Chapter 1 Dimensional Analysis, Kinematics

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Dimensional Analysis Vectors Relative motion in one dimension Relative motion in two dimensions Motion with constant acceleration a (1-D) Projectile Range on an inclined plane

1.1 Dimensional Analysis

The fundamental quantities used in physical descriptions are called dimensions. Length, mass, and time are examples of dimensions. You could measure the distance between two points and express it in units of meters, centimeters, or feet. In any case, the quantity would have the dimension of length. It is common to express dimensional quantities by bracketed symbols, such as [L], [M], and [T] for length, mass, and time, respectively. Dimensional analysis is a procedure by which the dimensional consistency of any equation may be checked. If I say, x = at, where x, a, and t represent the displacement, acceleration and time respectively. Is it correct? y [x] = [L] y [at] = ( [L][T] 2 ) ( [T] ) = [L][T] 1 So the dimension for the sides are not equal, i.e. x = at is invalid. Now look at the equation x = at2 y The L.H.S. is x, i.e. [L] y The R.H.S. is at2, i.e. ( [L][T]-2 ) ( [T]2 ) = [L], Hence the equation is dimensionally correct, but you should know that it is physically incorrect. The correct equation is, as you should remember, x ! constant and has no dimension, just like T. 1 2 1 at . The fraction is a 2 2

Example 1-1
A planet moving in a circular orbit experiences acceleration. This acceleration depends only on the speed v of the planet and on the radius r of its orbit. How can we use dimensional analysis to determine the acceleration, a, and relate it to v and r? Answer: We assume that the acceleration is proportional to some power of the speed, e.g. a w vp. Similarly, we assume that the acceleration is proportional to some power of the orbit radius, e.g. a w rq. Our assumed form for the acceleration can be expressed by a = v p r q. The exponents p and q are unknown numbers that we are going to find out by using dimensional analysis. y [a]=[L][T]2 y [v]=[L][T] 1 y [r]=[L] Hence the L.H.S. of the assumed form is [L][T]2, and that for the R.H.S. is [L]p+q[T] p. Equate the index of [L] and [T], we have two equations 2 = p , 1=p+q. After solving, we obtain p = 2 and q = 1. Accordingly, we can write a dimensionally correct relation a ! v2 . r

Example 1-2
The period P of a simple pendulum is the time for one complete swing. How does P depend on the mass m of the bob, the length l of the string, and the acceleration due to gravity g? Answer: We begin by expressing the period P in terms of the other quantities as follows: P = k mx l y g z where k is a constant and x, y, and z are to be determined. Next we insert the dimensions of each quantity: P = ( [M]x ) ( [L]y ) ( [L]z [T]2z ) = ( [M]x ) ( [L]y+ z ) ( [T]2z )

And equate the powers of each dimension of either side of the equation. Thus, [T]: [M]: [L]: 1 = 2z 0=x 0=y+z

These equations are easily solved and yield x = 0, z = 1/2, and y = 1/2. Thus, P!k l . g

1.2 Vectors
(a) Definition of a vector T A ! Aa where A: magnitude
 a : unit vector (magnitude = 1) indicating T the direction of A
O

T A (Not T A

(b) Cartesian coordinate system y 2-D (i.e. a plane) T A ! Ax i  Ay j T Ax: Component of A in x-direction T Ay: Component of A in y-direction T The magnitude of A is given by A! A !
2 Ax2  Ay .

j y Ay T A
a

Unit vectors i ( Ax , Ay )

U Ax z

T Note that we have the components of A Ax ! A cosU and Ay ! A sin U

O origin

k y 3-D T A ! Ax i  Ay  Az k j T B ! Bxi  B y  Bz k j T T A B j ! ( Ax  Bx )i  ( Ay  B y )  ( Az  Bz )k Az j i T A Ax x Ay y

