business has been limited to a few overseas entrepreneurs since the turn of the century, and has provided very little income to the local insect collectors. Clerfas (1979 in Mercer, 1989) gives an example of a villager being paid $0.20 for a butterfly which later was sold for $250 overseas. Butterfly ranching was started in 1974 in the Garaina area of Morobe Province (Figure l), and today over 500 farmers are engaged in the industry nationwide. At present the Insect Farming and Trading Agency, established in 1978, is the sole exporting agency, with responsibility for quality control, marketing, field extension (training and advice for local villagers), and research and monitoring (conservation of insects, habitat enrichment, and research on ecology and distribution of butterflies in PNG). It pays collectors a standard rate for each species, ranging from $1 to$20 per insect dependingon their rarity. Today the trade in butterflies is estimated to be worth about $250,000 per annum (Mercer, 1989). However, although the earnings from full time butterfly farming are potentially comparable with those from coffee and other smallholderfarming, few people take it up as it is seen as essentially a supplementary source of income. Orchids The orchidsof Papua New Guinea have received wide literature coverage dating back to the nineteenth century. Schlechter (1914) wrote there is consequentlyin New Guineaa richness in orchids which is not even approximately reached in any of the neighbouring territories of similar latitude, nor indeed in any other country or island complex of similar size in the world. Up to the present about 2750 species of orchids, representing 134genera, have been recorded for the country (see Appendix

Papua New Guinea has approximately 60 species of rattan, and a vast rattan resource, especially in the Sepik and Gulf Provinces, with appreciable volumes found in Madang, Morobe, Northern, West New Britain, Manus and Milne Bay Provinces. There were irregularexports in small quantities in the late 1900s (Zieck, 1976). However, due largely due to export bans on raw rattans from Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines, the industry has boomed in the last five years, especially in the export of raw materials. Currently the value of rattan exports averages about $2.7 million per year, with prices ranging from $370 to $810 per metric tonne (PNG Forest Research Institute, 1990). The rattan industry was established in the 1970s, with a view to exporting raw materials and also furniture. Although accurate figures are not available, there are a number of furniture manufacturing industries which currently cater for local markets. There are an estimated 50 rattan exporting companies around the country,and the potential for expansion seems high. Depending on the direction of expansion, the product could become established as an income generator for villagers working in cottage industries. However, if this expansion is to take place and future production schedules are to be maintained, there is an urgent need for resource inventories, research into the regeneration potential of rattan in over-logged areas, and monitoring of the rattan industry. The research into rattan propagationconducted by the Forest Research Institute and the Department of Forestry, Papua New Guinea University of Technology, is directed towards the following:
1. 2. 3. 4.

inventory of rattan resource; collection of rattan species and identification; collection of rattan seeds and propagation; anatomical studies;

NTFP development in P a p w New Guinea 2, and also O'Byrne, 1992), and many more species undoubtedly remain to be discovered. The export of orchids has become big business, benefiting mainly the private overseas collectors who pay low rates to local collectors. The Department of Environment and Conservation has, however, recently imposed a ban on the export of wild orchids. The aim is to establish a Flora Conservation Project, whose functions are outlined by Howcroft (1990) as follows: to assist inconserving andmaintainiig the geneticresources of orchid flora in the country; to establish a local orchid industry based on artificial propagation of orchids by seeds or tissue culture in flasks, with special emphasis on endangered species as well as other species of special horticultural value; to liaise with existing government and private botanical gardens and orchid centres to increase the number of species and improve genetic qualities; to encourage the development of small village orchid farms or cottage industries as a source of additional income from sale of cut flowers and flasked seedlings to tourists and private buyers; to establish a data bank on orchid distribution, habitatconservation and protection. Mushrooms World trade in dried mushrooms is thriving, especially in Japan, where shiitake (Lentinus edodes (Berk.) Singer) alone had a production value of US$28 million in 1987 (Hara, 1988). There is evidence that demand is starting to exceed supply (Arentz, 1985). Many varieties of edible mushrooms, including shiitake, are found in the moist tropical forests of Papua New Guinea. Cultivated trials of shiitake were initiated in 1974 at Bulolo, Morobe Province, but here daily temperatures were too high to produce high quality shiitake. The trials were transferred to Mendi, Southern Highlands Province, where conditions were more favourable, and sales of dried mushrooms began. In 1983 an FAO expert engaged by the Government reportedthat shiitakecultivation in theeconomically depressed areas of the highlands could be a commercial proposition. Several small farms wereestablished in the SouthernHighlands but lack of funds has hindered further expansion of these farms for setting up shiitake production on a commercial basis. In view of the large potential domestic and overseas market, the country could have a thriving mushroom industry given sufficient funding and research. Sago Sago (Metroxylon sagu) is an important staple food source which is found in all parts of the country, but has an extensive development in Gulf and Sepik Provinces. Average yields of sago have been recorded at 110-136 kg per trunk from nearflowering palm and up to 400 kg from palms that are naturally sterile (Barrau, 1959). The art of sago making and preparation has been recorded by Powell(1976).

101

Sago is a multi-purpose palm. Its leaves are used for thatching house roofs and walls, its fronds as wall claddings, the midribs are woven for fish traps, and the pith offers an excellent substrate for mushrooms and sago grubs. Seeds Although seeds of different native plants have been utilized for centuries for both traditional and commercial purposes, little attention has been directed to them, except for those that have become commercialized with established markets, such as cocoa, coffee, coconut and cardamom. Over the last 30 years, the National Forestry Authority (formerly the Departmentof Forests), through the Forest Research Institute, has been conducting seed collections and research into the use of seeds of various native timber speciesin forestry plantations, in collaboration with CSIRO (Australian Tree Seed Centre). For more information about such collections, see Turnbull et al. (1983) and Gunnet al. (1989). To date, such collaborative research efforts have resulted in a high demand for seeds of a number of these species for use in forestry plantations both within the country and abroad, in particular,Acacia mangium Willd., Eucalyptus deglupta Bl., Araucaria cunninghamii Ait., A. hunsteinii KSch., and Terminalia brassii Exell. In addition, there is a growing demand for palm seeds. Some of the more commonly used or popular plant seed species are presented in Table 2.
TABLE Seeds of native tree and palm species commonly sold for 2.
use inforestry plantations o r experimental research, both within the country and abroad

Botanical name
Acacia aulacocarpa A. auriculiformis A. crassicarpa A. tnangium Agathis alba Albizia falcataria Araucaria cunninghamii A. hunsteinii Calophyllum inophyllum Campnospertna brevipetiolata Casuarina papuana C. oligodon Cyrtostachys glauca Eucalyptus deglupta Finschia chlorxanrha Diels Intsia bijuga I . palembanica Licuala grandis . Melaleuca cajuputi Pometia pinnata Pterocarpus indicus Ptychococcus lepidotis Ptychosperma caryotoides Santalum macgregorii Sommeria afinix Syzygium afinix Terminalia brassii T. Kaernbachii T. impediens

Botanical name
-

A.Cunn.ex Benth A. CUM. ex Benth A. Cunn, ex Benth Willd Foxw. (L.) Fosb. Ait. ex D.Don. K. Schum. L. Volk. S. Moore L. Johnson B1. Silky Oak (Colebr.) 0.Kuntze Miq. Powell Forst L f. Willd. Moore Ridl. F. Muell. (A. Gray) C. Muell. Exell. Warb. Coode

Wattle Wattle Wattle Wattle Kauri pine

Hoop pine Klinki pine Calophyllum

Hard Yar Soft Yar Kamerere Kwila Kwila Fan palm Tea-tree Taun New Guinea Rosewood

Sandalwood Water gum Terminalia brown Terminalia Terminalia

102

S.M. Saulei and JA. Aruga

BULMER, 1966. Pig bone from two archaeologicalsites in the New S. f Guinea Highlands. J o u ~o fPolpnesian Society 75: 5M-505. FLOYD, A.G. 1954. Report on the ethnobotanical expedition, West Nakanai, New Britain. UnpublishedReport,Division of Botany, Depamnent of Forests, Lae. FRENCH, B.R. 1986. Foodplants of Papua New Guinea. Australian Pacific Foundation, Canberra. GLICK, L.B. 1972. Indigenous medicine. pp. 756-757 in Ryan, P. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Papua and New Guinea Melbourne University Press, Carlton. GOLSON, 1981. Agriculture technology in Papua New Guinea. A J. History ofAgriculture in Papna New Guinea,edited by Denoon. University of Papua New Guinea Press, Port Moresby. GUNN, MORSE, and THOMSON, 1989. 1989Seed collections B., J., L. of tropicalacacias in Papua New GuineaandNorth Queensland. Australian Tree Seed Centre, CSIRO Division of Forestry and Forest Products, Canberra. Y. HARA, 1988. Trends of the mushroom market. Farming in Japan 22-26; 28-37. HOLDSWORTH, 1977. Medicinalplants of Papua New Guinea. D.K. South Pacific Commission, Technical Paper No. 175. Noumea, New Caledonia. HOWCROF~, 1990. Implementation of the proposed guidelines N.H.S. for orchid protection and propagation in Papua New Guinea. The OrchidSociety ofPapua New GuineaNewsletter pp. 14-17. JOHNS, ~ ~ ~ T A U R ER. E K O ,Aprdiminary checklist of the R.J. R 1989a. collections of Calamus and Daemonorps from Papuasia region. Rattan Research Report No. 1989.22. Forestry Department, Papua New Guinea University of Technology,Lae. Papua New Guinea. S. JOHNS, andzle~, 1989. A checklist of the species of Calamus R.J. and Korthalsia in Papuasia. Rattan Research Report No. 19891 l . Forestry Department, Papua New Guinea University of Technology, Lae. Papua New Guinea. MERCER, 1989. The Insect Farming Industry in Papua New C. Guinea. Proceedings of the First Symposium on small holder animal production in Papua New Guinea. Mt. Hagen, 27-29 June, 1989. f O'BRYNE, 1992. A survey o lowland orchids of Papua New P., Guinea. A report to the Australian Orchid Foundation, Sydney. PAIJMANS, (Ed.) 1976. New Guinea vegetation. Australian K., National University Press, Canberra. PANOFF, 1970. Maenge remedies and conception of diseases. F., Ethnology 9(1): 68-84. PAPUA GUINEA NEW FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE (FRI), 1990. An internal report on the survey of rattan industry in Papua New Guinea. Unpublished Report, FRI, Lae. PAUL, 1990. The status of sandalwood (Santalummacgregorii) J.H. in Papua New Guinea. pp 76-78. Proceedings of the symposium on sandalwood in the Pacific. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-122, Berkeley. PEEKEL, 1983.Flora of the BismarckArchipelagoforNaturalists. P.G. Office of Forests, Division of Botany, Lae. PETERS, CM., GENTRY, ~ ~ ~ ~ N D E L S O1989. Valuation A.H. R.D., H N , of an Amazonian rain forest. Nature 339: 655-656. J.M. 1976. Ethnobotany. pp. 106-184 in PAIIMANS, K. POWELL, (ed.). New Guinea vegetation, edited byK. PANMANS. Australian National University Press, Canberra. SAULEI, 1990. Forest research and developmentin Papua New S.M. Guinea. Ambio 19(8): 379-382. S.M. 1991. Forest use and conservation in Papua New SAULEI, M., Guinea. pp. 83-92 in M, Beaiim, BM.,ALLISON, A. and

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF NTFP

In many tropical countries, the potential export value of NTFP may exceed that of some of the major traditional export commodities if properly researched and developed(see Peters er al., 1989). In Papua New Guinea, research and development of NTFP is conducted by the Minor Forest Products section of the Forest Research Institute. This section was conducting research into the utilization of rattans, copal gum, massoy bark and Vatica resin until the late 1970s. However, since then very little has been done to expand research and development and the promotion of these products, so that the potential contribution of NTFP to national development remains largely unrealized. To effectively utilize and manage NTFP, research should be increased, especially in respect to their abundance, distribution, variation, ecology, reproductive biology, traditional and new methods of propagation, cultivation and use, identification of market and non-market value (see also Paul, 1990). Case studies should identify the various uses of NTFP, the extent of these uses and how they are changing. Such studies should also identify who uses NTFP and which groups are most dependent on them for their sustenance and income-generatingbenefits. The potential of new products should also be considered. To be more effective, such research must be inter-disciplinary, long-term and participatory, especially in regard to the resource owners, the Government and the industry. Reseqch into the improvement of NTFP, either by increasing the population of the desired species, or by improving the yield, must be fostered. Within the natural forest, increased populations can be produced by ensuring that the micro-environmental requirements of the desired species are enhanced, through appropriate silvicultural treatments such as pruning and liberation thinning of both the desired and undesired species. Further, productivity may also be improved by selectionand breeding in establishedorchards, plantations or natural forests (Saulei, 1990). Research should also include studies into the improvement of harvestingtechniques, storage,transportation,processing, manufacturing and domestication of wild species (Saulei, 1992).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are very grateful to Mr N.H.S. Howcroft and Mr M. Kabaru of the Papua New Guinea Forest Research Institute, Lae, for the useful information they provided.

REFERENCES
F. 1985. The cultivation of shiitake mushrooms in Papua New Guinea. Harvest 3: 60-65. J. BARRAU, 1959. The sago and other food plants of marsh dwellers in the South Pacific islands. Economic Botany 13: 151-162.

NTFP development in Papua New Guinea

T Y O , M. (eds.). Conservation and environment in Papua New ALR Guinea: establishing researchpriorities.Wildlife Conservation International, New York. SAULEI, S.M. 1992. Problems of managing tropical rain forests in Papua New Guinea. Paper presented at the International Conference on forestry and sustainableeconomic development, Lankawi, Malaysia, 2-9 July, 1992. SCHLECHTER, 1914. Die Orchidaceen von Deutsch New Guinea. R. Fedd. Rep. Spec. Nov. Regni. Veg. Beih. 1. STOPP,K. 1963. Medicinal plants of the Mt. Hagen people (Mbowamb) in New Guinea. Economic Botany 17(1): 16-22. STRAATMANS, 1971. Ethnobotanical checklist of New Guinea. W. Unpublished Mimeograph, Australian National University, Canbera. TURNBULL, SKELTON, SUBAGYNO, and HARDUANTO, J.W., D.J., M. E.B. 1983. Seed collections of tropical acacias in Indonesia, Papw New Guinea and Australia. Forest Genetic Resource Information Paper No. 12. FAO, Rome. 1 WHITE, 1972. 0 Tumbuna: archaeological excavation in the. J.P. Eastern Central Highlands,Papua New Guinea.Terra Australia 2. Department of Prehistory, Australian National University, Canberra. WOMERSLEY, 1973. Records of medicinal plants. Paper J.S. presented at the South Pacific Medicinal Plant Conference,

103

Tahiti. Manuscript lodged at Botany Branch, Papua New Guinea Forest Research Institute, Lae. WOODLEY, (ed.) 1991. Medicinal plants of Papua New Guinea. E., Part l : Morobe Province. Wau Ecology Institute Handbook No. 11. Verlag J. Margraf, Weikersheim, Germany. ZIECK, J.F.U. 1970. Minor forest products, 1-12. Papua New Guinea Office of Forests, Port Moresby. ZIECK, J.F.U. 1975a. Copal industry in Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea Office of Forests, Port Moresby. ZIECK, J.F.U. 1975b. Vatica papwna and its resin. Minor Forest Product Section, Papua New Guinea Office of Forests, Port Moresby. ZIECK, J.F.U. 1976. Rattan. Preparation for furniture making and export. Forest Product Research Centre, Papua New Guinea Department of Forests, Port Moresby. ZIECK, J.F.U. 1977. Agathis (Kauri pine) reconnaissance flight to Telefomin, West Sepik Province. Research Notes: Minor Forest Products U1 l. 166-0. PapuaNew Guinea Department of Forests, Hohola. ZIECK, J.F.U. 1978. Vatica papuana and its resin as seen during a short visit to Tagula (Sudest) Island (Milne Bay Province), 1-15th April, 1978. Forest Product Research Centre, PapuaNew Guinea Office of Forests. Hohola.

APPENDIX Some medicinal plants of Papua New Guinea 1. Species

Casuarina equisetifolia Alstonia scholaris

Parts used

Therapeutic uses

Area recorded East Kaut, NIP Boig, Kaup, ESP Lak, NIP Lolo, Bakada-Madedua, WNBP Boig, Kaup, ESP Lak, NIP Lola, Bakada-Madedua, WNBP East Kaut, NIP Kurum, Madang Province East Kaut, NIP East Kaut, NIP Tokai-Matong, ENBP Kaup, ESP East Kaut, NIP East Kaut, NIP East Kaut, NIP East Kaut, NIP, Solien, Manus Province. East Kaut, NIP Boig, ESP Tokai-Matong ENBP East Kaut, NIP Bakjada-Madedua, WNBP Bakada-Madedua, WNBP Bakada-Madedua, WNBP Bakada-Madedua. WNBP Bakada-Madedua, WNBP

Calophyllum inophyllum

Contraceptive Bark of roots Sap from barks, leaves & shoots Stomach aches, ulcer, cancers, cough, diarrhoea, sore eyes, general body pains Sap from young leaves or Sore eyes, excessive bleeding cotelydons during monthly period Sap from young leaves Young leaves Extracts from fruits and young leaves Bark, leaves and sap from bark and leaves Sap from leaves and young shoots Sap and young leaves from shoots Extracts from young leaves Whole plant Bark, sap and leaves Cough and cold (flu) Contraceptive Boils and abscesses Pneumonia and cold

Syzygium malaccense Syzygium sp. Spondias dulcis Hernandia anymphaefolia

Exocaria agallocha Terminalia catappa Pterocarpus indicus Phyllanthus niruri Magnifera minor

Enlargement and prolonging penis stimulation Growth stimulant for babies Abortion Sores, internal bleeding and sexually transmitted diseases Asthma, spleen and body itches

Octomeles sumatrana Barringtonia asiatica Pometia pinnata Artocarpus altilis Intsia palernbonica Acalypha sp.

Bark and leaves Embryo Bark sap Barks Leaves

'

Stomach aches, growth stimulant for babies Fish poison Severe stomach aches Induce vomiting, diarrhoea Asthma, diarrhoea Diarrhoea

104

S.M. Saulei and J.A. Aruga

Species Parts used Leaves Leaves and tendrils Leaves, stem and rhizomes Bark Bark Bark and young leaves Bark and sap Roots Sap Sap Leaves, stem and petiole Leaves Leaves Leaves and flowers Leaves and flowers Roots Barks and fruits Young leaves Young leaves Young leaves Young leaves Bark and young leaves Young leaves Bark Sap Leaves Leaves and young shoots Bark Sap Sap and young roots Leaves and young roots & lime Bark Bark Young leaves sap Sap and young leaves Young leaves Therapeutic uses Fever Diarrhoea Cold and cough Ease labour complications Ease labour complications Ease labour complications Induce vomiting, antidote for poison Fish poison Sore eyes Abortion Antidote for stinging plant stings Fresh wounds and cuts Cough and cold Stimulants Tinea Antidote for fish poisoning Fever, poison Severe headaches Severe headaches Severe and prolonged menstruation Sores. boils Sores, stimulant for excretion Colds and bronchitis Body pain and detering evil spirits Diarrhoea and hookwonn Lotion for head lice Body pains Antidote for snake bites Contraceptive Tropical ulcers and diarrhoea Diarrhoea, general body pains, boils and abscess Asthma Ease discomfort from fever Diarrhoea, body pains and swollen wounds, etc. Sores Diarrhoea and sores General body pains . . Area recorded Bakada-Madedua, Bakada-Madedua, Bakada-Madedua, Bakada-Madedua, Bakada-Madedua, Bakada-Madedua, Bakada-Madedua, WNBP WNBP WNBP WNBP WNBP WNBP WNBP

Melia sp. Uncaria sp. Zingiber orientalis Chisocheton sp. Hibiscus manihot Pip turus argenteus Cerbera floribunda Derris elliptica Saccharurn spontenium Croton sp. Alocasia sp. Bryophyllum pinnatum Themada australis Miscanthus sp. Cassia alata Rhizophora stylosa Morinda citrifolia Crotolaria sp. Dioscorea sp. Leucosyke capitellata Cordyline fruticosa Pangium edule Celtis sp. Cryptocarya massoia Elaeocarpus sp. Sarcocephalus caudonata Breynia sp. Melanolepis multigladulos Calamus sp. Cocos nucifera Dendrocnide sp. Erythrina sp. Ficus septica lpomoea pes-caprae Ipomoea alba Ipomoea sp. Laportea deccumana

Bakada-Madedua, WNBP Bakada-Madedua, WNBP Bakada-Madedua, WNBP Gogol, Madang Province Vanapa, Central Province Vanapa, Central Province Vanapa, Central Province Common in all coastal and island Provinces Pongani, Oro Province Pongani, Oro Province Bakada-Madedua, WNBP Pongani, Oro Province Bakada-Madedua, WNBP Tarawe, Siassi Island, Morobe Province Boig, ESP Bakada-Madedua, WNBP Boig, ESP Lak, NIP Kaup, ESP Kaup, ESP Lolo, WNBP Kaup, ESP Kaup, ESP Boig, ESP Gogol, Madang Province Boig, ESP Boig, ESP Bakada-Madedua, WNBP Boig, ESP Bakada-Madedua, WNBP Boig, ESP Lak, NIP Bogani, Oro Province Bakada-Madedua, WNBP Boig, ESSP Bakada-Madedua, WNBP Boig, ESP

Key

ENBP WNBP ESP NIP

East New Britain Province West New Britain Province East Sepik Province New Ireland Province

NTFP development in Papua New Guinea

105

APPENDIX Orchid genera with number of species (in brackets) recorded in Papua New Guinea 2.
Acanthephippium (3) Acianthus (2) Acriopsis (1) Aglossorhyncha (1 1) Agrostophyllum (46) Andenoncos (1) Aphyllorchis (5) Apostasia (1) Appendicula (43) Archanis (3) Ascoglossum (1) Bogoria (1) Bromheadia (2) Bulboiphyllum (569) Cadetia (66) Calanthe (4 1) Calochilus (1) Calymonathera ( 5 ) Camoratis (1) Certatosiylis (64) Chamaenthus (3) Cheirostylis (2) Chilopogon (1) Chitonanthera (22) Chitonochilus (1) Chrysoglossum (3) Cirrhopetalurn (9) Claderia (1) Codonosiphon (2) Coelogyne (7) Corybass (25) Corymborkis (4) Cryptosiylis (13) Cymbidium (1) Cyphochilus (6) Cytorchis (5) Dactylorhynchus (1) Dendrobium (5 12) Dendrochilum (2) Didymophexis (3) Diplocaulobium (7 1) Dipodium (3) Dilochia (1) Disperis ( l ) Dryadorchis (2) Ephemerantha (9) Epiblastus (14) Epigeneium (2) Eria (45) Erythroides (10) Eucosia (1) Eulophia (7) Eurycentrum (8) Galeola ( 4 ) Gastrodia (1) Geodorum (2) Giulianetria (15) Glomera (40) Glossorhyncha (2) Goodyera (16) Grammatophyllum (2) Hylophylia (2) Hymenorchis (2) Ischnocentrum (2) Kuhlhasseltia (1) Habenaria (35) *including Peristylus Hetaeria (7) Hippeophyllum (4) Lecanorchis (5) Lepidogyne (3) Liparis (2) Luisia (2) Macodes (4) Malaxis (89) Malleola (see Robiquetia) Medeocalcar (38) Microtatorchis (35) Mischobulbum (2) Moerenhoutia (4) Monesepalum (2) Nervillia (1 1) Neuwiedia (1) Oberonia (86) Octarrhena ( l 7) Oryanthera (2) Ornithochilus (1) Pachystoma (3) Paphiopedilum (7) Papuaea (1) Pedilochilus (24) Phaius ( 4 ) Phalaenopsis (1) Phreatia (126) Physurus ( l ) Pholidota (4) Planthanthera (2) Plocogotis (22) Poaephyllum (4) Podochilus (16) Pomarocalpa (5) Pristiglotris (1) Pseuderia (4) Pterostylis (13) Renanthera (4) Ridleyella (1) Robiquetia (8) *including Malleola Saccoglossum (4) Saccolabium (5) Sarcanrhus (7) Sarcochilus (3) Schoenorchis (3) Sepalosiphon ( 1 ) Spathoglottis (20) Spiculaea (1) Spiranthes (3) Stereosandra (1) Taeniophyllum (89) Tainia (2) Tapeinoglossum (1) Thelasis (9) Thelymirra (2) Thrixspermum ( 12) Trichoglottis (4) Trichotosia (29) Tropidia (10) Vanda (1) Vandopsis (4) Vanilla (4) Vrydagzenia (12) Zeuxine (15)

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Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 73(2), I994

Performance guarantee bonds for commercial management of natural forests - early experience from the Philippines
R&~I PARIS1,IVAN RUZICKA1and HUGH SPEECHLY2 l Formerly with the Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines * SGS Silvicon~~lt 4th Floor, Don Tim Building, 5468 South Super Highway, Makati, Metro Manlla, Philippines Ltd.,

SUMMARY The current economic orthodoxy that advocates the use of increased royalties on timber volume harvested as a means of improving natural forest management by concessionaires is challenged. An alternative scheme, which assigns both long-term cutting rights and responsibility for forest management through competitive public bidding on the value of performance guarantee bonds, is proposed. The implementation of such a scheme in the Philippines through a new type of forest lease instrument,the Industrial Forest Management Agreement, is described. This incorporates a performance guarantee bond but, due to constitutional provisions, retains both high volume-based timber royalties and a 50-year limit on tenure. The paper summarizes experience with the scheme after two years' implementation and suggests possible improvements. Keywords: Philippines, natural forest management, forest royalties, forest tenure instruments

BACKGROUND Increasing concerns about the negative social and environm~tal impacts resulting from the decrease in the area and quality of the world's tropical rain forests have given rise to various recommendations for reforming national forest management policies. Many of these proposals have involved alternative forest land tenure instruments and schemes for raising forest-based revenues. In the Philippines, where most natural forest belongs to the state, forest utilization has been based on Timber Licence Agreements (TLAs) - concession arrangements which allow companies to extract timber according to rules designed to ensure sustained yield. The TLA gave concessionaires harvest rights specified by an annual allowable cut within a defined area, as well as responsibility for management and protection of the area for 25 years, which could be extended by a further 25 years given satisfactory performances. Despite well-defined harvest prescriptions and regulations that required TLA holders to reforest denuded areas and to protect logged-over areas after harvest, there has been a dramatic loss of forest cover in the last four decades. Although data are inconsistent,the general trend shows a decline in land area under closed-canopy forest from 49.1% in 1950 to 22.2% in 1987, a total of about 8,047,000 ha, or an average of 217,500 ha annually (Kumrner, 1992). In addition to the loss of timber production - corresponding to an annual production potential of some 13 million m3- the environmental costs of soil erosion due to deforestation are believed to have been considerable. Even if quantitative evidence remains incomplete, the impacts of watershed degradation on downstream irrigation and hydropower generation infrastructure as well as on forest and coastal ecosystems aregenerallyagreecltobe significantandnegative. Much of the forest loss can be attributed to inadequate concessionmanagement,caused either directly,through poor enforcement of harvest regulations, resulting in overlogging and excessive damage to the residual forest during logging; or indirectly, because of failure to protect areas after harvest from encroachmentby shifting cultivatorsand illegal loggers. One prescription to counter the problem, advanced by economists and subsequently embraced by the forestry profession, has been to increase royalties on the timber extracted(Repetto and Gillis, 1988;Vincent, 1993). According to this view, increasing the value of the wood in the forest will promote better management as well as allowingthegovernrnent to capture a greater share of the economic rent. Indeed, in recent years royalties have been increased significantly in many tropical timber producing countries (including the Philippines) without, however, a noticeable reversal of the deforestation trend. In the Philippines,further steps aimed at countering forest destructionhave been to withdraw substantialareas of natural forest from timber production. These have included: logging moratoria which have been in effect in certain provinces for several years; cancellation of many TLAs for failure to comply with regulations; no extension of expiring TLAs; and the requirementthat current TLAs contain areasnot harvested within the past 25 years and have a minimum allowable cut of 67 m3/hato continue operation. In early 1992, all logging in Philippine old-growth forests (which had been reduced to some 800,000 ha) was banned, limiting legitimateproduction to residual (logged-over)forests within operating TLAs. Now a bill to ban commercial logging in all natural forest (whether old-growth or residual) is under consideration in the national legislature.

Performance guarantee bonds for commercial management of natural forests While these actions may have been effective in reducing damage to forests caused by licensed operators, since the govemment lacks means to police the entire forest estate, they have also inadvertentlycreated a pool of more than 2 million ha of de facto open-access residual forest. Experience in Philippine provinces where logging moratoria have been in effect for several years, and also from other countries where national logging bans have been enacted, strongly suggests that absence of management (incorporating varying degrees of protection) by timber concessionaires has generally accelerated, rather than slowed down, the rate of forest destruction (for the example of Thailand, see Mungkorndin, 1993). In the light of doubts about the efficacy of commercial loggingbans and royalty policies in arresting forest depletion, alternativeschemes for involvement of the commercial private sector in achieving sustainablemanagement of natural forests have been proposed. This paper briefly reviews one such scheme and examines its early implementation experience in a pilot programme in the Philippines.

107

- it relies on competitive public bidding on the value of the Bond as an impartial and transparent market mechanism to allocate the lease and its associated harvesting rights; it encourages responsible long-term management by the lessee since non-depleting behaviour is rewarded by the return of the Bond with accrued interest (in addition to which the lessee could, at any time, sell his rights, appreciated by improvements); and conversely, it provides a mechanism for the prompt penalization of the lessee (partial or complete forfeiture of the Bond) and compensation of the government in case of violation of the terms of the agreement, a contrast to the TLA system in which the most the government has been able to do to punish violators is cancel the licence; and it provides a clear, market based indication of the profitability/riskinessof forest managementin aparticular area, with sites commanding very low Bonds (or no bids) offering insufficient prospects for profits in view of the risks and responsibilities involved. Such sites may be regarded as unsuitable for private management and the government must directly subsidize their protection.

AN ALTERNATIVE SCHEME Paris and Ruzicka (1991,1993) have argued that, by failing to alter the short-term management perspective of concessionaires, increasing timber royalties under existing lease arrangements has had an opposite impact from that intended. Raising taxes on timber extractionwithout creating incentives to undertake the post-harvest activities essential to long term forest productivity reinforces concessionaires' tendency to treat the forest as a mine rather than a renewable resource, and hence maximize extraction rates while minimizing harvest and post-harvest costs. If royalties were used to finance the monitoring, management and protection of forest by government, restricting concessionaires to logging activities alone, such levies could perhaps be justified. However, revenues have traditionally accrued to general government funds leaving the agencies responsible for forest protection without the means to accomplish their mandate. As an alternative,Paris and Ruzicka propose allocation of timber harvest rights through leasing forest land to private sector forest managers with no time constraints on tenure and minimal or no royalties on timber harvested. In exchange, lessees must bear the full responsibility for forest protection, according to pre-specified zoning provisions relating to a financial guarantee in the form of a returnable performance bond (Forest Guarantee Bond) deposited with the government. The scheme aims to achieve environmentally sustainable forestry by harnessing the private sector's profit motive and managementcapabilitiesreinforcedby the incentiveof multiperiod harvests, while providing a clear mechanism for the enforcement of forestry laws and zoning provisions. The inkind benefits to the government, in the form of effective forest protection, are agued to exceed the financial revenues forgone through elimination of timber royalties. The Forest Guarantee Bond envisaged (hereafter, the Bond) has the following main features:

Unlike the timber royalty system, this scheme obviates the necessity for continuous field-level monitoring or evaluation of timber extraction rates since no charges are collected. Monitoring of compliance with the terms of the lease is done through aerial surveillance supplemented by comprehensive audits conducted periodically andtor at random intervals. This considerably reduces both the cost of concession monitoring and the scope for corruption, since routine monitoring is remote from field-level personnel and no money changes hands. Since royalties are not remitted to the centre, it also allows profits from forest management to be retained in their region of origin, directly rewarding and encouraging local investment in sustainable forest management. The proposed scheme also restores a uniform fiscal treatment for all classes of forest, eliminating the arbitrary distinction between 'natural secondary forest' and 'managed secondary forest'. It also gives advantages to legitimate forest managers over illegal loggers, who at present are estimated to supply some 50%of the Philippines' industrial wood demand, and for whom bribes to government officials take place of forest royalties. A similar scheme has also been proposed for Indonesia. Richardson (1990, 1992) advocates long-term (1 00-year) forest tenure instruments and an interest-bearingperformance bond that would be forfeited for non-compliance with forest management obligations or changes to the company's shareholding. In addition, he proposes replacement of all forest taxes with a land rental for the entire area under a concession, whether being harvested or not. The approach would provide greater incentives for proper post-harvest forest management and should result, Richardson argues, in natural forest managementbecoming a more attractive option for forest land than agriculture or forest plantations. There are other instances of use of bonds to guarantee performance in natural resource management, but these are short term and cover single operations, rather than long-term

108

R. Paris,I. Ruzicka and H. Speechly harvests on a given area within 50 years, in the more usual case where remaining residual forest has been harvested within the last 15 years, only one harvest is possible. Although the Bond concept was developed as a substitute for taxes on timber royalty, the ~ ~ ~ ~ r e ~ u l were issued ations at a time when forest charges were being increased rather than reduced. These increases, which conformed to the 'rentappropriation' orthodoxy, were given additional support by a provision of the 1987 Constitution requiring that all natural resources be subject to 'production sharing' between the user of the resource and the Philippine people (the government). The enabling law (Republic Act 7161) prescribes minimum ad valorem taxes of 25% of local FOB market prices of logs and other forest products. In Mindanao, for example, these taxes in 1993 were P817/m3 (US$30) for the Philippine mahogany and related groups (maidy Shorea, Hopea, Anisoptera and Vatica spp.) and P1,017 (US$37) for the yakal group (Shorea and Hopea spp. with hard, yellowishbrown wood) compared to only P550/m3prior to 1990, for these groups. Features of the IFMA Performance Guarantee Bond The introduction of the Bond by DENR was accompaniedby a stipulationof a bidding floor price set at P100/m3(US$3.60) with a minimum value of P6,OOO/ha (US$217). The former of the two values amounts to 10% of an assumed average net stumpagevalue of P1,000/m3.The per hectare minimum was considered necessary since there were no recent inventory data for most of the residual forest areas being offered; in these cases an average allowablecut of 60 m3/hawas assumed. The form of the Bond was not clearly specified in the regulations. As aresult, all IFMA holders to date have chosen to post a surety bond rather than a cash bond. Thus, instead of depositing the cash amount with the government,the lessee assigns the bond obligation to a registered bonding company by payment of an annual premium, the cost of which has ranged between 0.35% and 0.60% of the Bond's nominal value. Real assets of the IFMA holder (in most cases, Manila real estate) are normally required as collateral and are subject to forfeiture to the bonding company should DENR claim the Bond. It is noteworthy, however, that reputable companies with good forest management records have been able to raise Bonds without real estate security. Since a surety bond is not interestbearing or returnable (as envisaged under the original scheme), the only incentivesfor good behaviour are relaxation of the collateral requirements and reduction of the premium. Both of these effects will occur through inflation, since the bond amount is fixed at its nominal value throughout the life of the IFMA. Under the scheme, any infraction of the regulations would result in the whole Bond being forfeited and cancellation of the IFMA lease. DENR would claim the Bond amount from the bonding company which in turn would foreclose on the IFMA holder's collateral. This system therefore introduces the bonding company as a third party to the agreement with a significant financial interest in the scheme's operation.

management. Examples include a (US$360) P10,000/ha reforestation bond aimed at ensuring that Philippine TLA holders reforest an area of denuded land equivalent to the natural forest area they harvest each year and, in the United States, bonds are imposed to guarantee site restoration after mining or quarrying (e.g. Mississippi Surface Mining Regulations). IMPLEMENTATION OF FOREST PERFORMANCE BONDS IN THE PHILIPPINES Industrial forest management agreements In August 1991, the Philippines' Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) issued AdministrativeOrder No. 42 (Series of 1991) that introduced a new type of lease arrangement, the Industrial Forest Management Agreement (IFMA). The agreement assigns to private lessees the responsibility for management and protection of suitable areas of forest land combining, within single units, residual forest management, protection of ecologically critical areas, and establishment of industrial plantations on deforested land. This is in sharp contrast to the traditional practice of awarding rights to harvest profitable areas to the private sector while shifting the burden of protecting threatened areas to the government. The schemeplaces heterogeneousforest areas (of the kind that in many tropical countries have replaced homogeneous virgin forests) under a single management responsibility. It thus encourages creation of geographically rational management units allowing greater efficiency in combined timber extraction, plantation establishment and protection activities which require similar or shared inputs - and allows the cash flow from the profitable parts of the lease area to subsidize both plantation establishment and protection activities. Under the IFMA scheme,responsibilityfor managing and protecting forest areas in various states of depletion or degradation is assigned to the party willing to post the highest Bond guaranteeing compliance with the terms of the lease agreement. The amount of the Bond should reflect the expected value of future sustainableharvests from the residual forest as wellas theexpectedfuturemaintenanceandprotection costs under DENR-specified zoning guidelines. There is no requirement that the residual forest must immediatelysupport a minimum annual allowable cut, but the lessee must protect and improve the forest until and beyond a future harvest. The 1987Philippine Constitutionallows amaximum term of 50 years for private entities to utilize publicly-owned natural resources. Thus IFMAs (like TLAs) run for 25 years and, given a clean management record, may be renewed for a further 25 years. Unfortunately,this tenure restriction largely removes any incentive for multi-period behaviour and places undue emphasis on the disincentive of losing the Bond to assure compliance with the terms of the agreement. This is because the prescribed cutting cycle for most natural forests is 35 years. While a lessee could carry out a maximum of two

Performance guarantee bonds for commercial management of natural forests Experience to date

109

Since the IFMA programme started in late 1991, the DENR has entered into 187IFMAs covering about 48 1,000ha. Most of these are on exclusively deforested land with only 9,695 ha of productive residual forest bonded. Of these, only two areas with a total of 4,7 17 ha of residual forest have been allocated by bidding; the remainder have been settled by posting the minimum area-based Bond. The slow adoption of the system has been due largely to uncertainty among potential investors regarding the conditions of the Bond and ambiguities in the regulations as to what constitutes bondable forest. Principal difficulties with the scheme have been: settingthe maximum proportion of residual forestallowed to be covered by an IFMA at 50% of the total area, often resulting in irrational management unit boundaries; a lack of recent forest inventory data prior to bidding, making it impossible to determine the extent or quality of bondable forest or to prescribe sustainable management provisions to be covered by the lease; the area-based Bond floor price based on the assumption that all the residual forest had a current harvestable volume of 60 m3/ha - in many cases, this was too high, considering that much remaining residual forest will not reach this state for 10 years or more; the requirement that TLA holders wishing to convert to IFMA participate in bidding on the Bond, which meant the better they had managed the forest in the past (as reflected in its current condition and its attractivenessto newcomers), the more they would have to bid against newcomers to secure the right to continue to manage it; failure to specify clearly the provisions of the Bond - each Bond issued so far has included different conditions - or to make clear to bonding companies exactly what their obligations are; and lack of a suitable monitoring system with clearly defined grounds for calling the Bond.
Industry's point of view

management cost - a 5,000 ha residual forest valued at the area-based floor price would, for example, require a premium of P1 80,000 per annum; the minimum amount required is too large for a cash bond - for example, P30 million would be required for a 5,000 ha residual forest; plantation establishment on the denuded portion of a leased area acts as a bond, since required investments of up to P30,000/ha would be lost should the government cancel the IFMA for failure to protect the natural forest portion. Additional factors claimed by the private sector to be disincentives to adoption of long-term forest management have been frequent changes in forest policy and insecurity of land tenure. With the question of legislation totally banning commercial logging innatural forests still unresolved,potential investors are wary of making any commitments.

