M.Abhishek S.BharathiKannan annan T.Chidamabaraganap T.Chidamabaraganapathy S.Infant Raj L.Saravana Kumar 42008101002 42008101005 42008101006 42008101014 42008101037 Under the guidance of J.V.SaiPrasanna Kumar AssociateProfessor, Kumar, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Tagore Engineering College.
A report submitted to Department of Aeronautical Engineering In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering Tagore Engineering College
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the design project titled Design Of 160 Seater Passenger Aircraft being submitted by M.Abhishek (42008101002), S.BharathiKannan (42008101005), T.Chidamabaraganapathy (42008101006),S.Infant Raj (42008101014), L.Saravana Kumar (42008101037), to the Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Tagore Engineering College, Chennai, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Aeronautical Engineering) is a bonafide record of the work carried out bythis group under my guidance and supervision in the odd semester of the academic year 2011- 2012.
J.V.SAI PRASANNA KUMAR, AssociateProfessor, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, Tagore Engineering College, Chennai-600 048.
Dr.K.VIJAYA RAJA, Professor and Head, Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering, Tagore Engineering College, Chennai-600 048.
INTRODUCTION
TYPE:
Two shaft turbofan, 160 seater commercial passengers aircraft.
DESIGN FEATURES:
Low mounted swept wing, circular section pressurized fuselage, conventional tail with fixed incidence tail plane. Wing section contains NACA 632412, incidence at 2.95 with a dihedral of 4.
FLYING CONTROLS:
Conventional split flaps at the trailing edge of the wing.
STRUCTURE:
Wing is an all metal two spar torsion box structure. Skin machined from alloy Al 7075T6. The wing is attached to the fuselage using a four pin design concept. Fuselage is semimonocoque( 20 Z section stringers).
LANDING GEAR:
Retractable, tricycle arrangement with nose wheel.Oleo-pneumatic type shock absorber. All units retract into the fuselage. Tyre pressure & size: Main wheel = 60p.s.i Main wheel = 1075.21 in2 Nose wheel = 30p.s.i. Nose wheel = 452.39 in2
POWERPLANT:
Two PRATT & WHITNEY PS-90 A1 turbofan engines each having a thrust of 156.9 KN
ACCOMODATION:
Two pilots + One Flight engineer in deck, Main cabin accommodates six attendant and 160 passengers in air-conditioned environment.
DETAILED SPECIFICATION Capacity : 160 passengers + 3 Flight Crew & 6 Cabin Crew
Powerplant:
Name & country of origin No. of engines Power Plant Rating :Pratt& Whitney PS-90 A1 / USA : 2 : 156.9 KN / Engine
Basic Dimensions:
Length Span Height : 43.87 m : 42.12 m : 11.39 m
PERFORMANCE:
Cruising Speed Range Cruising Altitude Wing Loading Take off field length Landing field length Runway loading : : : : : : : 846 km/hr (235 m/s) 3,350 km in full load condition 9 km 4905 N/m2 1600 m 1600 m 6.64 ton/ft
Weights:
W (max) W (Pay load) W (fuel) : 1,023,798.9 N : 320,000 N : 274,709.3 N : 208.74 m2 : 42.12 m : 8.5 : 0.5 : 34 degrees 29.22 m2 11.46 m 4.5 0.33 36 degrees
Wing:
Area Span Aspect Ratio Taper Ratio Sweep Angle
Horizontal Tail:
Area Span Aspect Ratio Taper Ratio Sweep Angle : : : : :
Vertical Tail:
Area Height Aspect Ratio Taper Ratio Sweep Angle : : : : :
Others:
T/W Ratio Flap Span and Area : 0.3 : 11.625 m & 34.665 m2
CONTENTS
List of symbols used. List of tables List of graphs Loads on the aircraft V-n diagram Introduction Intentional Maneuver Unintentional Maneuver Structural Design of wing Introduction Air Inertia Load Estimation Shear force & Bending moment Distribution Material Selection Wing Spar and Stringer Design Rib location and Direction Structural Design of Fuselage Introduction Shear force and Bending moment Distribution Stringer Design
Shear flow Distribution Landing Gear Design Landing Gear Arrangement Tyre Selection Landing Gear Layout Shock Absorber Design Landing Gear Kinematics Design of Miscellaneous Members Wing-Fuselage intersection Engine Mount Empennage Design Wing Fuel Tanks Auxiliary Surfaces Flutter Aileron Buzz Buffeting
Bibliography
Tip Chord Centre of gravity Acceeleration due to gravity Drag Youngs modulus Factor of safety Tensile ultimate strength Compressive yield strength Height of the c.g. from the ground level Orientation of wing on fuselage Second moment of area about X axis Second moment of area about Z axis Product second moment of area Gust alleviation factor. Distance between C.G position of aircraft and horizontal stabilizer Distance between C.G position of aircraft and vertical stabilizer. Local lift Design bending moment Distance between the main wheel and aft c.g. Distance between the main wheel and forward c.g. Load factor Maximum load factor
m m m/s2 N N/ m2
N/ m2 N/ m2 m deg m4 m4 m4
m m N Nm m m
n nmax
Gear load factor Distance between the nose wheel and forward c.g Dynamic pressure Shear flow Reaction of front spar Reaction of rear spar Shear force in Z direction Shear force in X direction Wing area Stroke length of shock absorber Stroke length of the tyre Horizontal tail area Vertical tail area Thickness of the web Thickness of the flange Thickness of the skin Torque Gust velocity. Cruise velocity Stalling velocity Shear load in fuselage Vertical velocity during landing Weight of fixed equipment like seats, galleys etc m N/m2 N/m N N N N m2 m m m2 m2 m m m Nm m/s m/s m/s N m/s N
