MASONRY AND CONCRETE MASONRY is the art of building with stone, bricks, concrete blocks or other similar materials.

. 4000 B.C. the art of building has its origin from the land of Mesopotamia, China and Egypt as manifested by some stone edifice still existing today. 2600 B.C. cut stones were used on a wide scale construction of temples and monuments as observed in the construction of the pyramids of Egypt. Romans the use of mortar was introduced by the Romans who also perfected the technique of using masonry facing on a core of concrete and rubbles.  Stone is relatively strong in compression, but weak in under tension. Masonry Building Materials Includes: 1. Stone 2. Concrete Blocks 3. Tiles 4. Terra cotta 5. Adobe stone, etc.

Stonework maybe classified as: 1. Ashlar consist of carefully worked and joined stone blocks laid in parallel horizontal courses. a) Alternate Course Ashlar when the installation of masonry blocks were arranged in alternate thin and thick courses.

b) Broken or Random Ashlar if stones of various sizes are used to make courses that are not continuous for the length of the wall.

2. Rubble generally consists of irregular stones with good face for the wall surfaces. The gaps between the stones filled with small or broken stones and cement mortar. a) Course Rubble is made with roughly squared blocks leveled up to 30 to 45 cm thick courses.

BRICKS - are manufactured from clay and other materials processed into a workable consistency molded to sizes and fired in a kiln to make the strong, durable and attractive.

Classification of Bricks: 1) Common Bricks- are made from clay called ordinary commercial bricks. 2) Face Bricks are made from clay material used on exposed exterior and interior masonry walls and other architectural applications where the size, color and texture of bricks are given especially importance. 3) Calcium Silicate Bricks are made from clay or non clay materials with alumina and silica used in furnace construction where resistance to temperature as high as 178 C is required. Brick Laying Bricks are laid in horizontal or vertical layers using a string or nylon cord as guide. The vertical position is guided by a plumb line. The mortar is placed in between the layers of brick to a thickness of about 3 to 10 mm depending upon the plan. When the brick is laid, it is pressed slightly down into a generous mortar bed and shoved into final position to insure that: a. The mortar is moderately pressed into the space between the bricks. b. The horizontal and vertical joints are filled with mortar. c. The wall is watertight.

Concrete Hollow Block is otherwise called CHB for short. It is the most widely used masonry material for all types of construction such as walls, partitions, dividers, fences, etc.

CEMENT Hydraulic Cement - is a bonding agent that reacts with water to form a hard stone-like substance that is resistant to disintegration in water. Portland Cement - is widely used in various small and large constructions including roads and highways. Types of Portland Cement: Type I - is used in general construction where the special properties are specified. Type II - for general concrete construction exposed to moderate sulfate action or where moderate heat of hydration is required. Type III - is used where high early strength is necessary. Type IV - is specified when sulfate resistance is required. Pozzolan Cement - is an amorphous silica that harden as a silica gel by reacting chemically with alkali in the presence of water. Water - water that is acceptable for drinking purposes is also satisfactory for use in concrete mixing. Admixture - as certified by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), admixture is a material other than water, aggregates or Portland cement, that is used as an ingredient in concrete added to the batch immediately before or during its mixing. The Purpose of Admixture in Concrete are: 1. To improve the workability or consistency of concrete. 2. To improve the durability of concrete. 3. To increase strength. 4. Accelerate strength development. 5. Retard or accelerate the initial setting. 6. Retard or reduce the evolution of heat. 7. Control alkali-aggregate expansion. 8. Increase density and reduce permeability. The Air-entraining Admixture materially improves the durability of concrete in entraining billions of microscopic air bubbles distributes throughout the matrix or the concrete. National Building Code on Admixture states that: The admixture shall be shown capable of maintaining essentially the same composition and performance throughout the work as a product used in establishing concrete proportions Admixtures containing chloride-ions shall not be used in prestressed concrete or in concrete containing aluminium embedment if their use will produce a deleterious concentration of chloride-ion in the mixing water.