MODIFICATIONS TO THE SCHEME Early experience with the IFMA scheme indicated the scope for introducing improvements. Some of these are addressed in recently revised regulations (Administrative Order No.60 (Series of 1993)) and focus on the following aspects:
Adequate delineation and zoning of areas prior to bidding

The Philippine Wood Products Association (PWPA), the wood-using industry's trade association, regards the Bond as a disincentive to investment in forest management. It argues that returns on industrial tree plantations, a predominant component of IFMA schemes as implemented so far, are not sufficient incentive to stimulate the investment needed to get the large area of degraded forest land back into production. The value of the potentially productive natural forest in IFMA areas is acknowledged, but it is claimed that this incentive is nullified by imposition of the Bond (a problem that would disappear if the posting of the Bond had been accompaniedby a waiver of timber royalties as initially envisaged). The main disadvantages of the Bond are claimed to be:

The government has adopted a programme for improved planning of future management or residual forest areas. This involves engagement, through competitive bidding, of consulting companies (known as Forest Service Organizations) to conduct detailed inventories of potential IFMA areas and to prepare resource management plans that delineate different zones and prescribe uses for each. In addition to timber production,these plans willconsidernon-timber forestproducts and also local communities' use of the forest. The plans, which will include specificationsregarding the timing, location and intensities of harvests as well as requirements for community involvement, will be the basis for competitive bidding for IFMA leases. The system is currently being piloted and it is anticipated that prescriptions for resource management plan preparation will be complete by early 1994. Part of the delineation task must be to ensure that the rationale of the Bond scheme is not lost: if IFMA remains a traditional 'planting trees on degraded land' programme, no meaningful bids will be forthcoming (indeed a guarantee on the investor - a 'negative bond' - would be more appropriate). Planned IFMA areas should therefore include significant portions of natural forest. To address this requirement, the previous 50% limit for the productive residual forest area has been discontinued.
Setting Bondfloor prices

the collateral required by the bonding companies ties up plant and real estate, making it unavailable for other financing requirements, including those for plantation establishment; the surety bond premium represents a substantial additional

With well-established bidding procedures and clear specificationof zoning conditions, setting minimum bid values would be unnecessary since competitive pressures would

110

R. Paris, I. Ruzicka and H. Speechly Formalization of the surety bond arrangement

ensure correct valuation of the resource. However, given the Bond scheme's infancy and the evident weakness of competitiveprocesses in the Philippines, suitable floor prices are still considered necessary to ensure that the value of the existing forest resource is adequately safeguarded and to provide reliable guidance to prospective bidders. A floor price should:

be set at a level that both ensures reasonable compensation to the government and strongly penalizes a lessee for any damage caused by default of the regulations; be related to measurable attributes of the forest at the time . the lease is granted; and not be adisincentive to bidding on poor quality or recentlyharvested forest that will require both investment and time to reach a harvestable condition again.

In the new regulations, the floor price is calculated using a formula that includes the average harvestable volume per hectare as determined by the resource inventory; the FOB price for each species group; and a scaling factor that incorporatesthe average ingrowth rate into the allowable cut, a rate to discount the expected harvest values, and the portion of the forest that needs to be covered. The most easily determined and understood index of the value of a forest stand is the FOB market value of the current harvest, based on the allowable cut and the market price schedule used to determine ad valorem tax. Since the Philippinesnow importsa significantproportion of its domestic log requirements,FOB log prices, whichare assessed annually, are directly related to international market prices. Although residual stumpage value may be considered a more appropriate index for forest valuation than FOB value, there is no market for stumpage in the Philippines;thus its determination would have to include estimates of average logging and transport costs, which vary widely depending on the efficiency of different operators, topographical conditions and distance from FOB pricing points. While values of non-timber forest products (for example rattan) could also have been included, these were omitted because there are few data to support prescriptions for sustainable harvests and these products are not the primary focus of most IFMA investors. The estimatedingrowthrates into the harvestable diameter classes are required to take into accountthe time until harvests may be carried out. Discounting the value of the projected future harvest provides a way to even the floor prices between forests of differing condition, so that a much higher weight is given to immediately harvestable forest than to forest which may not be harvested for 10 years or more. In this way, a reward is provided for investors who take on management of forest which has on average a longer waiting period before harvests may start. Current TLA holders who voluntarily convert to IFMA may now do so without bidding and, depending on the condition of their concession,may negotiate a bond below the floor price. This avoids penalizing responsible investment in forest management, i.e. the value of the bond does not increase because of past managementefficiency and the leaseholder is rewarded for improvements.

Participation of bonding companies in the scheme has been a significantimprovementover the initial proposal. It frees the lessee from the onerous requirement of posting a cash bond, thus releasing resources for productive activities. It also provides a screening mechanism since bonding companies have every reason to be selective as to which forest lessees' performance they undertake to guarantee. The premium charged and, more importantly, the collateral requirements will normally reflect the reputation of the lessee, penalizing firms with poor forest management records and rewarding those with good records, regardless of their size or degree of solvency. Not unlike car insurance practices, entities with poor records will have to pay a high premium for the surety bond and indeed may not succeed in finding any willing guarantor. Conversely, for good IFMA holders, the cost of insuring against lease cancellationdue to violationis likely to decrease over time. Participation of bonding companies should also improve monitoring of lessees since a bonding company, having assumed liability for a Bond, has every reason to monitor a lessee's activity closely throughout the lease period. In all respects, therefore, the efforts of the bonding companies in selecting acceptable 'IFhlArisks' and setting correspondinginsuranceprernia, as well as monitoring IFMA holders during the lease period to reduce the probability of violation, serve to reinforce those of the DENR. In case the bond does have to be called, it is also easier for DENR to deal with a large and usually diversified bonding company than with anindividual loggingfm.The surety bond has therefore been formalized in the new regulations as a substitute for a cash bond. The Bond document has also been standardized and the exact terms and conditions under which a bond may be called have been defined, thereby ensuring that the legal contract with the bonding company allows prompt bond collection. The bonding companies are therefore fully aware of the obligations associated with IFMA leases and of the exact nature and extent of their liability.
Ensuring thatfunds are availablefor administering the Bond scheme

The effective use of the Bond mechanism requires that revenues sufficient at least for delineation and zoning of areas and monitoringand audit of IFMA performanceare generated for the DENR. This requires that at least part of the forest royaltiescollectedbe allocated to the DENR for such essential activities. An alternative approach specified in the revised regulations requires winning bidders to reimburse the government for the cost of inventory, aerial photography and preparation of resource management plans. Such payments are deposited in a special DENR fund ensuring that the agency has resources for carrying out EM4 preparation activities without relying on budget appropriations. This approach has disadvantagesin that it reducespresswe on the government to allocate a p t e r sltare of timberroyaltiestoforestmanagement activities, and it also burdens the IFMA h d k with an extra management cost. It is noteworthy, hawever,that the PWPA

Performance guarantee bonds for commercial management of natural forests

11 1

prefers this to the previous system where little or no recent information about areas was available to bidders.
Provision of greater tenure security for IFMA lessees

The revised regulations provide clearer guidelines for arbitration and compensation for investments should any rights included in the IFMA be withdrawn by the government without violation of lease terms by the lessee. As well as investments in plantations and roads, these provisions cover compensation for the costs of maintaining the Bond and of improving and protecting the residual forest. This is especially important in the light of the continuing uncertainty surrounding a possible logging ban.
Involvement of independent thirdparties in preparing areas and monitoring IFMA performance

forestry law monitoring and enforcement tasks of the government. Table 1 summarizes the main advantages and drawbacks of the Bond scheme. The IFMA programme, as presently implemented, has three related drawbacks.

TABLE Advantages and disadvantages of the Bond scheme 1.

Advantages

Drawbacks

The policy of engaging FSOs to prepare IFMA areas is an important step towards involvement of independent parties in the programme. The effective implementation of a Bond system also depends crucially on impartial audits to assess lessees' compliance with the terms of the IFMA agreement and, in case of violation, to recommend improvements, forfeiture of the Bond or the cancellation of the lease. If such a system is introduced, it will require mechanisms to prevent collusion between auditors and IFMA holders, or the government. Thus auditors should be bound by similarrules as IFMA holders and, as a condition to participation in the scheme, also be required to post a bond to guarantee their compliance with accepted auditing standards. In case of dispute over one auditor's findings, another audit could be conducted by a different firm and, should the auditor be found to have made an erroneous report, an immediate penalty could be imposed through prevention from further participation in the scheme and loss of the audit performance bond. This wouldcontribute greatly to the protection of both the government and IFMA holders against incompetence or partiality on the part of auditors.

provides a market-based mechanism to allocate forest leases on the basis of financial ability and track record of lessee provides a strong disincentive for bad management by concessionaires provides a means to compensate government owners for forest damage resulting from bad management reduces the need for regular ground monitoring

not well understood by industry or all government regulators seen as an additional disincentive by industry effectiveness is reduced if not accompanied by relaxation of tenure limits and reduction of forest royalties

CONCLUSIONS The Forest Guarantee Bond was developed as a way to grant maximum security of tenure to forest lessors while simultaneously providing the government with a ready means to penalize violators of forestry laws. It also attempts to confine the government to regulating enforcement functions while entrusting the private sector with the actual tasks of managing and protecting forest areas. In the face of the constitutional restrictions preventing private ownership of forest areas, the aim was to create a situation approximating that in an ordinary market, where the owners of resources benefit from good stewardship and suffer the consequences of bad management in the form of capital loss. In the case of forestry, however, private ownership rights need to be qualified by zoning provisions designed to protect the environment. The Bond covers both these aspects while economizing government resources by simplifying the

The first is the constitution-imposed tenure limitation which in most cases will allow only one harvest within a given area, thereby removing any economic incentive to maintain, let alone improve, a stand after harvest. Since the surety bond is not returnable, only the threat of bond forfeiture will ensure fulfilment of post-harvest obligations. Although transfer of an IFMA is allowed, the purchaser is left with the same remaining term as the seller. Without prospects of compensation for improvements at the end of the IFMA lease, the lessee has no way to appropriate the benefits from his investment other than to violate the terms of the lease and harvest immature timber (at the end of the lease, the value of immature stock will certainly exceed the value of the Bond). A solution to this 'end-of-thegame' problem requires a mechanism that allows a lessee to capitalize on his investment in immature stock. One approach would be for the government to auction such 'second-phase' IFMA lease rights based, not on the Bond (which would be retained, suitably inflated), but on the market value of improvements. The expired IFMA holder would then be compensated for the improvements and the government could legitimately appropriate a share of this price which would correspond to a capital gains tax. The second difficulty results from the fact that the requirement for forest lessees to post a guarantee bond was not accompanied by a waiver of forest charges on volume of timber extracted. Thus the bond 'stick' comes with no 'carrot' and the

112

R. Paris, I . Ruzicka and H.Speechly

REFERENCES
KUMMER, M. 1992.Deforestationin thepost-warPhilippines. DAVID Ateneo de Manila University Press, Manila. MUNGKORNDIN, S. 1993. Second growth forest management: Thai experience. Paper presented at the Second Growth Forest Management Workshop. June, 1993. University of the Philippines at Los Bafios, Laguna, Philippines. I. PARIS, AND RUZICKA,1991. Barking up the wrong tree: the role R. - . ofrent appropriation in sustainable tropicalforestmanagement. ADB Environment Office Occasional Paper, Manila. I. PARIS, AND RUZICKA,1993. The case against environmentaltaxes R. for sustainable forestry, Journal of Forestry, 91 (4):22-26. REPETTO, AND GILLIS, (Eds.) 1988. Public policies and the R. M. misuse of forest resources. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA. RICHARDSON, 1990. Forestry institutions and policy. Field S.D. Document No. VI-5, Forestry Studies, Indonesia. April 1990. RICHARDSON, 1992. Sticks and carrots in forest concession S.D. management. Commonwealth Forestry Review 71(3/4):167170. VINCENT, 1993. Response: depletion and degradation are not the J.R. same. Journal of Forestry 91 (4):24-25.

bond is (rightly) seen as yet another burden on an already strugglingindustry, reducing the cash flow available to forest managers to invest in long-term forest management. A major objective of the scheme - the cross-subsidization of forest protection and rehabilitationplantation from current revenue - is thus placed in jeopardy. The third drawback results from the persistence of differentialfiscal and regulatory regimes for various types of forests. Plantation-grown wood is exempted from forest charges and may be exported in any form, while logs and sawnwood from natural forests are subject to both royalties and an export ban. Furthermore, investment incentives, including tax and import duty exemptions, continue to be available for plantation establishment. These differences distort lessees' management decisions by making mono-crop plantation establishmentmore attractive than the rehabilitation of 'naturally-grown' but 'inadequately-stocked'forest. While zoning provisions can specificallyprohibit conversion of one category into another, they require time-consuming and costly inventory and monitoring.

EXITEXdP-PROTECTING THE
FUTURE OF TIMBER

Please request product details from:

EXITEX LTD., DUNDALK, REPUBLIC OF IRELAND

Fax No: (353 42) 71221

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 73(2), 1994

113

Evaluating European black alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.) provenances for short rotation forestry
OGHENEKOME U. ONOKPISE1and RICHARD B. HALL2
l

Division of Agricultural Sciences, Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University, Tallahassee, Florida 32307 Department of Forestry, lowa State University, Ames, lowa 5001 1

SUMMARY Biomass produced by short rotation intensively cultured plantations provides for energy related technologies like gasification, chemicals, conversion of wood and tree foliage into animal feedstocks. Alnus glutinosa provenances were evaluated in Illinois, Iowa and Wisconsin for its improvement in short rotation forestry. Seed sources from southern Europe performed best in Illinois, while Polish and Baltic Sea Sources had their best performances in Wisconsin, and Central European sources were best in Iowa. Average tree height for two years over all locations was 325 cm; diameter = 3.25cm; volume = 2674 cm"; leaf nitrogen = 1.63%;specific gravity = 0.428; maximum moisture content = 171%;and bark content = 41%. Estimates of broad sense heritability ranged from 0.03 to 0.93 for the properties studied.
Key Words: Alnus glutinosa, genetic correlation, biomass, energy, intensive culture, provenance.

INTRODUCTION As recently as 1987, woodrankedas the sixth largest energy supplier in the United States (Zerbe and Skog, 1988). This may come as a surprise to most Americans not familiar with the important contribution of wood to the United States' energy economy (Koning and Skog, 1987). However, this brings it in line with the primary use of wood world wide. It has been widely acknowledged that short rotation intensively cultured plantations (SRIC) constitute one of the developing energy technologies. Many of the hardwood species evaluated are generally fast growing and have a high coppicing propensity. This ability for regeneration from sprouts makes these tree species more attractive to energy planners as alternative energy sources and renewablenatural resources. Unlike conventional forestry, where height growth for long and clear logs is emphasized, under short rotation forestry (SRF), othertraits such as diameter, specificgravity, moisture content and bark percentages often receive greater attention when fuel values are considered (Hall, 1982). European black alder (Alnus glutinosa) is a fast growing tree species with attributes such as the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, an ability to tolerate adverse conditions and relative suitability for wood fibre (Weisgerber, 1974), which makes it attractive for short rotation forestry (SRF). Its wide distribution in Europe, .Near East and North Africa (Boratynski, 1980) also provides genetic diversity and raw materials for improvement programmes (Hall, Miller, Robinson, and Onokpise, 1983). Hence, European black alderprovenances were evaluated for several characteristics in order to identify suitable seed sources that are adapted to given environments or stable over a range of environments for inclusion in a short rotation tree improvement programme.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Source of provenances

From a range-wide provenance study of 48 seed sources from Europe, a subset of 17 provenances were selected for additional studies of several characters that are of interest for SRF. Details of the test sites are given in Table 1, and Table 2 provides details of the 17 provenances included in the study. Seeds were obtained from cooperators in Europe as bulked collections and individual seedlots from each of four trees in a stand (Maynard and Hall, 1980).
TABLE Site data for prmlenance test locations 1.

Locations Source Rhodes. Iowa 4loS5'N 93"lS'W 366 m 809 mm 150-180 Bottom wetland area, predominantly silty clay Rhinelander, Wisconsin 45'40'N 8Y031'W 360 m 763 mm 90- 120 Padus silt loam
with

Humm-Wye, Illinois 37O44'N 88'32'W 122 m 1112mm 180-210 Bottom wetland predominantly silty loam

Latitude Longitude Elevation Mean annual rainfall Freeze-free days Soils

Previous land use Hay and pasture Potato farm Hay and pasture

114

O.U. Onokpise and R.B. Hall

TABLE Provenances o Alnus glutinosa included in the present 2. f study

Serial Provnumber enance number Geographic origin Scotland Denmark Germany Germany Poland Poland Poland Hungary Hungary Netherlands Switzerland France Yugoslavia Yugoslavia Bulgaria Italy Italy Latitude Longitude Elevation (metres)

(1976). For wood biomass properties, field sampling was similar to that of leaf nitrogen determination. A total of 1,450 branch samples were collected. In the laboratory, 5 cm long branch segmentswere obtained from the field sampled branches for the determinationsof maximum moisture content (MCX), bark percentage, and specific gravity. Bark percentages were expressed as the percentage of the oven dry weight of wood with bark. Maximum moisture content of wood without bark was also obtained as apercentage of oven dry weight after calculating the difference between the wet weight and oven dry weight of wood without bark. Specific gravity was computed using Smith's maximum moisture content formula (1954). A biomass score for each provenance was determined on the basis of the following formula: BS = Vol. X SG where BS = biomass score, Vol. = Volume in cm3 which is obtained from the Volume formula for alder as indicated earlier (Hall, 1982).
Statistical and genetic analysis

Experimental design

The experimental design was a randomized complete block in four replications. For the Rhodes, Iowa, and Rhinelander, Wisconsin locations, trees were planted in 1979 at 1.5 X 1.5 m spaciflg with 8-tree plots (two 4-tree rows side by side) for each provenance for each block. The close spacing was to allow for early measurements of trees under SRIC (Hall and Maynard, 1979). The design provided a total of 1536 seedling trees occupying about 0.33 hectares of land within each location. In addition, two border rows of mixed alder sources were planted around the outside of each set of blocks. For the Illinois site, trees were planted in 1980 at a wider spacing of 1.8 X 3.0 m with 8-tree plots (two 4-tree rows side by side). Two border rows of mixed alder sources were also planted at the outside edge of each set of blocks.
Determination of characteristics

Measurements were carried out for growth and wood biomass properties in all three locations,in 1982and 1983respectively. The traits measured were height, diameter, leaf nitrogen, volume, specificgravity,maximum moisture and bark contents, and biomass score. All tree heights were taken to the last flushing bud in metric units with a telescoping measuring pole. Diameter of trees was measured at 1m height using dial calipers graduatedin inches and then converted tocentimetres. Volume was obtained using the formula derived for alder trees (Hall, 1982): V = 550.29 + (0.344WH); where D = diameter (cm) at 1 m; H = height (cm); and V = volume in cm3. Leaf nitrogen content was determined by fmt tagging four middle branches on the previous year's stem growth in each of four selectedtrees within areplication for each provenance. From each branch, four leaves were collected starting with the fist fully expanded leaf. Leaf tissue nitrogen was then analysed according to the method of Isaac and Johnson

Plot means for the traits were computed for all locations combined. All data were analysed using unweighted plot means withmissingvalues accordingto Snedecor and Cochran (1967); and Steel and Torrie (1981). The General Linear Model (GLM) of the Statistical Analysis System (SAS) (Helwig and Council, 1979) was used to compute means and mean squares. Provenancemeans were compared by Duncan's New Multiple Range test (Steel and Tome, 1981). The GLM was used to determine the appropriate mean square expectation for estimating variance and CO-variance components. These variance components were then used to compute broadsense heritability estimates (Falconer, 1981) and genotypic correlations (Burdon, 1977) for the traits evaluated. For stability analysis, Eberhart and Russell's (1966) regression and Wricke's (1966) ecovalence methods were compared to a multi-variate analysis based on the cluster analysis approach. Mean height data was used to determine the stability of provenances across locations in the regression and ecovalence methods. Similarity matrices were clustered to obtain various groupings in the form of dendrograms (Sokal and Rohlf, 1962) based on a single-linkage approach of merging nearest neighbours (largest similarities) (Johnson and Wichern, 1982). Dendrogramswere plotted with an IBM plotter at Iowa State University Computer Science Center.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Growth characters

Provenances were highly variable across locations for the characters evaluated. For mean height, two Polish seed sources (561 and 51 l), two Hungarian seed sources (591 and 592) and one German provenance (48 1)had the highest mean heights while the least heights were obtained for the southern Italian seed source (975) and the Scottish provenance (131) (Table 3). This mean performance was reflected in the

Evaluating European black alder provenances provenance rankings within locations, except for Hurnm-Wye where an Italian provenance (962) along with a Yugoslavian (722) and a French seed source (682) ranked among the top three provenances for total height. Significantprovenance X locationinteraction effectswere obtained for all the growth characteristics (Table 4). The relative difference in the rankings of provenances from Rhinelander to Humm-Wye, for height, is a reflection of the significant provenance X location interaction obtained from combined analysis. Our results also indicate that as test sites below the 40"N latitude are used, provenance performance would favour the southern and Mediterranean seed sources. Provenances such as 962 suffer considerable die back due to severe winter damage in northern latitudes and although they

115

may have fast growth rate during the growing season, height growth lags behind the other more winter hardy provenances because of winter damage. In the Southern test site, however, these provenances (962,682, and 722) benefit more from the longer growing seasons, and milder winters. The results obtained for diameter are consistent with those of Funk (1979), and Kellison and White (1979) with the tallest trees generally having the largest diameter. However,diameter was more strongly correlated with most of the other traits. Miller (1983) and Hall, Miller, Robinson, and Onokpise (1983), have all emphasized the need to select for diameter rather than height under intensive culture. Because of the strong correlation between height and diameter, it may be more advantageous to select for diameter rather than height.

TABLE Means of height, diameter, volume and leaf tissues nitrogen over three test locations (Rhodes, Rhinelander and Humm-Wye) and 3. location means (plus standard error)" among Alnus glutinosa provenances Provenanceb Total heights (cm) 1982 Diameter
1983

Volume (cm3) in 1983

Leaf Tissue Nitrogen

(%)

(cm) in 1983

1982

1983

Rhodes Rhinelander Humm-Wye

332.26 1.73 234.00 1.57 234.02 1.68

(47.4) (0.11) (25.00) (0.08) (32.97) (0.05)

538.01 (54.29) 1.66 (0.13) 279.1 1 (28.34) 1.56 (0.05) 331.13 (36.73) 1.56 (0.06)

4.54 (0.59) 2.82 (0.55) 3.22 (0.47)

4646(1450) 1505 (461) 1872 (500)

See Table 2 for details of provenances

c

Overall provenance rankiigs

116

O . U . Onokpise and R.B. Hall

TABLE. Combined analysis of variance for height, diameter and 4

leaf tissue nitrogen in Alnus glutinosa provenances
Heights Sources
Locations (L)

Diameter Mean squares 1983 1264270.20*** 13079.77 17362.90*** 7206.64*** 1720.50 1983 55.45*** 2.22 2.81*** 1.08*** 0.295

TABLE . Means of maximum moisture content, hark percentage, 5 specific gravity and biomass score forAlnus glutinosaprovenunces combined over locations and years. Rankings are highest to lowest according to Duncan's Multiple Range TesP
Prov Maximum Pmv moisture content (%) 186ab 178ab 177ab 176abc 176abc 175abc 174abc 172bc 171bc 170bc 168bcd 167bcd 167bcd 167bcd 166bcd 163cd 157d 171 13 Bark Prov Specific Prov Biomass gravity Score (cm3)

df 2
9

1982

(W)

215203.67*** 9596.09 12541.03*** 5676.03*** 1125.40

Reps within L Prov Prov X L Residual

16 32 138

Sources L Years (Y) Reps within Y in L Prov Prov X Y Prov X L Prov x L x Y Residual

Leaf tissue nitrogen" df

Mean squares

Wnly two reps were used for leaf tissue nitrogen determination. *,**,*** Significant at 0.05, 0.01 and 0.001 probability levels.

795 614 975 592 511 541 451 633 724 131 682 481 222 561 591 722 962 Overall Mean: S.E.
a

Except for provenances 561 and 592 in 1983, the mean values forleaf tissue nitrogen (LTN) showed that seed sources such as 131 with low to moderate heights, had high leaf tissue nitrogen (Table 3). This geographic variation was better reflected in the rankings within locations. Provenances 962 and 975,222, and 131 ranked highest in 1982, while 56 1,592, and 131 had the highest leaf tissue nitrogen in 1983. Since alder trees fix their own nitrogen, the need for retranslocation of nitrogen from leaves to growing points such as leaf buds, may not be necessary (Dawson and Funk, 1981).
Wood hiomass properties

Means followed by the same letters within acolumn are not significantly different at 0.05 probability levels.

Maximum moisture content (MCX) varied from 158% to 186% among provenances over all locations (Table 5). Rankings of provenances varied from one location to the other. The Rhinelander location showed better differentiation of provenance means when subjected to Duncan's multiple range test. Because branch wood has been used in our MCX determination, differences among provenances may not be very significant. The results are, however, within the range of MCX for many hard wood species (Panshin and De Zeeuw, 1980). Bark accounted for 33 to 40% of oven dry weight of material at the Rhodes location. The values were 40 to 48% in Rhinelander and 37 to 69% at the Humm-Wye location respectively. Across all locations, bark percentages ranged from 38 to 50% with a mean of 41% (Table 5). Bark percentages obtained here are slightly higher than those reported for black alder by Geyer (1981) for small diameter samples. Because of the absence of significant effects among provenances, any one of them can be selected for bark content production for fuel wood needs.

Mean specific gravity varied from 0.4 16 to 0.444 over all locations (Table 5). Except for Rhinelander, analysis of variance showed no significant provenance X location X year interaction effects (Table 6). Vurdu and Bensend (1979) and Morin (1974), have observed that branch wood of 2-8 year old trees had higher but not significantly different specific gravity thaneither stemwoodor wood obtainedfromroots. However, as pointedout from the studiesof Manwiller(1975), significant differences between branch wood and stemwood are unlikely because of the relative juvenility of both sections of wood during the early years of growth.
TABLE. Combined analysis of variance for maximum moisture 6 content, bark, and specific gravity, with years and locations combined.
Source Year (Y) Location (L) Reps within Y in L Prov Prov x Y Prov x L Error Corrected Total WCX = Maximum moisture content. bSG = Specific gravity. *, ** Significant at 0.05 and 0.01 probability levels. df MCX" Bark SGb

Evaluating European black alder provenances Biomass score

There was greater variation for biomass score than any of the other properties previously discussed (Table 5). Also, there was geographic variation among the provenances within locations. Although there were changes in relative rankings within locations, only a few seed sources had significantly higher biomass score than the other provenances. Because biomass score has been obtained from height, diameter and specific gravity data, variations in any one of these characters will also be reflected in the biomass score. Significant geographic variation was earlier indicated for height and diameter among these seventeen provenances. Since there is very little geographic variation for specific gravity, increased biomass production will be attained by identifying provenances adapted to different environments for height and diameter growth, and making appropriate selections.

117

Heritability estimates, genetic correlations, and stability analysis

Estimates of heritability were lowest at Rhodes and highest in Rhinelander except for specific gravity (Table 7). There was a significant reduction in heritability estimates for height and diameter from combined location analysis. Although . reductions were obtained for specific gravity, these were considered non-significant. Thus, height and diameter in A. glutinosa are under strong environmental control and as such, improvement of these characters must be done for each environment. It should be possible to make genetic improvements for these characters in view of the relatively moderate heritabilities obtained for the traits. Some progeny testing will benecessary because the broad sense heritabilities so obtained include non-additive genetic variances. Because of rapid growth and relatively early flowering inA. glutinosa, progeny testing to identify provenances with general and specific combing ability can be done early in the breeding programme.
TABLE Broad sense heritability estimatesfor growth and biomass 7. characteristics among seventeen Alnus glutinosa provenances.
Heritability estimates (%) h : 2 h :

Genetic correlations (Type A - Falconer, 1981) ranged from -0.25 to 0.95. Significantly high positive correlations were obtained for height, diameter, volume and biomass. Therefore, an improvement in any one of these characteristics will indirectly improve the other three. Most of the negative correlations were obtained for bark content in relation to the other characters. Thus, any improvement in this character could deleteriously affect the other traits. This will be good for selection programmes in which bark will be an undesirable trait. However, in biomass production some compromise may have to be made between the other traits and bark content. The type B genetic correlations of Burdon (1977) used to characterize the three environments on the basis of height, diameter andmaximum moisture content were low tomoderate (0.03 1to0.598; Table 8) with Rhodes vs Rhinelander showing higher correlations while Humm-WyevsRhinelander showed the lowest. Correlations between Rhodes vs Humm-Wye were also close to that of Rhodes vs Rhinelander. The very low and non-significant correlation between Rhinelander and Humm-Wye would indicate that both of these locations must be in two different breeding zones, when selectingA.glurinosa provenances.
TABLE Estimates ofco~~arianc~es correlations bemeen en~irnn8. and ments for height, diameter and mmimum moisture content ( M C X )
Site Pair Source Trait I vs 2 1 vs3 2 vs3

COVg,+

Height Diameter MCX Height Diameter MCX

3843.66 0.780 60.98 0.454** 0.598** 0.321*

4752.79 0.391 20.31 0.549** 0.500** 0.169*

349.46 0.156 24.67 0.03125 0. 106's 0.104"

hSNon-Significant. COVBx! Covariance between locations. = rBXy Genotypic correlations between locations = *,** Significant at the 0.05 and 0.01 probability levels.

Character

h : 56

Height 70 Diameter 45 LTN 23 MCX 48 Bark 33 SG 57

!h , h :

93 89 88 59 18 33

'

88 73 67 34 66 54

58 39 52 21 26 47

24 33 45

= =

Within location heritability estimates. Heritability estimates for locations combined within years. Heritability estimates for years and locations combined.

hi =

1 2 3

= Rhodes, Central Iowa

= Rhinelander, Wisconsin = Humm-Wye, Southern Illinois

Stability measures according to Eberhart and Russell (1966) revealed that Provenances 131,48 1,614,682, and 795 had average stability due to the fact that their regression coefficients (b) approximated 1.O (Table 9). Under Wricke's ecovalance method, 962,13 1,56 1,541, and 682 contributed the most to the interaction sums of squares (ISS). The high contribution of provenance 131 to this ISS is worth noting since the regression analyses indicated that this was a stable genotype. Dendrograms were developed to show the grouping of provenances within location and the results of cluster analysis would indicate that Rhodes and Humm-Wye could be in the same breeding zone (Figures 1 and 2). These two locations were clustered at a much higher similarity level.

118

O.U. Onokpise and R.B. Hall

TABLE Comparison of stability indices by the regression and 9. ecovalence methods

Provenance Mean height (cm) locations combined Regression coefficienta Provenance contribution to sums of squaresb 9180.95 (14)b 2165.00 (3) 2079.18 (3) 583.42 (0.9) 2035.50 (3) 10475.70 (16) 8419.17 (13) 1 1 12.86 (2) 3177.47 (5) 1180.59 (2) 2189.91 (3) 6889.22 (1 1) 199.58 (0.3) 500.73 (0.8) 665.98 (I) 11981.40 (17) 1870.94 (3) "egression coefficients were obtained by the methods of Eberhart and Russell (1966).
h

Genotypic distance

FIGURE Cluster analysisfor provenances in location Humm-Wye, 2. Illinois

Values in parentheses represent percent provenance contribution to the interaction, sums of squares.

l 0.8

1
0.0

0.6

0.4 Genotypic distance

0.2

FIGURE Cluster analysis for provenances in location Rhodes, 1.

Iowa

From a treebreeder's standpoint, themulti-vanateanalysis approach can be used to group several environments based on their similarities, while the regression analysis could be used to identify those plant genotypes that may be adapted to each of the grouped locations. For example, provenance 561 from regression analysis was shown to be above average stability andit was foundto have some of the tallest trees in Rhinelander. Therefore, having been separated by the cluster analysis technique, Rhinelander can be used for the improvement of this provenance. Morgenstem andTeich (1969)indicatedthat both Wricke's ecovalence and Eberhart and Russell's regression methods are comparable and should, therefore, give similar results. Owino (1977) on the other hand suggested that Wricke's ecovalence was more discriminating. Except for 13 1 in the present study the results of both methods are similar. Provenances were separated as to their adaptability or stability in a similar manner. Thus, both methods could be used to forecast site indexes and provenance performances in A. glutinosa breeding programmes especially for short rotation forestry. It should be noted that where a particular method is chosen or preferred, the mean performance of genotypes at each location must also be considered as a measure of stability or adaption (Finlay and Wilkinson, 1963). Provenances 962, 975, 592, 722, and 724 had above average stability, while the remaining six provenances had below average stability. Provenance 962, for example, ranked highest in Humm-Wye in SouthernIllinois but had avery low ranking in Rhinelander, Wisconsin. These provenances are able to take advantage of improved growing conditions and

Evaluating European black alder provenances

119

therefore developed fast growth rates. The provenances with high b values represent most of the southern and south central European seed sources that are adapted to growing under the influence of the Mediterranean climate. Thus, in the northsouth transect of our test locations from Rhinelander to Humm-Wye, these seed sources improve on their relative rankings as we move them from the north to the south. Many of the Polish and Baltic seed sources such as 561 and 541 whose regression coefficients were appreciably less than 1.00 are adapted to the low yielding environments in this case, shorter growing season and much harsher winter conditions. These provenances consistently had the tallest trees in Rhinelander. It should, however, be noted that microsite conditionscould change b values considerably. For example, if provenances are tested in Central Iowa over a range of soil fertilities, different low and high yielding environments will be encountered. Caution is, therefore, advised when extrapolating results such as ours to narrower ranges of environments. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This paper is part of a Ph.D. dissertation of the senior author. The work was supported by Station Project 2210 (N.C.-99 Regional Tree Improvement and sub-contract 19X-43391C of the Department of Energy Woody Biomass Program), Cooperative Aid Agreement 13-721 with US Forest Service Intensive Fiber Field Project, and Project CPB-7 of the InternationalEnergy Agency (IEA),Forestry Group B. Thanks are due to the various sponsors of this study for the funds received; to Iowa State University for the Elizabeth Hoyt Scholarship program from which Dr. Onokpise benefitted; and to the Nigerian government for providing a three-year scholarship to enable Dr. Onokpise to complete his graduate degree programme. Laboratory and greenhouse facilities made available by the Department of Forestry,ISU are gratefully acknowledged. Thanks to Dr. Knud Clausen of the USDA Forest Service at Carbondale,Illinois, and Dr. EdHansen of the Forest Genetics Laboratory at the North Central Forest Experiment Station in Rhinelander, Wisconsin, for technical and logistical support for data collection at the Illinois and Wisconsin locations, respectively. Sincere thanks are also extended to Dr. Paul Hinz and Mr. Carl Lee, of ISU Statistics Department and Dr. Carl Mizeof ISU Forestry Department for advice on statistical problems and for criticallyreviewing the originalmanuscript. REFERENCES
BORATYNSKI,1980. Systerhatics and geographic distribution of A. alders (Systematyka i geograficzna distribuce 01z)AaszeDrzeno Olesne 8:35-71. Polska Academia Institut Dendrologii. BURDON, 1977. Genetic correlation as a concept for studying R.D. genotype X environment in forest tree breeding Silvae Genetica 26:168-175. D.T. 1981. Seasonal change in foliar DAWSON, and FUNK, J.0, nitrogen concentration of Alnus glutinosa. For. Sci. 27:239243.

EBERHART, and RUSSELL, S.A. W.A. 1966. Stability parameters for comparing varieties. Crop Sci. 6:36-40. FALCONER, 1981. Introduction to quantitative genetics. D.S. Longmans, New York. FINLAY, and WILKINSON, 1963. The analysis of adaptatK.W. G.N. ion in a plant breeding programme. Aust. J.Agric. Res. 14:742754. FUNK, D.T. 1979. Alnus glutinosa provenance trials in Ohio stripmines: sixteen years' results. pp. 28-3 1 in Brimes, R.P. (ed.) proceedings of the first North Central Tree Improvement Conference, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, August 1979. GEYER, W.W. 1981.Growth, yieldand woody biomasscharacteristics of seven short rotation hardwoods. Wood Sci. 13:209-215. HALL, 1982.Breeding trees for intensiveculture. In:Proceedings, R.B. IUFRO Joint Meeting of working parties on genetics about breeding strategies, including multiclonal varieties. Escherode, Federal Republic of Germany. HALL, R.B. and Maynard, C.A. 1979. Considerations in the genetic improvement of alder. In: Gordon, J.C., Wheeler, C.T. and Peny, D.A. (eds.) Proceedings of a Workshop: Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation in the Management of Temperate Forests. Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, April 1979. HALL, R.B., MILLER, ROBINSON, and ONOKPISE, 1983. G.A., T.L. O.U. Developing Alnus for intensive culture. In: Hansen, E.A. (Compiler), Intensive plantation culture: 12 years' research. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-91: 33-45. HELWIC, and COUNCIL, 1979. SAS User's guide. SAS J.T. K.A. Institute Inc., Raleigh, NC. ISAAC, R.A. and JOHNSON, W.C. 1976. Determination of total nitrogen in plant tissue, using a block digestor. J. of AOAC 59:98-100. JOHNSON, and WICHERN, R.A. D.W. 1982. Applied multi-variate statistical analysis. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. KELLISON, and WHITE, 1979. Black alder performance in the R.C. G. southeast. pp.345-355in:ProceedingsofWorkshoponsymbiotic nitrogen fixation in management of temperate forests. Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon. KONINC, and SKOG, J.W. K.F. 1987. Uses of wood energy in the United States: an opportunity. Biomass 27:27-36. MANWILLER, 1975. Wood and bark moisture contents of small F.G. diameter hardwoods growing on southern pine sites. WoodSci. 8:384-388. MAYNARD, and HALL, C.A. R.B. 1980. Early results of a rangewide provenance trial ofAlnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. pp. 184-201 in Proceedings of the 27th Northeastern Forest Tree Improvement Conference. MIKOLA, 1985.Liberation of nitrogen from alder leaf litter. Act. G.A. Forest. Fenn. 67: 1-10. MILLER, G.A. 1983. Variation in growth, nitrogen fixation, and assimilate allocation among selectedAlnusglutinosa (L.)Gaertn. clones. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa. MORGENSTERN, and TEICH, E.K. A.H. 1969. Phenotypic stability of height growth of jack pine provenances. Can. J . Genet. Cytol. 11:llO-117. MORIN, M.I. 1974. NSSC pulping of young European black alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.). Tappi. 57(6): 133-135. OWINO, 1977. Genotype X environment interaction and genotype F. stability in loblolly pine 11. Silvae Genetica 26(1):21-26. PANSHIN, and DEZEEUW, 1980. Textbook of wood technology. A.J. C. McGraw-Hill, New York. ROB~NSON, MAYNARD, THOMAS, and HALL, T.L., C.A., J, R.B. 1978. A germplasmcollectionandevaluationpr0gramfoL4lrucrglutinosa. pp. 73-85 in: Proceedings of the 26th Northeastern Forest Tree

120

O.U. Onokpise and R.B. Hall

ImprovementConference. Northeast Forest Experiment Station, Durham, New Hampshire. SMITH, D.M. 1954. Maximum moisture content method for determining specific gravity of small wood samples. USDA Forest Service Res. Pap. FPL-2014. SNEDECOR, and COCHRAN, 1967.Statistical methods. 6th G.W. W.G. edn. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa. SOKAL, andRo~w, 1962. The comparisons of dendrograms R.R. F.J. by objective methods. Taron 11:33-40. STEELE, R.G.D. ~ ~ ~ T O R R I 1981.Principles andprocedures of J.H. E , statistics: a biometrical approach. McGraw-Hill, New York. VURDU, and BENSEND, H. D.W. 1979. Specific gravity and fiber length in European black alder roots, branches and stems. Wood Sci. 12(2): 103- 105.

WEISGERBER, 1974. First results of progeny test with AInus H. glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. after controlled pollination. Proceeding$ Joint IUFROMeeting S.02.04 1-3, Stockholm,Sweden. Session Vk423-437. WRICKE, 1966. h e r eine biometrische Methode zur Erfassung G. der akologischen Anpassung. Acta Agr. Second Suppl. 16:98101. WRIGHT, J.W. 1976. Introduction to forest genetics. Academic Press, New York. ZERBE, and SKOG, J.I. K.E. 1988. Sources and uses of wood for energy. In: Proceedings International Symposium: Energy options for the year 2000: contemporary concepts in technology and policy. 1:242-254.