Wfuel Wpayload Wpilot Wpowerplant Wmax Wstructure WWR WWT WT.O W/S y T o
Weight of the fuel Weight of payload (passengers) Weight of the pilot Weight of the power plant Maximum weight of the aircraft Weight of the structure of the aircraft Structural load intensity of wing at root Structural load intensity of wing at tip Takeoff weight Wing loading span location Angle of attack Turnover angle Efficiency of shock absorber Efficiency of tyre Density Density of air at sea level Bending stress Angle of Yaw `
List of Tables
Flight performance limits of various categories of aircraft Velocity Vs load factor Schrenks load at various span locations Shear force and bending moment of wing Aluminium alloys and its properties Fuselage weight distribution Shear force and bending moment distributions Stringer and its location in fuselage Shear flow distribution of the fuselage Different runways and allowable loadings Shock absorber types and efficiency Aircraft types and their gear load factor
List of Graphs
V-n Diagram Schrenks Curve Shear force diagram of wing Bending moment Diagram of wing Shear force Diagram of the fuselage Bending moment Diagram of fuselage
Introduction:
The control of weight in aircraft design is of extreme importance. Increase in weight requires stronger structures to support them, which in turn lead to further increase in weight & so on. Excess of structural weight means lesser amounts of payload, affecting the economic viability of the aircraft. Therefore there is need to reduce aircrafts weight to the minimum compatible with safety. Thus to ensure general minimum standards of strength & safety, airworthiness regulations lay down several factors which the primary structures of the aircraft must satisfy. These are, 1. LIMIT LOAD: The maximum load that the aircraft is expected to experience in normal operation. 2. PROOF LOAD: product of the limit load and proof factor (1.0-1.25) 3. ULTIMATE LOAD: product of limit load and ultimate factor (1.0-1.5) The aircrafts structure must withstand the proof load without detrimental distortion & should not fail until the ultimate load has been achieved. Both the aerodynamic and structural limitations for a given airplane are Illustrate in the V-n diagram, a plot of load factor versus flight velocity. A V-n diagram is type of flight envelope for the aircraft establishing the maneuver boundaries. The BCAR (British civil airworthiness requirements) has given the basic strength and flight performance limits of various categories of the aircraft. They are listed below Category Normal Semi aerobatic Fully aerobatic Positive load factor (n+) 2.5 4 6 Negative load factor(n-) -1 -2 -3
The 160 seater aircraft comes under the normal category. Therefore the load factor limits for the aircraft is 2.5 & -1. The V-n diagram for the aircraft is drawn for the two cases namely 1. Intentional maneuver (pilot induced maneuver) 2. Unintentional maneuver (gusts)
INTENTIONAL MANEUVER:
Intentional maneuvers are induced by the pilot during climb, pull up or pull down, banking the plane etc. The load factor is function of velocity. The expression relating the load factor and the velocity is given by
nmax = (V/Vs)2
Where nmaxis the maximum load factor, V is the speed of the aircraft, Vs is the stalling speed of the aircraft. The stalling speed of the aircraft Vs +2 = (2W/S)/ CLmax = ((2 4905)/ (0.465 1.75)) 0.5 Vs + = 109.79 m/s
For various values of V, nmaxis calculated and tabulated below, V (m/s) 109.79 131.74 153.70 175.66 197.62 219.58 nmax=(V/Vs+)2 1 1.44 1.96 2.56 3.24 4.00
The stalling speed of the aircraft Vs -2 = (2W/S)/( 0.75 CLmax) = ((2 4905)/ (0.465 0.75 1.75)) 0.5 Vs V (m/s) 126.79 = 126.79 m/s nmax=(V/Vs-)2 -1
The cruising speed of the aircraft is 235 m/s.The dive speed of the aircraft is the maximum speed of the aircraft. The dive speed is equal to the sum of the cruising speed and 60 knots. VD = 235 + 60 knots = 235 +30.55 m/s = 265.55 m/s
UNINTENTIONAL MANEUVER:
The movement of air in turbulence is known as gusts. It produces changes in wing incidence, thereby subjecting the aircraft to sudden or gradual increases or decreases in lift from which normal accelerations result. These may be critical for large, high speed aircraft and may possibly cause higher loads than control initiated maneuvers. Thus in the gust analysis, the change in load factor due to the gust is calculated. The BCAR has given standard gust velocities for stall, cruise, dive speeds as 66, 50, 25 ft/s respectively. The small change in load factor n due to the gust is calculated by assuming a sharp gust. The change in load factor n = (a U V)/2(W/S) Where is the density at cruising altitude, a is the lift curve slope, in radians U is the gust velocity in m/s V is the velocity of the aircraft in m/s W/S is the wing loading in N/m2 In the above formula, gusts are assumed to be sharp but it is usually graded, hence a relief factor called gust alleviation factor K is introduced in the term. The value of the K is obtained from the book AIRPLANE AERODYNAMICS AND PERFORMANCE by Dr. JAN ROSKAM Where K = 0.88/(5.3+), =2(W/S)/CgCL Where is the density C is the mean aerodynamic chord, in m g is the acceleration due to gravity, m/s2 a is the slope lift coefficient, in radians. a (corrected for aspect ratio) is 3.82 /rad.