(c) Mathematics of vectors y y T C T A T T T C ! A B (d) Examples of vectors (1) Position vector T r ! xi  y  zk j z t ! t2 (2) Displacement (change in position) T T T T T (r ! r2  r1 ! r (t 2 )  r (t1 ) T T r (t1 ) : displacement at t1 , r (t 2 ) : displacement at t 2 x (3) Average velocity during time (t where (t ! t 2  t1 Velocity : A vector ! Note the difference of velocity and speed: speed is a scalar! T T T T (r r (t1  (t )  r (t1 ) ! vav ! (t (t (4) Instantaneous velocity T T (r j v | lim ! v xi  v y  vz k ( t p 0 (t T T T T dr (r dr ! v ! lim (t p0 (t dt dt (5) Acceleration O T T T T (v v (t1  (t )  v (t1 ) ! a av ! (t (t T T T T (v dv d 2 r a ! lim ! ! 2 n second derivative (t p 0 (t dt dt T Tangent to v curve T r
T r2

T B

T A O x T D T B T T T D ! A B

T (r

Trajectory of a particle

T t ! t1 r1 y

T T T T dv T Remark: As we have v ! u  a t , and then we can write !a. dt

1.3 Relative motion in one dimension

Each observer such as you standing on the ground defines a reference frame. The reference frame requires a coordinate system and a set of clocks, which enable an observer to measure positions, velocities, and accelerations in his or her particular frame. y y Frame A x BA Frame B x PB x PA ! x PB  x BA x As shown in above figure, we have two different frames to watch an object P moving in onedimension. Obviously, x PA ! x PB  x BA In words: The position of P as measured by frame A is equal to the position of P as measured by frame B plus the position of B as measured by A. As v ! dx , we take the time derivative xPA and obtain the relation of the velocities. dt v PA ! v PB  v BA Similarly, the accelerations are related by: a PA ! a PB  a BA If two frames move at constant speed with respect to each other, i.e. v BA ! constant , take d/dt again, we have a PA ! a PB since dv BA ! 0. dt P x

1.4 Relative motion in two dimensions

y For 2-D motion, we have: T T T rPA ! rPB  rBA , T T T v PA ! v PB  v BA , T T T a PA ! a PB  a BA . Frame A y P T rPA T rBA x T rPB Frame B x

Example 1-3
A ship A is steaming due north at 16 km/hr and a ship B is steaming due west at 12 km/hr. Find the relative velocity of A with respect to B. Answer: N T v AB T 16 v A

16 km/hr B W 12 km/hr

12 T  vB

T T T The relative velocity of A with respect to B is v AB which equals to v A  v B . Referring to the T vector diagram, the relative velocity has magnitude v AB ! 12 2  16 2 ! 20 . The direction of T 12 v AB is N tan 1 ( ) E, i.e. N 36o52 E. 16

Example 1-4
Suppose we have an airplane, the compass in the plane indicates that it is headed due east and is moving through air with speed 215 km/h. A steady wind of 65 km/h is blowing due north. What is the velocity of the plane with respect to the ground? N W S Answer: E P Wind T v PG = E T v PA

T v AG

T T T v PG ! v PA  v AG
2 2 v PG ! v PA  v AG ! 215 2  65 2 $ 225 km/h > Air speed

E ! tan 1 (

v AG 65 ) ! tan 1 ( ) ! 16.8 Q v PA 215

Example 1-5
A man traveling East at 8 km h1 finds that the wind seems to blow directly from the North. On doubling his speed he finds that it appears to come NE. Find the velocity of the wind. Answer: Let the velocity of the wind relative to the ground to be T vWG ! x i  y . j Then the velocity of the wind relative to the man is T T T T vWG ! vWM  vMG , vWM ! x i  y  8 i ! ( x  8) i  y j j v MG ! 8 i Parallel to  j

T vWG

But this is from the North, and is therefore parallel to  . Hence, we obtain x  8 = 0. j v MG ! 16i
T vWG '
'

is parallel to  ( i  ) j

T vWM '