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 73(2), 1994

121

Seasonal growth zones in the wood of Acacia karroo Hayne: their definition and implications
I.D. GOURLAY and R.D. BARNES Oxford Forestry Institute, Department of Plant Sciences, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB

SUMMARY
The age of tropical and sub-tropical tree species is seldom clearly and unambiguously defined. This study investigates whether any anatomical feature in the wood delimits annual periods of growth in Acacia karroo Hayne, one of the most widely distributed tree species in southern Africa. Samples from 36 trees from four African countries, covering over 14 degrees of latitude, were included in the study. Complete stem cross sections were examined from these trees, the majority of which were selected for their supporting data on planting dates. In addition a sub-set was wounded at documented time intervals to produce a callus which could be located and related to anatomical variation and phenological events. Seasonal growth rings in the anatomy were apparent as narrow bands of marginal parenchyma filled with long crystal chains. The crystals were subsequently identified as calcium oxalate through the use of a scanning proton microprobe. The number of bands was shown to correspond closely to the known ages of the trees. There was further confirmation that they were annual in that the width of the growth rings was correlated with annual rainfall. The bands were laid down during the dry winter season when stem diameter growth ceased. Keywords: Acacia karroo, growth rates, seasonal growth rings, wood anatomy

INTRODUCTION Most investigations of growth and yield in African Acacia spp. have been based on traditional mensurational methods. Several such studies have been documented for Acacia spp. For example yield tables have been produced for Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del. and Faidherbia albida, (A. Chev) syn. A. albida (Del.) which have a recorded history of management and harvesting along the Nile in the Sudan for over fifty years (Khan, 1965). Little research has been carried out on the relationship between seasonal climatic parameters and wood anatomy that could be used to study productivity of AfricanAcaciaspp. In Acacia tortilis ssp. raddiana (Savi) Brenan in Israel, an examination of the phellogen activity showed that, despite both the cambium and the phellogen exhibiting seasonal activity, no corresponding rings were formed in the phellem or in the xylem (Arzeeetal., 1969). The conclusion was that this was a common feature in various arid zone species, and might be due to an evolutionary adaptation to the erratic environmental conditions of their natural habitat. In tropical regions, seasonal variations in temperature are often relatively small compared to diurnal changes and plant growth is mainly dependent on rainfall (Huxley and van Eck, 1974). There can be significant year-to-year variability in total rainfall and in its disttibution and, to a lesser extent, in incoming solar energy and ambient temperatures due to variability in cloud cover. Water availability, and hence water movement and internal water potential, can greatly influence any rhythmic growth and serious moisture stress will cause vegetative rest (Alvim and Alvim, 1978). There have been attempts to quantify productivity of Acacia spp. woodland in Africa and its relationship to animal browsing. Rates of growth of A. tortilis regeneration, when protected from browsing, have been reported as three metres in height in three years (Croze, 1974). Wild animal impact on thenative vegetationof Lake Manyara National Park, Tanzania, has been examined, and the suggestion has been made that a generation of A. tortilis may last between 40 and 60 years (Vesey-Fitzgerald, 1974). None of these studies had access to the precise estimates of age, and therefore of growth and yield, that might result from studies of wood anatomy. One exception appears to be a study conducted by Walter (1940) who examined several species in several families in South West Africa. He found visible growth rings to be reliable only in the Leguminosae. He collected data between 1935 and 1938 from A. giraffae var. espinosa Kuntze (syn. A. erioloba E. Mey.) and found that a pale concentric band delineated a growth period. This band was composed of 1 to 3 layers of cells containing crystals and he concluded that it was produced annually and could be confirmed both by cutting sections from the ends of growing points on the branches, and by matching ring width against rainfall. Exploratory work at the Oxford Forestry Institute with naturally grownAcacia busseiHarms ex. Sjostedtfrom Somalia indicated the possibility of age determination on the basis of fine marginal parenchyma bands (Gammadid, 1989). As these samples originated from trees growing in a region of bimodal rainfall distribution, it was hypothesized that each ring represented the growth of one rainy season, and each year was represented by two rings. Following this work, a study to identify annual growth rings to facilitate the determination of the age and growth rate in severalAcacia spp. was undertaken (Gourlay and Kanowski, 1991; Gourlay, 1992). This paper concentrateson the results concerningAcacia karroo (Hayne), one of the most widespread trees in southern Africa.

124

I.D. Gourlay and R.D. Barnes

Estimation of growth rates

It was apparent that the marginal parenchyma band first became visible between the wounds made in March and April. Similarly, it was also apparent that the production of new xylem commenced between mid-September andmid-October. This implies that the tree didnot produce wood during the dry winter period from late March to early September. From morphological observations at the time of wounding it was apparent that between June and August most trees had begun to lose their leaves and bore pods ranging from ripe to dehiscent. It was observed that some abnormal anatomical changes took place in the new xylem that was produced after wounding; the frequency of rays increased by approximately 28 percent unit area, and themean vessel dimensiondecreased by approximately 70 m. There was also an increase in the frequency of vessels in clusters.

On the basisof the growth rings identified as described above, mean annual radial growth rates were estimated for all samples for which a complete ring count was possible from pith to bark. Sample details and mean annual ring widths are given in Table 2. The mean annual ring width across all trees and sites examined in this work was between 6 and 7mm corresponding to an annual diameter increment of 12 to 14mm. Individual tree extremes of annual ring width ranged from 15.21mm (seven-year-old tree, Richard's Bay, South Africa), down to 3.45mm (19 year old tree, Matopos, Zimbabwe), i.e. annual diameter increments from 6.90 to 30.42mm.

TABLE Location site and tree data for Acacia karroo woodsamples used in the study 2.
Location Umguza Valley,Zimbabwe Lat. 19"58'S Long. 28' 3 1' E Alt. 1190 m Site Details Abandoned hay fields black vlei soils No. of trees and their history 7 self sown 1973-76 felled 89-91 2 self sown? felled 91 2 self sown? used in periodic wounding experiment felled 9 1 16 seeded annually after mining 1978-89 felled 9 1-92 3 self sown? felled 92 2 self sown? cored 9 1 3 self sown? cored 9 1 29.0 cm 53.0 cm Mean diameter range 11.0 cm 21.7 cm Maximum no. of growth rings Mean ring width

Natural vegetation

34.0 cm 36.0 cm 14.2 cm 14.5 cm

Matopos, Zimbabwe Lat. 20'19' S Long. 28'32' E Alt. 1347 m

Natural vegetation black vlei soils regular fires and insect damage to trees

Richard's Bay S. Africa Lat. 28'47' S Long. 32'05' E Alt. 30 m

Reclaimed sand dunes after extraction of titanium and other minerals Sand dunes outside mined area

Dedza district, Malawi Lat. 14'12' S Long. 34'06' E Alt. 1200 m

Cultivated land edges stony lithosols to red sandy clay loam

40.0 cm 41.0 cm

Zomba and Blantyre districts,Cultivated land edges Malawi red sandy clay loam Lat. 1S033' S Long. 35'1 1' E Alt. 1000 m Lusaka, Zambia Lat. 15'24's Long. 28'16'E Alt. 1280 mm Cultivated land edges red brown clays

30.0 cm 59. cm

1 self sown? cored 9 1

26 cm

Seasonal growth zones in Acacia karroo

125

Cumulative diameter increments of individual trees were also plotted for those samples that contained a complete radius from pith to bark (Figure 1). It was apparent from these that there was a fairly uniform increase in diameter increment in youth, which started to decline in trees around 20 years old. Results from analyses of the older samples of A. karroo suggest that 30 to 40 years is likely to be the maximum age attained by this species before some physical and structural decline becomes evident.

improved by matching the width with the rainfall in the preceding years (see Fritts, 1962) and a further improvement in the correlation was achieved by using a three year moving average with the one year lag. The smoothing effect of this manipulation of the rainfall data may be explained by the delayed effect of rainfall on moisture due to the slow movement of water through the soil.

Year

FIGURECumulative diameter incrementsfor seven individual trees 1. of Acacia karroofrom 22 to 4 1 years old. zl and 22 from Umguza, Zimbabwe. RB l , 2 and3from Richard's Bay, South Africa. M1 and M5 from Malawi

FIGURE Ringwidth (broken line) against annual precipitation 2. (solid line) for Acacia karroo at the Matopos site, Zimbabwe (2 trees). Thisplotincorporaressmoothing(three-yearmo~~ingaverage) and a one year lug (ring width = year + 1 )

In his working plans for the Fung area of the Sudan, Jackson (1959) suggested that, if his recommendations regarding final stocking forA. nilotica (ssp. tomentosa) were followed, a mean dbh of 40cm should be realized over a 30 year rotation. This implied growth rate is similar to that deduced from this work, where the results from the older trees indicate that a dbh of 40cm is achieved by 25 to 30 year old A. karroo trees.
Relationship between meteorological parameters andgrowth

Estimates of annual radial growth for trees identified as originating from sites with reliable meteorological data were plotted against a variety of meteorological parameters over the period for which growth zones could be identified. Comparisonswere made with annual evaporationrates, mean, minimum and maximum temperatures, and rainfall. The meteorological parameter with which annual growth appeared to be most closely related was annual rainfall. At most sites with reliable rainfall data, agoodrelationship was evident between annual rainfall and mean ring width (Figures 2 and 3). There was often a poor match between ring width and rainfall for the first three or four rings; it is likely that this latter pattern was a reflection of an interruption of juvenilegrowth due to causesotherthan rainfall, e.g. browsing. Correlations between ring width and annual rainfall were

M62MQM7072747678m@84&MW
Year
FIGURE Ringwidth (broken line) against annual precipitation 3. (solid line)for Acacia karroo at the Umguza Valley site, Zimbabwe (one tree). This plot incorporates a one year lag (ringwidth = year +lJ

It was clear from all the samples that tree growth was related to annual rainfall, and that the marginal parenchyma bands and crystalliferous chains represent the periodicity of growth and the ageing of the tree.

126

I.D. Gourlay and R.D. Barnes

and by evenness of appearance in contrast to the more irregular, wavy, confluent bands of the latter. They also suggest that these bands and the crystalliferous chains associated with them do indicate seasonal growth patterns in the stem of the species. This work has established that:the age of an Acacia karroo tree can be accurately determined by counting the marginal parenchyma bands in a disc or core taken from the stem; the crystals present in the wood are calcium oxalate; the marginal parenchyma bands are laid down at the begining of the dry winter period (March - September) when wood production ceases; diameter growth in A. karroo averages 13mm per year over a wide range of sites, but can be over 30mm on the better sites; this is higher than was expected for trees growing in semi-arid conditions; the species is relatively short lived with a maximum age of 30 to 40 years being attained before some visible signs of decay are evident. The ageing technique that has been developed can now be used for studies of natural stand dynamics and wood production in A. karroo.

There are many complex factors that affect growth in trees; for example, it is noted that small changes in temperature can sometimes trigger flushing and flowering, e.g. in miombo woodland (R. Lawton, pers. comm.). However, rainfall is recognized as having the greatest influence. Rainfall is not necessarily an index to the amount of water available for tree growth, of which radial growth is a function. The time, amount and intensity ofrainfall will interact with soil properties such as depth, porosity, structure and local topography to affect the water-holding ability or field capacity of the soil. These factors influence the penetration and spread of roots and their ability to reach permanent water. It is, therefore, the influence of the form of rooting profile and the interaction between climate and the geology of the sites that are probably the most likely explanations for the considerable variation in correlations between species at different sites and the various meteorological parameters (Table 3).
TABLE Correlations between annual ring width and rneteoro3. logical data for Acacia karroo
Sample details
A

AI

2 trees (31 rings) Dedza district Malawi 0.599

3 trees (30 rings) Zomba district Malawi -0.524

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank many people for their help in this work: firstly some of those who helped with the locating and provision of samples and information in the field: Jennifer Bickle, Paul Camp, Chris Fagg, Gary Olver, Lazurus Tawonezvi, Samuel Mapeza and Tom Muller; secondly, several members of the Oxford Forestry Institute, in particular John Baker, Margarate Evans, Peter Franklin, Bernard Lobo and Chris Walker; and thirdly members of staff at the Oxford Scanning Proton Microprobe. The research was funded through Project R4526 in the Overseas Development Administration's Forest Research Programme conducted at the Oxford Forestry Institute.

2 trees (20 r~ngs) Matopos 0.252 Zimbabwe Bal. tree (41 rings) Umguza Valley 0.127 Zimbabwe Zesa tree (23 rings) Umguza Valley 0.096 Zimbabwe S trees (9 rings) Umguza Valley 0.204 Zimbabwe (18 rings) 2 trees Umguza Valley 0.100 Zimbabwe I6 trees (13 rings) 0.433 Richard's Bay 0.636* South Africa A B D

REFERENCES
ALVIM, T. and ALVIM, 1978. Relation of climate to growth P.DE R. periodicity in tropical trees. In: Tomlinson, P.B. and Zimmermann, M.H. (eds.) Tropical trees as living systems, Cambridge University Press. ARZEE, WAISEL, andLm~sc~17z.N. T., Y. 1970. Periderm development and phellogen activity in the shoots ofAcacia raddiana (Savi.). New Phytol. 69: 395-398. CROZE, 1974. The Seronabull problem 11:the trees. E.Afr. Wildl. H. J. 12: 29-48. M.P. 1977. Some effects of wounding on tracheid DENNE, differentiation in Picea sitchensis. I.A.W.A.Bull. 3: 49-50. P. 1989. Appearance and periodicity of growth rings in D~TIENNE, some tropical woods. I.A.W.A.Bull. 10 (2): 123-132. A. D~TIENN~, MARIAUX,1976. Nature et p6riodicit.6 des cernes P. and dans le h i s de samba (Triplochitonscleroxylon). Buis et For& des Tropiques 169: 29-35.

= precipitation,

AI = precipitation with one year lag, = evaporation, C = mean maximum temperature, = mean minimum temperature, = smoothed figure using a moving average of three years.

CONCLUSION The results of this investigation into the determination of the age of Acacia karroo shows that the marginal parenchyma bands can usually be distinguished from the more frequent intra-seasonal aliform banded parenchyma by their fineness

Seasonal growth zones in Acacia karroo

F ~ l n sH.C. 1962. The relation of growth-ring widths in American , beech and white oak to variations in climate. TreeRing Bull. 25: 2-10. GAMMADID, 1989. Growth rates of Acacia species in the Bay I.D. region of Somalia, with implications for management. Oxford Univ. Dept. of Plant Sciences Unpub. MSc thesis. 105pp. GOURLAY, 1992. Age and growth rate determination of some I.D. African Acacia species. Oxford Univ. Dept. of Plant Sciences. Unpub. MSc. thesis, 130pp. GOURLAY, and KANOWSKI, 1991. Marginal parenchyma LD. P.J. bands and crystalliferous chains as indicators of age in African Acacia species. I.A.W.A. Bull. n.s. 12(2): 187-194. GOURLAY, and GRIME, (in press). Calcium oxalate crystals 1.D. G.W. in AfricanAcacia species and their analysis by Scanning Proton Microprobe (SPM). I.A.W.A. Bull. GRIME, G.W. and WAIT, F. 1990. Nuclear microscopy-elemental mapping using high energy ion beam techniques. Nuc. Inst. and Meth. B50. 197-207. HUXLEY, and VANECK,W.A. 1974. Seasonal changes in P.A. growth and development of some woody perennials near Kampala, Uganda. J. Ecol62: 579-592.

127

JACKSON, 1959. Fung working plan for the period 195911968. J.K. For. Bull. For. Dept. Sudan 3, 114pp. JOHN, 1990. Variationofwoodanatomy in relation toenvironmental J. factors in two southern African hardwoods. Dept. of Pure and Applied Biol. Imp. Coll. London. Unpub. Ph.D. thesis. 260 pp. KHAN, M.A.W. 1965. Single tree growth statistics forAcaciaalhida, along the Blue Nile in the Gezira Circle. Pamph. For. Res. Educ. Proj., For. Dept. Sudan, 14. 16pp. MARIAUX, 1969. La pCriodicitC des cernes dans le bois de limba A. (Terminalia superba). Bois ef For@ts Tropiques 128: 39-53. des D.F. 1974. Animal impact on vegetation in Lake VESEY-FITZGERALD, Manyara Nat. Park Tanzania. Oikos 24(2):314-324. WALTER, 1940. Die Jahresringe der Baume als Mittel zur H. Feststellung der Niederschlagsverhaltnisse in der Vergangenheit, insbesondere in Deutsch-Siidwest-Afrika.Die Naturwissenschafren 38: 607-612. WATT, GRIME, G.W. (eds.) 1987. Principlesarzdapplications F. of high energy ion microbeams. Adam Hilger, Bristol. K.E. 1968. A new method for marking xylem growth. WOLTER, Forest Sci. 14: 102-104.

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Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 73(2), 1994

Use of Melia volkensii in a semi-arid agroforestry system in Kenya

M. STEWART1and T. BLOMLEY2

' Overseas Development Administration, d o Box 270, Zomba, Malawi

Bellerive Foundation, P.0 Box 42994, Nairobi, Kenya

SUMMARY
Farmers in semi-arid eastern Kenya have developed a system of agroforestry using indigenous Melia volkensii (Gurke). Trees are grown well dispersed in cropland at a spacing exceeding 10 - 15 m. M.volkensii is fast growing and deep rooted. Its effect on adjacent crops is minimized by regular crown pruning and a wide range of crops can be grown right up to the stem. M. volkensii provides high quality marketable timber; other important products are durable poles, beehives, fodder, medicinal preparations and fuelwood. The integration of M. volkensii with crops is deliberate and systematic requiring continuous and rational management. Seed is hard to germinate making mass propagation and diffusion of the species difficult. Research into the propagation and silviculture of M, volkensii is essential. Keywords: Meiia wlkensii. agroforestry, semi-arid. Kenya

INTRODUCTION Over the last two to three decadesMelia volkensii (Gurke) has become the basis of a well developed and locally conceived agroforestry system in parts of semi-arid eastern Kenya. The system has been developed by the farmers of a number of related ethnic groups who have a long history and well developed knowledge of tree husbandry. Locally developed agroforestry practices are dynamic in nature. responding to changing socio-economic pressures, demands and opportunities. The system has been developed in the marginal areas east and south-east of Mount Kenya (Lat. O" 401S, Long. 38" E). Here an annual rainfall of 500-900 mm is equally distributed between two rainy seasons and potential evaporation is of the order of 2000 mm. Traditionally shifting cultivation and goat herding were the dominant land uses. Now, settled arable subsistence farming is increasingly the norm. This is a result of land adjudication, population pressure and land shortages. Arable production is characterized by crops such as millers, sorghum, cowpea, pigeon pea, cassava etc. M. volkensii is cultivated mainly on cropland in the areas where there are the highest concentrations of settled farmers. The information presented here has been collected over a number of years through a combination of formal research, detailed observation, and interviews - structured and unstructured - with farmers. northernTanzania. It is a fast growing (Table l), deeprooted, deciduous tree which sheds its leaves twice a year early in the dry seasons. New leaves flush before the rains towards the end of the dry seasons. Flowers and fruits are produced twice a year, fruit becoming ripe at the end of the dry seasons as the leaves emerge. Research plots have flowered and set fruit by the age of 2.5 years (Stewart and Chirchir 1992).
TABLE Height and diameter gr-ow~h Melia volkensii l. of (P. November 1989, Kath~mna, Mer-U Di.srric,t,Ker~ya) Age 12 months (Survival 92%) Age 21 months (Survival 90%)

Mean Min Max CV.%

N

4.0 2.0 7.0 23 83

3.2
0.5

7.9 4.0 13.0 21 81

5.1

3.0 6.7 14
81

4.9 22 84

THE SPECIES Melia volkensii has a restricted range in East Africa. It occurs from southern Somalia through eastern Kenya down into

Source: Stewart and Chirchir (1992) Acknowledgement: Data derived from a trial established in collaboration between the Overseas Development Administration of the UK and the Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI). Seedlings were grown and provided by P.B. Milimo of KEFRI.