AGGREGATES - are inert materials when bound together into a conglomerated mass by Portland cement and water from concrete, mortar or plaster. The aggregates component is bout 75% of the total mass of concrete. Two Categories of Aggregates: 1. Coarse Aggregate - is that proportion of an aggregates that is retained on number 4 (4.76 mm) sieve which usually come from: a. Natural gravel deposits which are formed by water, wind or glacial action. b. Manufactured by crushing rock, stone, boulder and large cobble stone. y Four Kinds of Common Course Aggregate: a. Limestone or calcium-bearing materials. b. Basalts, granite and related igneous rock. c. Sandstone and quartzite. d. Rock, such as opal and chert composed mainly of amorphous silicon dioxide. Conditions for maximum size of coarse aggregate: a. It shall easily fit into the forms and in between reinforcing bars. b. It should not be larger than 1/5 of the narrowest dimension of the forms or 1/3 of the depth of the slab nor of the minimum distance between the reinforcing bars.

2. Fine Aggregate - is generally the product of natural disintegration of silica-bearing or calcium bearing rock.

CONCRETE
CONCRETE - is an artificial stone as a result of mixing cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water. y Plain Concrete - the conglomeration of these materials producing a solid mass is called plain concrete. Reinforcement Concrete - concrete in which reinforcement is embedded in a manner that the two materials act together in resisting forces.

Workability of Concrete Workability of concrete means the ability of fresh concrete to flow freely around the reinforcements and fill all the voids inside the form. Concrete is said to be workable under the following conditions: 1. Property proportioned for transport and placed without segregation. The aggregate particles must be uniformly distributed. 2. Easily molded into desired shapes and completely fill the space it is to occupy. 3. Easily finished.

Workability is also described as: a. Consistency - is the degree of wetness or slump of the concrete mixture. It varies directly with the amount of water in the mixture,. b. Plasticity - is the ease with which the fresh concrete can be molded or deformed without segregation. c. Mobility - is the capacity of concrete to move or flow, particularly during vibration. Strength of Concrete Concrete structure is subjected to compressive, tensile, flexural and shearing forces. And the strength of concrete is measured in its ability to resist the stresses caused by these different forces. The durability of concrete is its ability to resist the forces of deterioration. The forces of nature that cause deterioration includes: 1. Freezing and thawing of water saturated concrete. 2. Expansion caused by the reaction between reactive aggregates and alkali cement. 3. Reaction between soil and water sulfate and the hydrated Portland cement. 4. Expansion and shrinkage caused by wetting and drying. The freezing of water in the pores of concrete causes it to expand about 9% in volume. The pressure caused by the expansion of freezing water may be sufficient to damage the gel structure and cause deterioration of the concrete. Chemical Resistance Concrete could be protected by application of any of the following: 1. Composition and fineness of the cement. 2. Cement water ratio of the paste. 3. The time of curing. 4. Manner of curing. 5. Temperature. 6. Presence of entrained air. Weight of Concrete: 1. Light weight concrete - is classified into three types depending upon the kind of aggregate used that predetermine their weight. a. Low Density Concrete - is used for insulation purposes. Its unit weight would rarely exceed 50 pounds per cubic foot or 800 kg per cubic meter. b. Moderate Strength Concrete - has a unit weight of 360 to 960 kg per cubic meter with a compressive strength of 70 to 176 kg per square centimeter commonly used to fill light gauge steel floor panels. c. Structural Concrete - has similarity in characteristics with that of medium stone concrete. It weighs 90 to 120 pounds per cubic foot or 1,440 to 1,920 kg per cubic meter used in building roads, bridges, etc. 2. Medium Stone Concrete - is a structural concrete. It weighs from 145 to 152 pounds pre cubic foot or 2,325 to 2,435 kg per cubic meter.