When the man doubles his speed, the velocity of the wind relative to him is T T T vWM ' ! vWG  v MG ' ! x i  y  16 i ! ( x  16) i  y . j j j But this is from the NE and is therefore parallel to  ( i  ) . Hence y = x  16 = 8. The velocity of the wind is 8 i  8 , which is equivalent to 8 2 km h1 from NW. j

Example 1-6
A swimmer wishes to across a swift, straight river of width d. If the speed of the swimmer in still water is u and the speed of the water is v (> u), what is the direction along which the swimmer should proceed such that the downstream distance he has traveled when he reaches the opposite bank is the smallest possible? What is the minimum downstream distance? What is the corresponding time required? Answer: A s B

U
j

d C

U T u
O

T u

U T v

i (Note that AB//OQ)

The downstream distance is smallest when OB is tangent to the circle, centered Q, radius u. sin U !
2 u u d v2  u 2 d cosU d 1  (u / v ) , U ! sin 1 , and AB ! d cot U ! . ! ! v v sin U u/v u

The time taken is t! d d dv ! ! . u cos U u 1  (u / v) 2 u v 2  u 2

Example 1-7
As an extension of the last example, if the swimmer wants to cross the swift with a minimum time, find the minimum time and the position that he reaches in the opposite bank. Answer: s
J

d C

T u
U O

T u T v
Q

(Note that AB//OQ) a i

The minimum time of travel can be obtained if the swimmer directs in the direction of . The j T magnitude of u is contributed completely in the direction of crossing the swift. It is the fastest way. Hence the minimum time t = d/u. The distance downstream s = vt = (vd)/u.

1.5 Motion with constant acceleration (1-D)

As a is a constant and by definition a ! a av ! Hence, we have where u ! v(0) . y From (1), v ! dx ! u  at dt (2) v ! u  at v (t )  v(0) . t0 (1)

@ x ! x0  ut  1 at 2 2 y It is quite often to have a reference point, e.g. x0 = 0. Differentiate (2) with respect to time t, we obtain (1), e.g.
2 dx dx 0 d (ut ) d ( 1 at ) !   2 . dt dt dt dt

d ( 1 at 2 ) dx dx d (ut ) 2 ! v, 0 ! 0, ! u and ! at . dt dt dt dt

y (1) 2 v 2 ! u 2  2aut  a 2 t 2 ! u 2  2a (ut  1 at 2 ) 2 @ v 2 ! u 2  2 a ( x  x0 ) y From (2), x ! x 0  ut  1 at 2 ! x0  1 t (at  u  u ) 2 2

@ x ! x0  1 (v  u )t 2

Remark #1: It is quite often to read the set of equations in the textbook in secondary school as v ! u  at , 1 s ! x  x0 ! ut  at 2 , 2 and v 2 ! u 2  2as . T A
U

Remark #2:

T T Dot product of two vectors, e.g. A and B , is: TT A B | Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz ! AB cosU   j j Note that i i ! ! k k ! 1 and i ! k ! k i ! 0 j j

T B

Example 1-8
A car is at rest at a reference point. If the car moves in 1-D and its motion is governed by the velocity-time graph shown below, sketch the acceleration-time graph and the displacementtime graph for the motion of the car. vx constant vx vx decreasing increasing vx = 0 vx = 0 t

vx

ax ax = 0 Answer:

ax > 0 ax = 0 ax < 0 Braking ax = 0 t

Resting

Constant velocity Accelerating Resting t

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Example 1-9
Describe the motion of a car whose displacement-time graph is shown below. Displacement E D B A C G I K time F L M

Answer: AB: constant velocity to the right BC: the car stops (velocity = 0) CD: acceleration to the right DE: deceleration to the right EF: the car stops (velocity = 0) FH: constant velocity to the left G: back to the starting point HI: deceleration to the right IJ: acceleration to the left JK: deceleration to the right K: back to the starting point LM: the car stops (velocity = 0)

Example 1-10
A police officer is chasing a burglar across a rooftop, both are running at 4.5 m/s. Before the burglar reaches the edge of the roof, he has to decide whether or not to try jumping to the roof of the next building, which is 6.2 m away but 4.8 m lower. Can he make it? Assume that v0 y ! 0 .