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observed against mosquitoes (Culex pipiens) by Sharook, Balang, Jiang and Rembold (1991); Milimo (1990) reports very favourably on the effect of M. volkensii extracts on Anopheles arabiensis (a major malaria vector). MANAGEMENT All farmers interviewed actively manage their trees and most show considerable knowledge andexpertise. The silvicultural techniques involved are locally developed and uninfluenced by agricultural and forestry extension services. Germination and Propagation Propagation is difficultand time consuming. Fourteen methods of propagation revolving around three common themes were recorded in conversation with farmers. 1. Transplanting. The most common method of propagation entails transplanting wildings, either from the bush or from arable land during the rainy season.

has never been possible to exceed 4% germination under normal nursery conditions. vegetative propagation of M. volkensii is also difficult. Milimo (1989) indicates that a 50% takecan be achieved with juvenile cuttings under controlled conditions with the use of IBA basedrooting hormone. Jlevelopmentof such techniques may provide the means of cheap mass propagation. Silviculture Almost all growers plant M. volkensii irregularly dispersed within crops, generally at spacings in excess of 10 - 15 m. Some farmers plant it along boundaries but few near to dwellings as there is a tendency for branches to break off during storms. There is a high level of awareness of the importance of weeding and tending. Trees planted within crops obviously benefit greatly from regular weeding at no additional cost. Farmers point out that natural trees growing in the bush suffer from the effects of competition and consequently exhibit poor growth rates and form. All farmers appear to prune their Melia trees. Lateral branches are pruned from the first year onwards; this is essential in order to maintain a clean straight bole. In the absence of pruning the tree tends to develop heavy lateral branching. These observations are confirmed in research plots. When the crown is fully developed it is thinned heavily each year. This reduces shading of underplanted crops such as sorghum and millet. The operation is carried out towards the end of the dry season (September - October) to provide clear conditions at planting time. Pruning coincides with the flush of new leaves and fruits at a time when green fodder is scarce. Somefarmerspollard their trees believing that this induces greater diameterincrement. Similarmanagement is commonly practised with Grevillea robusta in nearby higher rainfall areas (Spiers and Stewart, 1992). Many farmers believe, however, that pollarding induces rot and is counterproductive. Tree - crop interactions Most farmers in the study area believe that M. volkensii is compatiblewith all crops grown. This, however, is dependent upon good silvicultural practice reducing the shading effect of canopies which would otherwise adversely affect light demanding crops such as sorghum and millet. A small minority of farmers suggest thatM. volkensii may be capable of increasingcrop yields due to heavy leaf fall during the later stages of crop development. No relevant research on tree/ crop interactions is believed to have been carried out. Due to the deep rooting nature ofM, volkensii interference from the roots with cultivation and ox ploughing is minimal. CONCLUSION Farmers in semi-arideastern Kenya have developed a number of tree husbandry techniques for use with different species.

2. Scarification. Farmers commonly scarify seed with fire. This may be done with fast fires of dry grass or dung. Some farmers spreaddry,naturally depulped stones across uncleared land prior to buming andcultivation. Stonesare also commonly collected from goat pens after passing through the animal's gut. Other farmers report that burying the stones in pits with dung improves germination. Whatever the method of scarification applied, the treated stones are ploughed in during land preparation and germinants transplanted to appropriate locations.
3. Root cuttings. Plantlets arising from accidentally or deliberately damaged roots may be transplanted. Many farmers do not favour this method as it is said to result in unstable trees. It appearsthat the germinationpercentage obtained by farmers is very low; probably considerably less than 5%. The period required for germination also appears to be long; probably in the region of 2 - 5 years. Neitherof these factors is a constraint in areas where the tree is common because fruit production is heavy and little labour is involved. It is however a major constraint to expansion and adoption of the system in areas where the tree is locally scarce or absent. The seed itself is reasonably viable and can be germinated - with some difficulty - under research conditions. Milimo and Hellum (1990) describe a complex mechanical scarification method that can give good results. They obtained amaximum germination percentage of >8O% at a constant temperature of 32C; undeveloped and damaged seed were excluded from the study by X-Ray examination. Milimo and Hellum suggest that best results can be obtained by maintaining temperatures within the 25C to 37C range. Using a procedure similar to that used by Milimo and Hellum(ibid) the authorshave obtained>60% germinationin well supervised glasshouse conditions. However efforts to extend the method into the field have been a dismal failure. It

Use of Melia volkensii in Kenya

13 1

Foremost among these is the propagation and management of M. volkensii which is widely cultivated for its economic benefits. There is evidence that traditional knowledge is being utilized and supplemented to enable continuing development of agroforestry systems which improve the productivity of the farming system. The impetus for this innovation probably arises from changing socio-economic circumstances and is uninfluenced by formal agents of change and development. l There are serious obstacles to the diffusion and wider adoption ofM. volkensiiwhichcould be productively addressed by research. Mass propagation of M, volkensii still remains impossible despite some useful and informative research efforts. More attention to cheap, low technology propagation is required. Research into the nature of the treelcrop interface would yield information of value in extending the system into new areas with potentially substantial economic and environmental benefits. REFERENCES
BROKENSHAW, RILEY, D. and B.W. 1988. The Mbeere in Kenya, VolumeII,Botanicalidentities anduses. Instituteof Development Anthropology, University Press of America, USA.

DALE, and GREENWAY, 1961. Kenya bees and shrubs. Robert I.R. P.J. MacLehose and Co. Ltd., Glasgow. MILIMO, 1989. Preliminary studies on vegetative propagation of P.B. Melia volkensii by cuttings. pp.298-301 in:Treesfor development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of a regional seminar held by the International Foundation for Science, Nairobi, Kenya. MILIMO, P.B. 1990. New uses for Melia azedarach and Melia volkensii. Forestry Newsletter 10, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. MILIMO, and HELLUM, 1990. The influence of temperature P.B. A.K. on germination of Melia volkensii seeds. pp.29-32 in: Tropical tree seed research. Proceedings of an International Workshop, ACIAR Proceedings Series. No. 28, Canberra. RAJAB, M.S. and BENTLEY, M.D. 1988. Tetranoortriterpenes from Melia volkensii. Journal of Natural Products 51,5: 840-844. SHAROOK,BALAN, JIANG, REMBOLD, 1991. Insect growth Z., K., Y., H. inhibitors from two tropical Meliaceae. Effect of crude seed extracts on mosquito larvae. Journal of Applied Entomology 111,5: 425-430. SPIERS, and STEWART, 1992. The use of Grevillea robusta in N. M. Embu and Meru districts of Kenya. In: Hanvood, C.E. (ed.) Grevillea robusta in agroforestry and forestry. Proceedings of an international workshop. ICRAF, Nairobi. STEWART, ~ ~ ~ C H I R C H I1992. Dryland forestry research in M. R.K. R , the Embu-Meru-Isiolo Forestry Project Kenya, KEFRIfODA, Unpublished Report.

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Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 73(2), 1994

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Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 73(2), 1994

133

BOOK REVIEWS
E. D'SILVA andS. APPANAH Forestry for sustainable management. EDI Policy Seminar Report No.32, The World Bank, Washington. 1 9 9 3 . 4 6 ~ ISBN 0 8213 2597 3. ~.
This compact report records the principal points arising in papers and discussions at a seminar held in Malaysia early in 1992 and attended by leading forestry and forest industry personalities from east Asia. The seminar was organized by the Economic Development Institute of the Bank. The paper consists of 4 sections: Introduction and overview, The institutional environment, The technological environment, Conclusions and recommendations. The title is misleadingly general: one might think that the report presented a world view whereas the focus of the meeting was the situation in east Asia. Many of the thoughts are of course general, notably in the consideration of the forestry institutions that are needed to implement half-sensible solutions to the economically and environmentally wasteful practices one sees so widely employed in that part of the world. The second page of the introduction picks out three themes amplified in the seminar. These are the failure of economic policy in forestry arising from the divergence between private and social costs, the failure of forestry institutions to adjust to the new, and one might add, the old, demands placed on them, and the difficulties associated with lack of adequate technical knowledge in silviculture and logging. The report says nothing that will be particularly new to cognoscenti of the World Bank's thinking. The emphasis given to institutional aspects is, however, appropriate. The value of community empowerment in Thailand is recognized in a crisp note by the late Y.S. Rao, while A. Banerjee develops the theme in a general advocacy of transfer of productive forests to communities. A qualification about the wholesale applicability of the idea is recorded in a note on the special position implied by clan ownership of forest in Papua New Guinea, apparently an extreme example of the disadvantages of private ownership of forest land. Allusion is made to formulae adopted in other parts of the world. But little can be said about the success of many of them, since they have only recently been put in place. As is usual with published records of discussions involving international agencies, one has to make allowance for understatement of the most sensitive aspects. Many of the propositions put forward at the seminar are necessary but not sufficient conditions for the introduction of improved forestry and industrial practices. The vital components of any effective approach to the many deficiencies of administration and management found in the region are first, political will and second, political power. It is little use having ministers anxious to implement change if they lack power in the face of entrenched industry interests. There is obviously a need for politicians willing to publish the full story in the way that has become familiar in some western countries in recent years. The difficulties with this radical solution are twofold; a democracy needs this kind of freedom to be expressed at intervals and many of the countries concerned do not share the saine tradition of freedom of expression which is so effective in curtailing the power of the executive elsewhere. Despite this, the report has useful suggestions to make about a whole range of topics. One might pick out the useful summary of the studies showing the economic losses associated with log export bans, an error of policy pinted out decades ago by ~rofessoi e i r c e ~ of UBC and at last increasingly appreciated. Second, among institutional changes, the report advocates the use of performance bonds payable by loggers, and reimbursable on satisfactory completion of operations. Thirdly, among technical matters, a short note summarizes the worries about the selective systems of Malaysiaand Indonesia and advocates the virtue of shelterwood working. As is to be expected from a World Bank publication, the standard of presentation is high. On page 4, one figure does however require correction: the mass of 7.1 billion tons released into the atmosphere annually is not of COz but of carbon. A.J. GRAYSON

K.G. ELDRIDGE, DAVIDSON, HARWOOD G. VAN JOHN C.E. and WYKEucalypt domesrication and breeding. Oxford University Press, Walton Street, Oxford O X 2 6DP. 1994. 288pp.

55.00 (hb). ISBN 0 19 854149 X.

No tree genus has been so widely planted as Eucalyptus. It is indigenous to Australia and its northern island neighbours southeast of Wallace's Line; but one or more of its 500 species can be grown in most of the world between latitudes 4 5 5 and 40N, and even outside this range if there are ameliorating local climatic factors. Brazil has the largest plantation area with about three million hectares, followed by India, Spain, Portugal, South Africa and China, all of which probably have half a million hectares or more. In all, about 20 countries have plantation areas in excess of one hundred thousand hectares and a further 50 grow eucalypts in woodlots, windbreaks and ornamental plantings. The total planted area in the world today exceeds six million hectares. Eucalypts are cultivated to supply a whole range of forest products from amenity plantings to high quality sawn timber. More of the estimated worldwide productionof thirty million tonnes of dry wood per year is used for fuel than for any other purpose. The greatest production of industrial wood is for the pulp and paper industry in which over six million tonnes are used annually. Yields of up to 70 - 90 m'ha 'yr.' have been recorded in small plots. With the wide adaptability of its species and their high growth rates, the genus Eura/yptus will remain dominant in the world exotic plantation scene for the foreseeable future. Adaptability and growth can be enhanced in the domestication process and through breeding. This is why this book, Eucalypt domestication and breeding,is important and it is doubly so because of the breadth and depth of the experience of its well-known authors who, together with Arne Brune, conceived the idea when the IUFRO Working Party on eucalypts was formed in 1977. They have directed this book to eucalypt breeders, plantation managers, students and other people concerned with domesticating the eucalypts as crop plants for wood production. Genetic gain in a species can be achieved through selection at various stages in the domestication process. The authors point out the long term effect that the choice of initial source of seed can have on the profitability of a large forest estate because the plantation established from that first importation can itself become the source of seed for many years to come. In fact, experience has shown that the greatest benefits from selection often do come from this first choice of geographic source of seed and therefore there should be special emphasis on the genetic resources in and domestication from the wild populations. Inaccuracies, however, can arise from the effects of the varying degrees of neighbourhood inbreeding in the natural stands; release from it though crossing between unrelated individuals may also give large increases in yield before the cumulative gain fromrecurrent selection canbeexploited. Lastly, species

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Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 73(2), 1994

hybrids and vegetative propagation have produced some of the quantum leaps in production although these are one-off advances. The emphasis in this book is on making use of the great richness of genetic resources of the genus by assembling base populations for long-term genetic improvement rather than on specialized breeding techniques. At the same time, known information on the genetics and biology of the eucalypts is presented so that decision-making can be put on a sound scientific basis. This book could easily have been too general or too specific. However, the authors have come up with a nice balance of chapters. Two thirds of the book deals with the important generalities in the subject and a third is devoted to individual chapters (described as digests of provenance information) on a well-chosen group of major plantation eucalypts. The species included are the four most important, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E. glohulus, E. grandls and E. terericornis together withE. deglupta,E. delegatensis, E.fastigata, E. nitens, E. obliqua, E. regnans, E. urophylla and E. viminalis. Between them, these species cover a good cross-section of types of ecologies, distributions and climates. It is noteworthy, however, that except for the ubiquitousE. camaldulensis, they are all from the eastern side of Australia and none from the west. The species digests are prefaced by five chapters that set the scene. The introduction explains the objectives of the book and provides a summary of the resource, its use and the state of its genetic development. There is an excellent account of the complex taxonomic status of the genus and its occurrence in natural and exotic forests, followed by a description of the genetic resource as a whole. The chapter on matching species and provenances to site contains a particularly good illustrated account of the comparison of the natural and exotic climates; then there are useful basic principles on testing species and provenances. The chapters that follow the species digests concern breeding strategies, reproductive biology, selection and breeding, seed production and vegetative propagation. Each of these is a meld of a statement of basic principles and discussion of the subject using practical examples drawn from the literature. A great deal of very useful practical advice on breeding and seed production techniques is given in these chapters. The last sections are a glossary, a long list of references, and an index. In looking ahead, the authors touch on the issue of banning eucalypts and the place of breeding in the presence of the moral and political dilemmas that have arisen around them. They suggest that the place of eucalypts in agroforestry and the concept of CO-existence of food and wood production as part of economically sustainable agriculture should be included in eucalypt breeding objectives and the policy for genetic research in eucalypts. In general they predict that the need for eucalypt breeding skills will continue as long as eucalypts are grown in plantations. Overall this book not only contains a large amount of very useful information and stimulating discussion, it is alsoadelight toread for the story it tells. The only addition I would have made would have been to include more on the history, practice and potential of species hybrids in the genus. Hybrids are touched on briefly but they are such an important issue in eucalypt breeding that I think they deserved a chapter on their own. Although this book will be an important addition to any forestry library, it is, as the authors say, directed very much towards the practising tree breeder; he or she and many others will benefit from having a copy for easy reference and to dip into for the many fascinating bits of information that are contained in it. As is so often the case with such useful books, the high price will prohibit many people from owning a copy and it is to be hoped that it will not be long before it becomes available in a less expensive form.

ROYLORRAIN-Sm Computersinforestry: use ofspreadsheets. John Wiley & Sons, 1993. xii + 178pp. 29.95.ISBN 0 8630 144 7.
This bookis written fora wide audience, yet provides thereader with a 'first principles' approach. Students and professional foresters involved in research or management activities where financial matters must be considered will find it invaluable. The book consists of eleven chapters, the first of which introduces the basic concepts required to use computer spreadsheets. The author has successfully managed to convey the essential technical aspects without the restricting assumption of using a specific software package. The book does, however, assume that it is read with a computer and spreadsheet software readily available. Chapters two to eleven deal largely with aspects of financial analyses that can be used to guide investment decisions in forestry. The approaches are clearly and succinctly presented, the examples can be reconstructed with ease and the benefit of the author's expertise is effectively disseminated. The basic concepts of cash flow, Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR), and Land Expectation Values (LEV) are dealt with logically, as is the basis for selecting discounting rates. The problems associated with assessing the financial implications of specific silvicultural treatments and how to overcome them make interesting reading and provide useful advice. The techniques developed increase in complexity, and those new to spreadsheets will probably need to make continual use of the specific documentation supplied with the spreadsheet software as they progress through the examples shown. The publication deserves to become a standard text for courses that aim to address the financial aspects of forestry investment and management. It will also be of considerable use for commercial forestry organizations. The techniques presented are widely applicable, although the examples supplied are largely restricted to the paradigm of temperate 'commercial' forestry. However, the techniques for investigating the financial implications of different management strategies and sensitivity are given the attention they deserve and the reader is introduced to the 'commerce-conservation' debate. The largely British emphasis apparent in the book may limit its appeal to the wider international market. This is a pity. Many readers outside the UK will find much of value in this book. In short, the diligent reader using a computer will be rewarded with an effective training in the use of spreadsheets and will gain an in-depth understanding of the traditional techniques applied in the financial analysis of forest management and forestry investment. The author encourages the reader to 'dabble' with the spreadsheet models, and those who adopt this approach will find the extra effort well worthwhile. One criticism is that a book with such a general title restricts itself to financial examples. The scope for the use of spreadsheets in forestry is enormous, and this could have been highlighted. The most common usage for spreadsheets globally is for financial analysis and control, and an opportunity to demonstrate a few more of the many and varied uses of spreadsheets in forestry has been lost. A few examples such as simple stand growth models or spreadsheets for recording and processing forest inventories or permanent sample plot data would have been of particular relevance. In addition, the ease with which the majority of c m n t spreadsheet software can present visual representations of findings is given only a passing mention. The wire binding will be familiar to those already with a bookshelf full of computer manuals; this does little for the appearance of the publication. However, it is the clear intention that the reader is to work from a book that stays flat and open on the desk, and the compromise in appearance is offset by the gain in practicality. My copy is already dog-eared but that probably reflects its level of

R.D. BARNES

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 73(2), 1994

usage! The price of 29.95 will probably deter those with tendencies towards serendipity, but this b&k should find a strong market with commercial and training organizations especially in the British forestry sector. M.J. SPILSBURY

135

T. PANAYOTOU ASHTON by timber alone: economandP.S. Not ics and ecology for sustaining tropical forests. Island Press, Suite 300, 1718 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington DC 3.

20009, USA. 1992. xx + 280 pp. f 16.95. ISBN 1 55963 195

The Harvard Institute for International Development (HIID) was commissioned to undertake this study of tropical forestry by the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). One of the authors, Dr Panayotou, is an economist and the other, Dr Ashton, is a botanist; both are fellows of HIID and have worked in the tropics for several years. The central thesis of the study is that the economic value o f tropical forests far exceeds their timber value if the other forest products as well as the environmental and social benefits are properly taken into account. The authors, who draw on data from many sources, also reach the important conclusion that 'the benefits from maintaining tropical forests for both the current and future generations far surpass the costs'. Whether or not other economists will regard the arguments put forward as conclusive remains to be seen. Drs Panayotou and Ashton do not stray far from the main theme; issues such as the ethical aspects of tropical forest conservation are not discussed. The study is neatly organized into fourteen chapters, but the standard of presentation is patchy. Following an introduction and overview which amounts to a valuable executive summary, Chapter 2 describes the present situation of tropical forests and trade in tropical timber. Chapter 3 reviews attempts to manage natural tropical forests on a sustainable basis and Chapter 4 demonstrates that most governments derive far less revenue from tropical timber resources than they could and should. Chapter 5 discusses the vast array of non-timber products, and ways to realize more fully their economic potential. Chapter 6 evaluates the environmental benefits and the consequences of modifying the system of management or of converting the forest toother use. In Chapters 7 and 8 which address the complex problems of multiuse management, the authors reach three important conclusions: first, the economic case for this form of management can often be based on financial analysis alone without resort to shadow pricing; second, proper management for timber production can normally also be made to benefit non-timber species which supply other produce such as fruit or fodder; third, better supervision and control of logging operations could greatly reduce the damage to the remaining crop without adding much to the costs. Chapter 9 explores the role of plantation forestry. The final five chapters look at a series of broader issues starting with the conservation of genetic resources. In Chapters 11, 12 and 13the authors recommend institutional reforms, government policy changes and changes in international cooperation. Of particular interest to this reviewer is the section on forest ownership in which the respective roles of the state, local communities and private individuals are discussed. Chapter 14 summarizes the identified gaps in knowledge and points the way ahead. The policy proposals look attractive, but bearing in mind that politics is the art of the possible, some remind of the fable in which a mouse recommends tying a bell to the tail of the cat in order to warn of itsapproach. The suggestionsforthecollection ofmore silvicultural data on an internationally comparable basis are questionable; they seem to cater more for the wishes of researchers than of policy makers and forest managers.