3. Heavy Weight Concrete - is use as a shield against gamma rays reactor and other similar structures. It is also used as a counter weight for lift bridges. The weight of heavyweight concrete depends upon the kind of aggregate used in mixing such as: a. Heavy Rock Aggregates -weighs 200 to 300 pounds per cubic foot or 3,200 kg per cubic meter. b. Iron Punching is added to high density ores. It weighs 4,325 to 5,000 kg per cubic meter. PROPORTIONING CONCRETE MIXTURE Concrete proportioning of the ingredients to produce concrete also provides a balance between the requirements if: 1. Economy 2. Workability 3. Strength 4. Durability 5. Appearance 1918 - Duff A. Abams, an American scientist researcher, discovered the ratio of the amount of water to the amount of cement in the concrete mixture (water cement ratio) is related to the strength and quality of the concrete. 1940 - it was found out that the durability of concrete could be increased ten times by the use of small amount of air-entraining agent (admixture) in a concrete mixture. National Building Code states that: If suitable data from trial batches or field experience cannot be obtained, permission maybe granted to base concrete proportions on the water-cement ratio limits as shown on Table 7-4. When made with normal weight aggregate, concrete that is intended to be watertight shall have a maximum water cement ratio of 0.48 for exposure to sea water. TEST OF CONCRETE The building officials has the right to order the testing of any material used in concrete construction to determine if the concrete conforms to the quality specified. The complete record of test conducted should be maintained and made accessible for inspection during the progress of the work and for a period of 2 years after all construction work are completed and shall be preserved by the inspecting Architect or Engineer for reference purposes.

Various Test conducted are: 1. Slump Test - the method requires a fabricated metal with shape and dimensions.

2. Compression Test - is the process applied in determining the strength of concrete. Slump Test Procedures: a. Place the freshly mixed concrete inside the mold in 3 layers. Each layer is rodded separately by a 6 mm rod 25 times. b. Level the mold and lift at once. c. Measure the slump action immediately by getting the difference in height between the height of the mold and the top of slumped concrete. d. if the slump measures 5 cm, it is called 5 cm slump. e. the degree of consistency of concrete could be ascertained by referring to Table 7-6. Consistency - refers to the state of fluidity of freshly mixed concrete. MIXING CONCRETE The process of mixing concrete for building construction is done in two different ways. It is either mixing on the job site or by ready mixed concrete. ACI Building Code on mixing concrete states that: For a job-mixed concrete, mixing shall be done in a batch mixer of approved type. The mixer shall be rotated at a speed recommended by the manufacturer and mixing shall be continued for at least 1 minutes after all materials are in the drum, unless a shorter time is shown to be satisfactory by the criteria of Specifications for Ready-mixed Concrete for central mixtures. Centralized Ready-Mix Plant Concrete of any desirable proportions and quality for numerous special purposes can be ordered directly from the ready-mix contract dealers. The desired type and quality of concrete is delivered to the project site very rapidly. Mobile Mixing - cement and aggregates are loaded in a mobile mixer at the batching plant and then mixing operation is done its way to the job site. Stationary Mixer - the concrete is mixed before it is loaded inside the truck mixer where the concrete is only agitated. Stationary mixer also refers to the mixer installed on site where batches of cement and aggregates are mixed and delivered to the forms.

Hand Mixing - a good concrete can be produced also by hand mixing, provided that the fine and coarse aggregates are clean and well graded. Good concrete-mix proportions are as follows: kg of water 1 kg of cement 2 kg of sand 2 to 3 kg of gravel DEPOSITING OF CONCRETE Concrete mixing requires adequate preparation of the steel reinforcement, various embedment thereat, strong forms, equipment and the materials required for the activities. Section 5.1 of the ACI Code on depositing concrete states that: Before concrete is placed, all equipment for mixing and transporting of concrete shall be cleaned. All debris and ice shall be removed from the spaces to be occupied by the concrete. Forms shall be properly coated; masonry filler units that will be in contract with concrete shall be thoroughly cleaned of ice or other deleterious coatings. Water shall be removed from the placed unless a tremie is to be used or unless otherwise permitted. The Building Code on depositing concrete provides that: Concrete shall be conveyed from the mixer to the place of final deposit by methods which will prevent the separation or loss of materials. Conveying equipment shall be capable of providing a supply of concrete at the site of placement without separation of the ingredients and without interruptions sufficient to permit loss of plasticity between successive increments. Conveying of concrete mixture is done only by either of the following: 4. Buggies 1. Bottom dump 5. G.I. Pails 2. Wheelbarrows 6. Pimping through steel pipes 3. Buckets Things to avoid in placing concrete to its final form: 1. Segregation of particles 2. Displacement of forms 3. Displacement of reinforcement in the form. 4. Poor bond between successive layers of concrete. Segregation of Particles Segregation means the separation of sand and stone from the matrix or paste resulting to an inferior quality of concrete. Causes of Separation or Segregation of Aggregates: 1. Transferring of the concrete from the mixer to the forms. 2. Dropping of the concrete mixture from high elevations. 3. Improper tamping and spading. 4. The use of long chutes.