= 24905/(0.465 X 4.97 X9.81X3.82) = 113.50 K = (0.88113.50) / (5.3 +113.50) = 0.84 Therefore n =K aUV/2(W/S) For stalling speed V= 109.79 m/s, U= 20m/s n = 0.34 For cruise speed V= 235 m/s, U= 15m/s n = 0.53 For dive speed V=265.55 m/s, U= 7.5 m/s n = 0.30 V 109.79 235 265.55 1+n 1.34 1.53 1.30 1-n 0.66 0.47 0.7
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF WING Introduction Air Load Estimation InertiaLoad Estimation Shear force & bending moment distribution Material selection Wing Spar & Stringer design Rib location & direction
Introduction
Wings develop the major portion of the lift of a heavier-than-air aircraft. Wing structures carry some of the heavier loads found in the aircraft structure. The particular design of a wing depends on many factors, such as the size, weight, speed, rate of climb, and use of the aircraft. The wing must be constructed so that it holds its aerodynamics shape under the extreme stresses of combat maneuvers or wing loading. Wing construction is similar in most modern aircraft. In its simplest form, the wing is a frame work made up of spars and ribs and covered with metal.
Spars are the main structural members of the wing. They extend from the fuselage to the tip of the wing. The entire load carried by the wing is taken up by the spars. The spars are designed to have great bending strength. Ribs give the wing section its shape, and they transmit the air load from the wing covering to the spars. Ribs extend from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the wing.
The primary function of the wing skin is to form an impermeable surface for supporting the aerodynamic pressure distribution from which the lifting capability of the wing is derived. These aerodynamic forces are transmitted in turn to ribs and stringers by skin through palte and membrane action. Resistance to shear and torsional loads is supplied by shear stresses developed in the skin and spar webs, while axial and bending loads are reacted by the combined actions of the skin and stringers.
COMPONENTS OF WINGS
SCHRENK METHOD:
Schrenk method is used here to find span lift load distribution because of its simplicity in nature. It has been proposed by Dr.ingosterschrenk and has been accepted by Civil Aeronautics administration (CAA) as a satisfactory method for civil aircraft. For elliptical wing Celliptic = For tapered wing Ctaper= cr The average of both chord or schrenk chord distance =
2
After plotting the schrenk load distances on the wing. The area under the schrenh curve is calculated and given below ASchrenk curve = 99.65 m2 Then lift load intensity at root At root (Y=0) = = 33.18 X 103 N/m
Semi span Chord Elliptical Schrenk load Lift load wise (m) Distance (m) Distance (m) intensity Distance X 103N/m (m) 1. 0 6.61 6.309 6.459 33.18 2. 3 6.14 3.245 6.192 31.80 3. 6 5.66 6.048 5.854 30.07 4. 9 5.20 5.704 5.452 28.00 5. 12 4.72 5.185 4.952 25.44 6. 15 4.25 4.429 4.339 22.29 7. 18 3.78 3.275 3.527 18.12 8. 21.06 3.31 0 1.655 8.50 From the lift load intensity, average lift load can be calculated and tabulated below S.No Semi span Lift load Average Lift load Mean Distance Lift load wise intensity intensity between X 103N Distance (m) X 103N/m X 103N/m The span wise Section (m) 0 33.18 3 31.80 32.49 1.5 48.74 6 30.07 30.94 1.5 46.41 9 28.00 29.04 1.5 43.56 12 25.44 26.72 1.5 10.08 15 22.29 23.87 1.5 35.81 18 18.12 20.21 1.5 30.32 21.06 8.50 13.31 1.53 20.37
S.No
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Schrenk Curve:
Schrenk Curve
7 6 5 Chord (m) 4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20 25
Schrenk Curve
When x=b/2; CX = CT = 3.31 m Substituting the above boundary conditions and solving, A=6.61 m B= -0.157 Then the equation becomes Cx = Weight of the wing = 102379.89 N = 51189.95 N = = = 95.19 dx
Calculation of wing structural weight at each segment Ww1 = Ww2 = dx dx = 11.62 X 103 N = 9.96 X 103 N
dx dx dx dx dx
= 8.43 X 103 N = 7.04X 103 N = 5.76X 103 N = 4.62X 103 N = 3.66X 103 N
= Ww1 + Ww2 + Ww3 + Ww4 + Ww5 + Ww6 + Ww7 = 51.13X 103N (both the values are nearly same)
Fuel Weight Distribution: The fuel also distributed in the same fashion like the inertial load and is given by Cx =A+Bx Where, K Cx = constant = chord at a location of X.
When x=0.75b/2;
Substituting the above boundary conditions and solving, A=3.305 m B= -0.0785 Then the equation becomes Cx =
= 137354.7 N = = K = 1185.14 dx
Calculation of wing structural weight at each segment Ww1 = Ww2 = Ww3 = Ww4 = Ww5 = Ww 137.35X 103N dx dx dx dx dx = Ww1 + Ww2 + Ww3 + Ww4 + Ww5 = 137.35X 103N (same) = 36.13 X 103 N = 30.99 X 103 N = 26.24 X 103 N = 21.89X 103 N = 22.08X 103 N
The resultant load can be obtained by adding the entire lift load, structural and fuel load algebraically and tabulated below. S.No Span Wise Distance (m) Lift Load (N) X103 48.74 46.91 43.56 40.08 35.81 30.32 20.37 Structural Weight (N) X103 11.62 25.32 37.37 7.04 5.77 4.63 3.67 Fuel Weight (N) X103 36.13 30.91 26.25 21.89 22.08 Resultant (N) X103 0.99 -9.32 -2.06 11.15 7.91 25.69 16.7 -
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Bendind Moment
MATERIAL SELECTION
A number of properties are important to the selection of materials for an aircraft structure. The selection of the best material depends upon the application. Factors to be considered include yield and ultimate strength, stiffness, density, fracture toughness, fatigue, crack resistance, temperature limits, producibility, reparability, cost and availability. The gust loads, landing impact and vibrations of the engine and propeller cause fatigue failure which is the single most common cause of aircraft material failure. For most aerospace materials, creep is a problem only at the elevated temperature. However some titanium plastics and composites will exhibit creep at room temperatures. Taking all the above factors into considerations, the aluminium alloy which has excellent strength to weight ratio and abundant in nature. The following list of aluminium alloys is considered.