The above comments point to a deeper problem. Much of the recent literature on tropical forestry is by distinguished academics who cite the works of other academics and research workers. This is inevitable because the people on the spot, who actually manage and decide, rarely publish what they know and do. As a result, a distorted picture of the situation emerges. Thus, in the study under review, recent papers are cited to report facts which foresters have known for over half a century, for example that mahogany seedlings do not grow well in full light. A few chapters suffer from a surfeit of anecdotal statistics of little relevance such as the amount of damage through tractor logging in Sabah in 1958; some net present values are quoted without mention of the discount rate used; the units in table 2.9 on exports of tropical hardwood are shown as 'millions of inhabitants'; finally, the careless use of language is exemplified by confusing 'circumspect' with 'suspect' and 'nations' with 'countries'. In sum, the study offers both general readers and experts useful information as well as food for thought, but the text would have benefited from better editing. F.C. HUMMEL

PLOTKIN LISA and FAMOLARE (Eds.)Sustainableharvest MARK and marketing of rainforestproducts. Island Press, Suite 300,
1718 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, D C 20009, USA. 1992. 325 pp. US $20 (paperback). U K Distribution Earthscan, 120 Pentonville Road, London N 1 9JN. 1 5.95. ISBN 1-55963- 168-6. This book is based on no less than 33 papers from a conference with the same title as the book, held in Panama City in June 1991, coordinated by the US NGO Conservation International and the Panamanian National Association for Nature Conservation. The first observation is that to the title should be added 'in Central (including Mexico) and South America', since virtually all the material comes from that region, even if the lessons are applicable to other regions. The focus of the book is very much on non timber forest products (NTFPs); timber is only the focus in one chapter. The book is split up into five sections: Conserving Ethnobotanical Information, the Potential of Non Timber Forest Products, Palms and their Potential, Plants as Medicines, and Reaching International Markets. Conserving Ethnobotanical Information explores methodologies for collecting and using ethnobotanical data. Schultes gives many fascinating examples of the use of NTFPs by the Amerindians of thenorthwest Amazon, and points out the urgency of ethnobotanical work as such knowledge is often in danger of being lost due in the process of 'westernization'. The paper by Grenland is important as it shows the vital significance of managed successional forests for NTFPs, particularly game, in this case as practised by the Wayapi Indians of French Guiana and Brazil. Posey continues the theme of successional forest management in a short analysis of the integrated forest management and fanning systems of the Kayapo, which allow them to shift between being hunter-gatherers and agriculturalists. He makes the interesting observation that the Kayapo have concentrated plant varieties from an area the size of Western Europe in a 10-hectare 'forest island'. Duke begins the section on Potential of NTFPs with a useful review of some of the NTFPs already sold on international markets, and produces the surprising assertion that a kilogram of chlorophyll (from spinach) is worth $32-34 million at the prices of the Sigma Chemical Company, USA. He also makes an interesting case for plantderived fuels to replace fossil fuels, and like many of the highlights green consumerism. Brack makes the significant observation that in the case of Peru, it is estimated that 90% of the

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livelihood diversity. Posey concludes that 'conservationists not only need to seek new models for natural resource management from native peoples, but must also include them in all levels of planning, decision making, monitoring - and reaping the benefits from such conservation' (p.50). These concerns are also raised in the paper by Martin, who feels there is a need to 'reinforce the traditional lifestyles, and spread the benefits of local knowledge in a non-commercial way' (p.222), for example by encouraging the use of plants among regional rural and urban populations. However such an approach might be thought paternalistic. Who are we (in the 'north') todeny people the choices offered by the international marketplace, and make choices over their natural resources as we have done in the past? However there is clearly a real dilemma for all planners and practitioners in this field, and that is the danger of market dependency. In the short run, specialization is needed to achieve the quality and uniformity of product that the market demands, but livelihood diversity is the vital long-term means of protection for forest societies and resources. This is a book for all those concerned with NTFPs, and especially ethnobotanists, but like many books which are a collection of papers, it is like the proverbial egg 'good in parts', but rather bitty. The book suffers from too many short and often disjointed papers, which are often long on detail and short on analysis. The book is disappointingon socio-political analysis of issues; for example, only a few papers mention the role of land rights, there is surprisingly little about intellectual property rights, the market problems are not systematically analysed, and the issue of externality benefits from extractive management, which justify international transfers that could be used for non-market incentives to support sustainable forest management, is not mentioned. However, this is the view of a socioeconomist; for readers with an ecologyhtany background, the book will be essential and often fascinating reading. RICHARDS, 1991. The forest ejidos of South-East Mexico: a case E.M. study of community based sustained yieldmanagement.Comm. For. Rev. 70 (4): 290-31 1. RICHARDS, 1993. The potential of Non-Timber Forest Products E.M. in sustainable forest management in Ammonia. Comm. For. Rev. 72 (1): 21-27.

information on biodiversity is overseas - this must be repatriated. May's paper on Babasu in the section on palms, brings out some wider issues of NTFP market development, and the importance of market strucfwes and property rights. Rioja and Aiiez conclude the section with reports on the progress of a Conservation International supported Tagua palm project in Bolivia. Section Four focuses on the market development of medicinal plants. Daly gives an account of efforts to find new botanical . treatments for cancer, King discusses the problems and opportunities for bringing new medicines to the international market place, Guptaet al. provide the results of an ethnopharmacological study of the Kuna Indians, and Martin presents a convincing case for ethnobotanists to start their research in the marketplace. Section Five consists of case studies of non-medicinal plants in the market place. Niekischcritically evaluates the 'green marketing' boom in Western Europe, while Moran looks at the impact of US policy on American markets for NTFPs. Clay reports on several successful initiatives to bring new NTFPs to the US marketplace, and the book concludes with a useful set of guidelines for how new products can be brought to market in an ethical, ecologically and sociologically sustainable way. Given the title, it is disappointingto this reviewer that more is not made of the possibilities of combining sustainable extraction of NTFPs and other products, especially timber. Most NTFP markets are difficult and vulnerable, for example due to synthetic substitution, market changes, domestication (plantation) of wild trees, and difficulties of meeting rapid demand increases without over-exploiting the resource. They tend to follow a boom-bust pattern (see Richards, 1993). In many situations, market values of NTFPs are so low (as in the case of rubber and Brazil nuts) that extractivists are clearing the forest for farming, even on the extractive reserves. There is therefore a great need to maximize livelihood diversity and search for integrated forest management. Of course many of the indigenous systems documented do just this, but it appears that sustainable management for timber is still regarded with great distrust by ethnobotanists - not without some reason it should be added - and thus the potential to add value to the forest in new initiatives may often be overlooked. An honourableexception is the paper by Reining and Heinzmann, which looks at the complementarity between NTFPs, sustainable logging and eco-tourism. Another example of how logging can be combined with NTFP extraction is found among the forestejidos of southern Mexico (Richards, 1991). For this reviewer, arguably the most important three pages of this book, is the subsection of Darrel Posey's paper entitled 'Rain Forest Harvest - for Whom?' (p.48), in which he poses some vital questions. Pointing out that the annual world market value of medicines derived from plants discovered by indigenous groups is worth some $43 billion, not to mention plant genetic materials, natural insecticides, cosmetics and the like, Posey raises the thorny issue of intellectual property rights. He describes the current rush to mine the riches of indigenous knowledge as the latest and ultimate neocolonial form of exploitation of native peoples. He brings out some of the inherent dilemmas of market development of 'boom-bust' NTFPs. When these products become too successful in themarket place, the tendency is towards monocultures of,cash crops - many ecologists are concerned that success will o reduce biodiversity in the long run; that by trying t establish mechanisms for just compensation of indigenous groups we may also be hastening their downfall. The reviewer however feels that as such societies are inevitably sucked into the market economy by degrees, unless they are adequately compensated for their products, poverty and deculturalization will occur anyway. What we can do is use market and non-market incentives to encourage maintenance of

LINDSAY POOLE JOHN JOHNS and Tomorrow's trees. Caxton Press, Christchurch, New Zealand. Copies available from Lindsay Poole, 22A Waru St., Wellington 4, New Zealand. 196pp. 63 full colour and 44 b/w plates (hb). NZ$50.00 inc. postage. ISBN 0 473 01554 4.
It is always a pleasure to read a new publication on forestry in New Zealand and particularly so when Lindsay and John team up. Although it cannot be classed as a textbook it is nevertheless a very comprehensive historical account anddescriptionof New Zealand's forest heritage, both natural and introduced. New Zealand is blessed with one of the most favourable forest climates in the world for subtropical and temperate species. The natural forests are magical, ranging from the northern kauri forests to the southern beeches. The fine text and superb illustrations do justice to these wonderful and unique forests. Lindsay laments the virtual abandon of multipurpose forestry in New Zealand with the separation of forests into commercial and non-commercial estates. Most foresters share that concern and at a time when, world-wide, foresters are grappling with sustainabilityin its widest context, New Zealand's ability toinfluence that debate has been greatly diminished by the chat& in direction in 1987. Introduced tree species have been remarkably successful and once again Lindsay and John provide a comprehensive and well-

Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 73(2), 1994

illustrated account o their use in large scale plantations and in f agroforestry situations on the farm. The productivity of forests and woodlots is impressive by any standards. I do, however, wonder how sustainable in the widest sense these purely commercial forests will remain in the future. How long will the public be prepared to accept monocultures in rectangular shapes on hillsides with few concessions to diversity or landscape values? Radiata pine is the success story of introduced tree species but others like Douglas fir, cypresses, and some of the eucalypts are rightly given a well-deserved mention. It is interesting that some of these species are generating interest again as the promotion of these minor species tended to lapse with the demise of the Forest Service in 1987. No account of forestry in New Zealand is complete without a mention of the managerial and research skills which were needed to develop, manage and protect the extensive and diverse estate. Lindsay hints at such throughout his text but New Zealand has been fortunate in having had gifted and far-sighted managers and a forest research capability second to none in the world. Without the far-sighted policies of the 1920s and 1930s the lowland natural forests would have suffered terribly as New Zealand is one of the clear examples where a man-made plantation resource took pressure off the remaining natural forest. Research at the Forest Research Institute underpinned the enormous success of plantation forestry and demonstrated that there were viable systems of managing kauri and southern beech forests, with rather less success in the podocarp forests. Changes have also affected research and New Zealand now has research demarcated on commercial and non-commercial lines. Lindsay is highly critical of the 1987changes to forestry in New Zealand and believes the pendulum will swing back in the future. Foresters in the UK and in most countries of the world observe the New Zealand changes with interest. Very few countries have the luxury to separate forests into purely commercial and purely conservation as can happen in a country with a small population and relatively large forest estate. However, pressures to follow the New Zealand model are present in many countries. In conclusion I can thoroughly recommend this publication to those with a keen interest in forestry in Commonwealth countries. If you are contemplating a visit to New Zealand, this publication beats any tourist brochures.

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ROBIN CUTLER

D. QUEROL Genetic resources: a practical guide to their conservation. Zed Books,London and New Jersey, and T h i d ~. World Network, Penang. 1 9 9 3 . 2 5 2 ~f 13.95 (pb); 32.95 (hb). ISBN 1 85649 204 4 / 1 85649 2 036.
This book is inexpensive and aims to be a practical guide to the conservation of plant genetic resources. Emphasis is placed on plants in the inter-tropical zone from latitudes 35"N and S, where most of the important crop plants originate. The book reviewed is in paperback and unfortunately coming apart at the binding. The first chapter deals with basic concepts and the author touches on some ethical aspects, e.g. the benefits of plant genetic resources have not been gained by the country of origin. This chapter then briefly examines the effect of agriculture on plant variability including the impact of 'modem' agriculture in the countries of plant origin. The second chapter diausses types of genetic resources and their importance. The author uses the classification of 'conventional', i.e. corresponding to the important agricultural crop plants, and 'non-conventional' species which have little or no information hi on t er genetics or agronomy. The importanceof species in the wild

or primitive varieties in breeding programmes is well illustrated and Querol notes the importance of maintaining cultivated forms of crops which have often been under hundreds or thousands of years of selection by peasant communities. The forest tree species, Cedrela odorata and Swietenia macrophylla are listed among the non-conventional species where it is essential to collect genetic resources to maintain variability; this applies to many tree species used for timber, fibre or extractives. The third chapter is titled 'Genetic resources: dilemma'. Querol maintains that the main reason for preservation of resources in the Third World is that the final objective is to utilize those resources. In trying to answer the question to whom do genetic resources belong, he points out that free exchange (i.e. between transnational corporationsand countriesof origin)doesnotoccur. The transnational corporations protect their investments. Querol concludes on ethical and logical bases that genetic resources are the patrimony of the nations where they originated. The chapter deals with the need and organization of national genetic resources programmes and adds that peasant communities and cooperatives provide an effective means of coordinating and preserving genetic resources. Finally the intemational situation is discussed, particularly the contributions of IBPGR and Plant Resources Commission of FAO. The fourth chapter on collecting gets down to the mechanics and practical problems of conservation. The example ofcedrela odorata is used as a tree species which has been over-exploited and has a low population density. C. odorata seed have a low storage tolerance and he notes the problem of conservation of this species - unfortunately without any solution. Tables include a checklist of materials required for collection trips and the chapter discusses details of collectingmethods, including vegetative1y reproduced species, sampling, and recording. Unfortunately for those concerned with forest species, only a page and a half deals with woody species. The fifth chapter continues on these practical matters dealing with management of information and materials in a simple, basic manner. It is a pity that more tree species examples were not presented in germination and dormancy tests. 'Conservation, storage and regeneration' is the title of the sixth chapter and covers in situ conservation and then storage in collections - collection gardens, seed storage, storage through tissue culture and cryopreservation. The last two methods are appropriately only briefly covered as these methods need much further work to make them dependable for the range of genotypes required and difficulties over resources and supplies. The introductory sentence to the next chapter on characterization and evaluation notes that genetic resources are collected for use in breeding and not only to be preserved, hence the need to characterize and evaluate each accession. Characterization is concerned with differentiation of that accession from others, whereas evaluation records all data of immediate interest. Queroldiscusses in some detail the typeof information required in descriptor lists or catalogues as it is important that the essentials are recorded but kept at practical limits. He then briefly discusses analysis of the evaluation information. The book has a series of colour photographs of some plants and a reminder of their geographical origins and an appropriate black and r white photograph introduces each chapter. There a e many figures and tables of useful data, also over nine pages of references with quite a few in the text not included. This is followed by five appendices -on origins of plants of present or potential economic importance, a manual for the use of a collecting sheet, published descriptor lists by crop, procedures to obtain genetic resources samples, and glossary. These appendices are an important contribution to achieving the main aim of this book. This book provides a Third World perspective and practical guide to conservation in those areas. I consider it achieves the latter

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and species affects the functional properties of ecosystems, particularly the flow of services derivedthe ecosystems, and this book surveys the present knowledge. Conversely, we know enough about the many values of biodiversity to take action now to conserve it. To quote Ehrlich again: 'Detailed studies of natural and perturbed systems to yield information on ecosystem responses to extinctions are not required for developing a sound conservation policy.' A total of 23 chapters by invited specialists are grouped into five main sections: A. Ecosystem function; B. Functional groups; C. Species interaction; D. Community interactions; E. Ecosystem integrity. They result from a symposium in Bayreuth, Geremany, in 1991 sponsored by IUBS, SCOPE and UNESO/HAB. Another section-providesan industrial analogy to biodiversity and considers policy issues. The editors provide the concluding summary chapter. It is clearly not possible to review each of these major contributions (all of which deserve fuller treatment), particularly as they range over all ecosystem types and species; however, of special interest to foresters are the chapters on agricultural systems (Swift and Anderson), plant traits and adaptive strategies (Solbrig), functional groups (Komer), keystone species (Bond, 'broad-based naturalists have the most to offer but they are becoming endangered creatures'), numbers of species required (Woodward),forest species diversity (Iwasaet al.),and policy decisions (Pitelka). One fascinating chapter approached ecosystem functioning through analogy with computer viruses. Overall this volume is a rich source of information and ideas. There are excellent subject and species indices and the overall standards of presentation and editing are high. The book is perhaps more heavily slanted towards the professional ecologist and researcher than the resource manager but such managers, as well as conservationists and policy-makers, would certainly benefit from parts of it. J. BURLEY

in terns of general agronomic crops but forest tree species are rarely mentioned. Any person interested in conservation generally, however, will find it vety readable, useful and thought provoking, and certainly well worth the money.

DAVID ROOK A.

E-D. SCHULZE H.A. MOONEY and (eds.) Biodiversity and

ecosystemfunction. Ecological Studies Volume 99, SpringerVerlag, Tiergartenstrasse 17, D-69 121 Heidelberg, Germany, 1993. xxvii+ 525 pp. D M 2 7 8 t f 9 9 . 5 0 h b . ISBN 3 540 55804

7.
In these days of politicization of forestry and natural resources, one of the most recent 'buzz' words is ecosystem management. Foresters may see this, perhaps somewhat cynically, as an attempt to hand over forest management to non-professionally trained persons; however, it has to be admitted that traditional forest management has not always had available the information on all ecological interactions that is necessary to make good decisions. Another modem catchword is biodiversity; no self-respecting proposal for research or management will stand much chance of success unless biodiversity appears in the title and content. Of course, biodiversity includes variation at the individual, population and species levels as well as ecosystems. A knowledge of biodiversity is essential to understand ecosystem functions and both underlie ecosystem management. The present book is a major contribution to the theories and current knowledge base of ecosystems, their components and functioning. Paul Ehrlich, a guru of biodiversity, subtitles his foreword 'Need we know more?' and his opening sentence bears repetition: 'The answer to the qystion posed in the title, from the viewpoint of science, clearly is "yes"; from the viewpoint of taking action to preserve biodiversity, the answer is equally clearly "no".' here-is great uncertainty about the way in which the diversity betweenpopulations

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Commonwealth Forestry Review Volume 73(2), 1994 desempefios en Wisconsin, y aquellas provenientes de Europa Central se desempeiiaron mejor en Iowa. La altucapromedio de grbol sobre un perfodo de dos afios en todas las locaciones fue de 325 cm; d i h e t r o = 3.25 cm; volumen 2674 cm3;nitr6geno foliar = 1.63%; gravedad especifica = 0.428; contenido de m k i m o de humedad = 171%; y contenido de corteza = 41%. Los estimativos heredabilidad en sentido amplio variaron desde 0.03 hasta 0.93 para las propiedades estudiadas.

B. SPANISH El estado actual y perspectivas d e productos forestales nomadereros desarrollados e n Paplia Nueva Guinea SlMON M. SAULEI y JOHN A. ARUGA Durante siglos, 10s recursos forestales en Papda Nueva Guinea han proveMo a las comunidades con unamultiplicidad de productos, una fuente de valores e identidad cultural. El uso actual de 10s bosques esesencialmenteparalaproducci6ndemadera, mientras10s Productos Forestales No-Madereros (NTFP) se ignoran ampliamente. Este articulo presenta una revisi6n del estado actual de 10s NTFP y su potential futuroenPaphaNuevaGuinea. Se hace notarsu importancia en la generaci6nde ganancias adicionales de divisas parael Gobiemo y para 10s propietarios de este recurso. Se necesita hacer mds para desarrollar y promover estos productos tanto a nivel nacional como intemacional. Las actitudes, tanto del gobiemo como de 10s terratenientes tradicionales, de considerar 10s bosques como un 'recurso libre' tienen que cambiar fundarnentalmente si se han de desarrollar en forma sostenible 10s bosques y su multiplicidad de productos en un futuro. Bonos de garantia de desempeiio e n la administraci6n comercial de bosques naturales: la experiencia temprana de las Filipinas R. PARIS, I. RUZICKA, H. SPEECHLY Se desafia la ortodoxia econ6mica actual que defiende el uso de comisiones aumentadas por volumen de madera cosechada como medio de mejorar la administraci6n del bosque natural por 10s concesionarios. Se propone un esquema altemativo, el cual asigna tanto dei'ecbos de corte a largo plazo, como responsabilidad para la administracidn de bosques a travts de licitaciones pdblicas competitivas sobre el valor de 10s bonos de garantia de desempeiio. Se describe la implementaci6n de tal plan en las Filipinas a travts de un nuevo t i p de medida para alquiler de bosques con opci6n de compra, el Acuerdo Industrial de Administraci6n Forestal. Este incorpora un bono de garantia de desempefio, per0 debido a disposiciones constitucionales, retiene tanto las comisiones basadas en alto volumen de madera, como el limite de 50 aiios de tenencia. El artlculo resume la experiencia con el plan desputs de dos aiios de implementacih y sugiere posibles mejoras. La evaluaci6n d e proveniencias d e Aliso negro europeo (Alnus glutinosa (L) Gaertn) para acortar la rotaci6n forestal O.U. ONOKPISE y R.B. HALL La biomasa producida por plantaciones cultivadas intensivamente con rotaci6n corta provee de energia para tecnologias relacionadas como gasificaci611, productos quimicos y conversi6n de forraje y maderade hbolesen alimentoanimal. Seevaluaronlasproveniencias deAlnusglutinosaen Illinois,Iowa y Wisconsinparasu mejoramiento en cultivo forestal de rotaci6n corta. Las semillas provenientes del sur de Europa se desempefiaron mejor en Illinois, mientras que las provenientes del Mar B6ltico y Polonia, tuvieron sus mejores

Las zonas d e crecimiento estacional e n la madera d e Acacia

karroo Hayne: Su definici6n y sus consecuencias I.D. GOURLAY y R.D. BARNES La edad de especies arMreas tropical y sub-tropicales en muy raras ocasiones, se define claramente y sin ambigiiedad. Este estudio investiga si cualquier caracteristica anat6micaen lamaderadelimita periodos de crecimiento anuales enAcacia karroo Hayne, una de las especies arb6reas mds ampliamente distribuidas en el sur de Africa. Se incluyeron en el estudio, muestras de 36 hboles de cuatro paises Africanos, cubriendo asimds de l4 grados de latitud. Se examinaron secciones completas a travks del tallo de estos Suboles,la mayoria de 10s cuales fueron seleccionados por sus datos de soporte en cuanto a la fecha de plantaci6n. Ademis un sub-conjunto de Lboles fue herido a intewalos de tiempo documentados para producir unos callos 10s cuales podrian ser localizados y relacionados con variaciones anatdmicas y eventos de fenologia. Los anillos de crecimiento estacional en la anatomia. avarecieron como bandas estrechas de partnquima marginal llenados con cadenas largas de cristal. Los cristales fueron identificados posteriormente como oxalatos de calcio mediante el uso de una micro-sonda analizadora de protones. Se demostr6 que el ndmero de bandas correspondfa estrechamente con las edades conocidas de 10s drboles. Se confirm6 posteriormente que estas eran anuales en el sentido que el ancho del 10s anillos de crecimiento estuvo correlacionado con laprecipitaci6n anual. Las bandas fueron establecidas durante laestaci6n de inviemo seco cuando ces6 el crecimiento de didmetro del tallo. El uso de Melia volkensii en un sistema agroforestal semiArido e n Kenya M. STEWART y T. BLOMLEY Los agricultores en la regidn semi-drida de Kenya oriental han desarrollado un sistema agroforestal utilizando la especie indigena Melia volkensii (Gurke). Los hboles se siembran bien dispersos en el terreno de cultivo espaciados por unos 10 a 15 m. M. volkensii es de rdpido crecimiento y arraiga profundamente. Su efecto en las cosechas adyacentes se minimiza por poda regular de la corona y un rango amplio de cosechas pueden ser cultivadas muy cerca a1 tallo. M. volkensii provee de madera vendible de alta calidad; otros productos importantes son estacas duraderas, colmenas, forraje, preparaciones medicinales y lefia. La integraci6ndeM. volkensii con cosechases deliberaday sistemdtica, requiriendo un manejo continuo y rational. La semilla es dura de genninar, haciendo dificil la propagaci6n en masa de y difusi6n de esta especie. Es esencial la investigaci6n de la propagaci6n y silvicultura de M. volkensii.

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CFA NATIONAL BRANCHES Names and address of branch officers*

Australia National Committee Dr R.G. Florence (Chairman) Department of Forestry, ANU, GPO Box 4, Canberra ACT 260 1 Tel: 61 6 249 2579 / Fax: 61 6 249 0746

Bangladesh Mr S. Anwar (Chairman) Conservator of Forests, 180 Dhanmondai Res. Area, Road No. 18, Dhaka 1209
Mr U.I. Ahmad (Secretary) Forestry Dept., Ban Bhaban, Mohakhali, Dhaka 1212

Dr R.C. Nielsen (SecRreasurer)

PO Box 9069 Deakin ACT

Dr B.N. Richards (Membership) Wester Lea, via Guyra, Black Mountain NSW 2365
State Representatives ACT Dr R.G. Florence (Chairman) Dr R.C. Nielsen (Secretary) New South Wales Dr B.N. Richards (Chairman) Mr R.G. Bridges (Secretary) Forestry Commission of NSW, Eden, NSW 2551 Northern Territory Mr R.J. Hooper (Chairman) Conservation Commission, PO Box 496, Palmerston NT 083 1

Barbados Mr A.M.J. Robbins C/O British Development Division in the Caribbean PO Box 167, Collymore Rock, St Michael Tel: 436 9873 / Fax: 426 2194 Canada National Committee Mr R.W. Roberts (Chairman) Director, Forestry and Conservation Sector Canadian International Development Agency 200 Promenade du Portage, Hull, Quebec K1 A 0G4
Mr G. Peter MacQuanie (SecretaryRreasurer) Department of Natural Resources PO Box 698, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3J 2T9 Dr P.J. Murphy (Membership) Dept. of Forest Science, University of Alberta Edmonton T6G 2H l Province Representatives Alberta Dr P.J. Murphy (Secretaryrnreasurer) British Columbia Professor G.F. Weetman (SecretaryRreasurer) Forest Sciences Dept., University of BC Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 124 Tel: 604 822 2504 / Fax: 604 822 9102 Newfoundland Dr A. Robertson (SecretaryRreasurer) 7 Brigus Place, St. Johns, Newfoundland A l E 3S5 Tel: 709 772 6019 Nova Scotia Mr G. Peter MacQuanie (Secretary/Treasurer)

Queensland Mr K.S. Jennings (Secretary) Forestry Department, GPO Box 944, Brisbane, QLD 4001 South Australia Mr T.G.H. Bankes (Chairman) PO Box 563, Mount Gambier, SA 5290 Tel: 61 87 396 51 1 / Fax: 61 87 396 250 Mr D.R. Page (Secretary) 30 Tweed Crescent, Mt Gambier, SA 5290 Tasmania Mr I.N. Whyte (Chairman) 15 Southern Drive, Midway Point, TAS 7 171 Mr A.J. Warner (Secretary) Associated Forest Holdings, PO Box 582, Burnie, TAS 7320 Tel: 61 04 30 7777 / Fax: 61 04 30 7602 Victoria Mr P.B. Lavery (Secretary) PO Box 109, Ringwood, Victoria 3134 Fax 61 3 819 2365 Western Australia Dr John A. Howard (Secretary) Mulga Research Centre, 1 Sarich Way Technology Park, Curtin University, Bentley WA 6102

Guyana Mr D. Sawh (SecretarylTreasurer) P.O. Box 12195, Georgetown -Tel: 592 2 56178 / Fax: 592 2 66384 Hong Kong Mr Chi Hong Leung (SecretaryRreasurer) Agriculture and Fisheries Dept.

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1 / . Government Offices, 393 Canton Road, Kowloon 4F, Tel. 733 2130 / Fax 31 1 3731 India Mr S. Shyam Sunder (Chairman) Mr S. Parameshwarappa (Review Liaison) Dr S.N. Rai (Secretary) Mr S.K. Chakrabarthi (Treasurer) 3289,12th Main, HAL I1 Stage, Bangalore 560008 Tel: 91 812 583142 / 565250;Fax: 91 812 560350 Kenya Mr E.A. Ochieng (Chairman) Forestry Dept., Moi University, PO Box 3900,Eldoret
Mr J. Angwenyi (Vice Chairman) C/O Kakuzi Ltd. PO Box 24,Thika

Swazlland M F.B. Knight (SecretaryiTreasurer) r Forest Manager, Peak Timbers Ltd, PO Box 3,Piggs Peak Trinidad and Tobago Mr S. Dardaine, 14 Onyx Drive Diamond Vale, Diego Martin Tel: 1 809 6225214/ Fax: 1 809 6454288 Uganda Mr L.S. Kiwanuka (Secretary~Treasurer) Forest Department, PO Box 7124,Kampala UK Mr R.T. Bradley (Chairman) Head, Forestry Authority 231 Corstorphine Road, Edinburgh EH12 7AT Tel: 031 334 0303 /Fax: 031 316 4891
Mr D. Henderson-Howat (Secretary) (as above)

Lesotho Mr T.J. Green (SecretaryRreasurer) Forestry Division, PO Box 774,Maseru 100 Malawi Mr G.P. Sakanda (Secretary) Department of Forestry, PO Box 30048,Lilongwe 3 Tel: 265 78 1000 / Fax: 265 784268 Malaysia Dato' Ismail Awang (Chairman) Director deneral, Malaysian Forestry Department Jalan Mahameru, 50660 Kuala Lumpur
Mr Thang Hooi Chiew (Secretary) Forestry Department HQ Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50660 Kuala Lumpur Tel: 60 3 298 8244 / Fax: 60 3 292 5657

USA Mr R.L. Izlar (SecretaryFreasurer) Georgia Forestry Assoc. Inc. 505 Pinnacle Court, Norcross, Georgia 3634 Tel: 404 416 7621 / Fax: 404 840 8961 Zambia Mr P.J. Mwitwa Republic of Zambia Forest Department, PO Box 2099, Kitwe Zimbabwe
Mr D. Gwaze (Chairman) Forest Research Centre, PO Box 595 Highlands, Harare Mr W. Bgoni (Secretary) (as above)

Namibia Mr B.S. Siyambango Director of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture Private Bag 1 184,Windhoek 9000 3 Tel: 264 61 221478 / Fax: 264 61 222830 New Zealand Mr P.J. Berg (Chairman) I'IT Rayonnier NZ Ltd., PO Box 9283,Auckland Tel: 64 9 302 2988 / Fax: 64 9 572 4056
Mr D. Wije-wardana (Secretary) NZ Ministry of Forestry, PO Box 1610,Wellington Tel: 64 4 472 1569 / Fax: 64 4 472 2314

FAO Mr P.A. Wardle (Secretarynreasurer) FAO Forestry Department Via delle Terme di Caracalla, Rome 00100 Tel: 39 6 5797 3550 / Fax: 39 6 5225 3152

Nigeria Dr A.B. Ogunlade (Chairman) Dr F.K. Odunlami (SecFreasurer) Ondo State Afforestation Project PMB 533,Ondo

This list represents the situation so far as it is known to the CFA Administrative Oftice in Oxford. We would be grateful for any further information,such as newly elected branch officers, changes of address, and telephone and fax numbers.

Branch committees are reminded that only fully paid up members of the Association are eligible for election as officers.

Advice to Contributors
GENERAL Manuscripts should be typewritten, double-spaced throughout, with at least a 3 cm margin on the left. Two copies must be submitted to the Editorial Office, Commonwealth Forestry Association, Oxford Forestry Institute, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB. Authors are advised to keep 'a copy of their manuscripts for reference; manuscripts will not be returned. The style of headings and layout of tables should conform to that of the Review. The text (excluding tables, references or appendices) should not exceed 4,000 words. Contributions must be original and not have been submitted for publication elsewhere. SUMMARY Authors must supply a summary of not more than 150 words at the beginning of the paper, and should suggest no more than five keywords. PREPARATION FOR PUBLICATION Each submitted manuscript will be referred to a member of the editorial board and at least one expert referee. Authors will be consulted if the paper is considered suitable for publication but alterations are thought desirable. After these alterations have been included the manuscript will be considered final. Page proofs will be sent to authors for checking before publication. These proofs are simply for the purpose of correcting printing errors; only in exceptional cases, and at the discretion of the Editorial Board, may authors be permitted to change their text at this stage. SCIENTIFIC NAMES The complete scientific name (genus, species and authority, and cultivar where appropriate) must be cited for every organism at the first time of mention. The generic name may be abbreviated to the initial thereafter except where intervening references toother genera with the same initial would cause confusion. If vernacular names are employed, they must be accompanied by the correct scientific name on first use. TABLES Tables should be numbered in arabic numerals and each submitted on a separate sheet with an appropriate legend at the head. The preferred position in the text should be indicated. ILLUSTRATIONS Text-figures. The publication of papers may be delayed, and the cost is increased, when figures have to be redrawn or relettered by the printers. This canbe avoided if authors will comply exactly with the following instructions. Drawing should be made in black ink on Bristol board, tracing film, or graph withfaintfuling. Photocopies are not satisfactory for reproduction. A photocopy or other suitable duplicate should, however, accompany each figure. The maximum space available on a page is 228 X 179 mm (9 X 7 inches), and the width of a single column of text is 86 mm (3.4 inches), thus for a full page figure the original should not be larger than 456 X 358 mm (18 X 14inches) and fora single column width-figure the original should not be larger than 172X 358 mm (6.8 X 14inches). Authors should indicate on the back of figures whether they are to be reproduced at single or double column width. Legends to figures must not be incorporated in the figures, but should be typed in double spacing on a separate sheet. Each legend should contain sufficient explanation to be meaningful without cross-referencing. The individual figures must be numbered clearly in pencil and should bear the name of the authorPhotographs for plates must be of a high quality, printed on glazed paper, and should be supplied at the same size as for final reproduction,bearing in mind the dimensions given above. A separate typewritten double-spaced EXPLANATION OF PLATES should be supplied, setting out the legends for the photographs, which will be referred to as Plate 1, .Plate 2, Plate 2A etc. A scale should be included in the picture wherever possible, otherwise the scale of the original should be stated in the EXPLANATION OF PLATES so that the final scale can be calculated. Photographs should be black and white; colour reproduction will not be considered, and black and white reproduc: tion of colour photographs is possible but will give an inferiorresult. ORIGINALS If authors wish to have original illustrations returned after publication they should make a specific request when submitting their paper for consideration. REFERENCES
A great deal of editorial time can be taken up by revising references to conform with the style of the Review. Authors are requested to observe the following guide closely. Citations in the text should take the form: Smith and Robinson (1960). If several papers by the same author in the same year are cited, they should be lettered in sequence (1960a), (1960b) etc. When papers are by more than two authors, all the names should be recorded on first mention, e.g. Smith, Jones, and Williams (1960). Subsequent reference should be to Smith et al. (1960). At the end of the paper, the list of REFERENCES must be arranged in alphabetical order without serial numbering. The following standard form of citation should be used:

BUNTING, 1967. The conserved type ofCalliandra. Taxon, 16, G.S., 469-472. ELIAS,T.S., 1978. Mimosoideae. ~ P O L H I L L , ~ ~ ~ R A v E N , P . H R.M. (Eds.) Advances in Legume Systematics Part I. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey. 425pp. All citations in the text should appear in the list of references and vice versa. The list must be typed double-spaced throughout and checked thoroughly before submission. COMPUTER DISKS Where authors use a word-processor, they should nevertheless submit their papers in printed form only in the first instance. When a paper is accepted for publication, it will be greatly appreciated if authors can provide a disk to accompany the final version of the manuscript. If possible, the paper should be written in Wordperfect 5.1, or alternatively sent as an ASCII file, but materials in other programmes can be translated here if necessary. There is no need to send figures in graphics programmes, but the printed figure should be of a high quality suitable for reproduction.

THE COMMONWEALTH FORESTRY ASSOCIATION

Recent years have seen far-reaching changes in forestry and Commonwealth forestry has been no exception. The tropical forests have been disappearing fast and most investment is in plantation forestry or in forestry for community development. The oil crisis has brought renewed attention to tree growing for renewable energy supplies. The awareness of the environment and recreational value of the forest continues to grow.
The aims of the Association The Commonwealth Forestry Association (CFA) brings together all who are concerned with conservation, development and management of forests, especially of the tropical and sub-tropical resources. Forests are important in many ways to many people. Supply of timber, the protection of soil, water supplies and the environment and the provision of healthy recreational areas are a few. Equally important in the long term are the maintenance of wild areas for research and the preservation of genetic diversity. For millions of rural people in developing countries the sustainable utilization of species andecosystems, including wildlife, forest and grazing lands, is of prime importance. Such concerns cannot be confined within narrow geographical or political boundaries and, although originally instituted as a Commonwealth organization, the Association now represents global concern about forestry matters. The Association's membership The CFA is essentially a professional Association keeping its members informed of developments in forest science and practice, mainly through its publications, but also through periodic meetings. Its members c m e from non-Commonwealth and Commonwealth countries and include foresters, forest and wood scientists, timber merchants, ecologists, resource managers and conservationists, as well as forest services, institutions, organizations and firms. The Association's services The Association's office is in the Oxford Forestry Institute, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, with which it cooperates closely. The Departmental library, in collaboration with CAB International, Wallingford, gives the Association unique support as an information centre for visiting members.

THE ASSOCIATION'S PUBLICATIONS

Commonwealth Forestry Review The Review is published quarterly and contains articles on a wide range of subjects, an editorial on forestry around the world and reviews of books, research papers and reports. The object of the Review is to bring to readers, particularly those who do not have extensive library facilities, a comprehensive summary of information. TheReview is sent free by surface mail to all paid-up members and it can be sent airmail at extra cost. Commonwealth Forestry Handbook Published periodically, this gives a List of Members, details of senior personnel of Commonwealth Forest Services, Research and Educational Institutions, Organizations and Societies, a list of Forestry publications, has a section on Technical Information and a list of World Timbers, with their standard and botanical names and countries of origin. This is also sent free to members of the Association.

Annual Subscription Rates 1995' UK LIFE MEMBERZ: ....................................... 350.00 + f 15 p.a. ORDINARY MEMBER: US$ $540.00 $65.00 $25.00

+ $35 p.a.

.............................. 35.00

STUDENT/DEVELOPING COUNTRY3/ UNEMPLOYED: ........................................ 10.00 CORPORATE MEMBER (Forest Departments, Companies, International Organizations) .......................... f 60.00 SUBSCRIPTIONS TO REVIEW (Libraries) ...................................................... 60.00 SINGLE COPY OF REVIEW

$100.00 $100.00 $35.00

...................... 15.00

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Including surface postage. Airmail f 12.00 / $20.00 extra per annum. Ordinary members aged 65 who have subscribed for 10 years may convert to Life Membership by making one further payment of 100, and paying 15 per annum subsequently. Please apply to CFA National Secretary.

APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP

The Commonwealth Forestry Association, OFI, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, UK Please enrol me as a *Life MemberIOrdinary MemberIStudent, Developing Country, Unemployed MemberICorporate Member (Institution, Company or Forest Department) I enclose *Cheque/Bankerls OrderlDraftlCashAJNESCOCoupon for ................................................................................................. *Delete those not applicable PLEASE USE BLOCK CAPITALS Ordinary Members, Life Members and Student/Developing Country/Unemployed Members Surname and Initials .....................................................................................Title (e.g. Mr.) .................................................................... Degrees and Distinctions ............................................................................................................................................................................ (Students-first degree, if any) .......................................................................Date of Birth ....................................................................... Corporate Members (Institutions, Company etc.) ...................................................................................................................................... Address for despatch of Commonwealth Forestry Review

..................................................................................................................... Country .............................................................................. Signature of Applicant ............................................................................................................................................................................... Position ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... Tel: ................................................................................................................ Fax: ............................. ................................................. Date ............................................................................................................. Membership to start as from January 19 ............................

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