Three major regions: northern mountains, Indo-Gangetic Plain, and the peninsula

Northern Mountains: False: northern mountains were a barrier to communication, isolating north India from Asia True: communication between north India and Asia intensified cross-cultural activities northern plain bounded North-west: Hindu Kush, watershed, geographical interface between Oxus and Indus Valleys; and Sulaiman and Kirthar Mountains North and North-east: Himalaya North West:Routes North-west mountains less snowed than Himalayas, used more often i.e. Bolan,Gomal, Khyber passes Kyber: important role in Britishs attempt to control Afghanistan and contain Russia in 19th cent.; Highly romatisized in literature Bolan: gave access to Seistan area and Helmand valley, north-eastern Iran, and central Asia Swat valley, fertile; famous for its connections with the route of Alexander of Macedon Settlements at both ends point to the importance of controlling the passes (40) Passes were so frequently used, that its incorrect to say that mountains were barriers; they are actually the open doors that start the communication; Contact was made back to the 3rd millennium BC, the Indus Valley period, and earlier Himalaya routes Snow made it difficult, however, there was trade and communication in the passes direct north route linked to the central Asian Silk Route; a backdrop to the Great Game(British attempt to open up central Asia and Tibet) Frequency of migration and trade varied from region to region Difference in the condition of mountain systems and cultures encouraged a division between north-east and north-west northwest: continual influx of people patterns of living and languages Himalayan valleys: more secluded north-east: relative isolation and political power drawn from across the mountains Indo-Gangetic Plain: Perennial syupply of water from the glaciers to the northern rivers create deep ravines, opening meadows at high altitudes a blessing to farmers who liked the fertile silt prodduced by the rivers some hated it because of the excessive flooding and natural diasasters accompanying the rivers The Hakra river upper water was diverted to Sutlej, becoming a trubutyary of the India, flowing to join the Ganges. Hakra dried up; all there remains is disjointed streams in present-day Ghaggar Identification of Ghaggar with Sarasvati, in the Rig Veda, is controversial Sarasvati is said to cut through the high mountatins, not the landscaope of the Ghaggar Said that Sutlek and the Yauma were already seperate rivers, not flowing into Ghaggar

the name Sarasvati was applied to many rivers after a river have been mytholigzed through invoking the memory of the earlier memory. Elevation area of the Indo-Gangetic watershed seperats Indus system in the west and the Ganges of the east Arvalli HIlls futher seperate Arid lands of Rajasthan from western Ganges Plain Indo-Gangetic watershed became a fronter to the Ganges Plain in fear of intrustions from north west The Ganges, rising in HImalays flows south and then towards east, provuding roates for river transportation(43) The Tamuna, parellel to The Ganges, eventually joins it; area betwene the two is known as the doab: meaning between two rivers(43) River valleys or the plains created by a river and its tributaries are often optimal areas for the rise of urban centres, particularly at or near nodal points such as the confluence of river. The urban civilization of the Indus system dates to the third millennium BC, that of the Ganges system to the first millennium BC. Indus Plan had been less forest dense than Ganges plain Monsoon hit the forests, so Ganges plain had been effectively cleared, making it extremely fertile<== attracted agruculture because of its flood plains, despite the flooding Northern plains not uniformly fertile; however desert provided a great area for routes for trading to be created Stations and exchange stations were created, towns then emerged, and with irrigation some areas became agriculturally viable

The Pennisula: Third major region A plateu region, with hilly terrain in Western and Eastern Ghats; Lies south of the Vindhya MOuntains, the Satpura Ranges, and the Narmada river; Deccan: plateu in the northern half of the peninsula; given by the northerners; derived from dakshina, meaning south major route: dakshinapatha: literally meaning the southern route Plateau consists of volcanis rock, different from northern mountains, such rock is easy to cut into, hence the frequency of rock-cut monasteries and temples in the Deccan (44) Western Ghats rise sharply close to western coast, tapering eastwards into the plateau(44) passes cut through it, where Buddhist rock-cut monasteris were clusted Southern end: the Palghat gap: pass that allowed access from west cost to the Kaveri Valley: important to Indo-Roman trade Ghats on the east merge more gradually into the plateu and the coastal plain major rivers are parellel northern rivers like Narmada adn the Tapti run east to west Southern rivers, Godavari, Krsihna, flow west to east Peninsula has many rivers and elevations, creating expansive agrarian states similiar to those of the northern plains Urbanization in peninsula dates to late Mauryan period and start of first millenium AD Deccan is the bridge area linking norht and south, evident by language and architectual styles Central india: regarded as major habitat of tribal societies and forest peoples, even though there were many society spread throughout India

Coastal Areas: Peninsula has both western and eastern coasts, therefore, there were many maritime activities Ships took advantage of the monsoons to better power their sailing boats Many ports and pirates, which were refered to frequently, Piracy was feared as it may terminate trading The Indian Ocen is devided by the Indian peninsula into two arcs: the Arabian sea and the western coast of india; and the aby of bengal and the eastern coast. The western coast can be best be viewed historically as having various foci or core areas: the Indua delta, Gujarat and Saurashtra, Thana (in the vincinity of Mumbai), the Konkan (south of this), and Malabar( in Kerala). The foci on the eastern coast were: the Ganges Delta, Kalinga( in Orissa), the Deltas of the Godavari and Krishna, and the Coromandel coast with a concentration in the Kaveri Delta(in Tmail Nadu). These core locations were often the center of kingdoms that have Maritime ambitions and economies. Rise and fall in sea level were an advantage and disadvantage to the coast. Some cities were able to open to small ships when sea level rose when sea leave fell, some ports would be high and dty however, the land revealed are useful to human and animal populations the east coast is the evidence of the movemnet of Buddhism from eastern India. east-coast traders took the intiative to establish trade with south east asia and southern china going back to the third millenium BC Fontiers: Geographical features are said to serve as boundaries between states Definition of boundary is different than what it is now Past: boundaries were not set, rather frontier zones were created frontier zones were created and recognized often through cahnges in language and custom; allowing for diplomatic leeway Frontiers also relate to the curious phenomenon of how some languages spread, while other remain in one place. Ind0-Aryan, as Sanskrit, intially had a limited elite status. THe use of Sanskrit became more widespread across north INdia when various dnasties gave it preference voer the populary used Prakit as their official language. Sanskrit then became the language in literature, philosophical works, and in the court regional languages then mostly stayed within the regional boundaries, and rarely used in court Transportion: HUman porterage and nimals were used to transport goods on land animal changed according to the environment Rivers were used for transporting bulk items by the 19th century Knowledge of astronomy tended to advange during times of maritime trade Climate and agriculture: