Different kinds of Mathematical Induction (1) Mathematical Induction Given A N, [1A (aA a+1A)] A = N.

(2) (First) Principle of Mathematical Induction Let P(x) be a proposition (open sentence), if we put A = {x : x N If (1) P(1) is true; p(x) is true} in (1), we get the Principle of Mathematical Induction.

(2) P(k) is true for some k N P(k+1) is true then P(n) is true n N. (3) Second Principle of Mathematical Induction If (1) P(1) is true; (2) 1 i k, P(i) is true P(k+1) is true then P(n) is true n N. [i.e. P(1) P(2) . P(k) is true]

(4) Second Principle of Mathematical Induction (variation) If then (1) P(1) P(2) (2) P(k-1) P(k) is true; is true for some k N\{1} P(k+1) is true

P(n) is true n N.

(5) Second Principle of Mathematical Induction (variation) If then (1) P(1) P(2) . P(m) (2) P(k) is true for some P(n) is true n N. is true;

k N P(k+m) is true

(6) Odd-even M.I. If then (1) P(1) P(2) (2) P(k) is true; k N P(k+2) is true

is true for some

P(n) is true n N.

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More difficult types of Mathematical Induction (7) Backward M.I. (1) P(n) is true n A, where A is an infinite subset of N; (2) P(k) is true for some then P(n) is true n N. kN P(k1) is true

If

(8) Backward M.I. (variation) (more easily applied than (7))

If

(1) P(1) is true; (2) P(2k) is true for some (3) P(k) is true for some k N P(2k+1) is true; kN P(k1) is true

then

P(n) is true n N.

(9) Different starting point (1) P(a) is true, where a N; (2) P(k) is true for some then k N, where k a P(k+1) is true

If

P(n) is true n N\{1, 2, ., a 1 }.

(10) Spiral M.I.

If

(1) P(1) is true; (2) P(k) is true for some Q(k) is true for some k N Q(k) is true k N P(k+1) is true

then

P(n) , Q(n) are true n N.

(11) Double M.I. Double M.I. involves a proposition P(m, n) with two variables m, n. is true m, n N; m, n N

If

(1) P(m, 1) and P(1, n)

(2) P(m+1, n) and P(m, n+1) are true for some P(m+1, n+1) is true then P(m, n) is true m, n N.
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A Prime Number Theorem

[Second Principle of Mathematical Induction]

Prove that the nth prime number Solution Let P(n) be the proposition :

p n < 22 .
n

p n < 22 .
n

For

P(1),

p1 = 2 < 2 2
is true

P(1)

is true.

Assume

P(i)

s.t. 1 i k , i.e.

p1 < 2 2 , p 2 < 2 2 ,..., p k < 2 2 . (*)

1 2 k

For

P(k + 1),

Multiply all inequalities in (*),

1 2 k 1 2 k

p1p 2 ....p k < 2 2 2 2 ....2 2

1 2 k +1

p1p 2 ....p k + 1 2 2 2 2 ....2 2 = 2 2 +2 +....+2 = 2 2

For any prime factor p of

< 22

k +1

p1p 2 ....p k + 1 , we have

p < 22

k +1

Since p1, p2 , ., pk

are not prime factor of

p1p 2 ....p k + 1 , we have pk < p and hence pk+1 p.

is true. P(n) is true n .

p k +1 p < 2 2

k +1

P(k + 1)

By the Second Principle of Mathematical Induction, Recurrive formula Let {an}

n-1

[Second Principle of Mathematical Induction] a1 = 2, a2 = 3 and an+2 = 3an+1 2an .

be a sequence of real numbers satisfying an = 2 +1. an = 2n-1 + 1 .

Prove that Solution Let For i.e. P(n)

be the proposition :

P(1) P(2), ak = 2k-1 + 1 ak+1 = 2 + 1

k

a1 = 2 = 21-1 + 1, . . (1) (2)

a2 = 2 = 22-1 + 1 . k .

P(1) P(2)

is true.

Assume

P(k) P(k+1) is true for some

For

P(k+2),

ak+2

= 3ak+1 2ak = 3(2k + 1) 2(2k-1 + 1) = 2k+1 + 1 is true. P(n) is true n .

P(k + 2)

By the Second Principle of Mathematical Induction, Odd Even Mathematical Induction Let a1 = 2, a2 = 2 an+2 = an + 1

Prove that

an =

1 (n + 1) + 1 1 + ( 1)n 2 4

].