5. Excess amount of tamping, vibrating or pudding in the forms. 6. Concrete particles tend to segregate because of their dissimilarity. 7. Gravel tends to settle, while lighter materials and water tend to rise inside a container when delivery to the form is delayed. 8. Lateral movement such as flow within the form tends to separate the particles. Factors That Regulate the Strength of Concrete: 1. Correct proportioning of the ingredients. 2. Suitability or quality of the materials. 3. Proper methods of mixing. 4. Proper placement or depositing of concrete inside the form. 5. Adequate protection of concrete during the period of curing. Curing of Concrete The hardening of concrete depends upon the chemical reaction between the cement and water. Hardening of concrete will continue as long as moisture is present under favourable temperature condition. Methods applied in curing surface concrete: 1. Covering the surface with burlap continuously wet for the period of curing as specified. 2. Covering the slab with a layer of wet sand or saw dusts one inch thick. 3. Wet straw or hay on top of the slab continuously watered. 4. Continuous sprinkling of water on the slab surface. 5. Avoid early removal of the forms. This will permit undue evaporation of moisture in the concrete. Building Code on Curing of Concrete provides that: Concrete shall be maintained above 10 C temperature and in a moist condition for at least the first 7 days after placing, except that high early strength concrete shall be so maintained for at least the first 3 days Curing by high pressure steam at atmospheric pressure, heat and moisture or other accepted process, maybe employed to accelerate strength gain and reduce the time of curing. Definition of Terms: Bond is the term used with respect to the arrangement of bricks. Stretcher is the term used when the bricks are laid with its longer side exposed to view. Header is the term applied when the bricks are laid its end exposed. REFERENCE: Simplified Methods in Building Construction by Max B. Fajardo Jr. www.wikipedia.com www.stone.poplarheightsfarm.org/elements_of_masonry.HTM www.aboutcivil.com

TABLE 7-1 MORTAR MIXTURE Class A B C Mixture 1:2 1:3 1:4 Cement 18 12 9 Sand 1.0 1.0 1.0

TABLE 7-2 PLASTER MIXTURE Class A B C Mixture 1:2 1:3 1:4 Cement 9.0 6.0 4.5 Lime 9.0 6.0 4.5 Sand 1.0 1.0 1.0

TABLE 7-3 CONCRETE PROPORTION Class of Mixture AA A B C Cement 40 kg 1 1 1 1 Sand Cubic ft 1 2.0 2 3.0 Cubic m 0.043 0.057 0.071 0.085 Cubic ft 3 4 5 6 Gravel Cubic m 0.085 .113 .142 .170

TABLE 7-4 MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE WATER CEMENT RATIO FOR CONCRETE When strength data from trial batches or Field experience are not available
Specified Compressive Strength Fs-Psi 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 Kg/cm2 175 210 245 280 315 Maximum Permissible Water Cement Ratio Non-air entrained Air-entrained Concrete Concrete Absolute Liters per Absolute Liter Per Ratio by wt Bag Ratio by wt Bag 0.65 0.58 0.51 0.44 0.30 27.6 25.0 22.0 19.0 16.3 0.54 0.46 0.40 0.35 0.30 23.1 19.7 17.0 15.1 12.9

TABLE 7-5 CONCRETE AIR CONTENT FOR VARIOUS SIZES OF COARSE AGGREGATE Nominal Maximum Size of Coarse Aggregate Inches mm 3/8 1 1 2 3 10.0 12.0 20.0 25.0 38.0 50.0 75.0 TABLE 7-6 RECOMMENDED SLUMP FOR VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION STRUCTURES Types of Construction Reinforced Foundation wall and Footing Plain footing, caissons and substructure walls Slab, beam and reinforced walls Building columns Pavement Heavy mass construction Maximum Cm 13 10 15 15 7 7 Minimum Cm 5 2.5 7.5 7.5 5 2.5

Total Air Content 6.0-10 5.0-9.0 4.0-8.0 3.5-6.5 3.0-6.0 2.5-5.5 1.5-4.5