Yield strength S.No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Aluminum alloy Mpa Al Al 2024 - T35 Al 2024 - T3 Al 7074 T6 Al 7075 T6 Al 6061 O Al 6061 T4 Al 6061 T6 15 - 20 280 269 276 365-367 434 476 55 110 241
Ultimate strength Mpa 40 - 50 470 400 - 427 377-380 510 538 122 207 290
From the above tabular column Al 7075 T6 alloy has optimum yield strength property. Hence this alloy is employed for the wing spars, stringers, fuselage longerons and other structural members.
Where is yield strength. A is the total cross sectional area ( spar area and stringer area) y is the half of the thickness at c.g point of the mean aerodynamic chord aerofoil section M is the design bending moment. The maximum bending moment from the bending moment diagram is 921.771 X 103 Nm. The design bending moment M = maximum bending moment *FOS*n = 921.771 X 103 *1.5*2.5 = 3456641.25 Nm Where FOS is factor of safety and is taken as 1.5. n is the maximum load factor ,n = 2.5 y is the half thickness of the wing at mean aerodynamic chord.
AT
0.0244 m2
Area of the spar is generally taken as 60% of the Total Area. Area of the Spar, A1 = 60 % (AT) = (0.6X 0.0244) = 14.64 X 10-3 m2 Area of the Spar, A1 = 14.64 X 10-3 m2
Area of the spar is generally taken as40% of the Total Area. Area of the Stringer, A2 = 40 % (AT) = (0.4 X 0.0244) =9.76 X 10-3m2 Area of the Stringer, A2 = 9.76 X 10-3m2 From the total spar area, the area of the front and rear spars are determined from which the areas of the top and bottom flanges of the two spars is calculated. The layout of the airfoil NACA 662412 is drawn using cad tools and various required dimensions are determined from it. These values are made used in the structural design of the spars and the stringers. The Centre of gravity of the aircraft is plotted in the chord of the airfoil and the respective distances are taken as plotted in the airfoil below.
Where H is the height at 0.15C of mean aerodynamic chord T is the thickness of the both flange and web B is the width of the flanges H = 0.65 m ; cri= 476 X106pa On solving the above equations, we can obtain the values of t and b.
b = 0.084 m t = 0.0109 m
Area of the Front Spar, A3 = 5.856 X 10-3 m2 After finding the area of the front spar, suitable I dimension is designed with the help of below equations
Where H is the height at 0.65C of mean aerodynamic chord T is the thickness of the both flange and web B is the width of the flanges H = 0.485 m ; cri= 476 X106pa On solving the above equations, we can obtain the values of t and b. b = 0.073 m t = 0.0095 m
STRINGER DESIGN
Although the thin skin is efficient for resisting shear and tensile loads, it buckles under comparatively low compressive loads. Rather than increase the skin thickness and suffer a consequent weight penalty, stringers are attached to the skins and ribs, thereby dividing the skin into small panels and increasing the buckling and failing stresses. This stabilizing action on the skin is, in fact, reciprocated to some extent although the effect normal to the surface of the skin is minimal. Stringers rely chiefly on the rib attachements for preventing column action in this direction.
The stringers are attached to the skins by lines of rivets or spot welds.....etc. These joints will be called upon to transmit forces mainly along their length. Forces parallel to the skin and directed at right angles to the stringers or rings or ribs will be limited by the torsional flexibility of these member. Forces normal to the skin will be limited in magnitude by the small bending strength of the skin and stringers. The primary function of these joints is thus the transmission, by shear forces of direct loads in the reinforcing members to the skin and vice versa.
Z section stringers are chosen due to its high structural efficiency and easy assembly.The dimensions of the stringers are calculated as shown below.
The total cross sectional area of the stringer is 9.76 X 10-3 m2.The number of stringers and area of one stringer is calculated by trial and error method. The configuration which had less weight and the dimensions within the limit is selected. The number of stringers is found to be 10 and the area of one stringer is found by dividing the total cross sectional area by number of stringers. AS = 9.76 X 10-4m2
The stringer stabilizes the skin against buckling with the result that some width of skin acts as part of the stringers and carries loads beyond the general panel buckling stress up to the stringers failure stress. The width of skin acts as part of the stringer and is incorporated into the computations of the section properties of the stringer as shown below, The stringers are equally spaced in the wing box within the spars. The distance between the front and rear spar is equal to 50% of the chord i.e. 2.48 m. five stringers are placed on the top and five stringers on the bottom of the wing box. The stringer spacing is found to be 0.413m. This is taken as the effective width area of the skin stringer panel. From the effective width of the panel, the thickness of the skin is found by the formula, W = 1.9t
0.413 = 1.9t tskin =0.01702 m The web thickness of the stringer is assumed to be equal to the skin thickness found using effective width. From the following equation, cri = 0.388E The width of the stringer web is found to be bw = 0.1353 m. The web to flange thickness ratio is taken as 0.8. Then flange thickness tf = 0.1691 Equating the value of width and thickness of the web in the stringer area of the equation, the width of the flange can be found. A = (bw -2tf) X tw + 2bftf bf = 0.01309 m
RIB LOCATION AND DIRECTION The span-wise location of ribs is of some consequence. Ideally, the rib spacing should be determined to ensure adequate overall buckling support to the distributed flanges. This requirement may be considered to give a maximum pitch of the ribs. In practice other considerations are likely to determine the actual rib locations such as: a) Hinge positions for control surfaces and attachment/operating points for flaps, slats, and spoilers. b) Attachment locations of power plants, stores and landing gear structure. c) A need to prevent or postpone skin local shear or compression buckling, as opposed to overall buckling. This is especially true in a mass boom form of construction. d) Ends of integral fuel tanks where a closing rib is required. When the wing is unswept, it is usual for the ribs to be arranged in the flight direction and thereby define the aerofoil section. While the unswept wing does give torsional stiffness, the ribs are heavier, connections are more complex and in general the disadvantages overweigh the gains. Ribs placed at right angles to the rear spar are usually he most satisfactory in facilitating hinge pick-ups, but they do cause layout problems in the root regions. Some designs overcome this by fanning the ribs so that the inclination changes from perpendicular to the spars outboard to stream-wise over the inboard portion of the wing. There is always the possibility of special exceptions, such as power plant or store mounting ribs, where it may be preferable to locate them in the flight direction.