Solution

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Let P(n) be the proposition : a1 = 1 = a2 =1 =

an =

1 (n + 1) + 1 1 + ( 1)n 2 4

].

For P(1),

1 (1 + 1) + 1 1 + ( 1)1 2 4

] ]
P(1) P(2) is true.

For P(2),

1 (2 + 1) + 1 1 + ( 1)2 2 4 k .

Assume

P(k) is true for some

i.e. a k =

1 (k + 1) + 1 1 + ( 1)k 2 4

(*)

For P(k + 2), ak+2 = ak + 1 = = 1 (k + 1) + 1 1 + ( 1)k + 1 2 4

, by (*)

1 [(k + 1) + 1] + 1 1 + ( 1)k +1 2 4

]
P(n) is true n .

P(k + 2) is true. By the Principle of Mathematical Induction,

Backward Mathematical Induction

x + x2 Let f(x) be a convex function defined on [a, b], i.e. f ( x 1 ) + f ( x 2 ) 2f 1 for all x1, x2 [a, b]. 2 For each positive integer n, consider the statement: x + ... + x n I(n) : If xi [a, b], i = 1, 2, , n, then f ( x 1 ) + ... + f ( x n ) nf 1 . n
(a) (b) (c) Solution (a)

Prove by induction that I(2k) is true for every positive integer k. Prove that if I(n) (n 2) is true, then I(n-1) is true.

Prove that I(n) is true for every positive integer n.

x + ... + x n I(n) : If xi [a, b], i = 1, 2, , n, then f ( x 1 ) + ... + f ( x n ) nf 1 n For I(21), since it is given that I(2k) x + x2 f ( x 1 ) + f ( x 2 ) 2f 1 . 2 I(21) is true.

Assume

x 1 + ... + x 2 k is true. i.e. f ( x 1 ) + ... + f ( x 2k ) 2 k f 2k

.(1)

For I(2k+1),
f ( x 1 ) + ... + f ( x 2k ) + f ( x 2k +1 ) + ... + f ( x 2k +1 )
x k + ... + x 2k +1 x + ... + x 2k x 2k +1 + ... + x 2k +1 x 1 + ... + x 2k k k 1 2k f + 2 f 2 +1 k = 2 f + f k 2 2 2k 2k x 1 + ... + x 2k x 2k +1 + ... + x 2k +1 = 2 k f + f 2k 2k x 1 + ... + x 2k + x 2k +1 + ... + x 2k +1 = 2 k +1 f 2 k +1 , by (1)

1 x 1 + ... + x 2k x 2k +1 + ... + x 2k +1 + 2 k 2 f , by I(2) 2k 2k 2

I(2k+1)

is true

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(b)

Assume i.e.

I(n) is true (n 2), x n 1 x 1 + ... + x n 1 + n = nf n n 1 n 1

x + ... + x n f ( x 1 ) + ... + f ( x n ) nf 1 n xn = x 1 + ... + x n 1 n 1 , then

Put

x + ... + x n 1 x 1 + ... + x n 1 f ( x 1 ) + ... + f ( x n 1 ) + f 1 nf n 1 n 1 x + ... + x n 1 f ( x 1 ) + ... + f ( x n 1 ) ( n 1)f 1 n 1

(c)

I(n 1) is also true. n = 2k r.

n ,

(k

and r ) such that

Spiral Mathematical Induction

Given a sequence {an}

satisfying

a2m-1= 3m(m 1) + 1 and a2m = 3m2,

where

Let

S n = a i , prove that
i =1

1 2 S 2 m 1 = 2 m 4m 3m + 1 1 S 2 m = m 4m 2 + 3m + 1 2

( (

) )

....(1) ....(2)

Solution

Let

P(m)

be the proposition :

S2 m 1 = S2m = k

1 m 4m 2 3m + 1 2

Q(m) For P(1),

be the proposition : S1 = a1 = 1 is true for some

1 m 4m 2 + 3m + 1 2 is true for

)
( )

(1)

m=1. 1 k 4k 2 3k + 1 2 . (*)

Assume

P(k)

., i.e. S 2 k 1 =

(a) (b)

For For

Q(k), S2k = S2k-1 + a2k = P(k + 1), S2k+1 = S2k + a2k+1 = = =

1 1 k 4k 2 3k + 1 + 3k 2 = k 4k 2 + 3k + 1 . 2 2

Q(k)

is true.