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Answer:

y Note that he has to fall 4.8 m and at the same time he need to moves at least 6.2 m
horizontally. y =  4.8 m 3 y ! v0 y t  gt
1 2 2

( v 0 y = 0)

v0 ! 4.5 m/s

y x

@ t!

2(4.8) ! 0.99 s g

4.8m

y How far can he move along x-direction? x ! v0 xt ! 0.45(0.99) } 4.5 m @ Our advice: Dont jump! 6.2 m 6.2m

Example 1-11
A particle leaves the origin at t ! 0 with an initial velocity v o ! 3.6 i , in m/s. It experiences a X constant acceleration a ! 1.2 i  1.4 , in m/s2. (a) At what time does the particle reach its j maximum x coordinate? (b) What is the velocity of the particle at this time? (c) Where is the particle at this time? Answer: a) At maximum x coordinate, velocity along x coordinate equals zero, i.e. v x ! 0 by vx ! vox  ax t t! 3.6 !3s 1 .2

b) At that moment, velocity of the particle equals v y by v y ! voy  a yt @ v y ! 0  1.4 v 3 ! 4.2 m/s T c) Let the position of the particle be s ! s x i  s y j by 1 s ! ut   2 at 2 s x ! (3.6)(3)  0.5 v1.2 v 32 ! 5.4 s y ! (0)(3)  0.5 v1.4 v 3 2 ! 6.3 T Hence, the position of the particle is s ! 5.4 i  6.3 . j

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1.6 Projectile
A projectile is a particle moving in 2-D with initial velocity T v0 and its path is determined by gravity. T T The acceleration a ! g (constant) a x ! 0 Or, we can rewrite it as a y ! g Now, we are going to determine the trajectory of the particle. T T T Useful equation: v ! v0  at (a) x-direction v x ! v0 x  a x t v 0 x ! v 0 cos J , a x ! 0 y T v0

J
R

@ v x ! v0 cos J (It is a constant.)

(b) y-direction v y ! v0 y  a y t v0 y ! v0 sin J , a y !  g @ v y ! v0 sin J  gt At any time t, the speed is given by
2 2 2 v ! v x  v y ! v0  2v0 gt sin J  g 2 t 2

(Acceleration due to gravity)

(c) The trajectory T T T T 3 r ! r0  v0 t  1 at 2 2 x @ y ! ! x0  v0x t  1 ax t 2 2 y0  v 0 y t  1 a y t 2 2 ( v 0 cos J )t ! ! ( v0 sin J )t  1 gt 2 2 ( A) ( B)

From (A), t !

x , substitute it into (B) v0 cosJ g x2 2 2v cos J

2 0

y ! x tan J 

Trajectory equation

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To calculate the range, we plug in y = 0, the solutions are (a) x = 0

2 2v 0 sin J cos J (b) x ! R ! g

y T v0

T vx P x
R

Using the identity sin2J = 2sinJ cosJ R! y v sin 2J g

2 0

Maximum height v y ! v 0 sinJ  gt At t = 0, v y ! v 0 sin J " 0 o as t increases, vy becomes smaller, but vy > 0 o At t 0 ! v 0 sinJ , vy = 0, g

When t > t0, vy < 0 q At t 0 ! v 0 sinJ , the projectile reaches the highest point. g

1 y ! (v0 sin J )t  gt 2 2 2 2 v0 sin 2 J 1 v0 sin 2 J !  g 2 g g2 !