FUSELAGE STRUCTURAL DESIGN Introduction Shear force &bending moment distribution Stringer design Shear flow distribution
Introduction
Fuselage of the modern aircraft is a stiffened shell commonly referred to a semimonocoque construction. A pure monocoque shell is a simple unstiffened tube of thin skins & as such is inefficient since unsupported thin sheets are unstable in compression and shear. In order to support the skin, it is necessary to provide stiffener members, frames, bulkheads, stringers and longerons.
The fuselage as a beam contains longitudinal elements (longerons& stringers), transverse elements (frames and bulkheads) and its external skin. The longerons carry the major portion of the fuselage bending moment, loaded by axial forces resulting from the bending moment. The fuselage skin carries the shear from the applied external transverse and torsional forces and cabin pressure.
In addition to stabilizing the external skin, stringers also carry axial loads induced by the bending moment. Frames primarily serve to maintain the shape of the fuselage and to reduce to column length of the stringers to prevent generally small and often tend to balance each other and as a result, frames are generally of light construction.
Bulkheads are provided at the points of introduction of the concentrated forces such as those from the wings, tail surface and landing gear. Unlike frames, the bulkhead structure is quite substantial and serves to distribute the applied load into the fuselage skins. Thus fuselage structure chosen for this aircraft is of semi-monocoque type.
S.NO Components
Distance (m)
Weight (N)
(4,000.0) (2,000.0) (20,476.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (160,450.8)
4 PAX 1 5 PAX 2 6 PAX 3 7 PAX 4 8 PAX 5 9 PAX 6 10 PAX 7 11 PAX 8 12 PAX 9 13 PAX 10 14 PAX 11 15 PAX 12 16 PAX 13 17 PAX 14 18 PAX 15 19 FE
6.8 7.8 8.8 9.9 10.9 11.9 12.9 13.9 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.6 21.5 22.0
20 PAX 16 21 PAX 17 22 PAX 18 23 PAX 19 24 PAX 20 25 PAX 21 26 PAX 22 27 PAX 23 28 PAX 24 29 PAX 25 30 PAX 26 31 PAX 27 32 PAX 28 33 PAX 29 34 PAX 30 35 PAX 31 36 Vertical Tail 37 Horizontal Tail
22.6 23.5 24.4 25.3 26.2 27.1 28.0 29.9 30.8 31.8 32.7 33.6 34.5 35.4 36.3 37.2 41.3 43.1
(12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (20,476.0) (30,714.0)
Spar reactions:
The reaction of the front spar and rear spar is calculated from the force equilibrium and moment equilibrium equation as shown below, Force equilibrium:
Moment equilibrium:
Where
is the reaction of the front spar. is the reaction of the rear spar. is the weight of the fuselage = 558116.7 N a is the distance of the front spar from the nose of the aircraft = 23.27 m b is the distance of the rear spar from the nose of the aircraft = 25.72 m C is the distance of the aircraft c.g from the nose of the aircraft = 24.27 m
Substituting all the values in the force and moment equation, the reactions are found to be
S.NO Components
Distance (m)
Weight (N)
Shear force
1 2
3
(4,000.0) (2,000.0) (20,476.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (8,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (160,450.8) (12,000.0)
-4000.0 -6000.0 -26476.0 -34476.0 -42476.0 -50476.0 -58476.0 -66476.0 -74476.0 -82476.0 -90476.0 -98476.0 -106476.0 -114476.0 -122476.0 -130476.0 -142476.0 -154476.0 -314926.8 -326926.8
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
PAX 1 PAX 2 PAX 3 PAX 4 PAX 5 PAX 6 PAX 7 PAX 8 PAX 9 PAX 10 PAX 11 PAX 12 PAX 13 PAX 14 PAX 15 FE PAX 16
6.8 7.8 8.8 9.9 10.9 11.9 12.9 13.9 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.6 21.5 22.0 22.6
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Lfs PAX 17 PAX 18 PAX 19 Lrs PAX 20 PAX 21 PAX 22 PAX 23 PAX 24 PAX 25 PAX 26 PAX 27 PAX 28 PAX 29 PAX 30 PAX 31 Vertical Tail Horizontal Tail
23.3 23.5 24.4 25.3 25.7 26.2 27.1 28.0 29.9 30.8 31.8 32.7 33.6 34.5 35.4 36.3 37.2 41.3 43.1
330,314.0 (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) 227,802.7 (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (12,000.0) (20,476.0) (30,714.0)
3387.2 -8612.8 -20612.9 -32612.9 195189.9 183189.9 171189.9 159189.9 147189.9 135189.9 123189.9 111189.9 99189.9 87189.9 75189.9 63189.9 51189.9 30713.9 0.0
-1,850,191.0 -1,848,313.4 -1,857,264.2 -1,875,815.0 -1,888,859.8 -1,791,464.3 -1,626,392.4 -1,472,320.5 -1,169,857.6 -981,785.7 -902,994.7 -724,122.8 -564,897.6 -354,625.9 -145,682.5 -72,456.2 -8,500.0 -3,000.0 0
Stringer Design:
The circumference of the fuselage is 4.87 m. To find the area of one stringer, number of stringers per quadrant is assumed to be 5. i.e. the total number of stringers in the fuselage is 20. The stringers are equally spaced around the circumference of the fuselage.