1 k 4k 2 + 3k + 1 + [3(k + 1)k + 1] 2

1 4k 3 + 12k 2 + 12k + 4 3k 2 + 6k + 3 + (k + 1) 2

[(

) (

1 1 3 2 2 4(k + 1) 3(k + 1) + (k + 1) = (k + 1) 4(k + 1) 3(k + 1) + 1 . 2 2 P(1) is true. P(k) is true Q(k) is true P(k + 1) is true P(n) is true n

P(k + 1) is true.

Since

(1) (2)

By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(1) is true. Q(k) is true Q(1) is true

Since

(1) (2)

P(k + 1) is true

Q(k + 1) is true .

By the Principle of Mathematical Induction,

Q(n) is true n

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Mathematical Induction with parameter

, when a = 1 1 f(a, 1) = . 0 , when a > 1, a N f (a , n ) + 1 , when a = 1 f(a, n+1) = . f (a, n ) + f (a 1, n ) , when a > 1, a N

Let

and

Prove that
Solution

f (a , n ) =

n (n 1)...(n a + 1) a! n (n 1)...(n a + 1) a!

Let P(n) be the proposition : f (a , n ) =

(1)

(1)

For

P(1), there are two cases: R.H.S. = 1 =1 1! 1(n 1)...(1 a + 1) =0 . a! k (k 1)...(k a + 1) a! P(1) is true.

When a = 1, L.H.S. = f(1, 1) = 1.

When a > 1,

L.H.S. = f(a, 1) = 0.

R.H.S. =

(2)

Assume For

P(k)

is true for some

., i.e.

f (a , k ) =

(2)

P(k + 1), there are also two cases: k k +1 +1 = k +1 = = R.H.S. 1! 1!

When a = 1, L.H.S. = f(a, k + 1) = f(a, k) + 1 = When a > 1, L.H.S. = f(a,k) +f(a 1, k) = = =

k (k 1)...(k a + 1) k (k 1)...(k a + 2) + , by (2), f(a,k) and f(a 1, k) hold . (a 1) ! a! k (k 1)...(k a + 2) [(k a + 1) + a ] a!

(k + 1)k (k 1)...(k a + 2)
a!

= R.H.S.

P(k + 1) is true. P(n) is true n .

By the Principle of Mathematical Induction,

Comment

If the proposition with natural number

n contains a parameter

a , then we need to apply

mathematical induction for all values of a .

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Double Mathematical Induction

Prove that the number of non-negative integral solution sets of the equation x1 + x2 + + xm = n is
Solution

m,n

. . (1)

f(m, n) =

(n + m 1) ! n !(m 1) !

Let P(m, n)
(a)

be the given proposition. x1 = n is only itself .

For In For

P(1, n), The only non-negative integral solution set of the equation (1) , f(1, n) =

(n + 1 1) ! = 1 n !(1 1) !

P(1, n) is true . P(m, 1), The non-negative integral solution sets of the equation x1 + x2 + + xm = 1

are

(1, 0, 0 , 0) , (0, 1, 0, ) , , (0, 0, 0, , 1) .

There are m sets of solution altogether. In (1),

(b)

f(m, 1) =

(1 + m 1) ! = m 1!(m 1) !

P(m, 1)

is true . are true for some m,n . . i.e . . and f(m+1, n) = (2) (3) respectively .

Assume

P(m, n+1) and P(m + 1, n) x1 + x2 + + xm = n +1 x1 + x2 + + xm + xm+1 = n

the number of non-negative integral solution sets of the equations :

are For

f(m, n+1) = P(m+1, n+1),

(n + m ) ! (n + 1) !(m 1) !

(n + m ) !
n !m !

The non-negative integral solution sets of the equation : . (4)

x1 + x2 + + xm + xm+1 = n + 1 may be divided into two parts : xm+1 = 0 or xm+1 > 0 . (i) For

xm+1 = 0 , equation (4) becomes equation (2), and the number of non-negative integral solution sets is f(m, n+1) =

(n + m ) ! (n + 1) !(m 1) !

(ii)

For

xm+1 > 0 , replace xm+1 by xm+1 + 1 and equation (4) becomes: x1 + x2 + + xm + xm+1 = n , and the number of non-negative integral solution sets is f(m+1, n) =

(n + m ) !
n !m !

The total number of non-negative integral solution sets is

(n + m ) ! + (n + m ) ! (n + 1) !(m 1) ! n !m !
P(m+1, n+1) is also true .

(n + m ) ! [(n + 1) + m] = [(n + 1) + (m + 1) 1] (n + 1) !m ! (n + 1) ![(m + 1) 1]!

P(m, n) is true m, n .

By the Principle of Mathematical Induction,

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