2 v0 sin 2 J 2g

In our calculations, we have assumed that a ! g ! constant . In reality, the resistance from air drag force becomes important as speed increases.

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Example 1-12
How can you accurately shoot a free falling object? What is the condition? Answer: Initial conditions: T T TT T vT0 ! 0, vb0 ! v0 , rb0 ! 0, rT0 T T T T T We use r ! r0  v0 t  1 at 2 , where a !  g j 2 T T For the bullet, r ! v0t  1 gt 2 j 2 T T j For the target, rT ! rT0  1 gt 2 2 T T T T (1)  (2) r  rT ! v0t  rT0 (1) (2) bullet T v0 T r x y T rT0 Target

For the bullet and the target to occupy the same position in space or collision, we require T T T T r ! rT at some time t. This means that v0 t  rT0 ! 0 . this equation gives two conditions: T T (a) v0 // rT0 (b) t ! rT0 / v0 T T As long as rT0 // v0 (aim at the target), there will be a collision!

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Example 1-13
An antitank gun is located on the edge of a plateau that is 60.0 m above a surrounding plain (see the figure). The gun crew sights an enemy tank stationary on the plain at a horizontal distance of 2.2 km from the gun. At the same moment, the tank crew sees the gun and starts to move directly away from it with an acceleration of 0.900 m/s2. If the antitank gun fires a shell with a muzzle speed of 240 m/s at an elevation angle of 10.0o above the horizontal, how long should the gun crew wait before firing if they are to hit the tank? 60 m 10o 240 m/s Tank

2.2 km Answer: Time for the shell to hit the ground = t  60 ! (240 sin 10r) t  0.5 (9.8) t 2 t ! 9.76 s Horizontal distance traveled by the shell = (240cos10r) v 9.76 = 2306.78 m Distance traveled by the tank for it to be hit is = 2306.78  2200 = 106.78 m Let the time required for the tank to cover a distance 106.78 m is t 106.78 = 0.5 v 0.9 v (t)2 = 0.45(t)2 t = 15.4 s Hence, the time for the gun crew to wait = t  t = 5.64 s

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Example 1-14
A ball is dropped from a height of 39.0 m. The wind is blowing horizontally and imparts a constant acceleration of 1.2 m/s on the ball. (a) Show that the path of the ball is a straight line and find the values of R and U. (b) How long does it take for the ball to reach the ground? (c) With what speed does the ball hit the ground? Answer: (a) By using the formula s ! ut   2 at 2 , we can find the displacement of the ball. 1 Displacement along x direction sx is s x ! 0.5 v1.2 v t 2 ! 0.6t 2 Displacement along y direction sy is s y ! 0.5 v 9.8 v t 2 ! 4.9t 2 @ sy sx ! 4.9t 2 ! 8.167 ! constant 0.6t 2 39 m R U
2

1.2 m/s2

As slope is constant, therefore, the path is a straight line. 39 ! 8.167 R ! 4.78 m R tanU ! 8.167 U ! 83.02r (b) By s ! ut   2 at 2 1 R ! 4.78 ! 0.5 v 1.2 v t 2 ! 0.6t 2 t ! 2 .8 s (c) By v 2  u 2 ! 2aS
2 v x ! 2 v1.2 v 4.78 ! 11.46

v x ! 3.39 m/s v 2 ! 2 v 9.8 v 39 ! 764.4 y v y ! 27.65 m/s

2 speed of the ball hit the ground ! vx  v 2 ! 27.85 m/s y

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Example 1-15
You throw a ball with a speed of 25.3 m/s at an angle of 42.0r above the horizontal directly toward a wall as shown in the figure. The wall is 21.8 m from the release point of the ball. (a) How long is the ball in the air before it hits the wall? (b) How far above the release point does the ball hit the wall? (c) What are the horizontal and vertical components of its velocity as it hits the wall? (d) Has it passed the highest point on its trajectory when it hits? Answer: (a) Time taken ! distance travelled 21.8 ! ! 1.16 s velocity 25.3 cos 42r 21.8 m 42o