Stringer Spacing:
The stringers are symmetrically spaced on the fuselage with the spacing calculate as shown below, Circumference of the fuselage = D = X 4.87 = 15.299 m Total number of stringers = 20 Therefore the stringers are spaced at the interval of = = 0.765 m.
Where MX =1,888,859.8 Nm MZ= is density = 0.465 , V is cruise velocity = 235 m/s, St is tail area = 29.22 m2
at is lift curve slope of tail = 0.0727 / deg, is the angle of yaw for asymmetric flight = = 3.488 deg X is the distance between the aircraft c.g position and horizontal tail c.g position in = 28.79 m Then MZ= = 2.739 X 106 N/m2
= 79.3145 Astringers
Stringers X (m) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Z (m) 0 0.65 1.9 2.05 2.38 2.435 2.435 2.4 2.1 1.5 0.75 0
Substituting the above distances and the moments in the direct stress equation. We will get 6 direct stress equation.
Z1= Z5 =
; Z2 = Z6 =
; Z3 =
; Z4 =
Equating the Z3 to selected material yield stress value the area of the stringer will obtained and is given by Z3 = 476 Mpa , 476 X106 =
Astringer = 2.43 X 10-4 m2
Thus one stringer area is 2.43 X 10-4m2. The stringer chosen is I section. The dimensions of the stringers are obtained from the ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF THE FLIGHT VEHICLE STRUCTURES by BRUHN.
Height of the stringer Flange Width Thickness of the flange and web Radius of the filleted edge
Stringers Z (m) 1 2.435 2 2.4 3 2.1 4 1.5 5 0.75 6 0 7 -0.75 8 -1.5 9 -2.1 10 -2.4 11 -2.435 12 -2.4 13 -2.1 14 -1.5 15 -0.75 16 0 17 0.75 18 1.5 19 2.1 20 2.4
Skin Panel
Booms
Astringers(m2)
Z (m) dA (N/m)
-----2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927 0.01927
2.435 2.4 2.1 1.5 0.75 0 -0.75 -1.5 -2.1 -2.4 -2.435 -2.4 -2.1 -1.5 -0.75 0 0.75 1.5 2.1 2.4
0 -9.89 -18.54 -24.73 -27.82 -27.82 -24.73 -18.54 -9.89 0 10.03 19.93 28.59 34.77 37.87 37.87 34.77 28.59 19.93 10.03
To calculate the actual shear force, from the BREDTBATHO THEORY, N/m Where T is torque produced by the tail plane and fin. Due to the asymmetry of the slipstream induced by yaw asymmetric loads are induced on the tail plane. These loads, upwards on one side and downwards on the other result in a torque given by the equation,
Fin load = Torque due to fin load = The total Torque (T) = 495.94 + = The area of the fuselage is given by the equation, = 105.44 X 103N/m This shear flow is added to the shear flow found earlier
X 10 (N/m)
3
Nm
= 18.63 m2
= X 10 (N/m)
3
0 -9.89 -18.54 -24.73 -27.82 -27.82 -24.73 -18.54 -9.89 0 10.03 19.93 28.59 34.77 37.87 37.87 34.77 28.59 19.93 10.03
105.44 95.55 89.90 80.71 77.62 77.62 80.71 86.90 95.55 105.44 115.47 125.37 134.03 140.21 143.31 143.31 140.21 134.03 125.47 115.47
LANDING GEAR DESIGN Landing gear arrangement Tyre selection Landing gear layout Shock absorber design Landing gear kinematics
Since the 160 seater aircraft is a commercial passenger aircraft, it should be able to land on the small airports which usually have runway loading 7 ton/ft2& below. Thus the selected tyre should satisfy three main criteria: 1. It should have low runway loading. 2. It should be able to carry the aircrafts total load. 3. It should be compact for retraction into fuselage/wing.
TYRE SELECTION
Weight of the aircraft = 1,027,066.47N = 230,854.39 lb
Load taken by Main Landing Gear = 0.9 WT.O = 207,760.85 lb Load taken by Nose landing Gear = 0.1 WT.O = 23,084.52lb
= ( x 15.09 x 6) = 284/144
= 1.97 ft2 / Wheel = Total weight of the airplane (in tons)/ total contact of area of main wheels = 104.69/ (1.97 8) Runway Loading = 6.64 t/ft2 From the calculated runway loading it is determined that the aircraft is capable of landing in asphalt with a permissible loading of 7 t/f t2.
H = 4.665
= 48.45 X is half the track length = 5.265 m The turnover angle is within the limit of 63.
After various considerations of the shock absorbers, an oleo-pneumatic shock absorber is chosen for this aircraft. This consists of an air spring in combination with an oil dashpot. The spring absorbs the energy and the dashpot dissipates it, the two processes occurring simultaneous. The performance of a shock absorber is conveniently defined by a load deflection diagram. When an air spring is loaded slowly the load-deflection curve follows an isothermal gas law, but when the loading is rapid it follows a polytrophic gas law with a typical power of about 1.3. The nature of either of these two laws is such that the area under the load-deflection curve is well below the 50 percent of a linear spring, but when the effect of the resistance of the oil is included the characteristics shape changes significantly.
Under rapid loading conditions, typical of a landing, it is possible to arrange for the initial rise of the load-deflection curve to be steep, subsequently levelling out to give an area under the curve approaching the product of the load and deflection at higher values of deflection. A typical value of the area under the curve, or efficiency is 85 %, but it is generally a function of the deflection in a given case.
Stroke determination:
The required deflection of the shock-absorbing system depends upon the vertical velocity at touchdown, the shock absorbing material and the amount of the wing lift still available after touchdown. As a rough rule of thumb, the stroke in inches approximately equal to vertical velocity at the touchdown in (ft/s). Most of the aircraft require 10ft/s vertical velocity (or sink speed) capability. This is substantially above the 4-5 ft/s that most passengers would consider bad landing. The stroke length is given by the equation, -
Where S is the stroke length of the shock absorber, ST is the stroke length of the tyre which is equal to the difference in the radius of the tyre and the maximum deflection of the tyre. g is the acceleration due to gravity. is the efficiency of the shock absorbing system. T is the efficiency of the tyre. Ngearis the gear load factor. It is the vertical deceleration rate. It determines how much load the gear passes to the airframe structural weight as well as crew and passenger comfort during the landing. The table below provides the typical gear load factors for various types of the aircraft.
Aircraft Type Large Bomber Commercial General Aviation Air Force Fighter Navy Fighter
Ngear 2.0 - 3.0 2.7 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
The Stroke calculated should be increased by 1 in as a safety of margin. Then the stroke length S = 14.12 in. This is higher than the minimum value prescribed by the Raymer. Same stroke length is adopted for the nose landing gear also.
Oleo sizing :
The total length of the oleo including the stroke distance and fixed position is approximately 2.5 times the stroke. i.e. 2.5 X 14.12 = 35.3 in. The static position is approximately 2/3 of the stroke length i.e.9.413 in. The oleo diameter is determined by the load carried by the oleo.
Nose Wheel oleo Diameter: Nose wheel oleo load ( Loleo) = = 2.7 23084.52 lb (nose wheel load) Number of main wheel oleo is taken as 1 Then Loleo= 622207.3lb The expression for diameter of oleo Doleo is given by Doleo Doleo = 0.04 = 9.98 in
The above figure illustrates common kinematic concepts of the gear retraction and extension.
Case (a) is used in many aircraft due to its similarity and there are many variants of this type .the most usual variation involves the use of an extra bracing link extending from the top of the shock strut to the drag or side brace elbow. This provides extra support for the brace and thereby minimizing the structure weight. Case (b) & (c) are similar and can be used whenever it is required to retract the wheel into a cavity almost vertically above the down position. Case(d) shows how the retraction actuator can be incorporated into the kinematics such that the loads are balanced out within the gear structure , as opposed to case(a) where the actuator is mounted on the airframe. Case(e) shows two methods of rotating the top of the case(b) and there are many variants of this. Thus case(a) is chosen for its simplicity and reasons mentioned above.
The wing-body juncture produces aerodynamic interference which in turn promotes flow separation with its attendant higher drag and unsteady buffeting. This adverse pressure gradient and consequent flow separation can be minimized using contoured surface called fillet.
Engine mount
An engine mount is a frame that supports the engine and holds it to the fuselage or nacelle. Usually it is made of built up sheet metal, welded steel tubing. The turbofan engine, PS-90 A1 PRATT WHITNEY ENGINE is wing mounted. A typical turbofan engine installation for a low wing aircraft configuration similar to that of this aircraft is shown below,
The pylon has three spars (longerons) Upper, middle and lower- and three major bulk heads, and is attached to the wing at four primary point. These are two mid-spar fittings, an upper link and a diagonal brace (drag strut). The attachment pins are secured with fuse bolts which are hollow carbon steel devices that have been heat treated to shear fail at a definite load.
In the landing break way condition (wheels-up landing), the sequence is designed to fail the upper and lower links so that the pylon rotates around the mid-spar and upward.
The wing pylon design provides considerable load path redundancy such that an upper link can fail, partially or completely, and there is an alternate path- lower diagonal brace. The below figure shows the engine mounts.
Empennage Design
Horizontal Stabilizer:
The horizontal tail of the aircraft is conventional and consists of a fixed tail box. The horizontal stabilizer is usually a two spar structure consisting of a Centre structural box section and two outer sections. The stabilizer assembly is interchangeable (symmetrical airfoil section) as a unit at the fuselage attach points and the outer sections are interchangeable at the attachment to the center box. The two basic horizontal stabilizer box constructions for modern transports are 1. Box constructions with spars, closer light rib spacing (usually less than 10 inches) and surface (may be tapered skins) without stringer reinforcement. The feature of this design is the low manufacturing cost and high torsional stiffness require by the flutter analysis.
2. Box construction with spar stronger ribs and surface skins with stringer reinforcements (skin-stringer or integrally stiffened panels) is a lighter weight structure.
Vertical Stabilizer:
The structural design of the vertical stabilizer is essentially the same as for the horizontal stabilizer is essentially the same as for horizontal stabilizers. The vertical stabilizer box is a two or multi spar structure (general aviation airplanes usually use single spar design) with cover panels (with or without ribs). The root of the box is terminated at the aft fuselage conjuncture with fittings or splices.