1 (b) By s ! ut   2 at 2 s y ! (25.3 sin 42r)(1.16)  0.5 v 9.8 v1.16 2 ! 13.04 m (c) Horizontal velocity ! 25.3 cos 42r ! 18.8 m/s By v ! u  at vertical velocity ! (25.3 sin 42r)  9.8 v 1.16 ! 5.57 m/s (pointing upwards) (d) No change in sign of velocity in y-direction when the ball hits the wall, therefore the ball does not reach its maximum height in y-direction.

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Example 1-16
A rocket is launched from rest and moves in a straight line at 70.0r above the horizontal with an acceleration of 46.0 m/s2. After 30.0 s of powered flight, the engines shutoff and the rocket follows a parabolic path back to the Earth (see the figure). (a) Find the time of flight from launching to impact. (b) What is the maximum altitude reached? (c) What is the distance from launch pad to impact point? (Ignore the variation of g with altitude.) Answer: (a) By s ! ut  (1 2)at 2 and v ! u  at Vertical displacement when the engines shutoff ! 0.5 v 46 sin 70r v 302 ! 19451.6 m Vertical velocity when engines shutoff ! 46 sin 70r v 30 ! 1296.8 m/s Let the time taken to impart the ground after the engines shutoff  19451.6 !  1296.8 t  0.5  9.8 t 2 t ! 278.9 s or  14.2 s (rejected) Therefore, the total time taken = 278.9 + 30 = 308.9 s (b) When reaches maximum altitude, the vertical velocity equals zero. The vertical distance traveled for the rocket to reach maximum height after the engine shut off is: 1296.8 2 ! 2(9.8) s' s ' ! 8.58 v10 4 m Maximum altitude = 19451.6 + 85800.5 = 1.05v105 m (c) Horizontal distance traveled before the engines shut off is: x1 ! 19451.6 / tan 70r ! 7079.8 m Horizontal velocity of the rocket when the engine shut off is: vx ! 46(cos 70r)(30) ! 472.0 m/s Horizontal distance traveled after the engine shut off is: x 2 ! 472.0 v 278.9 ! 1.32 v 10 5 m Launch 70o Impact Engine shutoff

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Distance from the launch pad to the impact pad = x1 + x2 = 1.39v105 m

1.7 Range on an inclined plane

If a particle is projected from a point O with velocity u at an elevation E to the horizontal, we may find its range R on a plane through O inclined at an angle F to the horizontal. The vertical plane of motion contains the line of greatest slope of the plane. y

u A(x,y) R E O Assume the particle meets the plane at a point A at time t and (x,y) is the coordinates of A, we have x ! u ( cos E ) t , y ! u ( sin E ) t  1 2 gt , 2 F

As y ! x tan F , hence, we have y ! u cosE (tan F ) t ! u (sin E )t  (1 / 2) gt 2 . Whence t, the time of flight is given by t! 2u 2u sin(E  F ) . (sin E  cosE tan F ) ! g g cos F

Substituting t in the first equation, we have x ! u cosE 2u sin(E  F ) 2u 2 cosE sin(E  F ) . ! cos F g cos F g

The range on the inclined plane, R, is given by R = OA = x sec F R! 2u 2 cosE sin(E  F ) u 2 sin( 2E  F )  sin F ! . cos 2 F cos 2 F g g

For a given velocity of projection (i.e. fixed F), the range is maximum when sin(2EF) = 1, i.e. 2EF = T / 2 . Hence the angle of projection for maximum range is E= T F  . 4 2

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For this value of E, the range is Rmax ! u2 g 1  sin F u 2 (1  sin F ) u2 . ! ! 2 cos F g (1  sin F ) (1  sin F ) g (1  sin F )

Suggested readings
Textbook section 1-8, chapters 2 and 3

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