Access panels should be large enough for a person to get through so that the inside can be inspected and resealed if necessary. On shallow section wings, the access has to be in the lower surface so that the operator can work in an acceptable way even if the depth is insufficient to climb in completely. Apart from the sealing problems, lower surface access panels are in what is primarily a tension skin and so introduce stress concentrations in an area where crack propagation is a major consideration. The access panels are arranged in a span-wise line so the edge reinforcing can be continuous and minimum stress concentration due to the cut-outs. Access panels are often designed to carry only shear and pressure loads, the wing bending being reacted by the edge reinforcing members. A deep wing can avoid these problems by using upper surface access panels but this is not a preferred aerodynamic solution.
AUXILIARY SURFACES
The structural layout of the auxiliary lifting surfaces is generally similar to that of the wing but there are differences, in part due to the smaller size and in part due to the need to provide hinges or supports. The latter implies that each auxiliary surface is a well-defined.
The control hinge loads and the resulting shear forces and bending moments should be equalized as far as is possible. Structural failure of a single hinge should be tolerated unless each hinge is of fail-safe design and can tolerate cracking one load path.
These points suggest the use of a relatively large number of discrete hinges but there are difficulties associated with this solution there are the obvious loads likely to be induced in the control by the distortion under load of the main surface to which it is attached may be significant. These problems do not arise if only two hinge points are used as any span-wise distortion or misalignment can be accommodated by designing one of the hinges so that it can rotate about a vertical axis. When more than two hinges are used the floating hinge concept cannot fully overcome the problems. However, it is possible to design the control surface so that it is flexible in bending and indeed the more hinges there are the easier this is to accomplish. One hinge must always be capable of reacting side loads in the plane of the control surface. The hinges are supported near to the aft extremities of the main surface ribs.
Some designs incorporate the pivot into the moving surface with the support bearings on the fuselage, while on others the pivot is attached to the fuselage and the bearings are in the surface. The bearings should be as far apart as local geometry allows minimizing loads resulting from the reaction of the surface bending moment.
Flutter
Flutter as the dynamic instability of an elastic body in an airstream. It is found most frequently in aircraft structures subjected to large aerodynamic loads such as wings, tail units and control surfaces. Flutter occurs at a critical or flutters speed Vfwhich in turn is defined as the lowest airspeed at which a given structure will oscillate with sustained simple harmonic motion. Flight at speeds below and above the flutter speed represents conditions of stable and unstable (that is divergent) structural oscillation, respectively. Generally, an elastic system having just one degree of freedom cannot be unstable unless some peculiar mechanical characteristic exists such as a negative spring force or a negative damping force. However, it is possible for systems with two or more degrees of freedom to be unstable without possessing unusual characteristics. The forces associated with each individual degree of freedom can interact, causing divergent oscillations for certain phase differences. The flutter of a wing in which the flexural and torsional modes are coupled is an important example of this type of instability. Some indication of the physical nature of wing-
bendingtorsion-flutter may be had from an examination of aerodynamic and inertia forces during a combined bending and torsional oscillation in which the individual motions are 90 out of phase. In a pure bending or pure torsional oscillation the aerodynamic forces produced by the effective wing incidence oppose the motion; the geometric incidence in pure bending remains constant and therefore does not affect the aerodynamic damping force, while in pure torsion the geometric incidence produces aerodynamic forces which oppose the motion during one-half of the cycle but assist it during the other half so that the overall effect is nil.Thus, pure bending or pure torsional oscillations are quickly damped out. This is not the case in the combined oscillation when the maximum twist occurs at zero bending and vice versa; i.e. a 90 phase difference. The type of flutter described above, in which two distinctly different types of oscillating motion interact such that the resultant motion is divergent, is known as classical flutter. Other types of flutter, non-classical flutter, may involve only one type of motion. For example, stalling flutter of a wing occurs at a high incidence where, for particular positions of the span wise axis of twist, self-excited twisting oscillations occur which, above a critical speed, diverge.
Aileron Buzz
Another non-classical form of flutter, aileron buzz, occurs at high subsonic speeds and is associated with the shock wave on the wing forward of the aileron. If the aileron oscillates downwards the flow over the upper surface of the wing accelerates, intensifying the shock and resulting in a reduction in pressure in the boundary layer behind the shock. The aileron, therefore, tends to be sucked back to its neutral position. When the aileron raises the shock intensity reduces and the pressure in the boundary layer increases, tending to push the aileron back to its neutral position. At low frequencies these pressure changes are approximately 180 out of phase with the aileron deflection and therefore become aerodynamic damping forces. At higher frequencies a component of pressure appears in phase with the aileron velocity which excites the oscillation. If this is greater than all other damping actions on the aileron a high frequency oscillation results in which only one type of motion, rotation of the aileron about its hinge, is present, i.e. aileron buzz. Aileron buzz may be prevented by employing control jacks of sufficient stiffness to ensure that the natural frequency of aileron rotation is high.
Buffeting
Buffeting is produced most commonly in a tail plane by eddies caused by poor airflow In the wing wake striking the tail plane at a frequency equal to its natural frequency; a resonant oscillation having one degree of freedom could then occur. The problem may be alleviated by proper positioning of the tail plane and clean aerodynamic design.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Raymer, D.P. Aircraft Design - a Conceptual Approach AIAA` educational series second edition 1992. 2. Analysis and design of flight vehicle structures by E.F.Bruhn. 3. Aircraft structures by T.H.G.Megson. 4. Airframe structural design by Micheal Chun-Yung Niu. 5. Airplane Aerodynamics and Performance by Roskam